BRAHMANISM AND HINDUISM.

HORACE HART, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY

PORTRAIT OV MR. GAURI-SAlSrKAR TTDATSANKAR, NOW SVAmT SRI SACCIDANANDA-SARASVATI.

Seated, aa a

C.S

I.

Brahman

SannyasT, in meditation (described at

p.

xxi of the Preface).

BRAHMANISM and HINDUISM;

OR,

RELIGIOUS

THOUGHT AND
IN INDIA,

LIFE

AS BASED ON THE VEDA

AND OTHER SACRED BOOKS

OF THE HINDUS.

BY

SIR
M.A.,

\ / MONIER MONIER-WILLIAMS,
;

K.C.I.E.,
V. P.

HON. D.C.L. OXFORD, HON. LL.D. CALCUTTA, HON. PH.D. GOTTINGEN,

ASIATIC SOCIETY, HON.

OF THE ROYAL

MEMBER OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETIES OF BENGAL AND BOMBAY,

AND OF THE ORIENTAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETIES OF AMERICA,

BODEN PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT,
ETC.

FOURTH

EDITION,

ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.

NEW YORK:

MACMILLAN AND
1891.

CO.

'

PREFACE.
---

The
only a with

present volume, although

It

professes to be

new

edition of a

book which has already met

^,

considerable

acceptance

contains
it

so

many

improvements and additions that

as almost a
Its

may be

regarded

new

work, and as needing a new Preface.

in the first
is

aim has been stated

second
line
'

page of the

introductory observations, but there

in the

one expression

which requires explanation.

The

word
It

'

Englishmen must be understood

to include all

English -speakers everywhere.

has been

my

earnest endeavour in the following

pages to give such a clear account of a very obscure

and

intricate

subject

as

shall

not violate

scholarly
to attract

accuracy,

and yet be
was

sufficiently readable

The

first

edition

called

'

Religious Thought and Life in India

(denoted by the initials RTL. in the new edition of my SanskritEnglish Dictionary published by the University of Oxford), that title being given to it because it was intended to be the first volume of a series
treating of the
' '

religions

of India.

When, however, my volume on

larger type

Buddhism appeared

a volume printed in

better to distinguish the third edition of the present

'

it was thought work by the title

this

Brahmanism and Hinduism,' and new edition.

this title

has also been adopted for


vi

Preface.

intelligent

general

readers,

not

merely among the

38 millions of the United Kingdom, but among the 60 millions of the United States of America and

among

the

rapidly

developing

populations

of

the

colonies of Great Britain.

Nor do
India

despair of

its

attracting a few readers in

itself,

where many thoughtful English-speaking

always able to give

Hindus

educated by us are not

a clear explanation of their

own religious creeds and any rate those At of my fellow-countrymen practices. who are now livins^ in India and workino^ amonor the natives in their own country, will probably be interested in much of what I have here written, and will sympathize with

me

in

my

difficulties.

To
to

all,

in short,

who, speaking a language destined

civilized globe,

become the dominant speech of the

are likely to take an interest in the origin, growth, and

present condition of a religious system radically and

diametrically opposed to Christianity, and yet presenting

many remarkable

points of contact with Christianity

all

a system, too, which of

non-Christian religions
'

is

perhaps the best key to the study of

Religion,' as Sanskrit
'

Comparative
addressed.

is

the best key to the study of

'

Comparative Grammar

this

volume

is

And

may

here draw attention to the fact that

the founder of the

object in providing

Boden Professorship had a religious by his munificent bequest for the study of Sanskrit in the University of Oxford and if the Boden Professor is to carry that object into effect,
^
;

^ The words are To enable his countrymen to proceed in conversion of the natives of India to the Christian religion.'
:

'

the

Preface.

vii

he

is

bound

to bring his

knowledge of Sanskrit

to bear

not only on the promotion of philological studies, but

also

on the elucidation of Indian religious systems

no easy task and
difficulty is

with a view to their refutation.

This

is

its

enhanced

by the close intertwining of

domestic
life in

religion with social

and

every part of India.

It is often

asserted that the Hindus are the most

religious people in the world.

assertion ought, of course, to

Those who make this define what they mean

is

by the word
is

'

religious.'
all

What

really meant,

think,

that amonof

the races of

mankind the Hindus

bearing on
religious

are the greatest slaves to the bondage of immemorial

tradition

not

so

much

in

its

beliefs, or

even on moral conduct, as on

social usages,

caste practices,

and domestic ceremonial observances.

it is

In proof of this

only necessary to refer to their

p.

marriage-customs (see
this

355); but other evidences of

bondage force themselves on the attention of

of his
hills

the inquiring traveller at almost every step

journeyings

in

highways and by-ways, on the

towns and
in villages,

and

in the

valleys, in

in the

dwellings of rich and poor, prince and peasant.

And

yet, strange to say, these traditional

customs,

usages, and

ceremonial observances,

although they

constitute the chief element in a Hindu's religion, are

nowhere throughout India regulated or enforced by the

delegates or representatives of any supreme
central religious authority.

Head

or

No

doubt one explanation

of any central

of this fact

may be

that an Indian's excessive respect

for tradition

makes the establishment


viii

Preface,

source of ecclesiastical power, and the exercise of any

regularly organized religious

government unnecessary.

Reverence
his ancestors

for opinions
is

and practices held sacred by

ingrained in every fibre of a Hindu's

so to speak, bred in the very bone of
constitution.

character,

and

is,

his physical

and moral

Day by day
seers,

the pious

Hindu

offers

homage

to his
all

father, grandfather,

and progenitors, including

were not
so,

the

holy men, and patriarchs of antiquity.

And

even

if

this

any centralization of
divided into a countsects,

religious authority w^ould

be almost impossible, beis

cause the Indian body politic

less

number of

distinct castes,
its

communities and
its

each of which has

own usages and

own form

of

self-government, consisting, perhaps, of a kind of council

and presiding Head, whose

its

office is to

prevent the
rules.

violation of
It

own

traditions, customs,

and

tradition respected

must be borne in mind, too, that there is one by all castes and all sects alike
their right
p.

namely the superiority of the Brahmans and

to superintend domestic ceremonies.

But see

386.
at

Nevertheless

it

might certainly be expected that

to

any rate the Brahmans

whom

obedience

is

by

common
supreme

consent due, would be subject to some one

Head to some one

centralized

spiritual

government or authority from which their sacerdotal powers would be derived. But no such central
authority exists
in

India.

And

the

Brahmans are
rules carried

themselves
out by

split

up

into priests

and laymen, besides

its

countless subdivisions each with

its

own

own

separate council and leaders.

Preface.

ix

Unquestionably
zation

this

absence of

all

religious organi-

among
yet
it

the dense populations of our Indian emto

is

pire has led

an almost

total

want of order and

result.

unity

attended with one beneficial

its

Inasmuch
with
all
is

as India, with all

its

intense religiousness,

exaggerated sacerdotalism and ceremo-

nialism,

free

from the despotism,

Is

unfettered by

the dictation of any one autocratic pontiff.

At

the

same time
on

It

must be understood that the

of caste and varieties of caste-

almost

infinite divisions

observance rest
theological

one

unvarying

substratum

of

doo^ma of which the Brahmans are the

It

keepers and exponents.

may be very

true that a

Hindu who

is

bound

to

conform

strictly to the social,

domestic, and individual observances prescribed by his

own caste,
in

is

nevertheless allowed great laxity of opinion

It

regard to his religious creed.

is

may

also

be true

that he

permitted to choose for himself his

own

special or favourite divinity, without accepting all the

gods of the Hindu Pantheon.

that while accepting

may even be true Hinduism he may be at the same

It

time a believer in Buddhism, in

Muhammadanism,
call

in

Judaism, in Christianity; or
a Deist,
Agnostic.
usage,
all

may

himself a Thelst,
or even an

Polythelst,

Theosophlst,

Still for all that, all

the varieties of casteall

the multiplicity of domestic ceremonies,

so
to

the diversities of sceptical belief are,

'

speak,
line of

roped together

'

by one

rigid

and unyielding

Brahmanlcal pantheistic doctrine.

Any
pended

one who glances at the table of contents apto these prefatory

remarks

will see at

once that

Preface.

a great proportion of the volume before

him

Is

em-

ployed
I

in

expounding the evolution of that doctrine.

however, that some inquirers

fear,

may

possibly

pages, who have little time to pursue its by step the gradual development of Indian religious thought, as I have endeavoured to trace it.

consult

step

These need, as an
to

Introduction, a

the

question,

What

is

more concise answer a Hindu and what is

I

Hinduism ? For their

to condense

benefit, therefore,

will

here endeavour
points which

some of the more important

full
I

are set forth at

length in the succeeding pages.

point out that the

And
is

first

may

name Hindu
are adherents

now

usually restricted to those

who

of the form of religion which the present volume aims

at explaining.
It
Is,

Indeed, a solemn thought that at least 200

minions of our fellow-subjects are adherents of that

religion.

And
that

yet
it

It Is

a remarkable characteristic of
requires nor attempts to

Hinduism

neither
Is
it

make

converts.

Nor
field,

by any means
is
it

at present

diminishing In numbers.
driven off the

Nor

at present being

as might be expected,

by being

brought Into contact with two such proselyting religions

as Christianity
it Is

and Muhammadanism.
;

On the contrary,
man becomes
;

at present rapidly increasing

for a

a Hindu by merely being born a Hindu

so that every

day adds

to the adherents of

Hinduism through the

simple process of the daily Increase of births over

deaths, which in India
Is

everywhere considerable.
this

And

far

more remarkable than

It

will

be seen

Preface,

xi

from what

have written

in
is

Chapter
its

ill,

that another

characteristic of

Hinduism
It

receptivity

and

all-

comprehensiveness.
of humanity, of

claims to be the one religion

It

human

nature, of the entire world.

cares not to oppose the progress of any other system.

For

it

has no difficulty
Its

in including all other religions

within

all-embracing arms and ever-widening fold.

And,
which
its
is

In real truth,

Hinduism has something

minds.
to
Its

to offer
lies in

suited to

all

very strength
infinite

infinite

adaptability

the

diversity
It

of
its

human

characters and

human
its

tendencies.

has

highly spiritual and abstract side suited to the metaphysical philosopher

suited to the

practical

and concrete side

man

of affairs and the

man
its

of the world

its

aesthetic

and ceremonial

side suited to the

man

of poetic feeling and Imagination

quiescent and

contemplative side suited to the

lover of seclusion.

man

of peace and

Nay,

it

holds out the right hand

of

brotherhood

to

nature-worshippers,

demon-wor-

shippers, animal-worshippers, tree-worshippers, fetish-

worshippers.

It

does not scruple to permit the most

grotesque forms of idolatry, and the most degrading

varieties of superstition.

And

it

is

to this latter fact

that yet another remarkable peculiarity of

Hinduism

is

mainly due
world
is

namely,

that In no other system of the

the chasm

more vast which separates the

and thoughtful classes

religion of the higher, cultured,

from that of the lower, uncultured, and unthinking

masses.

The former
I

religion

call
I

Brahmanism, the

latter

call

Hinduism;

but, as

have shown

at len^^th in

xii

Preface,

the present volume, the two are really one, and the
higher, purer,
to

and more

spiritualistic

system has led

and more materialistic form of doctrine, through the natural and inevitable development of its root-ideas and fundamental dogma.
the
lower,

more

corrupt,

In

brief,

Hinduism

is

founded on that highly subtle

theory of pantheistic philosophy which was excogitated

by the Brahmans

at the time

when they began

to think

out for themselves the problem of existence several

centuries before the

Christian era

theory, which
for

every
itself

human

intellect

most naturally thinks out

is,

some respects, almost identical with that thought out by Spinoza and the profoundest thinkers of modern Europe.
in

a theory, too, which

if
I

Indeed,

may be

allowed the anachronism, the

Hindus were Spinozaites more than 2,000 years beand Darwinians many fore the existence of Spinoza and Evolutionists many centuries before Darwin centuries before the doctrine of Evolution had been accepted by the Scientists of our time, and before any
; ;

word
world.

like

Evolution existed

in

any language of the

The

Hindus,

in

fact,

have

for centuries believed

that their one

god Brahma

personal spiritual Essence

or Energy
(neuter)

their

one imfor ever

;

identified with

everything, and constituting everything

evolvinor itself out of
its

is

own

inner substance

like

a vast tree
^

with countless branches for ever expanding

one Self-existent God, Brahma, is neuter and denamely, the root Vrih

The name

for the

rived from the

or Brih^

same

root as Vriksha, 'a tree'

'to grow.'

By

referring, however, to p. 95, note 2, of this

Preface,
itself

xiii

out of an eternal seed, and then for ever drawing

itself,

back and being re-absorbed into

and disappear-

ing again and again into formlessness and impersonality.

And
the

the

first

evolution, according to their belief,

;

is

the development of a triple personality

first,

as

God,

personal

Creator,

called

Brahma

(masculine)

secondly, as
called

God

the personal Preserver or Maintainer,

;

Vishnu (masculine)

thirdly, as

God

the perthe Re-

sonal DIssolver or Disintegrator

creator

(but also

and Regenerator

after dissolution), called Siva

deities are

(masculine).

These three masculine

some-

times regarded as co-equal and represented by three noble heads rising out of one body.

Often their func-

tions are held to be interchangeable, or sometimes

one, sometimes the other,

may be thought

to

be the

greatest of the three (see pp. 45, 65).

Brahmanism, then,
the sole,

in its

simplest form, consists in a

fixed belief that the one eternal impersonal

really existing

Essence
itself

Being

expands

into

three principal divine co-equal personalities, which are

constantly manifested and ultimately re-absorbed.

Then

a further belief was soon developed out of

this earlier creed

a belief that each of the three male

maternal or feminine attributes as

divinities possesses

well as masculine.

And
in

hence

it

followed that each

personal god
wife

became

due course associated with a

(p.

regarded as half the god's essence

'

389).

volume, it will be seen that the earliest word for the one Spirit of the Universe was Atman (masc). Then to distinguish the spirit of man from the Universal Spirit, the latter was afterwards called Paramatman, the Supreme Spirit.' Mahatma a word now much used by Theosophists
'

is

pure Sanskrit and means

having a great

spirit,'

'

noble-spirited.'

xiv

Preface,

soon supposed to go on
fore,

Then, again, the process of divine developments was Indefinitely. There are, there-

any number of gods, goddesses, and superhuman

beings in a
devata, or
'

Hindus pantheon, although

Favourite
deity,' is

his

Ishta-

generally either Vishnu

or Siva, or
sonalities.

some

deity connected with these two per-

Nay, according to the Hindu pantheistic

great, useful,

theory,

all

and good men are personal

manifestations of the one Impersonal Spirit

and every
body by

man's individualized
death,
states,

spirit,

released from his

must migrate

into higher or

lower corporeal

and so pass through innumerable forms of

it

existence, according to his deeds, until

into the

is

re-absorbed

one

self-existent Spirit of the Universe.

Every man's future, then, depends upon himself. Moreover his passage through these various changes
of existence

may

take place as
;

much

in

other worlds

as in the present

but wherever such changes occur

is

they must remain fixed until another change

caused

by

dissolution.

Hence

all

the distinct classes of

men
ser-

such as Brahmans, vants remain unalterably

ing their condition than
if

soldiers, agriculturists

and

distinct

from each other

alter-

from birth to death, without any more power of

they were quadrupeds, birds,

reptiles or fish (see p. 53).

This may give some idea of the close connexion of

the Indian caste system with the

Hindu

religion,

and
and

of the iron sway which of

its

it

exercises over the people,

evil,

consequent influence for

though

in

some

cases for
It

good

also (see

Chapter

xviii).

f
j

might be thought, perhaps, that the Idea of men

Preface,

xv

and women being, as

it

were, portions of the divine

effect
in

Essence, would have a good

ennobling

life.

But unhappily the pantheistic philosophy of India leads

to

many monstrous

paradoxes, and one

of these

is

that the divine Essence

may become, through

that,

the force

of an awful law, devilish or demoniacal.

A
of

Hindu, therefore, holds

as there are

any

number of good
evil.

incarnations, so there are

is

any number

And

this

not

all.

It

is

held that two

antagonistic

principles

are

for

ever

opposing and

counteracting each other in the universe around us,

and that the vast pantheon

equally vast

is

counterbalanced by an

pandemonium.

There
all
;

are,

in

short,

are gods without

demons without number and of all number and of

kinds, just as there

peopling the atmosphere around us

demons demons both good

kinds
;

and bad, male and female; the good

in

for ever

engaged

unceasing conflict with the bad, the bad for ever

for ever causing accidents,

impeding every good work,

diseases, plague, pestilence

and ruin

(see

Chapter

ix).

Then, again, there

is

another noteworthy paradox

For, although

involved in a Hindu's pantheistic creed.

human

beings are believed to be portions of

Brahma

the one God, yet that

God

nevertheless delights in
all

acting as a hard taskmaster towards

these portions

of himself,

imposing on them

intolerable

burdens.
to

Hence a pious Hindu who considers himself

part of the one God, will
still

be

feel

himself impelled by

some law of

necessity to propitiate that

god by the
It

severest self-imposed religious tasks (pp. 393, 560).

should be noted, too, that the idea of

God

as an

angry


XVI

Preface.
is

avenger

an essential element

In

later

Hinduism.

The god of destruction delights in destruction for its own sake (p. 82). But his wife, the goddess Kali, is
more bloodthirsty of the two. Blood of some kind she will have. Thousands of goats and buffaloes are therefore daily offered upon her altars throughout
the

India (see pp. 189, 431, 575).

Finally there
is

the paradox of a purely spiritual

itself

Essence identifying

with animals, trees, images

and

stones.

How, Hindu

then, can

the intelligent and well-educated

to

trained

by us

think accurately, and

in-

structed

by us in the facts, phenomena, and laws of European science acquiesce in these extravagances ? an educated native would There Is but one God

'

'

probably say,
gruity:
is
'

in

explanation of the apparent inconis

There
in

but one
in

God by whatever form He

Europe.

worshipped

Asia or

He

(the

one God)

is in

His essence Impersonal and formless, though Himself

in
infinite

He
and

delights in manifesting

develop;

ments. In infinite evolutions and personalities

thouorh o

Himself in the distinct chooses to lo^nore o individualities created by Himself. Hence the separate
existence of you, and of me, and of the world around
us, is

He

a mere

illusion.

discipline, the Illusion

When, through protracted selfis made to vanish, we are again

Idols are not intended

absorbed into the one God.

to

be worshipped

they are merely useful as helps to

devotion.

They

enable ignorant people to form some

idea of God's countless manifestations.

They

are a

necessary assistance to the masses of our

illiterate


Preface,
population,
xvii

whose mental condition

is

that of children,

and who cannot read those written descriptions of God

which exist
give
feet.'

in the Scriptures of all nations,

and equally
hands, and

God human

attributes

figure, face,

Such would probably be an

apology for his national
liar

intelligent

Hindus

religion. And by this pecumethod of mental enorineerina- is the devious tortuosity of the Hindu pantheistic system made straight, and the vast chasm which separates the creeds of the

educated and uneducated classes bridged over.

thus, too,
it

And

is

that the most highly educated natives

all

acquiesce apathetically in

the strange and monstrous

forms of their country's superstitions, and are quite

content to remain Hindus in
the end of their lives.

name and
I

in religion to

The above summary

reliofious thoucrht
it

will,

trust,

be useful as an

introduction to the study of the evolution of Indian

and life, as
volume.

have striven
rate
it

to elucidate

in the present

At any

may

help to

make

clear

how

it is

that the religion of the Hindus

rooted in a super-subtle form of spiritual Pantheism

has branched out into numerous ramifications which

have gradually extended themselves over the entire

area of an immense
site,

without check or restraint,

without order, organization or coherency, by a process

of successive growth, decay, recuperation, and accretion

more than three thousand years. To denote the composite and complex character of this wholly unsystematic system, we have called it
carried on for
'

Brahmanism and

Hinduism,'

but

we have been

xviii

Preface.

careful to

make

It

understood that these names are

p. 20).

not accepted by
Its

present

own adherents (see aspect may be compared

its

to

an immense

mosaic which, having had no one maker, has been

compacted together by a succession of

inlaid with

artificers

and

every variety of strange and fanciful image.

Or

rather perhaps

may we

liken

It

to a colossal edifice

formed by a congeries of heterogeneous

without symmetry or unity of design

materials,
vast,

overfalling

grown, irregular structure

Into
its

which, although often

decay
ruins,

in Its outlying extremities, still rises

still

from

goes through repeated processes of

repair, still holds its

own

with obstinate pertinacity,

of those

and

still

belies
Its

the

expectations

who

are

looking for
It will

downfall.

be readily admitted, then, that the duty of

through such a confused congeries of

finding

my way

matter has been one requiring

much time and

difficulties

labour.

But even more beset with

task of trying to clear the

has been the

way

for others

of trying
on pene-

to assist the investigations of students bent

trating the mysteries of Brahmanical philosophy,

and

arriving at the inner

observances, which even the most pious

himself unable to

meaning of forms, symbols, and Hindu is often explain, except by saying that they
his forefathers.

have descended from

I

need scarcely

say, therefore, that

my

explanations

have been written under a deep sense of the responsibility

I

which these
felt.

difficulties

have

laid

upon me.
profound
with the

have

Indeed, that even the most

In contact

Orientalists

who have never come


Preface.

xix

Indian mind, except through the study of books or

making the acquaintance of a fewstray Indian travellers in European countries, commit themselves to mischievous and misleading statements,
possibly through

when they venture

present condition

to

dogmatize

in

regard to the
intellectual

religious, moral,
;

and

of the inhabitants of India

while,

on the other hand,

portion of their

the ablest
lives in

men who have passed a great

some one Indian province, without acquiring any scholarlike knowledge of Sanskrit the masterkey to Hindu religious thought are liable to imbibe very false notions in regard to the real meaning of the religious practices carried on before their eyes, and to

do serious harm

if

they attempt to propagate their

misapprehensions in books, pamphlets, and reviews.

The
is

present volume, therefore,

fifty

is

not merely the

It

outcome of

years study of Sanskrit literature.

the result of
is

my

personal researches in India

itself,

and

put forth from the vantage-ground of personal

contact and personal intercourse with the Hindus in

their ow^n land.
I

have, during
felt

Professorship at Oxford,
three times, and to

my tenure it my duty
entire

of the

Boden

to visit India

make

three journeys through the

length

and breadth of the

to

peninsula

from
to the

Cashmere

Cape Comorin, from Bombay

confines of Tibet.

Possibly those

who know my companion volume on

last

Buddhism
year
^
'

(the

2nd edition of which was published

disposed to inquire

^)

may be
in its

how

it is

that the

Buddhism

connexion with Brahmanism and Hinduism and in

its

contrast with Christianity (John Murray, Albemarle Street).'

XX

Preface.

present work has not as

many

oases In

its

desert of

dry matter.

But

it

must be borne

in

mind

that

Buddhism
of
its

offers

an unusual focus of interest

in the

personal character and biography (however legendary)

founder; whereas Brahmanism and Hinduism

have no one central personality capable of attracting

the attention of general readers.

Nevertheless, those

who work
through
all

their

way
I

conscientiously and persistently

will

that

have here written

not

fail,

think, to find their fatigue alleviated

ing and attractive episodes,

sive tracts of interesting

if

by a few refreshnot by any very exten-

and pleasant reading.

Perhaps, too,

Perhaps

may draw

especial attention to the later

xli.
I

chapters, beginning at Chapter

may

here state that the chapters on modern Indian

Theists

were

submitted

by me

to
I

the

venerable

Debendra-nath Tagore himself, when

Calcutta,
writinor.

was staying at
his

and were revised by him

in

own hand-

It will

be seen at once that Chapters xxi and xxii

are almost entirely new, and a large

number of additions

and improvements will be discovered in nearly every

page of the entire volume by any one who compares
this edition carefully with its predecessor.

Furthermore

it

will

be observed that the Index

in

has been improved and enlarged

a corresponding

manner

while at the same time, in almost every

case, the figures in the present

Index

suit the pagina-

tion of the previous editions.

In conclusion

may be

permitted to repeat what

first edition,

stated in the Preface to the

that the

most

Preface.

xxi

show that my sympathy with the natives of our great Dependency and my cordial appreciation of all that is good and true in their own sacred literature (see p. 533) and in
cursory perusal of the following pages will
their codes of morality,

have not led

in their

me

to gloss over

what

is

false

and impure

systems of belief and

objectionable in their social practices.

M. M.-W.
Enfield House, Ventnor,
October^ 1891.

NOTE.
The
interesting portrait opposite to the title-page of this

volume requires some explanation.

be found
in

The

portrait
is

is

also to

my
It

volume on Buddhism, but

really

only inserted

there to illustrate the connexion between

Brahmanism and

Buddhism.

is

an engraving from an excellent

photograph of an eminent Brahman which was taken not

long ago at Bombay, and

may be
By

regarded as furnishing

good evidence of the

fact that

orthodox Brahmanism has

it

not yet died out in India.

seen that every Brahman, of
life,

referring to p. ofii

will

be

when he

arrives at the fourth stage

ought to become a Sannyasi

active duties

that
rest

is,

to

withdraw

from

all

and devote the

of his days to

religious

meditation.

The person

represented was an able

in

prime minister of the native State Bhaunagar, and

quence of
ment.
his

conse-

eminence was created a

C. S.

I.

by our Governoffice

He

has recently retired from his high

and

become a Sannyasi.
his

Rudraksha rosary

is

suspended round

neck (see

p. 67).

In front of his raised seat are various

ceremonial implements.

Near the right-hand corner of

his

xxli
seat
is

Preface,
a

Kamandalu

or water-gourd.
figure,
is

In front of the

seat,

on the right of the

vessel

an Upa-patra or subsidiary
In
the middle
is

used with the Kamandalu.

the

Tamra-patra or copper vessel

at

for containing the water used

the performance of ceremonies, and on

the

left

is

the

Panca-patra for the purifying water measured out with the

AcamanI, or spoon used

the

at

Acamana

(see p. 402).

Near

the left-hand corner are the

is

wooden
evil

clogs.

In his
It
is

left

hand
of a

Danda

or

staff called

Sudarsana.
spirits

a mystical

weapon employed against

and
fifth

consists

bamboo with
above the
in the

six knots.

The mystic white

roll,

which begins
is

left

hand and ends before the

knot,

called

the Lakshmi-vastra.

The

projecting piece of cloth, folded

form of an axe (Parasu), represents the weapon of

Parasu-rama (see pp. no, 270) with which he subdued the enemies of the Brahmans.

With

reference to p. 460,

am

informed by Mr. William

Crooke, of the Bengal Civil Service, that in Upper India

the village potter (Kumbhar,
rank.

Kumharj

is

'

very low in social

He

is

one of the begdr or persons bound to contribute

their productions to visitors free of charge.'

CONTENTS.
-M-

INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.
PAGE

Three principal stages or phases of the Hindu tion of Vedism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism.
Aryans.
Origin of religion

religion.

Defini-

First seat of the

among

the primitive Aryans.

Worship
i-6

of natural objects

CHAPTER
Vedism.
Four Vedas.
sacrifice.

I.

Gods

of the Veda.
plant.

Use

of

Soma

of the

Veda.

Examples

of

Ideas expressed by the term Animal sacrifice. Remarkable hymns hymns. Social condition of the people 7-19

CHAPTER

II.

Brahmanism.
Four phases.
idea
of
sacrifice.
I.

Ritualistic
II.

Philosophical

Brahmanism. Development of the Brahmanism. Upanishads.

Safikhya philosophy.

Siitras.

Subtle and gross bodies.

Vedanta.

Tri-unity of entities.

Vedanta and Three corporeal envelopes. Sankhya systems compared. Nyaya philosophy. Metempsychosis. Descents HI. Mythological Brahmanism. Buddhism. Tri-murti 20-53 of Vishnu. IV. Nomistic Brahmanism. Three codes of law
, .

CHAPTER
Hinduism.
Distinction between

III.

General Observations.

pher Safikara.

Inter-relationship

P~ahmanism and Hinduism. The philosoand distinction between Saivism

.

and Vaishnavism. Six principal sects. Doctrine of incarnation. Saiva and Vaishnava mark.' 54-72 Rosaries. Symbols and images

xxiv

Contents.

CHAPTER
Saivism.

IV.

PAGE

Worship of Rudra-Siva. Description of Siva. Saiva sects. Ceremonies performed at Walkesvar temple. Ceremonies performed at Bhuvanesvara temple 73-94
Definition of Saivism.
. .
.

CHAPTER
Chief characteristics of Vaishnavism.
lity.

V.

Vaishnavism.
Tolerance.
sects.

Religious creduInitiation.

Incarnations of Vishnu.

Vaishnava

Sect

founded by Ramanuja.
Sect founded founded by Vallabha.

Two antagonistic parties. by Madhva. Common ground with

Profligacy of Vallabha

Privacy in eating.
Christianity.

Sect
Sect

Maharajas.
at

founded by Caitanya.
temple,

Four

leaders.

Ceremonies

a Vaishnava

Poona

95~I45

CHAPTER
Sects founded by Nimbarka; by

VI.

Vaishnavism. Minor Sects and Reforming Theistic Movements.

Ramananda by Svami-Narayana.
;

Temples at Theistic Svami-Narayana's Directory. Wartal and Ahmedabad. Examples of his precepts. Sikh sect sect founded by Kabir. founded by Nanak. Features of his teaching. Antagonism between Sikhs and Muhammadans. Govind founder of Sikh nationality. Deification of the Sikh bible. Examples of precepts. Metempsychosis. Govind's shrine at Patna. Golden temple at Amritsar 146-179
Interview between Bishop Heber and Svami-Narayana.

CHAPTER

VII.

Saktism, or Goddess-worship.

Two systems. Mysticism. Worship of the female principle. Mother-goddesses. Devi. Kali. Initiation. Wine-drinking. Mantras, 180-208 Mystic diagrams. Amulets, gestures. Tantras Bijas, spells.
.

CHAPTER
v

VIII.

Tutelary and Village Deities.

ship.

Ganesa and Su-brahmanya. Ayenar. Hr.numan. Monkey-worDuality in unity. Worship of Mothers. Pantheism. Special209-229 ities of the Mothers of Gujarat

Contents.

xxv

CHAPTER

IX.

Demon-worship and Spirit-worship.

pacp:

Seven upper and seven lower worlds. Nature and differences of Two grand divisions. Triple demons. Corporeal organization. Methods of neutralizing influences of demons. Menclassification. demons. Demons in the South and West- Devil-dances. Structures connected with devil-worship. Bishop Caldwell on the Shanars. Charms, amulets. Incantations. Evil eye. Devil-expulsion. 230-256 Sorcery

i/

CHAPTER
No
treya
;

X.

Hero-worship and Saint-worship.

limit to deification of great

men.

Rama and

Krishna.

Local

deifications.

Vithoba; Tuka-rama; Khamlo-ba; Jfianesvara; Datta-

\/

Svami-Narayana. Other examples. Parasu-rama, or with the axe. Five Pandava princes Karna
;

Rama
257-273

CHAPTER
EATH, Funeral Rites,

XI. _^__

and Ancestor- worship. J ^

Object of Hindi!

f^

Universal prevalence of homage to the dead.

funeral rites.

Ceremonies in Vedic times, and as prescribed by Asvalayana. Other rules for funeral rites. Bone-gathering ceremony. Sraddha ceremonies. Modern practice of funeral and Sraddha ceremonies.

Character and functions of Yama, god of death.

Descrip-

tion of the treatment

undergone by a deceased man subject to Yama. Pindas offered to form an intermediate body. Ceremonies to secure Twenty-one different Hells. immunity from future punishment. River VaitaranT. Bone-gathering ceremony at Bombay. Sraddha ceremonies. Sraddhas distinguished under twelve heads. Sraddha for a recently deceased parent. Sraddhas at Gaya. Pindas or balls of rice and milk 274-312

CHAPTER

XII.

Worship of Animals, Trees, and Inanimate Objects.

Motives for worshipping animals. Metempsychosis. Worship of cows and bulls of serpents of Nagas of Snakes of Monkeys and Worship of trees and various animals. Marriage of animals. Marriage plants of the TulasI of the Pippala of the Bilva tree.
; ;
;

tX

of

trees.

Worship of natural

objects

of sun,

moon,

planets,

water, mountains, rocks, stones

3I3~35^

xxvl

Contents.

CHAPTER
The Hindu Religion
No
congregational religion.

XIII.

in

Ancient Family-life.
PAGE

<'

Domestic religion and usages superintended by Brahmans. Twelve purificatory rites. Importance of a son. Initiation. The sacred thread. Four stages of a Brahman's
life.

Ancient marriage-ceremonial.
Soma-sacrifices

Ancient fire-worship.

Ancient

sacrificial rites.

35i~369

CHAPTER
The Hindu Religion
in

XIV.
Family-life.

Modern

Name-giving ceremony. Birth-record and Horoscopes. Shaving Betrothal. Initiation. Marriage ceremonies. and tonsure-rite. Wedding of Sir Mangaldas Nathoobhal's sons. Choice of profession. Status of women. Three objects of human life. The model wife 370-389

CHAPTER

XV.

Religious Life of the Orthodox Hindu Householder.

Some Vedic rites still Brahman's daily duties. Dress. Sacredness of the kitchen. Omens auspicious and inauspicious sights. Religious inferiority of women. Teeth-cleaning. Application of ashes. Morning Sandhya service. Midday and Evening service. Brahma-yajna Tarpana service. Paficayatana ceremony. service. Vaisvadeva ceremony. Bali-harana ceremony. Dining. Prayer before eating 390-425
Description of a modern Hindi! house.

maintained.

CHAPTER
Hindu
santa-pandami.
Rama-llla.

XVI.

Fasts, Festivals,

and Holy Days.

Makara-sankranti.

Hindii powers of fasting.

Siva-ratri.

Special fasts.
Holi.

Va-

Rama-navamT.

Naga-paiidami.
Kall-piija.
. .

Krishna-janmashtami.
Divall.

Ganesa-caturthl.

Durga-puja.

Illuminations.

Karttika-piirnima

426-433

CHAPTER

XVII.

Temples, Shrines, and Sacred Places.

Benares described. Tanjore temple. Madura temple. Ramesvara. Kanjivaram. Tinnevelly temples. Jambukesvara. Jagan-nath in Orissa. Srl-rafigam. Temple girls. Courtesans 434-451
Trichinopoly.

Contents.

xxvll

CHAPTER
The
ties.

XVIII.

Caste, especially in relation to Occupations.

PAGE

four restrictions of Caste.

Caste and occupations are part of

Village

religion.

State of trades and industries in India.

communi;

Tillers of soil.

Village functionaries.

Arts, jewelry, sculpture,

painting.

Delicacy of Indian hand-work. advantages and disadvantages

Tyranny

of caste

its

452-474

CHAPTER
Theism no new doctrine
His death
at Bristol
in

XIX.

Modern Hindu Theism. Rammohun Roy.

India.
Life

of

Rammohun

Roy.
475-490

CHAPTER XX.
Modern Hindu
Theism.

Rammohun

Roy's successors.

Dwarkanath Tagore. Debendra-nath Tagore. Adi BrahmaSamaj. Keshab Chandar Sen. Brahma-Samaj of India. Sadharana Brahma-Samaj. Arya-Samaj. Dayananda SarasvatI 491-531
.

CHAPTER
Examples

XXI.
and Hindijism 532-554

of the moral precepts of Brahmanism

CHAPTER

XXII.

Supplementary.
Worship of Brahma at Pushkara. Arrowy-bed form of selfmortification. Account of the late MaharanI of Nuddea's cremation. Account of the daily Deva-piija of the Maharaja of Dholpur. Account of the customs and religious tenets of the Santals. Con'
'

clusion

555-5S6
587-603

Index

CORRECTIONS.
Page 44,
J3

19 from top, strike out the word 'note '. 53> h 9 from bottom, for SannyasI read Sannyasi instances the long mark has dropped out.)
1.
'

'

'

',

(In a few other

451.

Strike out Sacred Syf/ibols from the Heading.

TABLE OF

SYSTEM OF TEANSLITEHATION
USED IN THIS VOLUME
WITH

EQUIVALENT SANSKRIT LETTERS AND PRONUNCIATION.

VOWELS.
A,
/, i,
tj,

a,

for '^,

pronounced as in rural; A,
fill;

a, for

"^j
U,
u,

J, as in tar,

father;
in
fi^ll;

for^, fTasin

/,

i,

for

^,
ri,

T, as in police;

for^, ^, as
J?I, rJ,

u, for

^,
;

as in rude
e,

Bi,
,

for

^,
;

as in merrily;
ai,

for

"^,

as in

marine

E,

for
;

"5,

as in prey

Ai,

for

y[,

as in aisle; 0,
;

o,
*,

for "^t, T, as in go
i.

Au, au, for ^TTj

T> as in

Haits (German)

n or m, for
;

e. e.

the Anusvara, sounded like n in French raon, or like any nasal

the Visarga or a distinctly audible aspirate.

/?,

for

I,

i.

CONSONANTS.
K,
Jc,

for
;

c|^,

pronounced as in

JciW,

seek

Kh, kh, for T^, almost as in

inA;Aoru

G,

g, for

^,

as in ^run, dog

Gh, gh, for

^,

almost as in lo^^ut;

N,

h, for

^,

as in siwg (siw). as in dolce (in music),

C, d, for

^,

= English ch in
;

church, lurch (lure);

Ch, ch, for 1^, almost as in churcji^ill (curcAill)

jh, for
T,

J, j, for

as in j'et; Jh,

^
t,

almost as in hec?^e-^og (hejhog)

;

iV, n,

for 3^, as in siwge (siw/).

(an^^ill)

for "J, as in true {tru)

Th,
;

th, for IS,

almost as in an^Mll

JP, d, for

^,
;

as in c?rum (c?rum)

Dh,

dh, for ^, almost as

in rec?^aired

(rec?^aired)

N,
f(^,

n, for U(^, as

in none (nun).

T,

t,

for

as in wa^er (as

pronounced

in Ireland)
d, for

Th,

th, for

^^,

almost as in nu^-^ook (but more dental); D,

th in this)
;

^,

as in c?ice
;

(more like
n, for
w^^,

Dh,

dh, for

\i[^,

almost as in a^^Aere (more dental)

N,

as in wot, m.

P, p, for

I(^,

as in put, sip
;

Ph, ph, for t^, almost as in uphiW

;

B,

h, for

as in 6ear, rub

Bh, hh, for *^, almost as in obhor

M, m,

for

^,

as in

waj), jam.

Y, y, for
lie-,

^,

as in yet
,

B,

r,

for

"^,

as in red, year

L,

I,

for ^^, as in

V,
s,

V, for

as in

me
H,

(but like
;

after consonants, as in twice).

s,

S,
for

for '^j as in sure, session

Sh, sh, for T^, as in s^un, hush; S,

^,

as in

sir, hiss.

h, for

^, as in hit.
differs in

Note that the above system

that

one or two

trifling points

from

used in

my

'

Practical

Grammar

of the Sanskrit Language,' fourth

edition, published

by the Delegates of the University Press, Oxford, and

from that used in

my

Sanskrit-English Dictionary, published by the same.

BRAHMANISM AND HINDUISM.

Introductory Obse7'vations.

The

present work

is

intended to meet the wants of those

desirous of gaining

educated

EngHshmen who may be

and

an

insight into the mental, moral,

religious condition of the

inhabitants of our Eastern empire,

to
sift

and yet are quite unable

for

themselves the confused mass of information

accurate and inaccurate

spread

out before
its

them by
aim
is

writers

on Indian subjects.
thought

It will

be seen that

to present
religious

trustworthy outlines of two important

in

phases

of

India,

namely, Brahmanism

and Hinduism, as

based on the Veda and the other sacred books of the Hindus.
It is

a companion to
will,
I

my volume on Buddhism

^,

and these two

works

hope, be followed

already written
is

by one embodying what I have on Zoroastrianism and Muhammadanism. It

most remarkable

my

desire to give a clear sketch of the

features of all these systems,

and to note some of the chief

literature for nearly

points in which they

may

be contrasted with Christianity.

Having been a student of Indian sacred

fifty

years,

and having thrice travelled over every part of

India,
I

from

Bombay

to Calcutta, from

Cashmere

to Ceylon,

may

possibly hope to

make

a dry subject fairly attractive

of scientific

without any serious

I

sacrifice

accuracy,

while

strive at the

same time

to hold the scales impartially befar as possible,

tween antagonistic religious systems and, as

to

do
^

justice to the

amount of

truth that each

may

contain.

Published by Mr. Murray (Albemarle Street) in 1890 (2nd

edit.).

Introductory Observations,

Brahmanism and Hinduism may

justly claim our earnest

consideration, not only for the reason that about

two hundred

millions of the population of India are adherents of these

systems, but because of the intricacy of the doctrines con-

them and the difficulty of making them intelligible to European minds. With a view to greater perspicuity it is desirable to make use
tained in
of the

word Vedism,

as a convenient expression for the earliest

stage or phase in the development of Indian religious thought.

I.

Vedism, then, was the

first

form of the religion of the

Indian branch of the great

Aryan family

the

form which

was represented
lectively called

in

the songs, invocations, and prayers, col-

Veda, and attributed to the Rishis, or suplife

posed inspired leaders of religious thought and

It

in India.

was the worship of the

as
Fire,

deified forces

or

phenomena of

Nature, such

Sun, Wind,

and Rain, which were

conception

sometimes individualized or thought of as separate divine

powers, sometimes gathered under one general

and

personified,

though

in a

very vague way, as one God.

Brahmanism grew out of Vedism. It teaches the and phenomena of Nature with one spiritual Being the only real Entity which, when unmanifested and impersonal, is called Brahma (neut.) when manifested as a creator, is called Brahma (masc.) as a disVishnu and when manifested integrator, Siva as a preserver, in the highest order of men, is called Brahmana (' the Brahmans '). Brahmanism is rather a philosophy than a religion. Its fundamental doctrine is spiritual Pantheism. Hence Brahma is only a creator in the sense of being the first
II.

identification of all the forces

Evolution out of the one

Spirit, the evolution

out of which

all

other evolutions have proceeded.

He

is

not a creator in the

sense of creating the world out of nothing.

or,

The only

Creator

more

correctly, Evolver,
all

is

the neuter entity called Brahma,

the source of

created things.
2, 3, i

patha-brahmana (XI.

Hence according to the Sataetc.) we find it stated

:

Introductory Observations.
'

"

In the beginning

Brahma was

this (universe).

He

created

gods.

Having created gods, he placed them in these worlds. Having gone to the most excellent worlds he considered

How
great

can

pervade

all

these worlds

He

then pervaded

them with form and with name.

manifestations of
manifestation.'

He who knows these two Brahma becomes himself a great

v. 388.)

(Muir's Texts,

HI.

Hinduism grew out of Brahmanism.

It

is

Brah-

manism, so to speak, run to seed and spread out into a

confused tangle of divine personalities and incarnations.

The

one system
Hindijism
in this

is is

the rank and luxuriant outcome of the other.

chiefly
it

to be distinguished

from Brahmanism

that

takes scant account of the primordial, imas

personal Essence Brahma, as well

manifestation

of

its

first

personal

Brahma

but honours,

in place

of both, the

two popular personal

it
is

and Vishnu (pp. 54, 1'^- Be noted, however, that Hinduism includes Brahmanism. It
deities Siva

indeed a somewhat unsatisfactory term.

Unhappily there

is

no other expression

sufficiently

comprehensive to embrace

that all-receptive, all-absorbent system, which, without

any one

Founder, was the product of Brahmanism amplified by contact

with
cults.
its

own

offspring
is

Buddhism, and with various pre-existing

Hinduism

superstitions of

Brahmanism modified by the creeds and Buddhists and Non-Aryan races of all kinds,
perhaps pre-Kolarian

including Dravidians, Kolarians, and

aborigines.
It

has even been modified by ideas imported from

/

the religions of later conquering races, such as Islam and

Christianity.
I

propose therefore to trace the gradual development of

Indian religious thought through these three phases which

really run into

and overlap each

in

other.

In so doing

shall

examine

it,

as

fairness

every

religion
its

ought

to

be

examined, from the point of view of

its

best as well as of

worst side.

But

ought to premise that the mass of the Hindus think

B 2

4
far

Introductory Observations.

more about the

obsei'vance of caste-rules and social cuslocal deities

toms and the propitiation of

gious teachers.

and

evil

demons than
reli-

about any of the theological creeds excogitated by their

Hinduism with the masses

is little

more than
(if

a system of social rules and local superstitions.

It is
first

probable that one of the earliest homes

not the

seat^) of the

members

of the great

Aryan family was

in the

high land surrounding the sources of the Oxus, to the

of the point

north

connecting the

Hindu Kush with the

is

Himalayas.

The

highest part of this region

called the

Pamir plateau, and,

it
'

like the table-land of Tibet,

it

with which

is

connected by a lofty ridge,

'

well deserves the title ot

the roof of the world

(bdm-i-dtmya).

The hardy
for

inhabit-

ants of these high-lands were a pastoral

race,

and agricultural

and soon found themselves straitened

room within
increase of

the limits of their mountain tracts.

With the

population they easily spread themselves westwards towards

Balkh, and southwards, through the passes of Afghanistan on the one side and Cashmere on the other, into Northern India.

There they developed high mental capacities and moral

feelings.

They

possessed great powers of appreciating the

of nature.

magnificent

phenomena

They were endowed with

a deep religious sense

consciousness of their dependence

on the

invisible forces

which regulated the order of the world.

They were
constructed
'

fitly called 'noble' (diya),

and they spoke a lanpolished

'

guage which was ultimately

(^Sanskritd).

called

'

or

'

carefully

To

trace the origin of religion

among such

a people requires

no curious metaphysical hypotheses.

We

have only to ask

Their material

ourselves what would be the natural working of their devotional instincts,

unguided by direct revelation.

^ According to Dr. Schrader's theory the cradle-land of the primitive Aryans was in the Steppes of Southern Russia. Others place it in Northern Europe. Others dispute both theories, and hold to the old idea of somewhere in Central Asia.' I also hold to the old idea.
'

Introductory Observations.
welfare depended on the influences of sky,
air, light,

and sun

(sometimes fancifully imaged

in the
;

mind

as

emerging out of
such phenomena
wills.

an antecedent chaotic night)

and

to these they naturally

all

turned with awe and veneration.

Soon

were believed to be animated by intelligent

the relationship between
perfectly
spirit,

At

first

mind, and matter was imto

apprehended.
life,

Whatever moved was believed

life

possess
light,

and with

was associated power.

propitiation.

Hence
re-

fire,

air,

and storm were thought of as mysterious

forces,

whose favour required

Next they
'

ceived
ones.'

homage under

the general

name

of Devas,

luminous

Then, just as men found themselves obliged to submit

to

some earthly leader, so they naturally assigned supremacy to one celestial being called the 'light-father' (DyuDyaus,
Zei;? Trarrip, Jupiter).

pitar,

Or, again, a kind of pre-

eminence was accorded to the all-investing sky or atmosphere (Varuna, Ovpavos), the representative of an eternal
celestial

Presence watching men's actions, and

listening to

their

words by night as well as by day.

Then

of course

closely connected with light

and sky was the actual orb of the

enriched

Sun

called Mitra, often associated with another aspect of the

Sun, Aryaman, whose

pastures, and

influences

fertilized

lands,

fructified crops.

Then
or Ira

other phenomena, connected with

Sun and

fire

(Agni,

Latin Ignis), such as the

(Iris),

dawn (Ushas,

'Hw?, Aurora), and Ida

were by degrees regarded with varying degrees

of veneration.

They

all

had names which

still

exist under

different modifications

among

different branches of the

Aryan
Aryan

stock, leading us

to infer

that they were among the most

ancient objects held sacred in the original abode of the

race, before the several

members

of the family separated.

There

is

even ground

for conjecturing that triads of natural

Atmosphere, and Sun, or three forms of the Sun, called Aryaman, Varuna, and Mitra, were associated together and worshipped by the primitive Aryans in
objects, such as Sky,

Introductory Observations,
It is certain
its

the earliest times.

the
first

that the

Aryan

race,

from
of

development of

religious sense

on the

soil

India, has

to

shown a tendency to attach a sacred significance the number three, and to group the objects of its adoration
combinations.
that the nascent religious ideas of a people naturally
in ancient

in triple

Not
any

devout were regulated or circumscribed

definite

times

by

rules

or precise limitations.

forces of nature

received
if

times singly, as
wills;

The objects and homage in different ways someimpelled by separate and independent

sometimes

in

groups, as
if

if

operating co-ordinately;

sometimes

collectively, as

animated and pervaded by one

dominating Spirit
Universe.

the

maintainer of law and order in the

As

to the form of worship, that, too,

was a natural process

not yet burdened by tedious ceremonial observances.

When
own.

men had
They
tions.

personified

and

deified the forces with

which they

were surrounded, they gave them characters

attributed to

like their

them human

tastes, likings,

and predilecaccom-

They
their

propitiated

them by

praise

and

flattery,

panying

hymns and

invocations with such presents and

and drink as would be deemed acceptable among themselves, and would be needed for the maintenance
offerings of food

of their

own

vigour and vitality.

Perhaps the earliest and

clarified

commonest

offerings

were

rice

and

butter.

Then

the exhilarating juice of the

in

Soma

plant, afterwards

an essential ingredient

both Aryan and

Iranian sacrifices, was used as a libation.

But the form of

worship, like the creed of the worshipper, was unfettered

precise rule or ritual.
instincts,

according to

by Each man satisfied his own religious his own conception of the character of

the supernatural being or beings on whose favour his welfare

was thought

to depend.

CHAPTER
Vedism.

I.

So much has been

of late years written and spoken about

the Veda, that to go minutely into this subject would be,

according to a Hindu saying,

'

to grind

ground

corn.'

When
in

the Indian branch of the

Aryan family

settled

down

the land of the seven rivers {Sapta Sindhu^oS.. Rig-veda X.

75,

Zend Hapta Hendu), now

was
still

called the Panjab, about the

still

fifteenth century B.
It

C, their religion was

nature-worship.

adoration of the forces everywhere in operation

for production, destruction,
itself

around them

and reproduction.
distinctly into

But

it

was physiolatry developing

more

forms of Anthropomorphism, Polytheism, Theism, and Pantheism.

The phenomena

of nature were thought of as some-

thing more than radiant beings, and something more than

powerful forces.

To

the generality of worshippers they were

more

distinctly concrete personalities,

and had more personal

guardians,
in

attributes.
friends,

They were addressed as kings, fathers, They were invoked benefactors, guests.

formal

hymns and prayers (mantras), in set metres (chandas). These hymns were composed in an early form
Sanskrit language, at different times
centuries,

of the

perhaps during several

from the

fifteenth to the tenth B.C.

by men of light

and leading (Rishis) among the Indo-Aryan immigrants, who

were afterwards held
saints.

in the highest veneration as patriarchal

Eventually the hymns were believed to have been

directly revealed to, rather than

composed by, these

Rishis,

and were then called divine knowledge (Veda), or the eternal

word heard

(Sruti),

and transmitted by them.

Vedism.
These Mantras or hymns were arranged
in three principal

collections of continuous
earliest

texts

(Sarnhitas).

The

first

and
re-

was

called

the

Hymn-Veda

(Rig-veda).

It

was a
and

collection of 1017
citing.

hymns, arranged
first

for

mere reading or

This was the

bible of the

Hindu

religion,
it

the special bible of Vedism.

We

might imagine

possible

to have collected the most ancient

hymns and psalms

of our

own Sacred Scriptures in the same manner. The second, or Sacrificial Veda (Yajur), belongs
ficial

to the sacri-

phase of the Vedic system.

11

was a

liturgical

arrangement
^

of part of the same collection of hymns, with additions intoning

it

for

noted, however, that

(for

Be some of the hymns of the Rig-veda example, the horse-sacrifice or Asva-medha hymn, I. 162)
in

a peculiar low tone at sacrificial ceremonies.

presuppose a ritual already definite and systematized.

The

third; or

Chant-Veda (Sama), was another

for

liturgical

arrangement of some of the same hymns

ticular sacrifices in

chanting at parplant was the

which the juice of the

;

Soma

principal offering (pp. 12

.

368).

A fourth collection which might suitably be called the Spell-

Veda was added at a later period. It was a collection of hymns some of them similar to those of the Rig-veda, but the greater part original composed by a particular class of priests called

Atharvans^.

Many

of the

texts

and formularies of
spells,

this

Atharva-veda were ultimately used as charms and

are
still

and

so used in various parts of India.

of the earliest

By some

hymn-composers the gods continued

to be regarded as one family

children
To

of the old pre-Vedic

heavenly father (Dyo or Dyaus), while Earth (Prithivl) was

fabled as a divine mother.
^

other sacred poets the pre-

Certain passages in prose were added, which were especially called

a class of priests, descended from a
to

Yajus.
^ This was a generic name for named Atharvan, who appears

man

have been the first to institute the worship of fire, before the Indians and Iranians separated. It is certain that particular priests both in India and Persia were called Atharvans.

Vedism.

Vedic deification of the Sky (Varuna, Ovpavo^) remained a

principal

object

of

adoration.

He was

still

occasionally

exalted to the position of a Supreme Being.

A well-known
him
as ruling

hymn

in

the Atharva-veda (IV. 16) describes

the world, as penetrating the secrets of

all hearts,

as detecting

the plots of wicked men, as sending

sengers
as

down

countless mesits

who

for ever traverse the earth

and scan

inmates,

numbering every wink of men's

eyes, as wielding the

dice.

whole

universe in the

manner of a gamester handling

But the true gods of the Veda constituted a

deities.

triad

of

They were

the Fire-god (the earth-born Agni), the

Rain-god (the air-born Indra), and the Sun-god (the sky-born

Surya or

Savitri, pp.
air,

19; 341)

one

for

each of the three

svar).

worlds, earth,

and sky (bhur, bhuvah,

These three

were the special objects of worship of the early Indo-Aryans.

All their other principal deities were either modifications
or associated with, one or other of the
triad.
of,

members

of this Vedic

For example, the wind (Vayu) and the storm-gods

as intimate associates of the

by the destroying god (Rudra), were regarded Rain-god Indra, and were really only forms and modifications of that god. On the other hand,
(Maruts), led

the ancient

Aryan

deities,

Varuna and Mitra, with Vishnu,

Savitri, also called

were

all

mere forms of the Sun (Surya or

Pushan).

Of course the Dawn (Ushas) was

two luminous points
in

also connected

with the Sun, and two other deities, the Asvins

personifications of

the sky

probably were fabled

as his twin sons, ever

young and handsome,

had various

travelling in a

golden car as precursors of the Dawn.

As

to the Fire-god (Agni), he

attributes sig-

nificant of his interest in the world of

human

beings.

He was

God on
deities.

the earth and therefore

more

accessible than other

He was

manifested by the friction of the two pieces

of the sacred fig-tree called Arani, and consequently always

to

be found at hand.

He was

visibly present in every house-

hold.

He was

man's domestic

friend, the father of the sacrifice,


JO
the mediator between

Vedism.

men and

gods, the bearer of

hymns and

prayers from every family altar upwards towards heaven.

Fire, in fact,

may

be regarded as the next god to the Rain;

god

in the

estimation of Vedic worshippers

and certainly he
generally
first in

takes precedence over every other god in connection with

sacrificial rites.
all

Even the Sun-god, who

is

is

Pagan systems,

held to be a form of heavenly

fire.

Fire

has always been an object of veneration

among

all

nations.
letters

conjecture

may

even be hazarded that the three

to

A, U, M, which combine
were originally the

form the sacred syllable

;

Om
403)

afterwards typical of the Brahmanical triad (pp. 44

initial letters

of the

names of

Fire,

Wind,

and Sun,
It

i.

e.

Agni,

Vayu

or

Varuna

(for Indra),

and Mitra. and Agni

must not be

forgotten, however, that both Indra

were, like Varuna, often

addressed as
fire

if

each deity were

supreme.

Moreover, the god of

was sometimes held to

possess a kind of triple essence in himself, consisting of terrestrial fire, celestial

lightning,

and solar heat.

Sometimes he
all

represented a simple creative energy, which evolved

things

out of

its

own

eternal essence.
allusions, too, in the
I.

There are
gods
(I.

Rig-veda to thirty-three
groups consisting of

34. 11;

45. 2), or to the three

eleven Rudras, eight Vasus, and twelve Adityas with

Heaven
little

and Earth. Their names are given

variously, but they are

more than modifications of the three leading personifications. Only two or three instances occur of Vedic deities who
stand alone.

One

of the

most remarkable
attained to

is

Yama, god of
departed
bliss,

departed

spirits.

It is

noteworthy that the

spirits of

ancestors (Pitris)

who have

heavenly

are

believed to occupy three different stages of blessedness,

the

highest inhabiting the upper sky, the middle the intermediate

air,

Adoration

and the lowest the atmospheric region near the earth. is to be offered them, and they are presided over
leader of the spirits of the dead, both good and bad.
earliest

by Yama,

The

legends represent

Yama

as the

first

of created

1 ;

Vedism.

men
died.

(his twin-sister

being Yarn!) and the

first

of

men who
is

Hence he is supposed men who die to the world of

said to be his
to

to guide the spirits of other

spirits.

Sometimes Death

messenger

he himself dwelling

in celestial light

which the departed are brought, and where they enjoy his

society
is

and that of the patriarchs.

In the later mythology he

(p.

Judge of the dead and punisher of the wicked the Veda he has no such office, but he has two

289).

In

terrific

dogs,

with four eyes, which guard the

In brief, enough has
religion of the
earlier belief
in

way

to his

abode

(p. 17).

been said to show that the early

still

Indo-Aryans was a development of a

man's subjection to the powers of nature

It

and

his

need of conciliating them.

was an unsettled
all

system which according to one view assigned

the pheno-

mena
the

of the universe to one Cause

or again, attributed

them
one

to several

Causes operating independently; or again, supposed

visible

whole

creation

to

be a
It

manifestation

of

universal all-pervading spirit.

was a

belief which, accord-

ing to the character of the worshipper,

was now mere animism,

polytheism,

now monotheism, now

theism.

tritheism,

now

now panthe forces

But

it

was not yet

idolatry.

Though

of nature were thought of as controlled

such persons were not yet idolized.

by divine persons, There is no evidence

from the Vedic

hymns

that images were actually worshipped,

though they appear to have been occasionally employed ^

The mode

of divine worship continued to be determined

from a consideration of

human

likings

and

dislikings.

Every

worshipper praised the gods because he liked to be praised

himself.

He

honoured them with offerings because he liked

himself

to receive presents
!

He

pretended to feed them be-

cause he required food himself

This appears to have been

|the

simple origin of the

sacrificial

system

a system which was

religion.

lafterwards closely interwoven with the

*

whole Hindia

For example,
in
I.

in

Rig-veda

II. 33.

and

25. 13, V. 52. 15, visible

9 an image of Rudra is alluded to forms of some kind seem implied.

Vedism.

What,
sacrifice
?

then, were the various ideas expressed

by the term

In

its

purest and simplest form

it

denoted a dedi-

cation of

blessings received.

some simple gift as an expression of gratitude for Soon the act of making sacred became
' '

an act of propitiation
celestial
inflicting

for

purely selfish ends.

The

favour of

beings

who were

capable of conferring good or

harm on
soil.

crops, flocks,

and herds, was conciliated

by

offerings

and oblations of

all kinds,

and especially of the

products of the

With
and
for

this idea the

gods were invited to join the every-day

at festive gatherings,

family meal.
offered

Then they were invoked

a share
of the

food consumed.

Their bodies

were believed to be composed of ethereal

particles,

dependent

nourishment on the invisible elementary essence of the

substances presented to them, and to be furnished with senses

capable of being gratified by the aroma of butter and grainj

offered in fire (homa)-^;

and especially by the fumes

arising

from libations of the exhilarating juice extracted from

th(

Soma

plant.
or'

This plant^botanically known as Sarcostema Viminalis,

Asclepias Acida^ a kind of creeper with a succulent leafless stem

which was indigenous

in the ancient

home

of the Aryans, as

well as in the soil of India and Persia, supplied an invigorating

beverage supposed to confer health and immortality, and held

to be the vital sap which vivified the world.

Hence

its

juice

became an important ingredient at every

was believed
of
to

sacrifice,

and was the

It

subject of constant laudation in numerous Vedic hymns.

be peculiarly grateful to the Rain-god (Indra),

which the

while oblations of butter were specially presented to the god

fire.

Eventually the great esteem

led to
its

in

Soma

plant

was held

being

itself personified

and

deified.

The
ninth

god Soma was once the Bacchus of

India.

The whole

Book

of the Rig-veda

is

devoted to his praise.

Compare Gen.

viii.

21.


Vedism,

And
in

yet this sacred plant has fallen into complete neglect

times.

modern

When

asked the Brahmans to procure

for

specimens of the true

Soma
it

me,

was told that the

^.

sinful

condition of the world

had caused the holy plant to cease

was
to be found in heaven

growing on earth, though

Nor were
animal

these the only offerings.

In process

of time,

sacrifice

was introduced.
in

At

great solemnities goats

and other animals were killed by hundreds.

flesh

Portions of the

were consumed
priests,

the

fire,

and portions were eaten.

Gods,

and people feasted together.

Of course

all

offerings

were accompanied with hymns of

praise.

tedious

ceremonial was gradually added.

The whole

sacrificial service

was called Yajna.

By

diligent performance of Yajiia a

p. 49).

man

gained admittance to Indra's heaven (Svarga, see

I

close this

sketch of Vedism by citing portions of

my

translations of a few remarkable

given by

me

in

'

hymns in the Rig-veda, as Indian Wisdom.' One hymn (Mandala X.

:

129) describes the origin of creation thus

Then

In the beginning there was neither nought nor aught there was neither sky nor atmosphere above.

What

teeming universe? contained? Was it enveloped in the gulf profound of water? Then was there neither death nor immortality Then was there neither day, nor night, nor light, nor darkness, Only the Existent One breathed calmly, self-contained. Nought else but he there was nought else above, beyond.
then enshrouded
all this

In the receptacle of what was

it

Then

came darkness hid in darkness, gloom in gloom; Next all was water, all a chaos indiscrete, In which the One lay void, shrouded in nothingness. Then turning inwards, he by self-developed force Of inner fervour and intense abstraction, grew. First in his mind was formed Desire, the primal germ
first

Productive, which the Wise, profoundly searching, say

Is the first

subtle bond, connecting Entity

And
^

Nullity.

creeper, said to be the true Soma, was pointed out to me by the Dr. Burnell in Southern India, and is still, I believe, used by those orthodox Brahmans in the Maratha country who attempt to maintain the

late

old Vedic worship.

specimen was given by

me

to the

Indian Institute.


14
In the foregoing

Vedism.

hymn we

detect the

first

dim

outline of the

later philosophical theories,

both Sankhyan and Vedantic.

The

idea of the female principle as necessary to the act of

is

creation

also, as

may

be seen, vaguely implied

an

idea

which gathered such strength subsequently that every principal deity in the later
part,

mythology has

his feminine counter-

who

shares the worship paid to the male god, and

who
That

sometimes receives the greater homage of the two.

this idea
is

not fully developed in the Rig-veda

is

proved by

the fact that the wives of the chief gods, such as IndranI,

Agnayi,

etc.,

are not associated with their husbands as objects

of worship, and even Lakshml and SarasvatI, though named,

are not adored.

The next example from

Mandala
is

the

I2ist

hymn

of the
for

tenth,

often quoted to furnish an

argument

main-

taining that the original faith of the Hindus

was monotheistic.

The hymn

is

addressed to Hiranya-garbha, a form of the

Supreme Being, no doubt originally a personification of thcj Sun. In the Vedanta philosophy, Hiranya-garbha represents In the third condition of the Supreme Spirit (see p. '>f^). the later system he must be regarded as related to the Godj
Vishnu.

He

is

thus described

What god shall we adore with sacrifice Him let us praise, the golden child that
?

rose

In the beginning,

who was born

the lord

The one sole lord of all that is who made The earth, and formed the sky, who giveth

life,

Who
Of

giveth strength, whose bidding gods revere,

immortality.
;

Whose hiding-place is Whose shadow, death

all

who by

his

might

is

king

the breathing, sleeping, waking world.

let

Where'er

loose in space, the mighty waters

Have

And

gone, depositing a fruitful seed, generating fire, there he arose

is

Who

Whose mighty

life of all the gods, glance looks round the vast expanse Of watery vapour source of energy. Cause of the sacrifice the only God

the breath and

Above the gods.

Vedism,

The

following

is

a portion of a well-known

hymn
:

to the

Sky-god (Varuna) from the Atharva-veda (IV.

16)

The mighty Varuna, who rules above, looks down Upon these worlds, his kingdom, as if close at hand. When men imagine they do aught by stealth, he knows
one can stand, or walk, or softly glide along. Or hide in dark recess, or lurk in secret cell, But Varuna detects him, and his movements spies. Two persons may devise some plot, together sitting, And think themselves alone but he, the king, is there A third and sees it all. His messengers descend
;

it.

No

Countless from his abode, for ever traversing This world, and scanning with a thousand eyes its inmates. Whate'er exists within this earth, and all within the sky, Yea, all that is beyond, king Varuna perceives. The winkings of men's eyes are numbered all by him He wields the universe as gamesters handle dice.
:

Here follow portions of hymns addressed

triad.

to

the Vedic

Firstly, the Fire-god (Agni)

Agni, thou art a sage, a priest, a king. Protector, father of the sacrifice. Commissioned by us men, thou dost ascend

messenger, conveying to the sky

Our hymns and offerings. Though thy origin Be threefold, now from air, and now from water.

Now
Thou

from the mystic double Arani, art thyself a mighty god, a lord,
life

Giver of

and immortality

but to mortals three Displaying thine eternal triple form.

in thy essence,

One

As fire on earth, as lightning As sun in heaven. Thou art

in the air,

the cherished guest

In every household father, brother, son, Friend, benefactor, guardian, all in one. Deliver, mighty lord, thy worshippers,

Purge us from taint of sin, and when we die, Deal mercifully with us on the pyre. Burning our bodies with their load of guilt. But bearing our eternal part on high To luminous abodes and realms of bliss, For ever there to dwell with righteous men.

Secondly, the Rain-god (Indra, afterwards lord of Svarga)

Indra, twin-brother of the

god of

fire,

When

thou wast born, thy mother, Aditi,

Vedism.

Gave thee, her lusty child, the thrilhng draught Of mountain-growing Soma source of Ufe

And

never-dying vigour to thy frame. Thou art our guardian, advocate, and friend,
brother, father,

mother
!

all

combined.

Most

fatherly of fathers,

we

are thine,

Oh let thy pitying soul compassion when we praise thee, And slay us not for one sin or for many. Deliver us to-day, to-morrow, every day. Vainly the demon ^ dares thy might, in vain Strives to deprive us of thy watery treasures. Earth quakes beneath the crashing of thy bolts.
And
thou art ours.
to us in

Turn

Pierced, shattered

lies

the foe

his

cities

crushed,

His armies overthrown, his fortresses Shivered to fragments then the pent-up waters. Released from long imprisonment, descend In torrents to the earth, and swollen rivers, Foaming and rolling to their ocean-home, Proclaim the triumph of the Thunderer.
;

Thirdly, the Sun-god (Surya, Rig-veda,

Behold the rays of dawn,
like heralds, lead

I.

50)

on high

The The

Sun, that

men may

see the great all-knowing God.

stars slink off like thieves, in company with Night, Before the all-seeing eye, whose beams reveal his presence. Gleaming like brilliant flames, to nation after nation.

Surya, with flaming locks, clear-sighted god of day,

Thy

seven ruddy mares bear on thy rushing car.

chariot.

With these thy self-yoked steeds, seven daughters of thy Onward thou dost advance. To thy refulgent orb Beyond this lower gloom, and upward to the light Would we ascend, O Sun, thou god among the gods.

The thoughts contained

'

in various

hymns addressed

to the

god of departed

spirits
:

'

(Yama,

p. 11)

are so remarkable that

a few are here given

To Yama, mighty

king, be gifts

and homage
first

paid.
to

brave Death's rapid rushing stream, the first to point the road To heaven, and welcome others to that bright abode. No power can rob us of the home thus won by thee.
the
first

He was

of

men

that died, the

The demon

Vritra,

who

is

supposed to keep the waters imprisoned

in thick clouds.

Vedism.

king,

we come

the born must die, must tread the path

That thou hast trod

!

the

path by which each race of men,

In long succession, and our fathers, too, have passed. depart fear not to take the road Soul of the dead
;

The

which thy ancestors have gone Ascend to meet the god to meet thy happy fathers, Who dwell in bliss with him. Fear not to pass the guards The four-eyed brindled dogs that watch for the departed. Return unto thy home, O soul Thy sin and shame Leave thou behind on earth assume a shining form^ Thy ancient shape refined and from all taint set free.
ancient road
;

by

add a few verses from the celebrated Purusha hymn (Rig-

veda,

Mandala X.

90, as freely translated

by me

in

another

work).

It illustrates

the intertwining of polytheism,

It also

mono-

theism, and pantheism.

fice,

foreshadows the idea of sacri^,

as well as the institution of caste

which

for so

many
sup-

centuries has held India in bondage.

The one

Spirit

is

posed to take a body and then allow himself to be

sacrificed.

The embodied

A
On

spirit has a thousand heads, thousand eyes, a thousand feet, around

every side enveloping the earth,

filling
is is is

Yet

space no larger than a span.

is,

He He He
Are

himself this very universe

whatever

has been, and shall be

the lord of immortality.

All creatures are one-fourth of him, three-fourths

that

which

is

immortal in the sky.

From him, called Purusha, was born Viraj, And from Viraj was Purusha produced. Whom gods and holy men made their oblation.
With Purusha
as victim, they performed

sacrifice.

When

they divided him.

him up ? What was his mouth ? What were his arms 1 and what his thighs and feet The Brahman was his mouth, the kingly soldier Was made his arms, the husbandman his thighs. The servile Siidra issued from his feet.
did they cut

How

Further examples and a be found

^

fuller
'

account of the Veda

will

in

my

book
hymn

called

Indian Wisdom.'

The above
modern pro-

This

hymn
is

(generally admitted to be a comparatively

in the

Iduction)

the only

Rig-veda which alludes

to the distinctions

of caste.

Vedism,
examples would,
if

selected

taken alone, encourage a

false

estimate of the merits of the Vedic hymns.

Although the

majority of the Hindus believe that the four Vedas contain

all

that

is

good, great, and divine, and although

are to this

many

of

the

hymns

day

in constant daily use

and form part

of the religious services of every orthodox

403, 406), yet Vedic compositions will
as a whole, to

Brahman (see pp. be found, when taken

than in lofty
clear that they give

abound more
the

in puerile ideas
it

conceptions.

At
to

same time

is

no support
customs
for

any of the present objectionable usages and which they were once, through ignorance of
supposed to be an authority.

their contents,

The

doctrine

of metempsychosis or transmigration of souls, which

an essential characteristic
later times,
is

became of Brahmanism and Hinduism in

scarcely hinted at in the religion of the

Veda \

Nor do the hymns give any sanction

the tyrannical

to the prohibition of

widow-marriages, the general prevalence of child-marriages,

sway of

caste, the interdiction of foreign travel,

and the practice of

idolatry.

The
were

social condition of the people,

composed, was marked by considerable

rich in flocks
;

when the hymns were civilization. They

fortified places

and herds
arts

they understood the principles

;

of agriculture

they built towns and

they

had some knowledge of

engaged
rulers,

and

of

working
;

in

metals

they

in

philosophical

speculations

they had

political

and a high type of morality; they were separated

though they were not yet divided
;

into classes,

off

by

iron

barriers of caste

polygamy

existed,

though
;

monogamy was
they ate animal
I

the rule
food,
their

they killed animals for

sacrifice

and did not even object to the

weaknesses was a fondness
for

flesh of

cows; among*

gambling and intoxi-

cating beverages.
^
'

Mandala
is

I.

164. 32

bahu-prajah
; '

is

explained by bahu-ja7ima-bhak^
'

subject to

many

births

but

it

may mean having abundant

tisro

offspring.'

There

another text (VIII. loi. 14) beginning Praja ha

atyayam

lyuh.


Vedism,
1

And
Israel

It

is

to

be observed that, just as the children of

found the land of Canaan pre-occupied by Hittites,

Perizzites,

and

Philistines, so

they advanced into India,

Aryan immigrants, when found the soil held by previous

the

races, variously called Dravidas,

etc.,

Dasyus, Anaryas, Nishadas,

tribes,

and even by more primitive aboriginal

contact

and intercourse with

whom
^

very soon affected them socially,

morally, and religiously.

Monsieur A. Earth
draws attention to the
divinities.

comes

to

the conclusion that the

Vedic hymns give evidence of an exalted morality, and

fact that

they acknowledge no wicked

Worship of the gods was performed by

meditation (upasana)
ultimately applied

sacrifice (yajiia),
(stuti),

invocation (avahana), prayer (prarthana), praise

;

and

and the name Brahman (nom. Brahma),

the one Universal Spirit, was often

to

identified with Prayer.

Finally be

it

observed that the most sacred and the most

all

universally used of
or,
'

Vedic prayers

is

that called GayatrT,

:

as addressed to the Vivifying Sun-god, Savitri

Let us meditate on that excellent glory of the Divine

Vivifying
j

Sun

may he enhghten
or,

our understandings

^.'

This

is still

a Brahman's daily prayer (see below, pp. 403, 406).

as

Yet the author,

(Rishi),
!

Brahman would

say, the

Seer

of this

celebrated

prayer was Visvamitra

man
is

originally of the Kshatriya or military caste,

once opposed to

the Brahmanical.
often personified

It

should be noted that this Gayatri

and worshipped as

identified with Sarasvati

and as the mother of the Vedas.

^

His work on the religions of India

is

excellent, but

some

of his

(opinions are new.

'

He

sees no 'primitive natural

simpHcity' in the

hymns, and denies that the Vedas represent the general belief of a race. ^ Tat Savitur varenyam bhargo devasya dhlmahi, Dhiyo yo nah pracodayat (Rig-veda III. 62. 10). In my opinion the Sandhya (p. 401)
derives
its

name from

the root dhi for dhyai,

'

to meditate,' in this prayer.

C 2

CHAPTER
Brahmanism.

II.

The
reject

second phase of Indian religious thought

may be

suit-

ably called Brahmanism.

The Brahmans themselves would

call

such a

title.

They
Pataiijali

their religion

Arya-dharma,

'the religion of the Aryas' (or Vaidika-dharma, or Rishi-sam-

pradayo dharmah,
it

I. i.

i).

They

of course regard

as the only true religion,

all

and have no
as

difficulty in includ-

ing

other religions

such

Muhammadanism and even

it

Christianity

under

it.

As Brahmanism was
just as the

the outgrowth of Vedism, so

Its

cannot

be separated from Vedism.

development was gradual,

it

development of Hinduism out of

all

was.

Vedism,

Brahmanism, and Hinduism are

It
is

closely inter-connected.

interesting to trace the crystallization of the rudidefinite shape.

after

mentary doctrines of Brahmanism into

In

Vedic times there was, as we have seen, a feeling

one

Supreme Being,

if

haply

He

might be found.
for

composers gave expression to man's craving

tion of the Infinite.

The hymnsome percep-

To

satisfy this craving

they turned to

personifications of the Sky, Sun, Fire, Air, Water, Earth.

What
with

the deepest thinkers, even at that early period,

intensity

felt

ever-increasing

was that a

Spirit

(Atman),

beyond the cognizance of

through
all

sense,

permeated and breathed

material

things.

awe of
their

this

same
life

Spirit vivifying

They bethought them with their own bodies with

in

the breath of

of this

mysterious Presence enshrined

identified this

own

consciences.

Then they

same

Spirit

with the divine afflatus thrilling through the imaginations

of their

the

own hymn-composers with the spiritual efficacy hymns themselves, with the mystic power inherent

of
in

divine knowledge and prayer.

This mysterious, all-pervading,

Ritualistic

Brahmanism.

Power and Presence, which was wholly unand individuality, became This Breath of Life (Atman) received a at last a reality. name. They called it Brahman (nominative neuter Brahma, from the root dri/i, to expand '), because it expanded itself
vague
spiritual

bound by

limitations of personality

'

through

all

space.

It

was a pure essence which not only

Men,
its

diffused itself everywhere, but constituted everything.

gods,

and the

visible

world were merely

manifestations.

Such was the fundamental doctrine of Brahmanism.

Such
it

Brahmanism in its earliest became a more complex system

w^as

origin.

Soon, however,

system which

may

be

regarded as possessing four sides, or rather four phases running into each other and now^here
defined
lines,

separable
(2)

by sharply

namely

(i)

Ritualistic,
(4)

Philosophical, (3)

Mythological or Polytheistic,

Nomistic.

Ritualistic Bi^ahmanism,

This phase of the Brahmanical system has for

bible the sacred
treatises called

its

special

Brahmanas, added to the

Mantra or

Hymn

portion of each

Veda

(for

example, the

Aitareya, Satapatha, Tandya, and Gopatha

to the Rig, Yajur,

Brahmanas added
respectively).

Sama, and Atharva Vedas

series

They

consist

of a

of rambling

prose compositions,

the oldest of which

centuries B.C.

may have been

that
of

written seven or eight

re-

Their relationship to the Vedic hymns

the book

sembles in some respects

to the

of Leviticus

Psalms

in

our

own

sacred Scriptures.

They

are an

integral portion

of the Veda, and are

supposed to contain
the
if

that portion of divine

knowledge or revelation particularly

in
sacrificial

adapted to serve as a directory for the Brahmans

conduct of the complicated
it

ceremonies.

For

in the early Vedic period to proand maintain the energies of nature by means of invigorating offerings of food, it was clearly still more in-

was deemed necessary

pitiate

cumbent on men

to

make

offerings to these

same

forces

when

22

Ritualistic Brahinanism,

personalized and endowed with forms acknowledged to be

perishable.

In fact the necessity for sacrificial acts (karman)

to secure the favour of the gods

became ingrained

in

the whole

Brahmanical system.

Not even Jewish

literature contains so

many words relating to sacrifice as the literature of the Brahmans. The due presentation of sacrificial offerings formed the very kernel of all religious service. Hymn, praise, and
prayer,

preaching,

teaching,

and

repetition

of the

sacred

words of scripture were only subsidiary to

this act.

Every

man

throughout his whole

life

rested his whole hopes on

continually offering oblations of

the burning of his

body

at

some kind to the gods, and death was held to be the last
sacrifice

offering of himself in fire (antya ishti or antyeshti).

But the idea of the great ef^cacy of

gradually.
first

was developed

In the Brahmanical, as in the earlier system, the

sacrifice

aim of

was to present a simple thank-offering.

to nourish the gods with the essence of

The second aim was

so strengthen
verse.

the offered food (as with that of the Soma-juice, p. 369), and

them

for their

duty of maintaining the uni-

The next

idea was that of

making these oblations

specific earthly object,

the means of wresting boons from the invigorated and gratified deities,

and so accomplishing some

such, for example, as the birth of a son.

bitious idea
for the

still

more am-

was that of employing

sacrifice as

an instrument

attainment of superhuman powers and even exaltation

to heaven (svarga, see p. 49).

All this involved the elaboration of a complicated

ritual,

and the organization of a regular hierarchy.

sacrificial rite (e.g.

To

institute

any

the Asvamedha, or the Jyotishtoma

Soma-

sacrifices,
'

Agnishtoma, Aptoryama, or that called Vajapeya,

p. 368),

strengthening drink,'

and to secure

its

being con-

ducted with the proper intonation of innumerable hymns and

texts from the Veda,
detail of

an intricate

ritual

and the accurate observance of every by a full complement of perhaps

sixteen different classes of priests, every one of

whom

received

Ritualistic

Brahmanism.

23

adequate

gifts,

highest ambition.

was the great object of every pious Hindu's Every ceremonial rite, too, had to be
i.e.

performed with safikalpa,

lution

voluntarily, with earnest reso-

and conscious

will.

The whole

course of prayer,

praise, ritual,

and oblation

sometimes

lasting for

weeks and
'

even years
fice,'

though

called, as in

Vedic times, Yajna,

sacri-

was very inadequately expressed by that term.

an
intricate piece of

It

was

like

mechanism, or a chain of which

all its parts.

every link required to be complete and perfect in

It

could then effect anything.

all
evil,

It

was the great preservative

benefits.
^,

from

the great maintainer of the energies of the

all

Universe, the great source of

It

could procure

a whole line of sons and

into Indra's

grandsons

or secure admission

heaven

(svar, svarga, see p. 49), or

even raise the

It

sacrificer to the level of

the highest deities.

was believed

that the gods themselves

had attained
'

their celestial position

by performing
brahmana,
'

sacrifices.

By

sacrifices,'

says the Taittirlya-

the gods obtained heaven.'

The most preposterous of all the ideas connected with the sacrificial act was that of making it the instrument of creation.
In the Purusha

hymn

of the Rig-veda (X. 90) the gods are

represented as cutting up and sacrificing Purusha, the primeval

Male, and then forming the whole Universe from his head

and limbs
(Yajna)

(see p. 17).

of creatures offer himself

itself

The Tandya-brahmana makes the lord up as a sacrifice. Even Sacrifice

to
to

Lastly, the shedding of blood

expiate

sin.

was sometimes personified as a god. was believed by some The victim consigned to the fire was thought
for sins

be an expiation

committed by the gods, the

fathers,

and men.

Probably the idea was not so much that of killing

an innocent victim for the removal of guilt as of warding off

the punishment which an angry Being was likely to
^

inflict.

An

needed

uninterrupted line of sons, grandsons, and great-grandsons was for the due performance of funeral rites, through which alone

the bliss of a

man

after death could

be secured (see pp. 274-312).


24
It is

Rihtalistic Brakj7ianism.

even probable that

of the Brahmanical system.

human sacrifice was once part The Aitareya-brahmana (VII.

and Sunahsepa
records

13) has the well-known story of Hariscandra

which points to

its

prevalence.

The same Brahmana

for that of
sacrificial

the substitution of the sacrifice of four kinds of animals

horses, oxen, sheep,

and goats

men.

Sometimes

numbers of animals were tied to being killed and some liberated

posts (yupa),

some

at the

end of the ceremony.

see p. 329.
to

As to the Horse-sacrifice (Asva-medha) One of the most noteworthy ideas

Brahmanas
lest
is

be found

in

the

that the gods were merely mortal

sacrifices.

till

they

conquered Death by

Death

is

thereupon alarmed

men

also should be victorious

;

over him and deprive

him

of all his rights

but the gods promise that those

who

ofi'ering

sacrifices should not become immortal without first him their bodies, and that non-sacrificers should present him their bodies in many successive births.

perform

The

following

is
:

a free translation of a passage of the Sata-

patha-brahmana

The gods lived constantly in dread of Death The mighty Ender so with toilsome rites They worshipped and repeated sacrifices Till they became immortal. Then the Ender Said to the gods, *As ye have made yourselves Imperishable, so will men endeavour To free themselves from me what portion then Shall I possess in man ?' The gods replied,

Henceforth no being shall become immortal own body; this his mortal frame Shalt thou still seize this shall remain thy own, This shall become perpetually thy food. And even he who through religious acts Henceforth attains to immortality Shall first present his body. Death, to thee.'
'

In his

Other passages

in the

Brahmanas prove that the doctrine of

sacrifice as

transmigration was beginning to be developed at this period.

It is certainly

remarkable that the idea of

an

atonement

for sin

seems never to have taken firm hold of the

Philosophical Brahmanism.

25

Hindu mind. Goats were generally sacrificed by Vaidika Brahmans at their Soma-yagas, but only in connexion with
the central offering of the

Soma

or liquor of immortality, and

mainly with the idea of nourishing the gods who were their
friends.

Fire

was the chief god, not only because he was

he carried up the essence of the
In later times the deities were

visibly present, but because

oblation to the other gods.

thought to have a malevolent side to their characters, and

when
deity,

sacrifice
it

was needed
Bali.

for the

propitiation of an angry

was called

Goats and buffaloes are now immo-

lated in India with the view of appeasing the goddess Kali,

who

delights

in

blood.

But

in

this

there

is

no idea of
sin.

effacing guilt or

making a vicarious offering for The ordinary Hindu wholly rejects the notion

of trusting
;

to anything for salvation but his

is,

own
'

self-righteousness

that

to his

own

merit (punya) acquired through his

own

pious

acts, or

through the karma-marga,

way

of ceremonial acts,'

presided over

by the Brahmans.
Philosophical Brdhmanism.

The second
Its

or philosophical phase of
line
in

Brahmanism cannot

be marked off by any decided

from the other phases.

the earlier system, and
stress

rudimentary ideas are found

in

had their germ

(jiiana) of the

Vedism.

It laid

on the knowledge which

of

one universally diffused

spiritual essence (Brahin

all

man) which constitutes everything, and

are merged.

things

This purely

spiritual

way

or

way

knowledge

(jnana-marga) made
In
fact,

sacrificial

ceremonies useless.

a reaction from an overdone ritual was inevitable.

sacrificers.

People became wearied with sacrifices and

The
in

minds of thinking
slaughtered victims.

men found no
It

rest

in the

blood of

only

remained to take refuge

If

metaphysical investigations.

every

God, what necessity was there that

himself?
If a

man was God should

part

of

propitiate

portion of the one self-existent Spirit chose

26
for a
fetter

Philosophical Brahmanism.
time to ignore
itself
itself,

to invest itself with a body, to

with actions and their

inevitable
itself in

results,
its

the

consequences could only be borne by

passage

through numberless

births.

Nor could

there be any final

emancipation from a continued succession of corporeal existences,

till

action ceased and the consciousness of identity

with the one universal Spirit returned.

The Upanishads,
treatises so called

or hidden spiritual doctrine of the Veda,

are the special bible of this phase of Brahmanism.

Many

were added to the Mantra and Brahmana

(such
as the Isa,

portion of the

Veda

Katha, Chandogya,

Mundaka, and Brihad-aranyaka Upanishads).

(siitras)

The aphorisms

of the three systems of philosophy with their three

so-called

branches

(that
;

is,

the

Nyaya with Vaiseshika

Sarikhya with

Yoga
;

Vedanta with Mimansa) were connected

but only the Saiikhya and Vedanta can

with these writings

be said to be really founded on them.

According to a learned Brahman who

Christianity, the

is

now

a convert to

Upanishads are to the Mantras and Brah-

manas what our

New

Testament

is

to the Old.

They were compositions which expressed

the desire of the

living personal spirit (jTva or jivatman) for deliverance

from

a long series of separate earthly existences and from liability

to

pass through

a variety of bodies
its

plants, stones

and

gods,

men, animals,

longing for

final

reunion with the one

self-existent Spirit of the Universe

[Atman, afterwards called

Brahman).

And

here

it

may

be noted that Philosophical

'

Brahmanism was not philosophy in the European sense of the word. It was no mere search for truth, for truth's sake. Nor It was rather a form of mystical religious speculation. was it an expression of the soul's desire to be released from the burden of sin. It was rather an inquiry into the best method of its escape from transmigration the dread of con;

tinued

metempsychosis

being the

one

haunting

thought
If

which colours the whole texture of Indian philosophy.

Philosophical Brahmanisin,
an Indian metaphysician sets himself to
inquire
into

27
the

nature of spirit and matter, and their relation to each other,

his

investigations are

sure to be

conducted with the sole

object of liberating the spirit of

man from
reuniting

the bondage of
it

repeated

earthly existence, and

is

with the one

Universal Spirit as a river

called
right

reunited with the ocean.

(jfiana).

This

is

the way of knowledge

This constitutes the

measure (prama) of

all difficulties.

This

is

the

summum
?
i

bonum

(nihsreyasa) of Brahmanical philosophy.

articles of a

What, then, are the

Hindu

philosopher's creed
Spirit^
is

Most Hindii thinkers agree that the one

both retrospectively and prospectively.

eternal,

The

Spirit of
all

God

and the

spirit of

man must have

to exist.

existed from

eternity

and must continue

distinct
;

so says the Vedantist

Self

The two spirits are not really The living spirit of man (jiva)
is

the

human

(Atman)

identical with God's

Spirit.

It is that

Spirit limited

and personalized by the power of

is

Illusion

and the

life

of every living spirit

nothing but an

infinitesimal arc of the

one endless

circle

of infinite existence.
is

Again, Hindu philosophers agree that the mind (manas)

distinct
It is

from the

spirit.

Mind

is

not eternal in the

same way.
five

an internal organ of the body, standing between the

five

organs of perception and the

organs of action, connected

with both, receiving the impressions conveyed by both, and

directing both through the exercise of volition.

To

the mind

appertains the faculties of perception (buddhi), volition (sankalpa, vikalpa), self-consciousness and thought, and the spirit

cannot possess these, unless joined to mind and invested with

a bodily covering or vehicle.

And
^

of actual bodily coverings there are two (though the

It

is

generally better to translate the philosophical terms

'

Atman,

Brahman, and Purusha by

expression
'
'

spirit

'

rather than by

'

soul,'

because the

soul is Hable to convey the idea of thinking and feeling, whereas pure Atman, Brahman, and Purusha neither think, nor feel, nor are conscious. The translation Self is not universally suitable.
'

28

Philosophical Brahmanism.
^)
:

Vedanta system reckons three

(h'riga

first,
^),

the

subtle

body

or

sukshma-sarira or

ativahika

which incloses a
a living individual
it

portion of the universal spirit in three sheaths (kosha), cognitional, sensorial,

and

aerial, constituting

it

personal

spirit

(jivatman),
till,

and carrying
its

through
its

all

its

corporeal migrations,
its

on

reunion with
;

source, even

subtle

body becomes

extinct

secondly, the

gross

body
is

(sthula-sarira),

which surrounds the subtle

vehicle,

and

of

various forms in the various conditions of existence through

animate or inanim.ate, organic or inorganic

life.

And mark
earthly,

that this gross

body

is

of three kinds

divine,

and intermediate

the intermediate being that peculiar

spirit receives, after

frame which the departed

the earthly gross

the burning of

body and during the

interval preceding the

assumption of another gross body.

(called preta-sarira,
cally,
'

This intermediate body

or,

the departed man's body,'

serves, as
it

philosophiclothe

Adhishthana-deha)
spirit

were, to

the

departed

during

its

several residences in the world of

It is of

departed

spirits (pitri-loka).

the same nature, though

to the gods
;

inferior to the divine

body which belongs

and

it

should be noted that this divine intermediate body

is

really

composed of gross
spirit

(sthula) particles,

though of a more ethereal

substance than the earthly body.

Without

it

the departed

would have no vehicle but the subtle body, and would

bliss or suffering

be incapable of enjoying

misery
all

in the

tem-

porary paradise, or purgatory^, through which

the departed

have to pass before returning to earth (see pp. 292-294).

And be

it

noted that the union of

is

spirit

with a succession

of bodily forms

dreaded as the worst form of bondage.

^ In the Vedanta system there are three bodily coverings, the Causal body (Karana-sarira) coming first but this is merely another name for Ajhana (see p. 35), and can scarcely be regarded as a material substance. ^ Its minuteness is denoted by its being described as 'of the size of a thumb (ahgushtha-matra), though some apply this expression to the
;
'

intermediate body.
^

The heaven and

hell of

orthodox Brahmanism are only temporary.

Philosophical Brahmanism.

29
good

The

spirit,

so united,

commences

acting,

and

all actions,

or bad, lead to consequences, and these consequences must It is on this have their adequate rewards or punishments.

account that the departed

to

spirit
hells.

must of necessity be removed

temporary heavens or

Thence
till

it

must migrate

into
its

higher, intermediate, and lower earthly forms, according to

various degrees of merit or demerit,

it

attains the great

end

entire emancipation from the bondage of repeated bodily

and reabsorption into the one
world,
Spirit of the Universe.
is
it

existence,

With regard to the external every Hindu philosopher that

nihil

a fixed

dogma

of
'

Ndvastimo

vastii-siddJiiJi

there

cannot be the production of something out of nothing [ex nihilo

fit).

Therefore, the external world

it is

is

eternal,

though

according to one view,

evolved out of an eternally existing

productive germ united to eternally existing individual spirits

and according to another,

from
all

it is

evolved out of the Illusion which

eternity overspreads the one eternal Spirit, though

real existence.

having no

These two theories

in regard to the

creation or evolution of the

world the

first in

the Sarikhya, the

second

in

the Vedanta system

are both of great antiquity.

hymns.

The
is

first

shadowing forth of the mystery of the creation of

male and female, and of the living world through their union,
traceable in

some

of the Vedic
4),

The well-known

hymn
first
'

of the Rig-veda (X. 129.

in that

already quoted, asserts that

One Being

arose Desire, which was the primal

wise, searching out
in

germ

of Mind,

and which the

their

thoughts, discovered to be the subtle bond connecting Nonentity with Entity.'

Again, the Satapatha-brahmana (XIV.

Brihad-aranyaka Upanishad
(I.

4.

2.

4,

etc.)

and

3)

declare that

'the

One

Being was not happy, being alone.

He
her,

wished

for a second.

He

caused his

own

nature to

fall

in twain,

and thus became

husband and

wife.

He

approached

and thus were human

beings produced' (see p. 182).

In this latter passage

is

the

first

clear statement of a duality

30

Philosophical Brahmanism,

in the divine unity

an

idea which took root in the

Hindu

mind quite

as strongly as the doctrine of a Triad (Tri-murti)

did in the minds of later thinkers

an

idea, too,

which had

been adumbrated

in the

supposed marriage of Heaven and

Earth

for the production of gods,

men, and

all

creatures.

The

idea was
I.

expanded
There

in
it

the
is

mythical cosmogony of

Manu, Book
Self-existent

5, etc.

said that the universe first

in sleep.

existed only in darkness as

if

immersed
still

Then the
(A-vyakta),

(Svayam-bhu)

undeveloped

having willed to produce various beings from his own substance,

first

with a mere thought created the waters, and

(bija.).

placed on them a productive seed or Q:gg

himself was born in that Qgg in the form of Brahma.

Then he Next

he caused the

o^gg to divide itself,

and out of

its

two divisions
Afterwards,

framed the heaven above and the earth beneath.

having divided his
female
(I.

own

substance, he

became

half male, half

32),

and from that female produced Viraj, from

whom was
beings.

created

Manu, the secondary progenitor of

five

all

The
;

order of creation of the

elements

is,

i.

Ether

(Akasa)
(Apah,

2.

Air (Vayu)
5.

3.

Fire (Tejas or Jyotis)

4.

Water

pi.);

Earth (Prithivl or Bhumi); but these were profive subtle

duced from a previous creation of

matra).

elements (tanfirst.

The Nyaya-sutra
in

reverses the order, placing Earth

So again

the

Sahkhya philosophy, there

are two eternally

existing principles
is

the Producer and the

it

Spirit.

The former
is

an eternal procreant germ or Creative Force which

produces (root
kri)

called

Pra-kriti (fem.), because

twenty-three pro-

ducts

these twenty-three, with the Producer, being called the

It is also called

twenty-four Tattvas.

Pradhana, because

it is

the fixed material cause of everything except the Spirit

is

which

the twenty-fifth Tattva.

The

infinitely subtle
is

elementary

germ, Prakriti or Pradhana, though one,

supposed to be made

up of a

triad of co-eternal primordial substances or essences in

equipoise (samya).

These are

called Gunas, but they are not

qualities result

properly

'

qualities,'

though certain

from them.

Philosophical Brahmanism.

31

The term Guna simply denotes

that these constituent essences

of Prakriti act Hke cords to bind the spirit with triple bonds.

They

are, i. Sattva,

'

purity

'

or goodness
'

'

2.

Rajas, passion
'

'

or 'activity;' and

3.

times regarded as
rance, or denoted

Tamas, 'darkness' or 'apathy;' someequivalent to happiness, pain, and ignowhite, red, and black respectively.

by

The

Spirit

or second

eternally existing

principle

called
it

Purusha (the Male or

produce anything.
able,

Self) is not, like Prakriti, one;

nor does

It is

multitudinous.

Spirits are

innumer-

each separate Spirit being co-eternal with Prakriti, but

doing nothing and creating nothing.

When human
is

beings or

any other beings are created, the creation

through evolution out of Prakriti, which

always effected
nevertheless a

is

merely blind and dark force

no creation

at all being

apparent
eter-

unless this force brings itself into union with nally existing separate Spirit.

some one

Prakriti, in short, unites itself

it

with a Spirit or Self and binds

the three above-named Gunas
reflect
^

with the triple bond of

in order that this Spirit

may

the evolved world as a clear river reflects dark trees,

while they darken

the river, or as

bright

crystal vase

illumines a flower, while the flower colours the crystal.

The

first

step in the evolution out of Prakriti

is

the pro-

duction of Intellect or intelligent perception (Buddhi).

Next

comes the faculty of Self-consciousness or personality, called

the I-maker (Aham-kara), and then the five subtle and five
gross elements, the latter being the product of the former.

Last

in

the series

come

the five organs of perception, the five

organs of action and the internal organ, mind (Manas), which

holds a position between the ten other organs, mediating

between them as an instrument of volition between perception

and action^.
These, with the Spirit (Purusha), constitute the
twenty-five principles (Tattvas) of the Saiikhya system.
^

The

Spirit before its association

with these Gunas

'

is

called

Nirguna

and when bound by them, Saguna. ^ In this and in the Nyaya system Buddhi,

intellect,' is

anterior

and

2,2

Philosophical Brahmanism.
point
is

The noteworthy
will,

that self-consciousness, cognition,

to the creative force Prakriti

and thought do not belong

its

and

creations, Intellect, the I-maker,

Aharn-kara, Manas, which together

and Mind (Buddhi, make up Antahkarana)

when

existing separately, nor to a Spirit (Purusha)

when ex-

isting separately,

but only to the two when united, or to the

Spirit.

Antahkarana illuminated by a

In short, two factors

the

active, creative

but blind force, and the inactive, passive

but illuminating

spirit

must come

together before there can

be even any self-consciousness or sense of personality.

yet the creation
is

And

not supposed to take place for the sake

it

of the two together, but only that

may be

illuminated and

observed by each separate individual

theless
is

spirit or soul,

which neverto confuse

a wholly apathetic, isolated, and indifferent spectator

It is clear

of the act.

from

this

how easy

it

became

Purusha with Prakriti and to regard either the one or the other
or the union of both as the source of the external world
^.

Of

course

when any being

is

created the three primordial

essences, Purity, Passion,

and Darkness, are no longer equally

germ, Prakriti.
Creation

balanced as they are

is

in the creative

a result of the disturbance of this equilibrium.

is

One

or

other quality

then

in excess,

making a being

unselfish

and

good,

selfish

and energetic,

bestial

and ignorant, according as

to preponderate.

purity, passion, or darkness

I

may happen
this

need not point out that

remarkable theory of innu-

is merely the instrument of thought. governs the mind, and causes it to decide. Manu's theory is a combination of Sankhya and Vedanta. In Book I. 14, etc. it is said that Brahma, when born from the ^^% deposited by the Self-existent, drew out the external world from pure spirit (Atman). The first product was the principle of thought (Manas = Buddhi or Mahat). Next came Personality (Ahaip-kara), and then the seven subtle elements (Tanmatras). From these seven active principles (called the seven Purushas,'

superior to Manas, 'mind,' which

It

'

I.

19)

viz,

Mahat

or Buddhi (called

Manas

and the

elements were evolved in the five gross or material elements {viahd-bhfita), the organs of sense, and the whole world of sense. ^ Professor A. E. Gough in his 'Philosophy of the Upanishads has thrown great light on the Sankhya and Vedanta systems.
five subtle
'

in I. 14, 74, 75),

Aham-kara,

Philosophical
merable personal creations
not without
its

Brahmanism.
sake of Individual

33
spirits is

for the

counterpart in European systems ^

In India

the Idea of a separate spiritual force combining with a pri-

mordial material force for the creation of

all

things was, as

we have seen, of great antiquity.

metaphysical
subtleties

And
It

notwithstanding the

with which

was connected, the

or

notion of a universe proceeding from a male principle

generator, and a female principle regarded as an energy or

capacity (sakti),

commended

itself

to the popular

mind
all

as

harmonizing with the operations and phenomena everywhere

apparent
India
in nature.

To

this

day

it

is

symbolized

over
(In

by temples dedicated

to the

male and female sex

the union

of the sexual symbols called Lihga and Yoni).

It is clear that in

such a system there can be no need for the

existence of any supreme Spirit as distinct from the personal

spirit,

even though such a supreme Being be theoretically

in the

admitted (as

Yoga branch

of the Saiikhya).

The
is

so-called pantheistic theory of the

Vedanta philosophy
It

even more attractive to the majority of Hindu thinkers.

true that both the Sarikhya
;

is

and Vedanta together underlie

Is,

Brahmanism

but the Vedanta

so

to speak, the latest

revelation of the Veda, teaching the non-duality and nonplurality of Spirit

Spirit called

that

is,

the real existence of only one

see p. 43)

Atman^ (nom. Atma)or Brahman (nom. Brahma, instead of many; the separation of human spirits
phenomena of nature from that one Spirit being when it is enveloped in Illusion. In other
all

and of

all

the

only effected

words, the separate existence of man's spirit and of

natural

phenomena
of the

is

only
Is

illusory.

This doctrine

said to rest

on another well-known

hymn
and
Is

Veda
be
'

(X. 90) called the Purusha-sukta.

is

There the
17),

one embodied Spirit

said
^

called

Purusha
is,

(see p.

to

everything, whatever

has

been,

and

shall

The Safikhya has much in common with the IdeaHsm of Berkeley. One etymology given for Atman is an^ to breathe.' Compare p, 20.
'


34
be.'

Philosophical BraJi7nanism.

The same

doctrine

is

briefly

formulated

in

three
in

words (from the Chandogya Upanishad) used as a creed

the present day
sects

by

Indian Theistic as well as Pantheistic

'

Ekain eva advitiyain^ a second.' Nothing really

Spirit, called

there

is

but one Being, without

exists

but the one impersonal

Atma
is

or

Brahma
it

(=:Purusha).

Brahma
is

is real,

the world
it

is

an

illusion

(Brahma satyarn Jagan mithya). From

everything breathes and
dissolved
it,

everything

born, in

(tajjalan).
is

That

Spirit, in the illusion

which overspreads

to the external world

what yarn
;

is

to cloth,

what milk
^.

is

to

curds,

what clay

is

to a jar

but only

in that illusion

As
one

ether contained in various vessels, and as the sun reflected on various mirrors,
is

one but apparently many, so the

potter

spirit is

and many.

The

by

the help of clay makes various

pots, but the Spirit itself evolves its

own

various forms.

As an
This
absois

actor paints his

body with colours and assumes various forms,

so the Spirit assumes the bodies caused

self-existent, eternal,

by
or

its

deeds.
is

impersonal

Atma

Brahma

lutely

One

(unlike the
;

Sahkhyan
is

Spirit or Purusha,

which

multitudinous)

yet

it

made up

of a triad of essences

to wit, pure Existence (Sat), pure

Thought (Cit) ^5 and pure Bliss (Ananda), and It may assume three bodily envelopes and three conditions or Gunas (p. "^6). And here let me observe that more than one Christian writer has compared this tri-unity of Entities with the Trini-

tarian doctrine of

God

the Father,

who

Is

the Author of
all

all

Existence

God
;

the Son,

who

is

the Source of
Spirit,

Wisdom
because,

and Knowledge
of
all

and God the Holy

It Is

who
In

is

the Source'
;

Joy.

But

a mistake so to compare
Is

It

with the Vedantist,

Brahma

only Existence

the negation]

He
Cit,

is

the illusory
'^

not the actual material cause of the world as clay of a jar, but vc\.2X^r\7A cause as a rope might be of a snake see p. 37,1. 14.
;

'pure thought,' or

its

equivalent Caitanya,

is

often used alone for

Brahma, the one

is

Self-existent Being.

Sat

may

also be so used.

Brahma

also described in the

Upanishads as Truth, Knowledge,

Infinity.

PJiilosophical Brahrnanism.
of non-existence,

35
of non-

only Thought

in

the

negation

thought, only Bliss in the negation of non-bliss and in freedom

from the miseries incident to

life

and transmigration.
is

When
when when
it it

this

impersonal Spirit

which

without self-conis,

sciousness

assumes

consciousness of a personal self; that

itself,

begins to exist in anything external to

and

begins to think about anything or be joyful about

itself

anything besides

it

does so by the power of Illusion

with three corporeal envelopes.
identified with Ajfiana

(Maya) and by investing

First, the causal

itself

body (karana-sarira)

or Ignorance (Illusion)^; secondly, the subtle

sarira)
;

body (lihgabody (sthula-sarira). In this way and thirdly, the gross

is

the impersonal Spirit

converted into a personal

God who

can be worshipped, and so becomes the Supreme Lord (Isvara,

Paramesvara) and creator of a world of illusion.

however,
it

To be accurate,

should be stated that the Vedanta theory makes

the assumption of these three bodies involve the assumption

of three distinct mystical personalities, each of which
is

sup-

posed to invest a particular condition of

first

spirit.

Thus, with the

or causal

body, the impersonal Spirit

to

becomes the
represent
;

Supreme Lord, Paramesvara, supposed

and

embody
garbha

the mystical totality of dreamless spirits

with the

second or subtle body the impersonal Spirit becomes Hiranya(or

Sutratman, or Prana), supposed to represent the

with the third or gross body

aggregate of dreaming spirits (connecting them like the Sutra

or thread of a necklace)
;

it

becomes Viraj
to represent

(or Vaisvanara, Praja-pati, Purusha),

supposed
spirits

and embody the aggregate of waking

spirit

(compare

p. 28).

This third condition of

or that of being wide awake,

The Karana-sarira

is

not only identified with Ignorance (Ajnana or

Avidya), but also with Illusion (Maya).

It is, therefore, no real body. Both Ignorance and Illusion together cause the separation of the personal supreme Spirit and the personal human Spirit from the one impersonal

Spirit.

In the same

way they

are the cause of every existing thing.

^)6

Philosophical

Brahmanism.
state, is

though with us considered to be the highest

from pure impersonalized
lying
all

by Hindu

philosophers held to be the lowest, because farthest removed

Spirit.

In
is

fact,

beyond and underitself.

three conditions of spirit

the fourth (turlya) or pure

unconditioned, unembodied, impersonal Spirit (Brahma)

Of

course these hyper-subtleties are beyond the scope of

;

ordinary philosophic thought

but they show

how

great

is

the difference between the Pantheism of India and that of

Europe.

A Vedantist

believes in one impersonal Spirit, who,

by

association with Illusion,

becomes the one Supreme per-

sonal
this

God (Paramesvara) of the world (of illusion). And it is personal God who, when he engages in the creation,
is

preservation, and dissolution of an illusory Universe,

called

Sa-guna because believed to be associated with the three

Gunas which are held

^.

to be substances (dravya) and are the

his causal

supposed constituents of

body, identified, as

it

is,

with Ignorance These three Gunas are the same as those which in the Sankhyan system are the constituent essences or
ingredients of Prakriti, resulting in the three conditions of
Activity, Goodness,

and Apathy called Rajas, Sattva, Tamas^.

as those

They

are the

same

which

in the later doctrine of the

Puranas separate the one Supreme Being into the three divine
personalities of
Siva, each

Brahma (nom.

case masc), Vishnu,

and Rudra-

accompanied by

his

own

consort^.

Dominated by Activity (Rajas), the one Universal Spirit is Brahma, the Creator by Goodness (Sattva), it is Vishnu, the
;

Preserver
^

by

Indifference (Tamas),

it is

Rudra, the Dissolver.

In other words, the Karana-sarira

therefore

made up

of the three

Gunas

consisting of Ignorance, and the illusory corporeal disguise

is

bond of the impersonal Spirit Brahma, by which it becomes the personal God Paramesvara. ^ See top of These Gunas of activity, goodness, and apathy are p. 31.
(upadhi), or investing envelope, or triple

not properly identical with the so-called qualities, but are rather constituent substances or essences or ingredients,

though they

may

result in

such
'*

qualities.

In the later mythology the term Sakti, 'active energy' (rather than
Prakriti,

Maya,

and Ajhanaj,

is

used for the female half of the personal God.

Philosophical Brahmanism.
Pure Vedantism, then,
Spirit
is

2)7

not only a belief in one impersonal

It is

made up

of three abstract essences.

a belief that

a kind of threefold triad of essences

essences, three

to

wit, three spiritual

corporeal

envelopes, and

three

dominating

conditions or qualities

together constitute one personal God,

same time every human
personality.

while constituting at the

It is

by

reason, then, of association with Illusion or Ignor-

ance (made up of the three Gunas or Conditions), that the

Supreme

Spirit

(Paramatman) enshrined
spirit

in the personal
in

God,

and the living man, believe

world for

(jivatman) enshrined

the personal
it

in their

own

individuality, mistaking

and the

realities, just as

a rope in a dark night might be the personalized spirit sets

its

mistaken for a snake.

free

When

itself

from the power of Illusion the consciousness of

impersonal

own
is

identity and of the identity of the whole universe with the

one

Spirit,

(Atman=: Paramatman, Brahma),

re-established.
held, like the
all eternity,

Strange to say, this Illusion or Ignorance

is

one eternal Brahma ^, to have an existence from

is

though, owing to the fact that such existence

too^
it

unreal,

and the whole evolved world unreal

is

follows

that nothing really existent

left

but Brahma.

In other

words,
In

all

that really exists

is

identical with

Brahma.

fact,

the

more evidently

physical

and metaphysical

speculations are opposed to

common

sense, the

more favour
sense

do they find with some Hindu thinkers.

tells

Common

an Englishman that he really exists himself, and that

everything he sees around him really exists also.

He

cannot

abandon these two primary convictions.

Vedantist.

Not

so the

Hindu
sense,

Dualism

is

his

bugbear, and

common

when

it

maintains any kind of real duality, either the separate

independent existence of a man's

Spirit or of spirit
^

own

Spirit

and of God's

and matter,

is

guilty of gross deception.

eternity.'

Maya-did-yogo 'nadih, 'the union of Cit (p. 34) and Maya is from all See Professor Cough's able and instructive articles on the Philosophy of the Upanishads.

PJdlosophical Brahmanism,
yet, after
is

And
present,

all,

when the Vedantist

it

theory, as held at

closely examined,

turns out to be virtually as

;

dualistic, in

regard to spirit and matter, as the Sankhya

the only difference being that the source of the

material

world (Prakriti)

in

the Sankhya

is

held to have a real existence

(though one of

its

names

illusory existence \

is still Maya) instead of a merely Brahma and Maya (Illusion) in the

Vedanta, Purusha and Prakriti (Maya)

in the

Sankhya, must
is

be united

in

the act of creation.

The

external world

the

product of two principles (which some compare to

ledge and Ignorance, Light and Darkness).
ference between the

Know-

The

chief dif-

two systems

lies in

the unity of Spirit

taught by the Vedanta, as distinguished from the plurality

of spirits taught

by the Sankhya.
virtually believes in three conditions of
;

Yet the Vedantist

affirms that the

being, viz. the real, the practical, and the illusory

for while

he

one Spirit Brahma alone has a

real

(paramar-

thika) existence, he allows a practical (vyavaharika) separate

existence to

human

spirits, to

the world, and to the personal

God
it

or gods, as well as an illusory (pratibhasika) existence.

object
it
;

Hence every
god
as

is

to be dealt with practically as

if

were really what

;

appears to be.
a beast, a beast

A god
;

is

practically a

a man, a

man

feeds a horse he does not feed

an animal kept for

riding.

so that when a man him as a portion of God, but The Vedanta theory, like the

Sankhya, has taken deep root

of both
is

in the Indian

mind.

A mixture

the source of the popular religion and mythology of

the Hindils.

Both permeate
and

their literature

and give a colour

to every thought
^

feeling of their daily lives.

is

Perhaps the only true monistic theory

calls
'

that of the Buddhist,

who

affirms that nothing exists but the self-creative Universe, which, however,

he also
vadl,
vadl,

affirms that

Maya, Illusion.' A Vedantist is Brahma-vadI, 'one who Brahma " Spirit " is the only reality a Buddhist is Siinya'one who affirms a blank for God;' and a Sankhya is Pradhana'one who affirms that all material things proceed from Pradhana
; '

(Prakriti).'

Philosophical Brahmanism.

39

And

hence

it

is

not difficult to understand

is

how

a people

imbued with the idea that the world

neglected
all

an

illusion

should have

historical

investigations.
in

No

such thing as

genuine history or biography exists

Historical researches are to a

Sanskrit literature.
foolishness.

Hindu simple

The

third philosophical system, called

Nyaya

or

the act

of going into

any subject analytically (opposed

to Saiikhya

or synthetic enumeration)
religion

is

not so closely connected with

and metaphysical speculation as the Saiikhya and

Vedanta.

Yet

it

offers

more

interesting parallels to
ideas.
It
is

European
studied
in

philosophical and

scientific

much

modern Sanskrit schools

into all the objects

of learning, as an analytical inquiry

in-

and subjects of human knowledge,

cluding,

among

others, the process of reasoning

and

logic.

In regard to the subject of reasoning, the

I

Nyaya
is

proper, as
in its

have shown

in

'Indian

Wisdom'
first

(p. 72),

propounds

first
is,

Sutra sixteen topics, the

of which

Pramana, that
right

the means or instrument

by which knowledge or the

is

measure (prama or pramiti) of a subject

to be obtained.

The means

are four, viz. perception

;

by the senses (pratyaksha)

;

inference (anumana)

comparison (upamana)

verbal or trust-

worthy authority (sabda or aptopadesa), including revelation ^

Of these four processes, 'inference' is divided into five members (avayava). i. The pratijiia, or proposition (stated 2. The hetu, or reason. The udahypothetically). 3. harana, or example ( = major premiss). 4. The upanaya, or application of the reason ( = minor premiss). 5. The nigamana, or conclusion,
i.

e.

the proposition re-stated as proved.

fire
;

Thus
5.

I.

The
fire,

hill

has

2.

for

it

smokes
4.

3.
hill

whatever

smokes has

as
hill

a kitchen-hearth
has
fire.

this

smokes

therefore this
^

The Sahkhya

rightly includes the third of the four

Pramanas

in the

second, and the Vedanta adds two others to the four,

(an-upalabdhi, abhava)

viz.

negative proof
(arthapatti).

and inference from circumstances

The Vaiseshika

includes both the third and fourth in the second.

40

Philosophical Brahmanisin.

syllogism, which

Here we have a clumsy combination of enthymeme and must be regarded not as a syllogism, but
full rhetorical

rather as a

statement of an argument.
in

The most
stamping
is
it

noticeable peculiarity

the

Indian method,

as an original analysis of the laws of thought,

'

the employment of the terms

'

invariable concomitance
'

or pervasion
'

(vyapti),
'

'

invariable pervader

(vyapaka), and

invariably pervaded

(vyapya).
is

Fire

is

the pervader,
:

smoke

the pervaded.

The argument

thus stated
;

'

The mountain
has
fire.'

has invariably fire-pervaded smoke

therefore

it

The Nyaya, like the Sahkhya, believes the individual spirits of men (jivatman) to be eternal, manifold, eternally separate
from each other, distinct from the body, senses, and mind,

and

infinite.

A peculiar tenet of the Nyaya

is

is

that spirits are

ubiquitous, and dijftised everywhere ihrotighotU space^ so that a man's spirit

it

as

much

in

England
feel,

as in Calcutta,
act,

though

can only apprehend, and

be.

and

where the body

an internal

happens to

Its idea of the

mind (manas), which

is

it

calls

in-

strument or organ,
as the spirit.
like spirit,
it is

that

it is

a substance (dravya) as eternal

Instead, however, of being diftiised everywhere

atomic, like earth, water,

fire,

and

air,

and can
It is

only admit one perception or act of volition at a time.

simply an eternal insentient substance,

In
its

like

an atom of earth.

cosmogony the Nyaya

is

dualistic in

assuming the

existence of ete^'nal atoms^ side

by

side with eternal spirits.

Atoms

are not like Prakriti one, but innumerable.

We

know

that the true

Sahkhya

(as distinct

from the

Yoga) recognized no Supreme

Spirit.

Probably the true

In any case

Nyaya was

in this

respect like the Sahkhya.

neither of these systems admits the absolute unity of one all-

pervading Spirit.
Spirit at
all, it

If they

acknowledge a Supreme presiding

can only be as forming one of innumerable

other spirits
(in

though superior to themand as co-eternal and

Nyaya)
as co-omnipresent with them.

the case of the


Mythological or Polytheistic Brahmanism.
41

The
of
its

foregoing three systems, with their sub-systems, con-

stitute the philosophical

phase of Brahmanism.

Clearly one

men to abstain from action of every kind, good or bad as much from liking as disliking, as much from loving as hating. The whole external world is an illusion. Actions and feelings are a mistake. They are the fetters of
aims
is

to teach

the soul which bind

it

with bonds of iron to continual bodies.

is

Transmigration or Metempsychosis
the terrible nightmare and

the great bugbear

daymare of Indian philosophers

'As the embodied
soul,'

and metaphysicians.

All their efforts are directed to the

removal of this oppressive scare.

says the Bhagavad-gita,
'

moves

swiftly

on through boyhood,

youth, and age, so will

it

pass through other forms hereafter.'

spirit
is

For although the human

Supreme, yet while
sins
it

really

one with the

it

continues in ignorance
rid of

may commit
births.

which

it

must get

by expiatory

rites (prayascitta)

or

by passing through purgatorial hells and successive Even virtuous acts involve heaven and re-births.

The

question, therefore,
is
:

is

not

What

is

truth

The one
?

problem

How is a man

to break this iron chain of repeated

existences,

and

to shake off all separate personality

How

is

he to return to complete union with (sayujya) pure Spirit?

Or,
if

this object

be beyond his reach, how

is

he to work his

way through

8,400,000 successive births to any one of the

three inferior conditions of bliss

i.

living in the
2.

(salokya) with the personal

God

close proximity to

same heaven him

(samipya);

3.

assimilation to his likeness (sariapya)?

Mythological or Polytheistic Brah77ianism.

Brahmanism has for its bible the two great legendary heroic poems (Itihasa) Maha-bharata and Ramayana, and in later times the Puraiias. Its development was probably synchronous with that of
or Polytheistic phase of

The Mythological

Buddhism.

42

Mythological
Buddhism,

07^

Polytheistic

Brahmanism.
disbelief

like philosophical

Brahmanism, was a

in the efficacy of ritual to secure beatitude, and, like

it,

taught

the uselessness of sacrificial ceremonies and even of austerities

for the

attainment of true knowledge, which was only to be

obtained through self-introspection, abstract meditation, and

suppression of
all desires.

It substituted

a blank for

God

it

denied the existence of a separate

spirit,

and of everything
heavens, and hells,

but body, mind, and sensations

earth,

which, according to the Buddha, are always, through the force

of works, tending to disintegration and re-integration in per-

petual cycles.

But while Buddhism repudiated

founder
Its

priestcraft,

it

founded a monastic brotherhood and supplied the people with

an object of veneration
'

in its

Gautama

who was styled

in a great

the Enlightened

'

(Buddha).

propagation was

measure due to the reverence which the Buddha inspired by

his

own

personal character.

He was
in

the ideal

man

the perfection
effecfaith.

of humanity.
tively.

He

practised faithfully

what he preached

Adherents gathered

crowds around his person, and

Gautama

himself became the real god of his

own popular
charity,

Everywhere throughout India thousands were drawn towards

his teaching.

His doctrines of universal

liberty,

equality,

and fraternity were

irresistibly attractive.

The only
in in-

hope of competing with the Buddhistic movement lay

venting

human gods and

a religious system equally attractive,

equally popular, equally suited to the needs and capacities

of the mass of the people.

In
their

all

probability the

Brahmans commenced popularizing

about the
time of the
rise

pantheistic

doctrines

of

Buddhism

in the fifth

century B.C.

The Buddha

died, and,

became personally annihilated, but the remains of his body were enshrined as relics in various parts of India, and his memory was worshipped Of course as devotedly as his person had once been revered. found no real Hindus the religious instincts of the mass of the satisfaction in the propitiation of the forces of nature and
according to his
teaching,

own

MytJiological or Polytheistic
spirits of

Drahmanism,

43

the

air,

or in the cold philosophy of pantheism, or in

homage paid to the memory of a teacher held to be nowhere They needed devotion (bhakti) to personal and existent. human gods, and these they were led to find in their own The Ramayana and Maha-bharata represent the use heroes. made by the Brahmans of the martial songs of the people, as well as of their local legends, traditions and superstitions. The
principal heroes,

whose achievements were the subject of

underwent a process of
deification.

epic

song and

recitation,

The

great warrior dynasties were

made

to trace

back

their origin,

through Brahmanical sages, to the sun-god and the moon-god. Myths and stories confirmatory of the divine origin of every
great hero were invented and inserted into the

body

of the

poems.

In this manner a kind of anthropomorphic religion,

well adapted to the popular mind,

was devised.

Nor was any

amount

of anthropomorphism, polytheism, polydemonism, and

even fetishism incompatible with pantheistic doctrines.

The

Brahmans
their

in their

popular teaching were simply carrying out

own

doctrine of evolution.
:

they set themselves to solve was

The only problem which how could their theory be

mythology ?
only real exist-

made to adapt

itself to

existing superstitions and be accepted

as consistent with all the ideas of a popular

Nothing, then, was easier for them than to maintain that

the one sole, self-existing
ing Essence, exercises

Supreme
as
if

Spirit, the

itself,

sportively (lilaya), in Infinite

itself,

expansion, in infinite manifestations of

tion,

In Infinite crea-

dissolution, and re-creation, through

diversities of operation.
'

Infinite
'

varieties
'

and

The very name Brahma

to increase
'),

(de-

rived from the root brih,

given to this

one

eternal Essence, was expressive of this growth, this expansive

power, this universal development and diffusion.

Hence

all visible

forms on earth, said the Brahmans, are

like

emanations from the one eternal Entity,

ocean, like sparks from
trees,
fire.

drops from an

Stones, mountains, rivers, plants,

and animals

all

these are traceable upwards as pro-

44

MytJwlogical or Polytheistic Brahmanism.

steps
in

gressive

the

infinite
is

evolution of his being.

The

highest

earthly emanation
in

man, and the emanation of

men
a

is

classes

and

also traceable

upwards according to
being
that
of

graduated

scale,

the

highest

class

the

Brahmans.
Fitly, too, are the highest

human
:

manifestations of the

eternal

Brahma

called

Brahmans

for

they are the appointed

mediators between earth and God.

None

of these emana-

tions can alter their condition in each separate state.

But ac-

cording to their acts, they

may

pass into temporary heavens

or hells, and thence into higher or lower grades of being.

For be

it

observed that a series of higher forms of existence

above that of human beings, such as demigods, supernatural

beings, inferior gods, superior gods,
is

traceable upwards from

man

to the primeval

male god Brahma

the

first

personal

product of the purely spiritual

Maya

or illusory creative force

Brahma when overspread by this male god Brahma standfirst

ing at the head of the so-called creation as the

evolution
(sGf^T^ote,

out of which
p>..2^

all

other beings and objects are evolved

line of separation

To draw any

between stocks, stones,

is,

plants, animals,

men, demigods, and gods

according to the
are all liable to
is

theory of Brahmanism, impossible.

pass into each other
to be
^.

They
of gods

The number
I

popularly said
this stated in

330 millions, though

(cf. p. 10).

have not found

any ancient text

But the

act of creation or evolution involves the

two other

acts of maintenance of being

and disintegration. Hence the god

Brahma

is

associated with two other personal deities, Vishnu,

the Preserver, and Rudra-Siva, the Dissolver and Reproducer.

These three gods, concerned

integration
(or

in

the threefold operation of

evolution),

maintenance, and disintegration

{srishti-sthiti-laya), are typified

by the three

letters
letters

composing
originally

the mystic syllable

Om

(AUM),

three

^ The whole series of evolutions is sometimes spoken of as Brahmadistamba-paryantam, extending from Brahma to a stump (or tuft of grass).


Mythological ^r Polytheistic Brahmanism.

45

typical of the earlier Vedic triad (wrongly called a trinity),

and, in the mysticism of the Upanishads, of three personalizations of the Universal Spirit (Paramesvara, Hiranya-garbha,

and Viraj
deities

^).

Like the

earlier

Vedic gods, the three

later

were not only personifications of the three forces of

integration, disintegration,

and reintegration.

They probably
Water or
(p. 10).

symbolized three principal objects

in nature, Earth,

Sun, and Fire; or the three worlds, Earth, Air, and Sky; or
the three forms of matter, Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous

They

constitute the well-known Tri-murti, or triad of forms

like those of

which characterizes Hinduism, and their bodies,

human

beings, are

composed of gross material

particles

though

of a divine and ethereal character (see p. 28).

These three
Spirit

deities, too, are often, as

we have seen, connected

highest state the one
It is

with the Gunas of philosophy.

is

In

its

Nirguna, 'devoid of

all

conditions or qualities.'

only when dominated by either activity or goodness or apathy

that the impersonal Spirit

becomes

either

Brahma, the Evolver,

'^6).

or Vishnu, the Preserver, or Siva, the Dissolver (see p.

Properly, according to the true theory of Brahmanism, no

one of these three ought to take precedence over the other

two.

They

are equal, and their functions are sometimes inter-

may become the Supreme Lord (Paramesvara), and each may take the place of the
changeable, so that each in turn
other, according to the sentiment expressed

by the

greatest of

Indian poets, Kalidasa (Kumara-sambhava, Griffith, VII. 44):

In those three Persons the one God was shown Each first in place, each last not one alone Of Siva, Vishnu, Brahma, each may be First, second, third, among the blessed Three.

There

is

a well-known Trwnurti sculptured out of the rock

Elephanta, at Bombay.

in the caves of

Three majestic heads

^ See pp. 14, 35, and Mandukya Upanishad, which makes the whole monosyllable stand for the impersonal Brahma. According to some A stands for Vishnu, V for Siva, and for Brahma.

Om


46
Mythological or Polytheistic Brahmanism,
springing out
of one body.

are represented

The

triangle

(TiHkond)

is

also used to symbolize this triune co-equality.

In the later mythology this

difference in
illustrated

co-equality was denied, the

the characters of the three gods being well

story from the Bhagavata-purana, X. 89
the
:

by a

A
was

dispute once arose

greatest.

among They applied to

sages which of
all

the three gods

the greatest of

sages Bhrigu to

determine the point. He undertook to put all three gods to a severe He went first to Brahma, and omitted all obeisance. The god's test. anger blazed forth, but he was at length pacified. Next he went to the abode of Siva, and omitted to return the god's salutation. The irascible god was enraged, his eyes flashed fire, and he raised his
Trident weapon to destroy the sage. But the god's wife, Parvati, inLastly, Bhrigu went to the heaven of Vishnu, whom terceded for him. he found asleep. To try his forbearance, he gave the god a good kick on his breast, which awoke him. Instead of showing anger, Vishnu asked Bhrigu's pardon for not having greeted him on his first arrival. Then he declared he was highly honoured by the sage's blow. It had
imprinted an indelible mark of good fortune on his breast. the sage's foot was not hurt, and began to rub it gently.
Bhrigu,
'

y/

He
'

trusted

This,' said

is

the mightiest god

he overpowers his enemies by the most

potent of

all

weapons

gentleness and generosity.'

in that

The
divine

three gods differ from, and are superior to, all other

and human organisms,

they are not subject to

attained

transmigrations.

They

are

beings

who have

the

highest condition possible, short of absorption into Brahma.

And
all

of these three, Vishnu, the Maintainer

is

and Preserver of
most humane,
religion,

nature,

the most human, as he

attributes,
is,

is

also the

in his

character,

and sympathies, and therefore

of
all

devotion (bhakti) to him

the most popular.

forms of Hindu

He

has four arms, symbolical of the power

Portions of

he exerts

in the deliverance of his worshippers.

his divine nature have descended into earthly incarnations to

deliver the earth in times of danger

and emergency.

They
living

are

still

continually

descending

in

good

men and

teachers (see p. 103).

W^hether, in fact, Vishnu be connected with light, with heat,

with

air,

or with water,

it is

evident that his function

is

that of

Mythological or Polytheistic Bi'ahmajiisin.

a divine Pervader, infusing
into created things, animate
stones, such as the black

47

his essence for special purposes

and inanimate
;

for

example, into

Salagrama
plants,

into rivers, such as the

;

Ganges

into

trees

and
fish,

such as the TulasT

;

into

animals, such as a

a tortoise, a boar

and

lastly, into

men

(see pp.

103-116).
it

And

here be

noted that the idea of incarnation, like

in

every other idea

religion,

morality,

and science, when

are really

manipulated by the Brahmans, was by them subtilized and

exaggerated.

Hence the

incarnations

of Vishnu

descents (avatara) on earth

of portions of the essence of a

6q^,

divine person already possessing a material form (see pp.

103).

These descents were undertaken, reasonably enough,

world when
;

for preserving the

in pressing

danger from the

malice of evil
degrees.
First,

demons

and they are of four kinds and

the

full

descent, as in Krishna, one of the heroes

called Maha-bharata.
anterior), the half-essence

of the Epic

poem

Secondly (though chronologically

of the other Epic called

descent, consisting of half the god's nature, as in

Rama, hero

Ramayana.
Rama's two

Thirdly, the quarter-essence descent, as in Rama's brother

Bharata

fourthly^ the eighth-part descent, as in

other brothers,

Lakshmana and Satrughna.

is

Other special

descents are described at pp. 107-115.

Distinct from these

the constant infusion of portions of

the divine essence into ordinary men, animals, and inanimate

objects.
liar

All

men whose

lives are

remarkable for any pecu-

circumstances are held by the Hindus to be partial incar-

nations of the divine nature, and worshipped accordingly.

The
Siva,

those

members of the Indian triad, Brahma and have no human incarnations exactly comparable with of Vishnu, though Brahma is, as it were, humanized in
other two

his representatives the priests, called

It is true that

Brahmans.
of both

certain Incarnations

Brahma and

4-S

Mythological or Polytheistic Brahmanism.

(as,

Siva are sometimes mentioned

for

example, that of
local manifesta-

Siva called Virabhadra,

tions of these deities

p. 79),

and there are

and

local

descents of Siva in
in

human
havine

form.
wives.
Siva's
sons,

Moreover, Brahma and Siva resemble Vishnu

Brahma's wife
is

is
it

Sarasvatl^, Vishnu's

is

Lakshml,

Parvatl,

and

may

be noted that Siva has two

Ganesa, lord of the

(also called

armies,

hosts, and Subrahmanya Skanda and Karttikeya), general of the celestial whereas Vishnu has no sons except in his human
^.

demon

incarnations

But
deities

it

would be a great mistake to suppose that many

and divine manifestations are generally worshipped. The gods of the Hindu Pantheon to whom temples are reared

and prayers offered are not numerous.

Forms of Vishnu, Siva,

and

their consorts, with the

p. 211),

two sons of Siva (Ganesa and Su(p.

brahmanya,

and Hanuman

220) are the chief templeinfinite

deities of India.

But there are an

number of divine

and semi-divine beings, good and

which
is

evil

demons, every one of

held in veneration or dread, and every one of which,

is,

from the highest to the lowest,

Essence (Brahma).
the whole universe

like all the others, subject to

the universal law of re-absorption into the one divine universal

Indeed, at the end of vast periods, called

days of Brahma, each lasting for 4,320,000,000 human years,

is

so

re-absorbed, and after remaining

is

dormant

for equally
lies

long periods,

again evolved.
self-

Where, then,
discipline, if

the motive for self-knowledge and

every

man

is

really

God

It is that the

One
its

Spirit, as if for diversion, ignores itself,

submits to the

influ-

ence of an illusory creative force, and permits the unity of

nature to be partitioned into an infinite
^

number

of individual

in that

Dubois (p. 371) relates a legend which makes Brahma guilty of incest he was both the father and husband of Sarasvatl. ^ Nor were Vishnu's incarnations prolific, unless we reckon the 108,000 mythical sons of Krishna (see pp. 113, 114). The great Rama had twin sons, Kusa and Lava, born when Sita had been banished to the
hermitage.

Mythological or Polytheistic Brahrnanis^n,

personal
liable to
spirits,

49

which, while they continue in ignorance, are

spirit

commit error. And no such with the Supreme Spirit except by

itself,

can recover identity

purificatory rites

and by

raising

through the exercise of self-knowledge and

self-discipline in

many
In

births, to

a state of cessation from

action (vairagya).

fact,

a condition of entire mental vacuity

is

(citta-vritti-nirodha) or trance (samadhi)

of all states the

most desirable as leading to complete identification with the

one universal
Spirit.

Not

that a

man need aim

at

immediate

union with that

Spirit.

He may simply aspire to

Spirit
;

re-absorption into the one absolute

or

may

simply devote himself to one of the personal

gods, Brahma, Vishnu, or Siva, so as to become,

by union

with them, only one degree removed from re-absorption, and

incapable of further transmigrations
(p.

41,

11.

11-20).

Or he
the

may

simply aim at admission to their heavens

(p.70), or to

temporary heaven Svarga (presided over by Indra), the only

paradise of orthodox Brahmanism; or at escaping one of the
purgatorial hells (pp. 232, 293).

We may note that Svarga, as an abode of light,

once
in

is

mentioned

the Rig-veda (X, 95, 18)

oftener in the Atharva-veda

and Brahmanas.

And
is

here

lies

the motive for religious worship addressed to

personal gods and visible forms.

For the one universal Spirit

manifested in such forms.

Yet

it

is

a cardinal feature

of the Brahmanical system, that the one universal Spirit can

never

itself

be directly worshipped, except by turning the

thoughts inwards.

No
all

shrine or temple to
India.

Brahma

is

to be

found throughout

The one
the spirit
;

self-existent

Brahma

can only become an object of meditation and knowledge.

The

Spirit

is

to be

known by
;

for

he

is

enshrined in
is
is

every man's heart

and

this internal

meditation

regarded
properly

as the highest religious act.

In short,

Brahma

only an object of internal knowledge (jneyam), not an object

of external worship (upasyam).


50 Mythological or Polytheistic Brah7nanism.
here

And

mark

the vast difference between the

Trinity.

Hindu

idea

of a triad

and the Christian

Brahma, Vishnu, and

exist-

Siva are not self-existent.

ences,

They have only secondary

though the One Spirit

may be

worshipped through
It
is

these three manifestations, or any one of the three.

even possible for the members of this triad to worship the

Spirit

One

through the worship of each other, each being

p. 45).

in turn

regarded as inferior (see

Again,
the
it

is

to be noted that

homage may be

paid

to

one Spirit by and through the worship of the

inferior

gods, goddesses, departed ancestors, living Brahmans, heroes,

animals,

and

plants.

Even

stocks, stones,

and images

may

represent the divine presence, and so

become media through

an object of adoration.

which the One

Spirit

may become

Nay, the very demons may receive worship both from gods
and men,
if

by

mortification

and meditation they

attain near-

ness to re-absorption into the great Spirit of the Universe.

I

once asked a Brahman, residing at Thana (Tanna) near

to give

Bombay,

me some

explanation of the fact that even

Indians of cultivated intellect

who

assert the unity of God,

appear to us Europeans to be worshippers of

many

gods.

His answer was to the following

'

effect
in

All orthodox Hindus believe

all

one universal

Spirit,

who

becomes Supreme Lord over

time they believe that
all

(Paramesvara).

At

the same

this

one God has taken various forms,

of which

where, though
ferent

may be worshipped; just as gold is one everyit may take different forms and names in difEvery man chooses his favourite places and countries.
to

god or divine object

the deity.

which he pays especial homage.

fire

Thusi
ofl

Agnihotri-Brahmans regard

as their

favourite

form

They

call

him Agni-narayana.
it

Vedic Brahmans
Different!

make a god
specially

of the Veda, calling

Veda-narayana.

places have also their favourite presiding deities.

Benares

is

watched over by a form of Siva (called Visvesvara)

Pandharpur, by a form of Krishna (called Vithoba).

Here

in


Nomistic or Preceptive Brahmanism.
51

Thana we have temples of Vishnu, Rama, Krishna, Viththal, Hanuman, Siva, Ganesa, and Devi. The oldest and most
sacred of
all is

one of Siva,

in

the character of Kaupinesvara.

We may
sacrifices,

propitiate every one of

them with ceremonies and

is

but the Supreme Being present in these gods

the the

real object of all our offerings

and

religious services.

At

end of each we say:

!

"

By

this act

may
are

the

Supreme Lord be
Pantheists in your

gratified

"

Hence, though to you we appear Polytheists,

we

are really Monotheists.

Nor

we

sense of the term.

Only our deepest thinkers look beyond

to the impersonal Spirit which underlies

the personal
everything.

God

We

educated Brahmans are practically Theists.'

We

might add that the Rig-veda asserts that the gods are
(I.

one Being under different names

164.

46

VIII. 58.

2).

Nomistic Brahmanism.

The
in

fourth phase of

Brahmanism may be
it

called the

No-

mistic or Preceptive phase, because

represents that period

when the Brahmans composed (smriti-sastra, law of dharma-sastra) and laid down codes precise precepts for the constitution of the Hindu social
Indian religious history
fabric, for

the due co-ordination of

its

different

orders and
life

castes, for the regulation of every-day domestic

and

for

the enforcement of moral conduct.

Indeed the laxity and liberty allowed by Brahmanism

regard to
thought,
of
its
is

in

all

forms of religious

belief

and philosophical

curiously contrasted with the strictness and rigidity

rules

and ordinances

in

regard to every act of a man's

domestic

life,

according to his social status or caste.

These
code of

rules are contained in three principal codes

;

(i) the

Manu
is

(2) that of Yajiiavalkya

(3) that of Parasara.

It

The

first

held to be the most sacred of the three.

local code,

was originally a
in the fifth

perhaps by different

embodying rules and precepts authors, some of whom may have lived
B.C.,

century B.C., others in the second century

and

52
others even
tribe of
later.

Nomistic Brahmanisni,
It

was

at first current

among

a particular

Brahmans

called

Manavas, who probably occupied

part of the North-western region between the rivers SarasvatI

and Drishadvati, but afterwards became generally adopted.

The name
a

of the real author of this great

is

work (which as
title

mere

literary production
is

one of the most remarkable

to be found anywhere)

concealed under the

is

Manu ^

The code
introduces

of Yajnavalkya

founded on that of Manu, but

many

additional rules,

some

of which are probably

It is

as late as the

first
its

or second century of our era.

always

associated with

Parasara

is

still

commentary, the Mitakshara. The code of more modern work. It enacts special laws
three codes together constitute a kind

adapted to the fourth or most depraved age of the world

(called

Kali).

The

of bible of Nomistic Brahmanism, as the

much

in the

same way_

Ritualistic

Brahmanas of the three Vedas are the exponent of Brahmanism. The Brahmanas are concerned with

public Vedic ritual and sacrifice (sruti-karman), the law-books

with domestic ceremonies (smriti-karman).

In short, the three chief codes are mirrors of Indian domesticj

customs,

little

affected as these have years.

been by the lapse

ofi

more than two thousand

religion

They
'

illustrate

very strikinglyj
life

the close intertwining of politics^ morality, and social

with]

The root of all law,' says] Veda and the traditions of those who know the] Veda.' Accordingly we find that in Manu's code the rules] of judicature and of caste are mixed up with the dogmas of
and
religious ordinances.

Manu,

'

is

the

religion

and philosophy.
again, blended with

Then

these are high

religious

and!

moral precepts

many

of

them worthy of

Christianity (seel

supposed to speak as far as I. 60, and after that another The entire code is fully analysed and described in my 'Indian Wisdom,' pp. 211-294. The late Dr. A. Burnell's opinion was that the date of the work as we now possess it must be placed in the fourth century of our era. I cannot agree with his views.
'

Manu

is

sage called Bhyigu.

Nomistic Brahmanisin.
Chap.
is

53

XXI) while

the punishment assigned to every offence

into future states of existence, the

carried

beyond the grave

doctrine of transmigration of souls through celestial and terrestrial bodies

from gods to stones being implied throughout.

Manu

declares that a triple order of metempsychosis through

higher, middle,

and lower stages of existence

results

from the

force of good, middling, or

bad

acts,

words, and thoughts in

every man's present

life

(Manu XII.

3-40).

The theory
is

of caste and the superiority of the

Brahmans

the hinge on which the whole social fabric turns.

central

The

body around which all other classes revolve like satellites. Not only are they invested with divine dignity, but they are bound together by the
most stringent
Vaisyas
rules.

Brahmans form the

Two

other castes
called
'

viz.

Kshatriyas and

are

with them

Twice-born,' through the

all

Initiation
privileges.

rite (p.

360) which admitted

three to certain

The

doctrine of

Manu was

that the deity created distinct

;

classes of

men, as he did animals and plants

and that the

agricultu-

four chief classes

ralists (Vaisyas),

Brahmans, soldiers (Kshatriyas),

and servants (Sudras)

were

born and must

lions,

remain as distinct from each other as elephants,

oxen,

and dogs, wheat, barley,

rice,

and beans

(pp. 452-474).

A
1.

Brahman was

to

pass

through four stages

;

of

life

Unmarried

religious student (Brahma-carin)

;

2.

Married
;

householder (Grihastha)

3.

Anchorite (Vanaprastha)

4.

Abandoner
^^j 362).

of worldly concerns (Sannyasin or SannyasI, pp.

As

a householder he could have four wives be-

longing to any of the three lower castes.

also take place

Intermarriage could
the four classes,
or,

between members of

all

again,

between the castes resulting from such intercourse.

of

Hence arose an endless number

within castes, each restricted to

mixed

castes,

and castes

its

own occupation and bound

be found at Chap.

by

its own rules. Examples of moral precepts

will

XXI.

CHAPTER

III.

Hindfiism a Development of Brdhnanisin.

General Observations.

We

now

pass on to the third stage of

its

Hindu

religious

thought, which has

bible in the Puranas.

And we may
spiritual

here take note of a fact illustrated by the whole history of

the world's
religious
is

thought, that a

merely

and

impersonal religion

quite incapable of taking hold of the

masses of mankind.

Something more

is

needed

for illiterate

unthinking populations earnestly craving for concrete objects

of faith

and

visible objects of devotion.

The

chief point, then,

which distinguishes HindQism as a

is

system of creeds from Brahmanism

with
manifestation

that

it

subordinates

the worship of the purely spiritual Brahman (nom. Brahma)

its

first

and Vishnu, or of

their wives, or of
its

while each sect exalts

Brahma (p. 47), to that of Siva some form of these deities own god to the place of the Supreme.
theistic

Yet we must guard against the idea that

Hinduism
of|

has superseded pantheistic Brahmanism; for in India forms

pantheism, theism, and polytheism are ever interwoven with

each other.

Brahma

has

still

the spiritual worship of the.

;

thoughtful, though he has neither temple nor image

while

Brahma has still two temples by four-faced images, and is

symbol of Siva
also his
(pp. 44, 79, 83,

in

India,

and

is

represented

also

worshipped under the

and Chapter XXII).

(cf.

He

has]

own heaven
it is

called

Brahma-loka

pp. 70, 291).

Moreover

certain that the worship of personal gods was]

Hhidiiisrn developed out of Brahmariisni.

a part of pantheistic

55

Brahmanism long before Siva and Vishnu

favourites of particular sects.

became the exckisive

Perhaps

the best exponent of the Brahmanical system was the great

teacher Saiikara (Saiikaracarya), a native of Kerala (Malabar),

who

lived

about the beginning of the eighth century of our

(p.

era.

He was

a SannyasI

362) and an unmarried

is

Smarta BrahParama-

man ^ under
of the

vow

of celibacy, and

often styled

hansa-parivrajakacarya.

For
it

it

is

one of the inconsistencies

Hindu

religion, that

enjoins the duty of marriage

upon

all,

yet honours celibacy as a condition of great sanctity

and a means of acquiring extraordinary religious merit and

influence.
strict

Undoubtedly Sankara was the very incarnation of Brahmanism and if it be possible to name any one real
;

historical concrete

personality as a typical representative of

it is

Brahmanical doctrines,

undeniable that

we must

point to

Sankara rather than to the legendary Vyasa, even though the

latter

be the alleged author of the Vedanta-Sutra.

utterly barren
little
is

Yet so

is

India in both history and bioof the

life

graphy, that very

known

of perhaps one

of the greatest religious leaders she has ever produced.

It is

nevertheless a fact that Sankara founded the monastery

(matha) of Sriiigeri (Sririga-giri) in Mysore, as well as three

others in

Northern, Western, and

his

Eastern India

to the

Headship over which

chief disciples were appointed

first

by

himself; the spiritual powers of the

Head being

trans-

mitted through a line of successors, regularly elected.

The most noted

successor

of

Sankara at the

Srin[;eri

^ A SannyasI may have But there are been once a married man. Sannyasis (such as the late Dayananda) who have become so without going through the previous stages of Grihastha and Vanaprastha. Equivalent expressions for Sannyasin are Parivrajaka, Bhikshu, Dandin, and

Maskarin (Panini VI. I. 154) but the term Bhikshu is now applied in Western India to those clerical Brahmans (as opposed to lay) who perform religious ceremonies and are not engaged in worldly pursuits. ^ That in the North is at Badrinath in the Himalayas, that in the West at Dvarika in Kathiawar, that in the East at Jagannath-purl.
;

56

Hindriism developed out of Brakmanism.

monastery was Sayana (Madhava^), the well-known author

of the Rig-veda

commentary, who

lived

in the

fourteenth

Sankara himself, though he managed to write a century. vast number of treatises on the Vedanta philosophy, led an
erratic, restless,

controversial

life,

and died

early,

probably

at

Kedarnath

in the

Himalayas,

at the

age of thirty-two.

He

is

thought by some to have inculcated the preferential

worship of the god Siva^, of

whom some

declare

him

to have

been an incarnation.

Others maintain that he himself had

a preference for Vishnu, the real fact being that he looked

on both these gods as equally manifestations of the one Universal Spirit. For, in truth, all orthodox Brahmans are in
a general

way both

Saivas and Vaishnavas, and any

Brahman
and with-

may

have a preference for the worship of either Siva or Vishnu

either,

without any necessary exclusive devotion to

out identifying either

to

the exclusion of the other

with
in

the one Spirit of the Universe, as

do.
It is well

many Pauranika

sectarians

known,

in fact, that

most Smarta Brahmans

the present day,

who

are followers of Sankaracarya, have a

^.

leaning towards the worship of the one personal deity Siva

On

the other hand, very few even of the most ignorant and

bigoted Hindiis

who

are

exclusive worshippers of the per-

sonal deities Siva, Vishnu, or their consorts, and whose highest

spiritual
^

aim

is

to be a dweller in the heaven of one of those

;

Sayana and Madhava is disputed the preponderance now to be against the late Dr. A. Burneil's view of their identity as expressed in his Vansa-brahmana. His sanctity was in such repute that he was held to have worked several miracles, amongst others, transferring his own soul for a time into the dead body of a king Amaru, that he might become the husband of the king's widow for a brief period, and so learn by experience how to argue on amatory subjects with the wife of a Brahman named Mandana, who was the only person he had never conquered in argument. This is described in a poem called Amaru-sataka, to which a mystical

The

identity of

of evidence seems
'^

interpretation
^

is

given.

Two Smarta Brahmans accompanied me

They both had

round the temple of Siva

at Tinnevelly.

three horizontal lines (tri-pundra)

made

with Vibhuti on their foreheads, which proved their preference for Siva.

Hiridiiisni developed out

gods, are uninfluenced

of B7%iJiinanisni.

57

by an undercurrent of

pantheistic ideas.
if

Nor would
trine of

it

be easy to find any thoughtful Hindis who,

closely questioned,

would repudiate as untenable the doc-

an omnipresent, impersonal, bodiless and passionless

In short, the more closely the theistic
is

(nirguna) spiritual Essence, of which every being in the Uni-

verse

is

a portion.

phase of Hinduism

examined, the more plainly

will

it

be

found to

rest

on a substratum of pantheistic Brahmanism.

is

The one system

other,

to a great extent a
line of separation
is
is

development of the
is

and

to

draw a

between the two

im-

possible.

Metempsychosis

equally the dread of both.

Nevertheless Hinduism

by no means a simple form of

It

theism, or even polytheism.

presents for our investigation

doctrines which in
to
its

a complex congeries of creeds and

gradual accumulation

may be compared
and

the gathering

together of the mighty volume of the Ganges, swollen

continual
itself

by

influx

of tributary rivers

rivulets,

spreading
finally

over an

ever-increasing area

of country, and

resolving itself into an intricate Delta of tortuous streams

and

jungly marshes.

Nor
Hindu

is

it

difficult
is

to

account for this complexity.

The
based

religion

a reflection of the composite character of

are not one people but many.
It It
is

the HindOs,

who

on the idea of universal receptivity.

has ever aimed at

accommodating
It

itself to

circumstances, and has carried on the

process of adaptation through

more than three thousand

all

years.

has

first

borne with and then, so to speak, swallowed,

creeds.
its

digested,

and assimilated something from

mansion,
it

Or, like
all

a vast

hospitable
;

has opened

doors to

comers

it

has not refused a welcome to applicants of every

highest to the
;

grade from the

lowest,

if

only wMlling to

adopt caste-rules

insomuch that many regard Hinduism as

has held out the right hand of brotherhood
;

a system of social rules rather than of religious creeds. In this

manner

it

to the Fetish-worshipping aborigines of India

it

has stooped

Receptivity of Hindiris7?i.
;

to the demonolatry of various savage tribes

it

has not scru-

pled to encourage the adoration of the

serpent, trees, plants, stones,

fish,
;

the boar^, the

and devils

it

has permitted a
:

descent to the most des^radins: cults of the Dravidian races

while at the same time

it

has ventured to
loftiest

rise

from the most

grovelling practices to the

heights of philosophical
in

speculation

it

has not hesitated to drink

thoughts from the

to Christianity

very fountain of Truth, and owes not a

itself.

little

Strangest of

all. it

has dissipated the formidable organ-

ization

which for a long period confronted Brahmanism, and

It

introduced doctrines subversive of Sacerdotalism.

fully appropriated

has art-

Buddhism, and gradually superseded that

its

competing system by drawing

its

adherents within the pale of

own communion.
in the

fact

history of the interaction between

initiated

Without doubt the most remarkable Brahmanism

and the mighty movement

this

by one

of the greatest of
into
in

earth's

teachers,

was the resolution of Buddhism

Saivism and Vaishnavism.

their present form preceded

To

say that these two systems

Buddhism is inaccurate. Probably they co-existed with it in some form or other. Undeniably they became amplified and modified by its absorption.
This interchangeableness between Buddhism, Saivism, and

Vaishnavism
be
sufficient

will

be more

fully explained hereafter.

It will

at present

to note that

Gautama Buddha had

earliest character

two

distinct characters.

In his

first

and

he

was the typical monk (Sramana-), the great teacher of the

power

to be gained

passions.

In his

by meditation and by conquest of the second, he was the great friend of the comuniversal brotherhood, universal
for all

mon

people

who advocated

equality,

and universal compassion

forms of animal

and a boar form two of Vishnu's incarnations. The former is of the Pandya kingdom in the South, and ^SllnacI, the goddess worshipped in the great temple of Madura, is said to mean fishruler, though the Brahmans have converted it into fish-eyed (Minakshij. ^ See my work on Buddhism," p. 75 (John Murray, Albemarle Street).
^

fish

also the

emblem

'

'

'

Sects of
life.

Hinduism.

59
Siva and

In both

these characters the personal god

the incarnated Vishnu were his counterparts, and uhimately

superseded him \
character.

Siva was the Buddha

in

in

his

monastic

Vishnu was the Buddha

his

character of a

beneficent and unselfish lover and friend of the

human

race.

And
so they

as Saivism

and Vaishnavism superseded Buddhism,

chief constituents of

became the

modern Hinduism.

All the shades and subdivisions of Hindu sectarianism

may

be included under one or other of these two heads.

Nevertheless
divided
(Saivas).
it is

customary

to

speak of Hinduism as
i.

into
%.

five

principal

sects:

Worshippers of Siva
3.

Worshippers of Vishnu (Vaishnavas).

Wor-

shippers of the female personifications of energy, regarded

as the wives of the deities (Saktas, p. 180).
4.

Worshippers

of Ganesa or Gana-pati

the
5.

god of luck and good fortune

p. 341)(or,

(Ganapatyas,
Besides these

p. 215).
five,

Sun-worshippers (Sauras,

a sixth called Pasupata

in

by Ananda-giri,
is

Kapalika), chiefly found

the South of India,

occasionally

added, though
Saivas.

this

is

nothing but
sects

a subdivision
said

of the

All

these

six

are

by South-Indian
is
'

Pandits to

have been

founded

by Sankaracarya, who
reality that

therefore often called Shan-mata-sthapaka,

the establisher
great
all

of six forms

of doctrines.'
seen,

In

teacher
sectarian

was, as
ideas.

we have
his

utterly

opposed

to

In the Saiikara-vijaya of Ananda-giri (a work written

disciples
in

by one of
is

the

ninth or tenth century) he

in

described the

as

having traversed India

of combating

every direction

for

purpose

and

refuting

an immense
in

number
country.

of sectarian

systems which had taken root

at that time, besides the

the

There were

worshippers

of Siva and Vishnu, votaries of

Brahma, of the Sun, Moon, and

others

Kubera, Yama, Varuna,

Sesha,

innumerable.

Many
^

of these were

extirpated through

Sankara's instru-

in

There are clear traces that the great Vaishnava temple of Jagan-nath Orissa was originally dedicated to some Buddhist tooth-relic.

6o

Develop7nent of Saiva

and Vaishnava
;

Sects.

mentality, and

many have

since disappeared

but, curiously

enough,

it is

alleged that out of pity to the present degenerate

age (Kali-yuga), when

remain.

men

are

incapable of apprehending

the pure unity of the Godhead, Sankara allowed six sects to

It

was only by degrees that the sectarian character

first
is

of all but the

two disappeared.
the present idea implied

What
rianism
?

then

by Hindu

secta-

It is clear

from what has been already stated that

every Hindu creed ought to be regarded as unorthodox which

exalts favourite personal deities to the position of the one
eternal, self-existing

Spirit

(Atman

or Brahma), in contra-

vention of the
alities

dogma

that even the highest divine person-

are finite beings destined ultimately to be absorbed

into that

one
it

infinite Spirit.

Of course

must be understood that when Saivism and

this

Vaishnavism deny

dogma they

offend against orthodoxy.

But Saivism and Vaishnavism constitute, so to speak, the very warp and woof of the later Hindu religion, and it is possible
to be a worshipper of Siva or

Vishnu

(as manifestations of
it

Brahma) without being a

to apply the term
'

sectarian.

Hence

seems better

sect

'

to separate religious communities

within the pale of these two chief systems, organized and

consolidated

by

particular teachers with the object of incul-

cating entire devotion towards, and exclusive dependence on

either Siva or Vishnu,
tality of

and securing through the instrumenhis worshippers.

one or other of these gods the welfare and salvation

of every individual

among
it

At

the same time,

is

must be

carefully noted that

Hindu

more than the mere exclusive worship of a personal god. It implies more or less direct opposition to the orthodox philosophy of Brahmanism, in regard to the identity of man's spirit with God's spirit. Man's
sectarianism

something

spirit is

held to have a separate personality, but the doctrine

is

of metempsychosis or transmigration

perhaps insisted on

with even greater intensity in Saivism and Vaishnavism than

Develop77ient of Saiva
in

and Vaishnava
it

Sects.

pure

Erahmanism.

Nevertheless

must, as

we have

already seen, be borne in mind that vague pantheistic ideas

may

always be found lurking at the root of every variety of

sectarian doctrine.

Hindu

Such ideas are naturally inwoven

into the very texture of every

Hindu mind.
generally

But Hinduism
and
surprises
;

bristles

with contradictions, inconsistencies,

is

and

it

remarkable that the

prevalent Brahmanical doctrine

living personal Spirit of

of the identification of the

the universe

is

the

man with the one universal Spirit of peculiar dogma which various sects of both

Saivas

and Vaishnavas

especially

the

latter

theoretically
spirit

repudiate, dilute, or qualify.

if it

For indeed the

of

man

strives to give expression to its feelings of

complete and

exclusive devotion to a personal deity as to a Creator and

Saviour, cannot at the

same moment

assent to doctrines which

destroy

its

own
this

separate personality.

To mark
and

complete and exclusive devotion more

clearly,

to bind each sect together

by some common bond

Mantra
(e. g.

of

union, a short form of words called a

Om Rdmdya

iiamah, reverence
clusive

to

Rama,

see p.

117), expressive of ex-

and absolute

trust in the particular

god worshipped
world,
is

as representing the

Supreme Ruler of the

its

taught
a

by each community and

repetition every

day

is

made

necessary condition of salvation through him.

Moreover, the privilege of imparting

this

secret (rahasya)

Mantra belongs
tiation (diksha),

to a regularly constituted order of

men
is

(Guru).
ini-

The communication

of

it

(usually in a whisper)
it is

called

and acquaintance with

held to be essential

to admission within the pale of the society.

When any

such

system has been fully organized

a

it

is

called a

Sampradaya
^.

word meaning a

particular

body

of traditionary doctrines

handed down through a succession of teachers

It

may

also

is,

particular views or opinions

be designated by such terms as Darsana or Mata that on religion or philosophy. The term

62

Doctrine of Incarnation in Hinduism.

a matter of fact the Sampradayas or separate religious
all

As

denominations of the present day are nearly

^/divisions of Vaishnavism.

mere sub-

Not

that Siva has been dethroned

by Vishnu,
although

or has lost any of his importance as one of the two

chief deities of
all

modern Hinduism.

What

is

meant

is

that,

Hindus pay homage to

Siva, to his Consort or

Sakti, and to his

two sons Ganesa and Skanda, few attach

themselves to these deities as to personal benefactors

and
ex-

although

many

repeat their Mantras, few pray to

them

clusively as to their personal creators

and

saviours.

Certainly no one, so far as

have been able to ascertain,

turns to these gods, or invokes their intervention

and
all

assist-

ance

in the

hour of death

(see p. 297).

Similarly

Hindils

adore the Sun

few

in their daily

prayers (pp. 342, 406), but very

in

in the present

day ever worship him exclusively or

what may be

called a spirit of sectarianism.

Several sects of

Sun-worshippers are known to have once existed and to have

had many adherents, but they have generally died

out.

In reality the principle of faith and devotion as displayed

towards personal gods could scarcely have taken deep root

in India,

except

in

connexion with the worship of a god

earth as the child of earthly parents
in his

who descended upon

for the

promotion of man's welfare, and whose nature

here

incarnations

And

became quite as human as mark that the doctrine

in

it

was

divine.

the Hindus

is

Christian idea;

among many important respects different from the The Sanskrit language, which is the only
of incarnation

language

of the

Hindu

religion

and the only source of

^.

theological terms, has no exact equivalent for incarnation

Darsana, however,
phical systems.
^

is

more usually

restricted to the six regular philoso-

yana

The names invoked at death are The late Dr. Burnell (p. 297).

generally those of
told

Rama and

Naraall

me

that he once witnessed the

all

execution of thirteen criminals in India

called on the
^

who were

Saivas,

and yet

name

of

Rama

before being hanged.

miirti^

Unless

it

be compounds formed with deha^

and sdkshdt.


Docti'ine of Incarnation in Hindiiisfn.

63
descent.'

The common word

Furthermore,
it

is

Avatara, which

means

must be noted that intervening between the

one Self-existent Being and these Avataras must be placed the

forms of personal deities such as Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva each of

whom

possesses a
divine

body composed,
and ethereal,

like

human

bodies,

of gross, though

particles^.

Strictly,

therefore, the so-called

like

incarnations, represented

by heroes

Rama, ought
for

to be regarded as incarnations of incarna-

tions'',

they are the descent of portions of the essence of

personal divinities, who, already possessing bodies composed

of gross, though divine particles, condescend

by being born

of earthly parents to assume bodies composed of

particles.

human

gross

Such descents are

attributed, not only to the per-

sonal gods Vishnu, Siva, and

Brahma, but even to other gods

Arjuna and the heroes of the

such as Indra, Vayu, Sesha

Maha-bharata being also regarded as incarnated descents of

various deities.
rally

Yet the only universally acceptable and gene-

worshipped incarnated descents are those of Vishnu, as

Rama son of Dasaratha, and as Krishna son of Vasudeva. When once the feeling of affection for Rama and Krishna had rooted
itself in

the religious sense of the people,

it

rapidly gathered

strength and dominated over every other feeling.

It

as

propounded

was thus that the way of devotion (bhakti-marga) in the Puranas and Tantras ^ superseded the

other two ways of salvation

knowledge
it

and works (jhanain

marga and karma-marga)

that bhakti,
'

though

must be borne
*

mind

devotion,'
'

is

really a kind of
'

meritorious work,'

and not equivalent to

It

faith

in the Christian sense.

;

even triumphed over caste

for

an enthusiastic love of

See the account of the structure of the bodies of the gods at p. 28. Doubtless a form of the doctrine of bhakti may be traced back to early times, but for its full development we must look to the Bhagavad-glta, a comparatively modern episode of the Maha-bharata, to the Puranas and Tantras, and to a scientific formulation of the doctrine in the
^

Bhakti-sutra of Sandilya probably about the twelfth century.

64

Interchangeableness of Siva
or Krishna

and Vishnu.

Rama
human

was theoretically a bond of union among

all

beings stronger than

social ties,

and was incom-

patible with differences of rank or antagonisms of interest.

In fact the leaders of religious thought in India were

disciples in the school of the great
at
least,

all

Buddha, to the extent,

of

imitating
fraternity.
'

his

union
as
r>

and

wisdom by advocating social They saw that their popularity

their

reformers
ranks, high

depended on

attracting

adherents from

all

and low.

Hence, every great religious leader

all who enrolled Buddha was the son of a all

^
;

proclaimed the brotherhood and equality of

themselves under his leadership.
'

,V V

petty Raja or landowner, but addressed himself to

In the same
of

ranks.

^^v\
'"3'

way

Vishnu,

in his

descent as Krishna, though

favourite

the

kingly caste, was

the

of

the

common

people.

But and

just as

Buddhism ultimately

fell

back into Brah-

manism, so has every movement

equality,
fraternity

in the direction of liberty,

less

ended by a return, more or

com-

plete, to the original condition of subjection to

Brahmanical

authority, ceremonial observances,

Practically, therefore,

and

caste,

y
as the

we must regard Vaishnavism

religious

principal chief

home

of

Hindu

sectarianism.

All the

modern

sects

have resulted more from differences of

opinion between various schools of Vaishnavas, than from antag;onism between Saivism and Vaishnavism.

Nor
;

are Saivism

and Vaishnavism

in their

essence antagonistic systems.

They
indeed

represent different lines of religious thought

pressing a contrast rather than an opposition.

such lines ex-

So

far

from any necessary opposition between the systems, they are

a necessary

complement of each

other.
is

For the worship of

presence of the two

the composite deity Rudra-Siva

of the

nothing but the expression

in the

awe

felt

by human beings

mutually complementary forces of disintegration and reintegration

;

while the worship of the personal god Vishnu in his

descents upon earth in

human form

is

nothing but the ex-

pression of the very natural interest

felt

by man

in his

own

Interchangeable7iess of Siva

and Vishnu.

65

preservation and in the working of the physical forces which

resist dissohition.

Certainly in the present day Saivas and Vaishnavas are

tolerant of each other's creeds, both appealing to the Puranas

as their special bible,

and each acknowledging the gods of

This
is

the other as proper objects of worship.

illustrated

remarkably

called

god Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Siva/ is worshipped, who represents

the fact that in
parts of the country a

by

some

the union of the two divine personalities in one.

There

is

a long

hymn

in praise of this

twofold deity in the Hari-vansa (i8ist

chapter),

and images of him

may

be seen here and there

in

Southern India.

For example,

in the great

temple at Madura

a fine carving was pointed out to

me

which proved to be a
of Vishnu with a

representation of Sankara-Narayana
of the figure represents half the

(= Hari-Hara) ^. One side

hand
coil

body

holding a Sankha, while the other represents that of Siva

surmounted by half a head-dress twisted into a matted

with the lunar crescent conspicuous

on

it.

Then

again,

wherever

in

any

city a large

temple has been erected to Siva,

a similar temple dedicated to

Vishnu

is

sure to be conspicuous

near at hand.

Indeed the shrines of the two gods are not

unfrequently found in close juxtaposition within the same

sacred enclosure.

For

instance,

on the

hill

of ParvatT (wife
I

of Siva) near Poona, and in the enclosure of her temple,

saw a shrine of Vishnu, another of

his vehicle

Garuda, and
^.

images of nearly every deity of the Hindu Pantheon

Nor can any

Vishnu, or
fail

student of the Maha-bharata and Puranas

doubt the interchangeableness of the functions of Siva and

to pierceive that each divine personality has

a tendency to blend or

merge

in

the other.

In the Linga-

In the South of India a legend

the form of a fascinating

Siva.
^

woman
is

is current which makes Vishnu assume (mohini) and so connect himself with

By Saktas Vishnu

often held to be female.

I

temple of Hanuman at Kaira a shrine of Siva and nearly every other god ordinarily worshipped.

So also

in the precincts of the

saw

66 Ifiterchangeableness of Saivism and Vaishnavism.

purana
(I.

i8

fif.)

both Brahma and Vishnu are said to spring

the other hand, in the Maha-bharata (Vana-

from Siva.
parvan 499
as
in placid

On
ff.

springing

and Anusasana-p. 6806 ff.) Brahma is described from the navel of Vishnu when he was lying

repose on the serpent of infinity, and enjoying the

;

to

most perfect serenity of mind ^ whilst Siva or Rudra is said have been produced from Brahma's (or according to some

Vishnu's) forehead
anger.

when he happened one day

to be roused to

Again, Vishnu, speaking of himself (Santi-parvan

etc.),

13140.

says
I

'

am

the soul of

all

the worlds.

It

was myself

whom
myself.
loves
anu).'

formerly worshipped as
the boon-bestowing Siva,

Rudra.

If I

were not to

worship

no one would worship

;

He who knows him knows me

(Yas tarn
vetti sa

he who loves him

'nu tani sa hi

me

marn

vetti

yo

mam

But the true explanation of the homage paid by each

of the Triad to the other
(cf. p.

member
Still it

106)

is

to be sought

for in the pantheistic ideas

which underlie Hinduism.

incHned to lay

must be admitted that Saivism and Vaishnavism are

is

quite distinct systems, and that each sect

an exaggerated

stress

on

its

own

particular doctrines.

In ancient times these differences

to rancorous antagonism,
flicts.

not

unfrequently led
to violent con-

and sometimes even

in

This was especially the case

the

South, where
^.

Saivism generally triumphed over and displaced Vaishnavism

Even

in the present day,

when

universal toleration

is

the rule,

Saivas and Vaishnavas like to

racteristics,

maintain their distinct cha-

which they exhibit conspicuously to the eye by

a distinctive

mark on

their foreheads (called tilaka, pundra,

and, in the South of India,

nama

or gandha).

of

One reason I often had given to me in India for the present merging Brahma in Vishnu was that Brahma sprang from the body of Vishnu. ^ South for example, I noticed many traces of the conflict in the
;

Vaishnava sculptures have been

of Tanjore.

left

on the Gopuras

in the

Saiva temple

Differences betwee^i Saivism

and Vaishnavism.

67

That of the Salvas

(tri-pundra)

consists

of three

horizontal strokes

made with

the white ashes of burnt substances

(vibhuti), to represent, perhaps, the disintegrating forces be-

longing to their god Siva^, and that of the Vaishnavas

is

an upright mark (urdhva-pundra)

yellow,

made with

bright

red,

and white colouring substances (the white called

^),

Gopl-candana
Again,
navas

to represent the foot-print of their

human

and humane god Vishnu.

it is

important to note that both Saivas and Vaishthe

differ in

mode

of branding their breasts, arms,

and

other parts of their bodies with other distinctive marks of their

sect.

Such marks are burnt

in

with red-hot stamps, some-

times

made

of gold.

In the case of Saivas they represent the

Siva, such as the trident

weapons and symbols of

lihga
;

and the

while the favourite brands of Vishnu are the discus,

the club, and

the conch-shell.

This practice was severely

little effect.

denounced by Sankara ^ but apparently with

a string of 32 rough berries (or that

In regard to rosaries, the rosary (japa-mala) used

is

by Saivas number doubled) of

the Rudraksha tree (Elseocarpus Ganitrus), while that of the

Vaishnavas

is

made
Such
is

of the

wood

of the sacred Tulasi (Tulsi)

shrub, and generally consists of 108 beads (see pp. 117, 135

with notes).

rosaries

may

be worn as necklaces, though

in

their chief use

to

be employed as an aid

the recitation of
in

the

names

of the deity or of prayers.

Occasional varieties

the material and form of the rosaries

may

be noticed

for

example, Saiva ascetics sometimes carry rosaries formed of

the teeth of dead bodies (danta-mala), or sling serpents round

The ashes probably denote

This
is

that the

body must ultimately be reduced

to ashes.
^

drowned themselves on learning of the death ^ The Saiikara-vijaya shows how Sankara
ridiculous practice.
*

said to be the soil of a pool near Dvarika in which the GopTs of Krishna.
offered the
it

most strenuous

opposition to this practice of branding, stigmatizing

as a heretical and

See especially

my

book

'

Modern India and

the Indians,' p. io8.

F 2


6S
Differences between Saivism
for

and Vaishnavism,

their necks

necklaces.

On

the other hand, Vaishnava

rosaries are occasionally but rarely

made
to

of lotus-seeds (ka-

malaksha).

But the most important difference

Saivas and Vaishnavas
is in

be noted between

and symbols.
and
far

Siva,

more mystical

the use they make of idols, images, we must remember, is a less human deity than the incarnated Vishnu. The
is

character in which he
of an omnipotent

most frequently worshipped

life

is

that

God, taking the place of Brahma the

Creator, and granting

new

to all created things, but only

through death and disintegration.

sented

by the image

of a man, but

Hence he is not repreby a mystic symbol ^

perhaps the best symbol of delegated creative power

is

which
but
is

not dressed or fed or put to sleep like Vishnu's

in

idols,

supposed to be

a condition of perpetual heat and excite-

ment, and requires to be cooled and appeased by constant

sprinklings

(abhisheka) of cold Ganges water

and cooling

Bilva leaves applied throughout the

day by those who worship

is
is

him ^ by

(see pp. 90, 439).

if

Moreover food

not generally offered not afterwards eaten

to Siva, or,

occasionally so offered,

his votaries (except in certain special localities), for the

obvious reason that inauspicious (amangala) ideas are sup-

posed to be connected with

his office of causing

is

death
in

^.

On
^

the

other hand, since Vishnu

god

his

more

That

is,

by the

lifiga

or image of the distinctive organ of the male

sex (the phallus), never in the

mind of a Saiva connected with indecent

ideas nor with sexual love, though impure practices have certainly been

introduced in connexion with the worship of Siva's wife. In fact, sexual passion is chiefly associated with the worship of Vishnu, as Krishna. It is curious that Vaishnavas dislike the Saiva lihga and yet allow the most

impure and indecent representations on the walls of their temples. ^ Another mode of worship is by pradakshina or circumambulation, In many Lihga keeping the right side towards the object worshipped. shrines a space is left for this kind of homage. ^ The precept is, Leaves, flowers, fruit, and water must not be taken after being offered to Siva.' But at the great temple of Bhuvanesvara and a few other places an exception is made.
'

Differences between Saivism

and Vaishnavism. 69

human and humane

represented

aspect, sympathizing with men's trials

is

and condescending to be born of human parents, he

usually

by the complete image

of a well-formed

human
every

being

generally that of Krishna or

Rama which

is

day roused from a supposed nocturnal slumber, dressed,

decorated with gold and jewels, bathed, fed with offerings
of cooked and

uncooked

grain,

sweetmeats and

fruits,

un-

dressed and put to sleep again like an ordinary man, while

the remains of the

food offered (prasada) are eagerly con-

sumed by the

priests

and attendants^

(see p. 145).
is

And

here
in

may

point out that a great distinction

to

be made

regard to the comparative sanctity of different

kinds of symbols and images.

that
is,

Some

are called Svayam-bhu,

existing spontaneously, and are of their

own

nature

pervaded by the essence of the deity.

carved at
all,

These are
into shape.

either not

or very slightly

moulded

They

are

merely rough stones or rocks supposed to have descended

direct
soil.

from heaven or to have appeared miraculously on the

of
all

They are the most sacred and when discovered, temples are
Liiiga of Siva,

objects of adoration,

built over

them.

The most

usual idols of this kind are stones supposed to represent the

and when shrines are

female organ)
is

built

round them, a

Yoni

(to represent the

less sacred

usually added.

Not
water
called
^,

than these rough stones are certain small

pebbles found in rivers and polished by the action of the

Of

these the pebbles representing the Linga of Siva,

and apparently of white The quartz, are found in the bed of the Narbada river. black pebbles representing Vishnu or Krishna, called Salagrama (popularly sal-gram), and generally containing amBana-liriga or Vana-linga,
^ This will account for the fact that few villages can afford to keep a temple dedicated to Krishna. The vestments, ornaments, decorations, and paraphernaha needed are too expensive whereas all the requisites
;

for the
-

worship of Siva are a stone lihga, bilva leaves, and water. Some of them appear to be artificially rounded and polished.

70

Differences between Saivism

and Vaishnavism.
found in the river
in the

monites imbedded

in the stone, are chiefly

Gandakl.

Both kinds of pebble are employed

domestic
(to

worship of Siva and Vishnu known as Paiicayatana-puja

be described pp. 410-416), and performed by householders in Both are held to be of their own nature their own houses.

pervaded by the special presence of the deity and need no

consecration.

Offerings

made

to these pebbles

such
is

for in-

stance as Bilva leaves laid on the white stone of Siva

believed to confer extraordinary merit.

are

second form of idol

or sculptors

is

wholly

artificial.

This

carved

and not held sacred until the Brahby masons mans have consecrated it by a long ceremony called Pranapratishtha,
*

endowing with
in shrines

breath.'

When

such idols have

been placed

they can be looked at by an unbeliever,

is

even though the consecration they have received

to have filled

supposed

them with the

spirit

(prana) of the god they rethis

present.

Artificial idols

and symbols of

kind are manu-

factured in large numbers in holy

cities,

not so

much

for

general worship as for votive offerings to be set up with the

customary form of dedication (pratishtha)

objects of adoration in the private

in

the galleries or

vestibules of temples, or under sacred trees, or to be kept as

rooms of houses.
dedicated.

Pious persons reckon

it

a work of religious merit to cause

such idols and symbols to be

made and

have

seen thousands so dedicated, and others exposed for sale in

the streets.

Some Lihgas

are carved out of stone

some

are

made

of glass.

Serpents are occasionally carved round these

symbols, as well as round the images of Siva in

human

form.

An

account of the ceremonies performed in worshipping

;

idols will

be given subsequently (see pp. 90-94 144, 145). Another difference between Saivism and Vaishnavism must

be noted.
is

Each system has

;

its

own heaven.
;

That of Siva
is

Kailasa

that of Vishnu

is

Vaikuntha
first is

that of Krishna

Go-loka

(see pp. 118, 291).

;

The

supposed to be

in the

Himalaya mountains

while the two latter are believed (like

Two
Svarga,
p.

Characteristics of both Systems.

49) to be

somewhere on the mythical Mount Meru

To

these heavens the faithful worshippers of Siva, Vishnu, and

Krishna are respectively transported.

There, too, they not so

There amid eternal

safe

snows and inaccessible crags they are thought to be

future transmigrations.

from

may

attain to the

highest pinnacle of beatification,

much by

absolute

absorption (sayujya) into the one supreme Spirit according to

the Vedanta doctrine (see p. 41)

for

such complete union

rather

would involve
(samipya),
I

loss of personality

but

by dwelling

in

the same abode with their god (salokya), by nearness to him

by

assimilation to his likeness (sariTipya).

may mention

here that the cultus of the god Siva in some

of his forms, as well as that of some forms of Vishnu, has

been held by more than one authority to be traceable to the

tribes. But the exshow that Siva and Vishnu are both Brahmanical gods and have their origin in the Veda, though they have been often made to do duty for local deities outside the true circle of Brahmanism.

practices of pre-Aryan

and non-Aryan
to

planations

have given tend

Finally whatever differences exist between

the sects
to all

of
viz.

Hinduism, there are two characteristics

a pessimistic view of
life

common

and salvation by works.

at

Self-righteousness

lies

the root of Hinduism.

Let

it

be granted that this complex system reckons three ways

The way of sacrifices and ceremonial rites, or karma-mdrga (2) the way of devotion to personal deities, or bJiakti-uidrga (3) the way of
of deliverance from the misery of
life
:

(1)

spiritual

knowledge, ox jhdna-mdrga
all

yet each of these three

systems, or

three together, are only followed for the merit

(punya) to be gained through them, and Hindiiism accounts

no man righteous except through his own

deservings.
^

\vorks, acts,

and

The temple

of SrI-rangam at Trichinopoly

is

supposed

to

be a counteris

part of Vaikuntha (see p. 448), and the excavated temple at Ellora counterpart of Kailasa (see p. 447).

72
It is

One

Characteristic of both Systems.

rites,

true that expiatory

external purifications, lustral

washings, and ceremonial observances performed incessantly

by, or through, or with the aid of Brahmans, or even without
their aid, purifies

from natal

sin (see p. 354),

and deHvers from

its

constantly contracted impurity and guilt and

yet, for all that, the

consequences,

dictum of

Manu

(XII. 3) holds good in

:

Hinduism, and

is

believed in everywhere throughout India

Action of every kind, whether of mind Or speech or body, must bear fruit, entailing Fresh births through multifarious conditions.
In highest, mean, and lowest transmigrations.

Doubtless

Manu

laid stress

on the need of internal purity of

heart, but this internal purity

must be self-accomplished. Then

as to the
'

way

of devotion to personal duties, sometimes called

the

way
will.

of faith,' this again depends on the exercise of a man's

Lastly, as to the

own
is

way of knowledge,
etc.):

this,

no doubt,

held to be the highest way, according to the following statein the

is

ment

Maha-bharata (XII. 8810,

;

'By
;

works a

creature

bound

by knowledge he
born
after
;

is

liberated

wherefore

devotees gifted with perfect insight perform no works. Through

works a creature
other
of)

death with a body of (one or by knowledge he becomes the Eternal, Imperceptible, Undecaying' (Muir's Texts, V. 327). But this knowledge is only obtainable through man's own
is

sixteen descriptions

intuition or through abstract meditation for, just as Hinduism knows nothing of purity of heart communicated by an infinitely Pure and Holy Being external to itself, so it knows nothing of
;

any knowledge except that which is Self-evolved. There is a fourth way which might be included under the
first

namely, the way of Tapas, or self-imposed bodily morticommon

to all forms of Hinduism,
83, 87),

fication

but especially

connected with Saivism (see pp.

philosophy (see

and with the Yoga

divisions

We

work on Buddhism,' p. 326). now pass on to a more detailed account of the

'

my

of Hinduism.

CHAPTER
Saivisin or

IV.

Worship of Siva.

SaiviSM

may

be defined to be the setting aside of the

Siva,

triune equahty of

Brahma,
in

and Vishnu, and the merging of

Brahma and Vishnu

than
this.

the god Siva.

But

it

is

also

more

It is

the exaltation of Siva (whether as one person

or as associated with a consort) to the position of a

Supreme

Being,

exempt from subjection

Spirit.

to the law of ultimate absorpIt

;

tion into the Universal

is

his identification with

Brahma
and

as well as with

Brahma

with the one impersonal

;

Spirit as well as with the

one personal God

with the

Atman

Maya

of the

Prakriti of the

Vedanta philosophy; with the Purusha and Sahkhya system with the male and female
;

generative energies operating in the Universe.

Yet
is

it

ought to be clearly understood that the

identifica-

tion of Siva with the one impersonal Spirit of the Universe

rarely asserted categorically

in

by Saiva
that

sectarians

for

it

must always be borne

Saivism
is

mind

the very meaning of

exclusive devotion to a personal god Siva,

who

unlike the impersonal Spirit, possesses a body, and can think,

feel,

and

act.

In entering, therefore, on the subject of Saivism

ideas.

we are passing from pantheistic to theistic The Saiva bible or supposed inspired
elevation of the

authority for this

god Siva

to the highest position in the

Hindu

system must be sought for

among
in

the eighteen Puranas.

These writings are more generally

favour of the supremacy

Vishnu

Saiva and Vaishnava are the Sanskrit adjective forms of Siva and hence may be formed the words Saivism and Vaishnavism.'
'
; '

'

74

Saivism or Worship of Siva,

of Vishnu, but a certain number, such as the Liriga, Siva,

Kurma and Skanda

Puranas,

make Siva supreme

^.

We

have ah'eady pointed out that the idea of a Tri-murti

or triple

embodiment and
in the

triple personification of the

pheno-

mena and powers

fully

of Nature was adumbrated in the

Veda and

developed

Maha-bharata.

In the

Veda

special

homage
(i)

is

given to three gods

who

are

the representative deities of the three worlds and of the ele-

ments they contain,

the god on the earth.

To (2) To

the god of Fire (Agni),

who

is

the god of Rain associated with

the gods of Storm (Indra-Rudra),

who

are the gods in the

atmosphere.

(3)

To
is

the Sun-god (Surya),

In mythological

who

is

the god in

the heavens (see

p. 9).

Brahmanism

of which

the Maha-bharata

the chief exponent

these three Vedic gods

But the act of the
it

pass into
recreator,

Brahma

the creator, Rudra-Siva^ the destroyer and

(p.

and Vishnu

75) the preserver.

Creator was a single

act.

Once completed,

received scant

recognition at the hands of the beings created.

And,

as a
^.

matter of fact, the worship of

Brahma

fell

into desuetude

On

the other hand, the acts of disintegration, reintegration,

and maintenance of being were continuous acts of the deepest and most momentous interest to the whole human race.

Hence

it

happened that the homage paid

to

the deities

who

presided over these operations increased in intensity and

For,

developed into a system of the grossest superstition.

indeed, three remarkable

phenomena could not

fail

to impress

themselves on the most superficial observers of the processes

of nature.
First, that

mysterious and awe-inspiring forces

of every material

are ever
object in

at

work

for the disintegration

the universe;

secondly, that vivifying forces are

The

colossal sculpture of the Tri-murti in the caves of Elephanta,

excavated twelve or thirteen centuries ago, represents Brahma in the centre, Vishnu on the right, and Siva on the left (see p. 45). There is really no such word. I use this compound for convenience. ^ My visit to Brahma's temple near Ajmere is described in Chap. XXII.
'^

Saivism or Worship of Siva.

75

ever being exerted for the reintegration of material entities

through the disintegration of other

every existing material entity
is

entities

thirdly, that

maintained in existence by
it
it

the agency of sustaining forces which help

action of the forces of dissolution.

to resist the

In short,

was

clear that

the three processes of disintegration, reintegration, and main-

tenance of being are perpetually recurring in an eternal cycle

that each
to the other.

follows on the other

and that each

that

is

necessary

Now, it might have been expected Hindu mythology would have placed
close

the authors of
distinct

these three

processes under the control of three distinct deities.

But so
as-

was believed

to be the connexion

between the work of

disintegration

and that of reintegration that both were

signed to the presidency of one divine personification, who,

in this two-fold

character of Destroyer and Re-constructor,

may most
Siva.

fitly
it

be designated by the composite name Rudraonly as Rudra that he

;

For

is

is

the Lord of Death

it

and
'

the active agent in dissolution

and

is

only as Siva,

the auspicious/ that he reconstructs after destruction.

And

here at the outset

it

is

important to note that,

Siva, this

in his

character of both

Rudra and
preserver.

god enjoys a cultus

which reaches much further back than that of Vishnu the

maintainer

and

manifestly the

more
;

ancient.

Of the two deities Siva is He was the first to receive

in the present

special adoration

and although

day he has
is

fewer exclusive adorers than the god Vishnu, his worship

even

now more generally extended (compare note i, p. 78). The name of Vishnu occurs, it is true, in the Rig-veda, but
known by
other more important names

only as a secondary designation of the Sun, that luminary

being better

such as

Siarya, Savitri,

Aditya, Mitra.

Rudra appears quite early in the Veda with a well-recognised and well-marked personality of his own. He is an important deity, whose anger is to be dreaded

On

the other hand,

"](>

Saivism or Worship of Siva.

is

and whose favour

office or function

to

be propitiated.

Probably the

first

connected with him was that of directing

^.

and controUing the rage of the howling storms

gale and tempest he
is

As god

of

father of the destructive storm-winds,

who

are also called Rudras, and generally identified with the

Rudra is closely connected with the Vedic Rain-god (Indra), and with the still more
Maruts.
in this character

And

highly esteemed Vedic deity Fire (Agni), which, as a destroying agent, rages and crackles like the roaring tempest.
is

He

also nearly related to

Time

(Kala), the all-consumer, and

indeed afterwards identified with him^.

But he has also a more agreeable aspect even in the Veda. He is not merely the awful and inauspicious god whose thousand shafts bring
death or disease on

men and

cattle

^.

He

is

present in those
vapours.

health-giving winds which chase

is

away noxious

He
in

addressed as a healer, as a benefactor, as a benevolent and

;

auspicious being

the epithet Siva being applied to

him

the

Veda euphemistically
in the later

as a title rather than as a name.

his personality

Again,
still

Vedic period

becomes

more

intensified,

and

his

name,

attributes,

and functions
in

"infinitely amplified, varied,

and extended.

For example,
i, etc.)

the Vajasaneyi-samhita of the Yajur-veda (XVI.

is

there

a well-known

hymn
in his

or litany called the Satarudriya, ad-

dressed to

Rudra

hundred aspects and surrounded by

In this

his countless hosts of attendants.

is

hymn a hymn which

many
he
is

of the greatest interest, because constantly used in the pre-

sent

day

he

is

described as possessing

contradictory,
;

incongruous, grotesque, and wholly ungodlike attributes

for

example, he

is

a killer and destroyer

;

terrible, fierce
;

(ugra), inauspicious

he

is

a deliverer and saviour

he causes

root rud meaning ' to roar or howl as well as to weep.' In the Kailasa cave at Ellora I noticed that Siva in his character of Kala was represented as a skeleton.
^
'

The

'

'

'

Death

is

auspicious (amangala)

always connected in the Hindu mind with something and impure.

in-

; ;

Saivism or Wo7^ship of Siva.

happiness, and prevents disease
picious
;

77

he has a healing and ausis

body

(siva

tanuh)

he

yellow-haired,

brown-

coloured, copper-coloured, ruddy,

tall,

dwarfish

he has braided
is
;

locks (kapardin), wears the sacred thread, and

clothed in

a skin

he

is

blue-necked and thousand-eyed

he dwells

in the mountains,

and

is

the owner of troops (gana-pati) of

;

servants
ruler

who

traverse the earth obeying his orders

he

is

and controller of a thousand Rudras who are described

as fierce

and ill-formed (virupa)

;

he has a hundred bows

of beasts, horses,
fall

and a thousand quivers

he
is

he

is

the general of vast armies

spirits
;

lord of ghosts, goblins,

;

and

and dogs

of trees, shrubs, and plants

is

he causes the
is

of

leaves; he

lord of the Soma-juice

^,

he

patron of thieves

and robbers
he
presides

and
over

is

himself a

thief,

robber, and deceiver

carpenters,
;

chariot-makers,

blacksmiths,

architects,
rivers

huntsmen
lakes, in

he

is

present in towns and houses, in

in

and

woods and roads,

clouds and rain, in

sunshine and lightning, in wind and storm, in stones, dust,

and

earth.

If then this great deity

was distinguished even was only

to

in the

Vedic
held

period

by so great a

variety of attributes, and was

it

capable of so

many

functions,

be expected

that the plasticity and all-comprehensiveness of his godhead

should have increased with the advance of time.

natural, too, that the desire to propitiate

It

was only

become more generally

epithet
life
'

diffused.

him should have His terrific and ungodlike

character was, therefore, kept well in the background, and his

the blessed or auspicious one (Siva),'

who brought

out of death,

who

re-created after dissolution, passed into

his principal

name.

^ In the drama called Mricchakatika some burglars invoke Skanda son of Siva as their patron deity. At present nearly all the degrading characteristics of the god have been transferred to the form of his consort

called Kali.

That goddess is to this day the patron of thieves, robbers, Thugs, murderers, and every kind of infamous rascal (see Chap. XXII).

78

Saivism or Worship of Siva.

also Siva

Hence

became

to his worshippers the great

god

(Maha-deva) and lord of the universe

(jagat-pitri, visva-natha),
is

who, although he has numerous forms,

generally worshipped

under one mystical shape

plain upright stone, the sign or

symbol
too,

(linga) of generative

and creative power

^.

scattered
And

in

millions of shrines over every part of India

it

hence,

came

to pass that, in the end, this so-called great

god
self-

was often

identified with the

one universal, all-pervading,

existent Spirit of Brahmanical philosophy^.

Yet

it

is

remarkable that with the increasing tendency to

exalt the deity Siva to the highest pinnacle in the

Hindu
of
all

system, the desire to intensify his more

human

character and

to multiply those inferior attributes which deprive

title

him
in

to be called a

god

at

all,

increased also.

In the later

Indian scriptures he has ico8 names (enumerated

Siva-

purana

LXIX, Anusasana-parvan XVII,

see pp. 105-107 of

exist-

this volume), besides local appellations

and a corporeal

ence almost as anthropomorphic as that of Vishnu.

It is

true that

the god

Siva never passed through the

processes of birth, childhood, manhood, or any of the stages

of a recognized

human

existence in the

way

that

Rama

and

Krishna did

^,

yet he has his local incarnations (see p. 266),

and, irrespectively of these, a distinct personality of his own,

and a biography capable of being written with more precision

than that of Vishnu, by putting together the allusions and
descriptions in the Epic

poems and Puranas.

supposed residence,

In the

first

place, with regard to his

we

are informed in these writings that his

is

abode

is

Kailasa

in

the Himalaya, which

^

also

that

of his

countless

troops
krores

The number
millions).

of Lingas

in

India

is

estimated

at

three

= 30

^ Sayana, the great commentator on the Rig-veda, in the opening prayer to Siva (as identified with the Supreme) asserts that the Veda was his breath (ucchvasitam). ^

Only a few

local

South-Indian legends

make him go through human

births.

Saivism or Worship of Siva,

79

(Ganas) of servants \ as well as of Kubera, god of wealth,

who

is in

a similar manner surrounded

by
as

his attendants the

Yakshas.

This

mountain-residence

is,

we have
is

already

seen, the special

heaven of Siva, just as Vaikuntha

of Vishnu.

Thither his worshippers hope to be ultimately transported,

and there he
Kali,

lives

with his wife Parvati (also called Durga,

etc.),

bhadra,
his

Uma, who

Bhavani, Sati,
is

with the divine hero Vlra-

a manifestation of his

two sons Skanda and Ganesa.

own energy, and with The latter two control

demons, and

Siva's troops, leading

some

to battle against evil

restraining others

who
It is

are themselves mischievous imps

and

would turn the whole world into a scene of confusion unless

kept
in

check

^.

probable that in surrounding the god

Rudra-Siva with armies of demons and Impish attendants,

and making
gists

his sons lead

and control them, Hindu mytholoin the

merely gave expression to an idea inveterate

all

Indian mind, that

disease, destruction,

and dissolution are

and behaviour
it

the result of demoniacal agency.

With regard
is

to the bodily form,

mode

of

life,

attributed to Siva in his later character of lord of Kailasa,

not surprising that these should to

some extent be borrowed

in the

from the ancient description of him

before quoted
(p. 76).

Satarudriya

hymn

But many new and supernatural features

he has
with

symbolical of his later functions and actions are added.

In the
first

place, in regard to his corporeal aspect,

sometimes
^

five faces

(Pailcanana)

"',

sometimes one

face,

In the temple at

Madura
of his

of the Ganas.

Some

I saw a representation of Siva borne on one more personal attendants have special names,

such as Nandin (often confounded with his vehicle the bull, see p. 8i), Bhringin, and Tanclu, the last being the original teacher of dancing. It must be borne in mind that the troops of Siva are represented as
^

addicted to strong drink as well as to other excesses, and in this respect

their
^

master Siva sets them an example see pp. 84, 85. probable that the five faces or mouths symbolize the five Vedas (Rig, Yajus, Sama, Taittirlya, and Vajasaneyin), or perhaps the five Pathas (Sanihita, Pada, Krama, Jata, and Ghana), or the five GayatrTs.
;

It is

The Kularnava Tantra says

that the five

Amnayas

(the eastern, western,

So

Saivism or Worship of Siva.

three eyes, which are thought to denote his insight into past,
present,

and future time.

third eye
is

The
above

in his forehead,

and a moon's crescent

marks the measuring of time by months, while a serpent round his neck denotes the endless cycle of recurring years, and a second necklace of skulls with numerous other
it

serpents about his person^ symbolizes the eternal revolution

of ages, and the successive dissolution and regeneration of

the races of mankind.
ashes,

His body

is

generally covered with

and

his

hair thickly matted together, and gathered

above

his forehead into a coil, so as to project like a horn.

it

On

the top of

he bears the Ganges, the rush of which

its

he intercepted
stream.

in

descent from Vishnu's foot, that the

falling
re-

earth might not be crushed by the weight of the

His complexion
with

is

sometimes white ^5 from the

flection of the

snows of Kailasa, sometimes dark, from

the dark destroyer

his

identification

Time

(Kala).

His

throat

is

blue,

from the stain of the deadly poison which

southern, northern, and upper) issued from Siva's five mouths. Or the So Brahma's four faces are said to five elements may be symbolized.
in India

symbolize the source of the four Vedas. So also many images of Buddha and Ceylon have five rays of light issuing from the head. ^ Serpents, as we have seen, are associated with both Siva and

Vishnu. The latter, as is well known, sleeps on a serpent, and I have often seen Lifigas in the South with a canopy formed of a five-headed Images of Krishna and of Buddha are also so represented. serpent. The interchangeableness of Buddhism, Saivism, and Vaishnavism is

everywhere apparent. There is a legend that Siva appeared in the Kali age, for the good of the Brahmans, as Sveta 'the white one,' and that he had four disPossibly the attriciples, to all of whom the epithet Sveta is applied. bution of a white complexion to Siva may be due to the fact that the Brahmans of Cashmere, who are almost as fair as Europeans, were the Then as his cultus passed southwards the god first adherents of Siva. naturally received a complexion more in keeping with that of his wor-| shippers there. Or it may be that white and black, like day and night, symbolized the close connexion and succession of the destroying and
''

regenerative principles. the pale-coloured.

Siva's wife ParvatI

is

also often called GaurT,

Saivism or Worship of Siva.

would have destroyed the world, had not Siva
for the
in

8i
compassion
its

human

race undertaken to drink

it

up, on

pro-

duction at the churning of the ocean.

bull (called Nandi),
his

He

rides a white

images of which are often placed outside

energy.

shrines and probably typify generative

He

is

sometimes represented clothed

in a deer-skin,

sometimes

in

the skin of a tiger alleged to have been formerly killed

him when created by the magical

tried to

arts of

destroy the god, because his

by some Rishis who beauty had attracted

the amorous glances of their wives.

Sometimes, again, he

appears wearing an elephant's skin which had belonged to

a

demon

of

immense power named Gaya, whom he con-

quered and slew.

As

Siva

is

constantly engaged in battle

all

with mighty demons (such as Pura, Tripura, Andhaka),

of

whom

he fought and slew, he

;

is

armed with

special

weapons, suited to his warlike needs

for

example, he carries

a three-pronged trident (trisula,) which

may

either denote

the three attributes of Creator, Destroyer, and Regenerator,

or else all-destroying Past, Present, and Future
called

Time

bow

Ajagava (and Pinaka), a thunderbolt

(vajra),

an axe,

and a nondescript weapon called Khatvaiiga, consisting of

a kind of
staft*

with transverse pieces surmounted by a

skull.

He

also holds in his

hand a noose (pasa)

for

binding his

enemies, and a kind of rattle or drum, shaped like an hourglass, called

Damaru, which he uses

from
all

as a musical instrument

to keep time while dancing.

It is clear

this

symbolism that the god Siva, as

assumes a very bewilder1008 names (see

depicted

by

his special worshippers,

ing and confusing variety of personalities at different times.

His functions, as indicated by

are

his

p. 106),

innumerable and

his

nature

all-comprehensive.

Yet

an attempt

may

be made to disentangle the confusion by

his general portraiture

pointing out that there are really five chief characters of the

god which stand out prominently from

and are capable of being brought out into

definite relief.

82
I.

Saivism or Worship of Siva.

In the
first

place,

he

is,

as

we have

seen, the impersonation

of the dissolving and disintegrating powers and processes of

These ought really to be regarded as set in action by a beneficent being who performs a necessary operation, but in the later phases of Hinduism the idea of dissolution is
nature.

invested with terror.

Siva himself

is

converted into a fierce

universal destroyer (Sarva-bhuta-hara),

end of every great age (kalpa)

things, but

who annihilates at the not only men and all created

good and

evil

demons, and even Brahma, Vishnu,

and

all

the inferior gods.

(Fire), etc.

He

is

then called Rudra, Maha-kala,

the

Hara, Anala

One legend makes him wear

at the

bones and skulls of the gods as ornaments and garlands.

Another legend describes how

end of one of the

early ages of the universe he burnt up the gods

by a

flash

from his central eye, and afterwards rubbed their ashes upon
his

body; whence the use of ashes

in his

is

considered of great
for the

importance

worship.

Another legend accounts

tears of

use of Rudraksha berries in the rosaries of Siva

how he
is

once

let fall

some

by describing rage which became confive

verted into these seeds.

Their connexion with Siva-worship

probably due to their roughness and to their possessing

easy to see
is
is

divisions corresponding to the god's five faces.

It is

how

it

came

to pass that the

god

in this
its^

later character

believed to

delight in destruction for

*

own

sake.

He

called Smasana-vasin,

dweller in burial-

places.'

Cemeteries and burning-grounds are his favourite!

haunts; imps and demons (bhutas and pisacas) are his ready
servants
;

ferocity

and

irascibility,

on the

slightest provocation,:

constitute his normal condition of mind.

For example, on
which
the gods

one occasion, when the sage Daksha omitted to invite him

and

his wife Sat! to a great sacrifice at

all

were guests, he without the slightest hesitation decapitated

the unfortunate sage and replaced his head by that of a ram.

So again a sculpture
with eight arms
in

in the

caves of Elephanta represents him

the act of immolating a child.

In this

Saivism or Worship of Siva.

character he
is

8J
'

called Bhairava,

'

the terrible

Vlra-bhadra

being sometimes identified with him.

But

in the present

day

these terrible attributes are generally transferred

from the

male deity to
II.

his wife in the

form Durga or Kali.

is

In the second place, Siva

the impersonation of the

eternal reproductive
after disintegration

power of Nature, perpetually reintegrating

(whence his names
;

Pitri,

Matri, BhiitaIt is especially

bhavana, Sarva-bhavakara
in this personality that
'

see pp. io6, 107).

he

is
'

worshipped as
the

if

he were Brahma
one,'
'

the Creator

'

and called

eternally blessed

the

causer of blessings' (Siva, Sada-Siva, Sahkara, and

Sambhu)

not, however, under the form of a man, but under the often
misunderstood symbol of the Lihga^ (see
is

p.

68 and note), which

sometimes represented with four faces

III.

(see

Chap. XXII).
self-

In the third place, Siva

is

the typical ascetic and

mortifier (Yogi, Tapasvl),

fection
in

who

has attained the highest per-

abstract

meditation

and austerity (whence

his

names Maha-tapah, Maha-yogi).

In this character he appears

quite naked (Dig-ambara), with only one face, like an ordinary

human

being,

with ash-besmeared

body and matted

in
tree),

hair

(whence his name Dhurjati) sitting

under a Banian tree (=:Vata or Bar

profound meditation

and

often, like the

contemplative Buddha, under a canopy formed by a serpent's

head
less,

^.

There he

is

supposed to remain passionless, motion-

immovable, as the trunk of a tree (sthanu), and perhaps

rooted to the same spot for millions of years.

Another legend describes how

ashes

Siva,

when engaged

in

course of asceticism, scorched the god of love (Kama-deva) to

by

a flash of rage from his central eye, because that

nounced as

male organ) is sometimes dean abominable symbol.' Nevertheless it is never by Saivas connected with the passion of love. This passion belongs to Vaishnavism rather than to Saivism. Some think that the worship of the Lifiga was borrowed from pre-Aryan or aboriginal tribes, but see p. 71. ^ The serpent is often five-headed, which appears to have some con^

The

Lifiga (or representation of the

'

nection with Siva's five faces.

Compare note

3, p.

79.

84

Saivism or Worship of Siva.

him with passion
for his consort

deity attempted to inflame

Parvati.

Yogi that he teaches men by his the power to be acquired by mortification of the body, suppression of the passions, and abstract contemIt is in his

character of

own example

plation, as leading to the loftiest

spiritual

knowledge and
a contemplative

ultimately effecting union with himself in Kailasa.

IV. In the fourth place, the god Siva

is

philosopher and learned sage, the revealer of

greatest of Indian grammarians, Panini ^
racter he
is

Grammar

to the

And

in this

cha-

represented as a

Brahman wearing

the Brahmani-

cal thread^, well-skilled in the

Veda, and especially conversant

with the

Krama arrangement of the text. So much so that is current among the Pandits No one, who is not Rudra, can repeat the Krama (narudrah Krama-pathakah).
a saying
:

'

'

Among
carl,

his

names, too, are Mantra-vid, Brahma-vid, BrahmaThis, in fact,

is

and Panditah.

one of

many

proofs that

at least one form of

Saivism

is

as

much
is
^.

the peculiar system

of Brahmans, learned

men, and the higher classes of the

of

Hindu community,
kings, heroes,

as Vaishnavism
classes
is

men
fact,
:

of the world,

and the lower

In

the ancient version of

Manu

often quoted

a verse from
'

Siva

is

the

god of the Brahmans, Krishna (Vishnu) of the Kshatriyas,

Brahma
ascetic

of the Vaisyas,
fifth

and Ganesa of Sudras.'

is
is

V. In the

place, Siva

exactly the opposite of an

and philosopher.

He
also

a wild and jovial moun-

taineer (Kirata), addicted to hunting

of dancing (Nritya-priya,

and wine-drinking, fond

Natesvara,
'

called

lord

of

The

first

fourteen sutras of Panini are called the Siva-sutras, and

the whole
of Siva's

grammar is believed to be a revelation fi-om Siva, whence one names is Vyakaranottarah. The miracle is made more remarkstupid.

able
^

by representing the reputed author Panini as naturally

I

noticed that a carving of Siva in the caves of Ellora represents him with the Brahmanical thread. His son Ganesa also wears this thread.
^

There

is

another

common

saying,

Navishnuh

prithivl-patih,

'

No

one

except he resemble Vishnu ought to be a king.'

Saivism or Worship of Siva.

dancers'), often

85

dancing with his wife the Tandava dance,

and surrounded by dwarfish, buffoon-like troops (gana) of

attendants, who, like their master, are fond of

good

living

and

occasionally inebriated

by intoxicating
Saktas,

liquors.

The

worshippers of Siva in this character usually (but not invariably) belong to the sect called

who

are devoted to

the wife of the god, and are given to self-indulgence and

sensual gratification.
tras,

Their religious books are called Tanwill

and their tenets

(see p. 180).

be explained under the head of

Saktism

still

more remarkable aspect

of the
^.

god

is

as a being

half-male, half-female (Ardha-nari)

This seems to be conIt

nected with the second of the characters just described.

symbolizes both the duality and unity of the generative act and
the production of the universe from the union of two eternal
principles (Prakriti

and Purusha, Maya and Brahman), accord(see p. 183).

ing to the

Sankhya and Vedanta systems

it

Further,

should be noted that, according to some Puranas,

there are eight principal personal manifestations of Siva, called

Rudra, Bhairava (or Bhlma), Ugra, Isvara (or Isana or Isa), Maha-

deva

(or Mahesvara), Pasu-pati,

is

Sarva (Sarva), and Bhava.

Again, he

specially manifested in eight material forms

(Tanus)

Fire,

Water, Earth, Air, Ether (which are the

five

elements, typified
sacrificing

by his five faces), the Sun, Moon, and the Brahman. By these he upholds the world.
is

In Southern India Siva

special miracles.

celebrated as the worker of 64

He

raised the dead, healed the blind, deaf,

('>,

lame,

etc.,

and gave similar powers to

is

of his saints.

The

story of these miracles

given in the Madhura-sthala-purana,

at

and

saw many representations of them both

Madura and

Tanjore.

(For other names of Siva, see pp. 106, 107.)

saw a
fine

In the caves of Elephanta

carving of Siva and ParvatI

thus united in one body.

and
is

left side of the god, It is noticeable that the wife represented holding a looking-glass. always on the left side, except as a bride at the nuptial ceremony.
is

The female

side forms the

86

Saivism,

Saiva

Sects.

The

great variety of Siva's characters does not seem to

sects.

have led to a corresponding variety of Saiva

We

find

that Saivism has not, Hke Vaishnavism, resolved itself into

many

separate
It

organized
in

societies

under

great

religious

leaders.

would

truth be difficult to

name any

con-

spicuous apostle and teacher of pure Saivism (certainly not

Basaba,
nuja,

p. 88), like

the celebrated Vaishnava teachers

(pp.
1

RamaFor

Madhva, Vallabha, and Caitanya

19-145).

we have already seen

some

that the great Sankara, though held by

to have Saiva proclivities, abstained from inculcating

devotion to any one god more than to another.

Unquestionably
are ready to

all

Hindus, even the

to Siva
in

strictest

Vaishnavas,

pay homage

his

first

and second
is

characters of Dissolver and

Regenerator.

It

clear,

too,

that in the days of Sankara several sects of Saivas existed

and became the object of

the Sahkara-vijaya six are
excellence^

his controversial onslaughts.

In

named:

to wit,

i.

the Saivas, /^r

;

who had the Lihga branded on both arms 2. the Raudras, who had the trident branded on the forehead 3. the Ugras, who had the Damaru (see p. 81) branded on the two arms 4. the Bhattas, who had the Liiiga on the forehead 5. the Jaiigamas, who bore the trident on the head and carried a Lihga made of stone on their persons 6. the Pasupatas, who had the latter symbol branded on the fore;

head, arms, breast, and navel.

These
to the

sects are described in the Sahkara-vijaya as hostile

doctrine

of

Non-duality (Advaita-drohinah).
is

Their

practice of branding

denounced by Sankara on the ground

^"he

that various gods are present in

limbs of the

human body

^,

who are driven away by the burning (tapana) of the skin. Of the six sects named only the two last are numerous
tenets
^

in

the present day, and both these have altered not a few of their

and

practices.

In

modern times Saiva

sectarians are

May we

not compare the Christian idea of the sanctity of the body

as the temple of the

Holy Ghost

Saivism,

Bodily Mortification or Tap as.

'^']

generally followers of Siva in his third character of an ascetic.

They

profess to practise, like their god, severe austerities and

bodily mortifications.

Numbers
is

of

them may be

seen

at

sacred places of pilgrimage, where their appearance as

self-

mortifying mendicants

often revolting to Europeans.

Those who
able.

call
all

themselves Sannyasis are the most respect-

Indeed

twice-born

men towards
and
all

the close of their lives

ought to abandon
Sannyasis
(p. ^'^.

their wives

ties and become But the ordinary Sannyasis are not of the

worldly

orthodox type.

They

are often confounded with other orders

of mendicant devotees such as VairagTs (held to be Vaishnavas),

Gosains, and Yogis (Jogis)

for all

the latter being a general

name

Tapasvis who seek by their austerities (tapas) to achieve

union (yoga) with the deity ^

Self-mortification (tapas, tapasya), in fact,

and the practice

72) or even to

of

Yoga

is

not confined to Saivism (see

(see

p.

Hinduism
to

my
is

book on Buddhism,

p. 226).

The theory

that a Hindii

who aims

at perfection ought
for

go through six successive courses of austerity (tapas)

twelve years each, rising by degrees up to the highest order of

all

the Parama-haosa, who

there
is

is

supposed to be wholly absorbed

in

meditating on Brahman, and to do nothing else whatever.

Then
or

an order of Saiva ascetics called Dandin,

divisions

staff-bearers, ten

of

whom called Dasa-namI

Dandins, said to carry ten different forms of staff

to

are alleged

have been founded by Sahkaracarya.

There are
pathin),

also the Aghora-panthls (panthi from Sanskrit

who

propitiate Siva

by

their revolting diet, feeding

on

filth

and animal excreta of

all

kinds.

It is asserted that

some

eat corpses stolen from

Muhammadan

burial-grounds,

and that the head of the Aghorls near Siddhapur subsists on

^ They are sometimes called Sadhus, and often Fakirs. The latter name ought to be restricted to Muhammadan mendicants. Bhagat (probably for Bhakta) is sometimes used for Vaishnava devotees. Mahant is applied to a leader of one of these sects, or to the head of a monastery.

88
scorpions, lizards,

Saivism,

Saiva

Sects,

and loathsome
is

insects left to putrefy in a

p. 7).

dead man's skull (Agama-prakasa,

of these disgusting ascetics

Happily the number

I

decreasing.

only met one in the

whole course of

my

travels

a revolting creature at Benares.

Then

there are the tJrdhva-bahus,

who extend one

or both

arms over the head and hold them

This kind of devotee,
days.
too,
is

in that position for years.

not so

common

as in former

During the whole course of

my

travels I only

saw two
tightly

examples, one at Gaya and the other at Benares.

of the former was quite withered, and his
fist

The arm

was so

clenched that the nails were growing through the back of his
hand.

The

latter

looked like a piece of sculpture, sitting

in

a niche of the Anna-purna temple, perfectly motionless and

impassive, with naked

body smeared

all

over with white ashes,

matted

hair,

and the forefinger of the upraised hand pointing

to the heaven to which in imagination he

seemed to be already
their necks

transporting himself.

There are
dead man's

also the

Akasa-mukhins, who keep

;

bent back looking up at the sky

the Kapalikas,
^.

who

use a

skull for a drinking-cup

(See also Chap. XXII.)

Most of these Saiva

and decidedly dirty

ascetics are disreputable in character

in their habits.
in their

Cleanliness

is

said to be

next to godliness, and Hindus

as cleanly as Europeans
;

general habits are quite

yet dirt appears to be regarded as a

necessary accompaniment of particular forms of sanctity^.

We may also
of India

note that a sect of Saivas exists in the South

mostly in the
are

Mysore and Kanarese country

(for

who

were formed into a religious community about the eleventh

or twelfth century

by a leader named Basaba

called
in

Sanskrit

Vrishabha), and

Lihgavats (popularly Lingaits),

a silver or metallic casket

because they wear the Linga

This order is said to have been founded by Sahkara compare p. 59. But only in the case of ascetics. The late Lord Beaconsfield was right when he said that Moses, Muhammad, and Manu all make cleanliness a religious duty.
^
;


Saivism.

Saiva

Sects.
like

89
a necklace.

suspended round their necks with a cord

They
In

are usually identified with the Jarigamas of Saiikara's

day, described as utterly unorthodox.

fact, this sect is

opposed to

all

the orthodox practices

and usages of the Hindus, such as caste-distinctions^, the authority of the Brahmans, the inspiration of the Veda, and
Brahmanical
dead.
sacrifices
;

and they bury instead of burning

in

their

Their tenets are embodied

the Basaba-purana.
it

With regard
more or
less

to Saiva philosophical doctrines

sects,

should be

observed that, like those of the Vaishnava

they deviate

from the orthodox Vedanta doctrine of the

identity of the

Supreme and human

Spirit,

the

amount

of

deviation depending of course on the intensity of the personality attributed to Siva.

particular Saiva philosophy, which

excellence^
It

may be
in

called the

Saiva-darsana par
eleventh century.
called
is

was taught
in

India about the

was handed down

all

twenty-eight books,

Agamas, almost

of which are

lost.
is

This philosophy

followed by a sect in the South, and

It

opposed to the non-

duality of the Vedanta.

like that of the

taught a kind of Visishtadvaita

(see p. 119)
entities

Vaishnava teacher Ramanuja

the
' '

distinctive feature of

which was that three

have a

separate existence,
of the soul animal.'
3.
'

The Lord (Siva) called Pasu-pati, lord an 2. The human soul called Pasu, (Pasu). Matter called Pasa, 'a fetter.' The soul which
i.

belongs to the Lord as to a master,

beast (pasu)
is

by a
is

fetter

bound by matter as a and of course the great aim of this

is

Saiva philosophy
owner.

to set

it

free

and

restore

it

to

its

rightful

These doctrines have evidently much

sect, called

in

common

with

the theistic Sahkhya.

Another Saiva
^

Pasupata, already noticed (pp. 59,

Lingaits of the present day are said to be returning to casteand only to disregard caste on certain days of the week. I have heard some declare that they belong to a fifth caste (paiicama) which is superior to the four castes of the Brahmanical system.
rules,

The


90
86)
is

Saivism,

Saiva Ceremonies.

connected with the preceding,

;

much

as the

Madhva

is

with the Ramanuja

for instead of affirming the separate ex-

istence of three entities they only distinguish

between two
the effect

Pati

and Pasu.

The former
is

(Pati)

is
;

the Lord (Isvara), the

the latter
is

cause and evolver (karta) of

(karya) or that which

all

things

evolved out of the cause and wholly

ecstatic union with

dependent on
their lord
I

it.

The Pasupatas induce

chapter
a

by

singing, dancing,

and gesticulations.
description
of the

defer

to

a subsequent

principal Saiva temples visited

by me

(see p. 434).
I

Nevertheless, an account of the ceremonies

at a
It

saw performed
here.

Lihga shrine near Bombay may be introduced

in

has been already stated that on ordinary occasions the

form of worship consists

simply pouring water over the

(see p. 68).
is

Linga and offering Bilva leaves

vals a
visited the

On

great

festi-

more complicated ceremonial

I

observed.

In the year

1877

temple dedicated to Siva at Walkesvar,

near Bombay, on the morning after the Siva-rat (rat=:ratri)

or fast kept in honour of the god.

The Lihga

shrine there

is

not large, and the symbol

to observation.
I

is

not too sacred to be exposed

in fact, to stand close to

was permitted,

the entrance of the small sanctuary and to note

witnessed.

down

all

In the centre of the shrine was the Liriga, a plain

upright stone, which on the occasion of the Siva-rat cere-

mony was
it

covered with a pile of Bilva (Bil

^)

leaves.

Near

there were several high candlesticks with lights kept con-

tinually burning.

Behind,

in

a niche, was the image of Siva's

wife ParvatI, which on the occasion of

my

visit

was loaded
of brass;]

with sacred flowers resembling marigolds.

into the sanctuary,

In front, looking

was the image of a

bull

made

the bull being Siva's vehicle, and, like the Lihga, symbolical;
of reproductive energy.

Above

the upright stone was hangIt

ing a large vase

^

full

of water.
is

had a perforation

in its

The

Bilva, corrupted into Bll,

the

^gle Marmelos, a very astringent

plant.

Saivisin.

Saiva Ceremonies.

91

lowest part through which the liquid trickled out, drop

by

drop, falling at regular intervals on the symbol underneath.

When

asked a bystander the meaning of

p.
6(S),

this

constant
:

dripping (see

he replied with much naivete

is

'

Holy

water from the Ganges

falling

on the head of God.'

No

further explanation appeared to

him

to be needed.

In front

of the porch before the door of the sanctuary were three long

rows of

bells,

and above them a

line of svastikas or sacred

crosses^ interspersed with trees and figures of elephants, and

over

all

the hood of a cobra snake.

Above

the door

itself

was the imac^e of Siva's son Gancsa.

Outside the shrine, on the morning of
of male worshippers (three or four
in front of

my

visit,

stood a row

women

standing near), and

them a

priest,

holding a tray of Bilva leaves, sup-

posed to possess cooling properties grateful to the god Siva.

Some

of these the priest placed in the hands of each wor-

shipper, at the

same time muttering prayers and

texts.

Next
seemed

he dipped

his finger in

a vase of holy water and touched the

two eyes and breasts of each.

exactly as
bodies.
if

To me,

a spectator,

it

he were making the sign of a cross on their

of the worshippers

Then each

heaped the leaves

I

received from the priest on the head of the bull. that

noticed

some

also besprinkled

it

with saffron (kunkuma) powder,

which they purchased from a

man

standing near.
all

This preliminary ceremony ended,

entered the shrine,

and
their

after ringing the bells at the entrance, prostrated

them-

selves before the central symbol, touching the

ground with

foreheads.

Their next

act

was

to

pile

more Bilva

leaves on the stone symbol.

water, they poured

Then

tc.king small lotas of holy

leaves

and symbol.

abundance of the sacred liquid over both All the worshippers then seated themstone while the priest

selves in

a circle round the central

^ The Svastika mark is an auspicious symbol with four arms in the form of a Greek cross, the termination of each arm being bent round in the direction of the sun's course. See note i, p. 104.

92

Saivism.

Saiva Ceremonies.
it.

lighted lamps and

waved them before

Every now and

one of the
in the shrine

then a fresh worshipper

bells at the

entered the shrine, ringing

door before entering.

Moreover,

there was a constant ringing of small portable bells and clap-

ping of hands, as
shipped to

draw the attention of the deity worthe prayers muttered by his worshippers, while a
if

to

number

of priests in another part of the sanctuary intoned

texts and chanted

hymns

in chants

very like Gregorian.

nearly naked ascetic,

Outside the shrine, on one

peak, his face and other side sat

side, sat a

with long matted hair coiled round and round into a high

body covered with white ashes. On the a Brahman with a little wooden table before
a

him, on which was a lota of holy water, several implements of worship, and
sacred scriptures.

copy of one of the Puranas or ancient

He had

three white streaks on his fore-

head and the same on his shoulders to denote his devotion

Hanging over his left shoulder and under his right arm was the sacred cord of three coils of cotton the mark of his second birth and his right hand was inserted in a He is Gomukhi or rosary bag. I asked what he was doing.
to Siva.

'

counting the beads of his rosary,' said a bystander,

'

and each

time he

tells his

beads he repeats one of the 1008 names of the

again, but this operation

god Siva over and over

the bag.'

must on no
in

account be seen, and so the hand and rosary are concealed

No
as

doubt he was muttering to himself, but

in so

low a tone
fixed,

that no sound
if in

was audible

and

his eyes

were intently

profound meditation, which neither

my

presence nor

anything passing around appeared to distract for a single

instant.

Another devotee was

also seated cross-legged outside the

entrance to the shrine, whose intoning of one of the Siva-

puranas and muttering of prayers (japa) was audible to every

one.

He had before him a low wooden table, on which was Rudraksha rosary (see p. 82), a Linga-purana, a little

Saivism.
rice,
little

Saiva Ceremonies.

93

metal saucer of
legged stand, a

a small lota of holy water on a threespoon, a heap of Bilva leaves, a sacred

conch-shell (sankha)

sometimes

blown

like a

horn or used

as a Saiva symbol, though usually appropriated to

Vishnu

three green mangoes, a small

little

bell,

a leaf

full

of dates, and a
for

bag containing the Vibhuti or white ashes

the
three

marking
I

his

forehead with

Saiva streaks.

While

was

taking this catalogue he took no notice of

my

proceedings,

but continued muttering his prayers with intense earnestness,

as
if

quite abstracted from the world around him.

Though greatly interested in all I was allowed to witness, came away sick at heart. No one could be present at such scene without feeling depressed by the thought that, notall

withstanding

our efforts for the extension of education

and the

diffusion of knowledge,

we have

as yet

done

little

to

loosen the iron grip of idolatry and superstition on the masses of the people.

Indeed

it

would be easy to show that other

characterized

forms

of

Siva-worship are
still

by
for

superstitious

observances of a
the

lower type.
at

Turn we,
great

example, to

ceremonies

performed

the

Saiva temple of
I

Bhuvanesvara
this chapter.

in Orissa.

These are so unique that

may
who

be pardoned for giving some idea of them before concluding

My

authority

is

Dr. Rajendralala Mitra,

in

has described the ceremonial

the second volume of his

work on

Orissa.

Siva

is

worshipped at that particular locality

the

under the form of a large uncarved block or slab of granite,

about eight feet long, partly buried
apparent above the
soil to

in

ground, partly

the height of about eight inches.

The block
(see p. 69),

is

believed to be a Liiiga of the

is

Svayam-bhu

class

and no

surrounded by a rim, supposed, of course,

to represent the female organ (Yoni).

consists of
(i)

The

daily worship
acts.

less

than twenty-two ceremonial

bells are

At

the

first

appearance of dawn
;

rung to rouse
is

the deity from his slumbers

(2) a

lamp with many wicks

waved

in front of

the stone

(3) the god's teeth are

cleaned

'

94

Saivism.

Saiva Ceremonies,

on the stone

by pouring water and rubbing a stick about a foot long (4) the deity is washed and bathed by emptying several pitchers of water on the stone (5) the god is
; ;

dressed by putting clothes on the stone

fast
is

(6)

the

first

break-

offered, consisting
;

of grain,

sweetmeats, curd, and

cocoanuts

(7)

the god

has his principal breakfast, when

;

cakes and more substantial viands are served

little

(8)

a kind of

lunch

is

offered

(9)
is

the god

has his regular lunch

rice,

(10) the

mid-day dinner
cream,

served, consisting of curry,

pastry, cakes,

etc.,

while

priest

waves a many-

flamed lamp and burns incense before the stone; (11) strains of noisy discordant music rouse the deity from his afternoon
sleep at 4 P.M., the sanctuary having been closed for the pre-

ceding four hours;

afternoon bath
in
is

(12)

sweetmeats are offered;

;

(13) the

administered
(15) another
(17)

(14) the god

is

is

dressed as

the morning;
is

meal

served;

(16) another

bath
place,

administered;
fine

the

full-dress

ceremony takes
and
per-

when

costly vestments, yellow flowers,

(18)

fumery are placed on the stone;

served

another offering of

food follows; (19) after an hour's interval the regular supper

is
;

(20) five

masks

(p.

79)

and a Damaru
(21)

(p.

81) are

brought

in

and oblations made;

is

waving of
;

lights (arti;
is

Sanskrit, arati)

performed before bedtime

(22) a bedstead

brought into the sanctuary and the god composed to sleep.

Of course

the offerings are ultimately eaten

by the

priests

and attendants, the superfluity being sold as sacred food. This Bhuvanesvara ceremonial seems to be an imitation of
the forms of worship offered to the images of Krishna.
It is satisfactory to find that

many

enlightened Brahmans

in the present

day are not

afraid to express their disapproval

of idol-offerings.

In a Gujarat! work written by a learned

p.

Brahman (Agama-prakasa,

we read When one remembers the greatness of the perfect God who is Existence, Thought, and Bliss (p. 34), how can any idea be formed of
162)
'

offering food

and oblations

to such a

Being ?

CHAPTER

V.

Vaishnavism or Worship of Vishnu.

The
made
it

preceding chapters of this work

will,

trust,

have

clear that, in respect of religious belief, the

Hindus

of the present
classes-^,

day may be broadly divided

(i)

into three principal

namely,

Smartas,

(2) Saivas^ (3)

Vaishnavas.
is

The

first (p.

^^

believe that man's spirit

is

identical with

the one Spirit (Atma, Brahma'-) which

the essence and sub-

stratum of the Universe and only cognizable through internal

meditation and self-communion.
the highest object of
all

They

regard that Spirit as

aspiration.

religious

knowledge and
;

They

are also believers in the Tri-miarti

that

is,

in the three

personal gods, Brahma, Siva, and Vishnu

with

their train of

subordinate deities

but

only as coequal manifestations of

the one eternal impersonal Spirit, and as destined ultimately

These, of course, are capable of subdivision. It is worthy of note that Atman (which is the earlier word for the one Spirit of the Universe) is masculine, while Brahman, the later word,
^

is

neuter.

The etymology
;
;

of

Atman

is

doubtful.

Some
I
;

derive

it

from

at, to

move

others from ah, connected with ahain,

others from vd^

blow as the wind and others (as we have seen) from a7i, to breathe (compare p. 20). No doubt atman was originally the breath of life the breath that animates the Universe and man's living soul the power in which and by which man lives, and moves, and has his being. In the well-known hymn Rig-veda I. 115. i, the Sun (Surya) interpreted by advanced Pandits to mean the Supreme Being is called the Soul (Atman) and in the of the Universe (that is, of all that moves and is immovable) Taittirlya Aranyaka, VIII. i,the ethereal element called Akasa (supposed to fill and pervade the Universe and to be the vehicle of life) is said to be produced from Atman. The name Brahman, which is the most usual name for the one Spirit of the Universe in later writings, was at first connected with the spiritual power inherent in the Vedic hymns and
to

prayers.

The Veda

itself is often called

Brahma, and described as the

breath (ucchvasita) of the Supreme.

g6

Vaishnavism or Worship of Vishnu.

and so disappear ^.
This
is

to be reabsorbed into that Spirit

the only orthodox form of Brahmanical

religious thought,

and those Brahmans who follow

as their authoritative guide.
differs

it

It is a

claim Sankara (see p. ^^) form of Pantheism, but

widely from that of European philosophical systems.

great religious class of the Hindus consists of

The second

Saiva sectarians, who, as

we have

seen, are believers in the

one god Siva, not only as Dissolver and Regenerator, but as

Creator and Preserver, and as the one self-existent Being,
identified with the

one Universal

liable to lose his personality

Spirit, and therefore not by reabsorption into that Spirit.

The

third class consists of

Vaishnava

sectarians,

who

are

believers in the one personal

god Vishnu, not only as Preserver,

It

but as Creator and Dissolver.

should be noted, too, that

in attributing

both Saivas and Vaishnavas agree

an essential

form and

qualities to the

Supreme Being.
;

Vishnu as the
till

Supreme reposes upon

creates the world.

his serpent-couch

affected with
(p.

the quality of activity he awakes, and, as

Brahma
II.

105),

See Vishnu-purana, Chap.

is,

Vaishnavism then
It is

like Saivism, a

form of Monotheism.

the setting aside of the triune equality of Brahma, Siva,

in favour of

and Vishnu,

one god Vishnu (often called Hari),

especially as manifested in his two

human

incarnations

Rama
greater

and Krishna.
than these
it

'

Brahma and
'

Siva,' said the great

Vaishnava
;

teacher Madhva,
is

decay with their decaying bodies

the undecaying Hari.'

And

here, at the outset,

may

be well to point out tha t Vaish navism, notwithstanding

the gross polytheistic superstitions and hideous idolatry to

which

it

gives rise, is^the onlyJtiJlidiUsystem

worthy of being
it

called a religion.

At

all

events

it

must be admitted that

little

has

more common

ground with Christianity than

faith.

any other form

of non-Christian

Vedism was

more than reveren-

^ Brahma, Siva, and Vishnu are manifested by the simple will of the Supreme, whereas in the creation of living human beings (jiva) the influence of karma, act,' is an important element.
'

Vaislmavism or Worship of Vishnu.

tial

97

awe of the forces of Nature and a desire to propitiate them. Brahmanism was simply an Indian variety of pantheism. Buddhism was a product and a reform of Brahmanism, and gained many followers by opening its arms to all castes and by offering deliverance from the slavery of passion and from
the miseries of
craft
;

life

and the burden of ritualism and

priest-

but, in its denials of the existence of

spirit,

both a Supreme

and human
tions never

was no

religion at all

and

in its

nega-

commended

itself

generally to the Indian mind.

it

Saivism, though, like Vaishnavism,

personality of one

recognized the eternal

severe and cold

Supreme Being, was too

a system to exert exclusive influence over the great majority.

Vaishnavism alone possessed the elements of a genuine

religion.

Who
a

can doubt that a

God

of such a character

was needed

God who
works
?

could satisfy the yearnings of the heart for

love and prayer rather than of knowledge
to

a religion of
land

faith,

Such a God was believed

evinced his

be represented
suffering,

by Vishnu, who

sympathy with mundane

(i)

by frequent descents on
threefold miseries of

earth, for the delivery of

men from

the

life, viz.

from the diseases incident to

body and mind, such

tc.
;

as those resulting from lust, anger, avarice,

inflicted

(2)

from the miseries

by material environment,
;

by

beasts, snakes,

wicked men,

etc.

(3)

from those

inflicted

by unseen demoniacal agency. Indian philosophy, however, claimed the power of getting rid of all these three miseries
see Sahkhya-karika,
i).

Hence
j^f

teachers arose

(among whom was Sandilya the author

insisted

the Bhakti-sutra)

who

on the doctrine of salvation

doctrine dimly adumbrated

3y love and devotion (Bhakti)

!n

portions of the Veda, and fully propounded in the Bhaga-

^ad-gita and Bhagavata-purana (see p. 6'^.

Intense devotion, then, to a personal god Vishnu, and beief in his

is

power

to elevate his worshippers to eternal bliss in

own heaven (Vaikuntha,

of Vaishnavism
;

see p. 118),

is

the chief character-

stic

for

Vaishnavism, like Saivism, dissents

98

Vaishnavism or Worship of Vishnu.

from the vague impersonal Pantheism of Brahmanical philosophy, whose one

himself nothing.

God

is

the substratum of everything and

Vishnu

in his

Nor can we wonder that devotion to incarnations, Rama and Krishna, human two
religion of India.
caste,

became the most popular

popular leaders.
It is

These two heroes

were of the kingly or Kshatriya

and greatly beloved as

usual to assert that the

Brahmans

are

the highest objects of worship and honour

This

is

not the case

religion.

Vaishnava

among the Hindus. among the countless adherents of the The mass of the people of India exalt
all

the divine right of kings and the divine right of the govern-

ment of the day above

Yet, with
all its

other forms of power, and worship

every great and heroic leader as an incarnation of the deity.

popularity, Vaishnavism
itself. is

not an example

of a house at peace within

subdivisions,

It

has

split

up

into various

which display no

little

of the

odium

theolo-

gicum
of

in their opposition to

each other.

Possibly antagonism

some kind is a necessary condition of religious vitality. At any rate in India all religious systems inevitably break up into sects, and seem to gather strength and vigour from
It
is

the process.

not
is

uncommon,

indeed,

to

hear

it

asserted

that

Hinduism

rapidly falling to pieces, and destined soon to

collapse altogether.

One

reason given for the

its

doom
it is is

sup-

posed to be impending over

proselyting religion.

future
truth

is,

that

not a

And

the

certainly

that

no

stranger can be admitted as a convert to Hinduism either

by

making any
admission

particular confession of faith, or

by going through

any prescribed forms.

is

by

birth.

The only acknowledged mode of To become a Hindu one must be

is

born a Hindu.
itself.

Yet Hinduism
life

continually growing within

it

In

its

tenacity of

and power of expansion

banian-tree,

may

be compared to the
ramifications,
find their

sacred

whose

thousand
stems,

often

issuing

from apparently

lifeless

way

into walls,

undermine old buildings, or them-

Vaisknavism or Worship of Vishim.

selves send

99
soil,

down

roots which

become

fixed in the

and

form fresh centres of growth and

vitality.

And

it

cannot be doubted that one great conservative

is

element of Hinduism

the many-sidedness of Vaishnavism.

For Vaishnavism
gious systems.

is,

like

Buddhism, the most tolerant of

reli-

It is

always ready to accommodate

itself to

other creeds, and delights in appropriating to itself the religious

ideas of
all

the nations of the world.

It

It

admits of every

form of internal development.

of separate associations formed

has no organized hierit

archy under one supreme head, but

by separate

may have any number teachers, who are

It

ever springing

up and extending

their religious authority over

ever-increasing masses of the population.

has no formal

confession of faith, but

it

has an elastic creed capable of

It

adaptation to

all varieties

of opinion and practice.

in

has no

one bible

no
;

one collection of writings

one compact

volume, with lines of teaching converging towards one great

central truth
yet,

while making use of the

its

Veda

it

has a

series of sacred

books of
etc.),

own

(such as the Puranas, the

Bhagavad-gita,
tion

each of which professes to be a revela-

from the Supreme Being, and claims to constitute an

authority for the establishment of almost any kind of doctrine.

It

can, like

Brahmanism, be
It can,

pantheistic, monotheistic, dual-

istic,

polytheistic.

like

Saivism,
It

enjoin asceticism,

self-mortification,

and

austerity.

can, like Saktism, give

It

the reins to self-indulgence, licentiousness, and carnality.

can, like

Buddhism, preach

liberty, equality, fraternity;

or

inculcate universal benevolence,

others.
It

and avoidance of injury to

It

can proclaim Buddha or any other teacher or recan even

markable man to be an incarnation of Vishnu.

set its face against idolatry
^,

and can look with sympathizing

itself,

condescension on Christianity

or hold

it

to

be a develop-

(see p. 158)

There can be no doubt that the anti-idolatrous grew out of Vaishnavism.

sect

founded by Kabir

H2

lOO

Vaishnavism or Worship of Vishnu.

ment of its own theory of religion suited to Europeans. It is owing to this all-comprehensiveness of the Vaishnava system that any new doctrine, or any new view of old
doctrines,

may

be promulgated with an almost certain pros-

pect of success.

And

indeed the theological laxity of the

inhabitants of India increases in proportion to the tenacity of

their adherence to caste

customs and traditions.

Broken up
comparaunion or

as they are into a multitude of separate peoples,

tively few individuals
intellectual progress,

have any desire

for national

and these few owe their ideas to the edu-

cation we have imparted. F'ew wish to leave the path trodden by their forefathers, or deviate from the old indurated ruts. The masses can neither read nor write. They care nothing History, biography, and political economy are for science. Their whole desire is to be left to them a terra incognita.

undisturbed in their social customs, family traditions, and

caste usages
It seems,

constituting as these do their chief

indeed, as
if

religion.
Is

religion

of this kind

the only

force

which has power to rouse the masses from their normal

condition of torpor.

The

stern necessity of conforming to

domestic usages
all his

is

ever present to a Hindu's mind, colouring

ideas,

running through every fibre of his being, and

constituting the
this
is

Alpha and Omega

he
is

of his earthly career.

If

be

religion,

born

religious,

and dies

religious.

He
and

religious in his eating

in his dressing
in his

and drinking,

in his sleeping

waking,
sitting

and undressing,

in his rising

down,

daily

work and

daily

up and amusement. Nay,

and follow him

religious ceremonies anticipate his birth, prolong his marriagerite into

a triple act lasting for years

(p. 379),

after death.
It is

Yet any

social innovation

he utterly repudiates.

only in religious doctrine that he evinces credulity and

receptivity.
in

Let any earnest preacher of any new creed appear

of ordinary

any assemblage

Hindus

let

him announce
and he
to
his

that he has

come

as a messenger from heaven,

may
other

generally reckon on being believed.

And

if

Vaishnavisin or Worship of Vishnu,

qualifications

loi
ascetiin

he adds a character
fail

for self-denial
;

and

cism, he cannot

to attract disciples

for

nowhere

the

world are family

is

ties

so binding as in India, and yet nowhere

such homage paid to their abandonment.

religious teacher (acarya)

any new

who

is

The known to

influence of
live a life of

abstinence, bodily mortification,

is

and suppression of the passions,

sure to

become unbounded,

either for

good or
is

evil.

Probably, during the leader's lifetime, he

able to restrain
It

the enthusiasm of his converts within reasonable limits.

is

only when he dies that they are apt to push his opinions

to

extremes never intended by himself.

Eventually they

develop his teaching into an overgrown unhealthy system,

the
internal rottenness

of

which disgusts

all

sensible men,

even
arises
in his
will,

among
turn a

its

own

adherents.

Then some new

teacher

to re-establish purity of doctrine.

He

is,

of course,

man

of earnestness and energy, with a strong

and great powers of persuasion.

facility

He

collects

around

him with equal

a number of followers, and those in

their turn carry his teaching to preposterous lengths.

Hence the condition of Vaishnavism, which depends

more than Saivism on personal leadership and
Its fluctuations

far
is

influence,

one of perpetual decay and revival, collapse and recovery.

resemble those of a vast ocean heaving this

way and
It is

that in continual flux and reflux.

all

doubtless true that

human systems

are liable to

similar alternations.

But

in

India every tendency of humanity

seems intensified and exaggerated.

is

No

country

in the

world

so conservative in

its traditions,

yet no country has under-

gone so

many

religious

changes and vicissitudes.

To

follow

out in detail the whole

drama

of Vaishnavism would require us with a succession

volumes.

Even the

first

act presents

of shifting scenes.

In

all

likelihood the primary idea of a

'

god Vishnu

(a

name

derived from root vish,

to pervade

'),

permeating and infusing

his essence into material objects,

was

originally connected with

I02

Vaishnavism or Worship of Vishnu,

the personification of the infinite heavenly space.

that in the Rig-veda Vishnu
solar
orb,
is

We

know

a form of the ever-moving

and

in a

well-known

hymn
is

(I.

22,

16,

17), still

commonly used by

the Brahmans, he
^

described as striding

through the seven worlds

in three steps^

and enveloping the

universe with the dust of his beams.

A later work, the Aitareyaamong

the

brahmana of the Rig-veda, opens with the following remarkable statement

'
:

Fire (Agni) has the lowest place

;

gods, Vishnu the highest

deities.'

between them stand

1.)
is

all

the other

(Haug^s edition,

Elsewhere the god Vishnu

(/

connected with water.

is

In

Manu's Law-book Vishnu

as

(I.

10) the Universal Spirit

;

called

Nara-

yana, as moving on the waters

is

in

harmony with which idea

and pictures
on the thousand-

often represented in sculptures, images,

in

Narayana

human

form, reposing

headed serpent and

floating

on the ocean.

In the later mythology of Brahmanism,

of the triad of personal gods (Tri-murti)

when the

doctrine

had been

fully deve-

loped and Vishnu had taken his place as the second person of
that triad, he has a less distinctly

antecedent
in his
(p.

marked human personality to his hicarnated descents than the god Siva. To write a biographical account of the god Vishnu's life

own heavenly abode, like the The truth 78), would be diflficult.
is

life
is

of his

rival

Siva

that the development

of his personality, which

other god in the

really greater than that of

for

any
on

Hindu pantheon, must be looked

earth in his descents (avatara) as

Nevertheless,
it

Rama
in

and Krishna.
that the

must be borne

mind

god Vishnu
described

really possesses a corporeal character of his

tive of
^

own

quite irrespecis

and anterior to

his incarnated descents.

He

There are seven lower regions, viz. Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Rasatala, and Patala above which are the seven Lokas or worlds, called Bhur (the earth), Bhuvar, Svar, Mahah, Janah, Tapah, and Brahma or Satya. Sometimes the first three of these, the earth (Bhu), atmosphere (Bhuvar), and heavens (Svar), are supposed to comprehend all the worlds (see p. 403). For the hells see pp. 232-233.
Talatala, Mahatala,
;

Vaishnavisin or Worship of Vishnu,

as living in his

lo

heaven Vaikuntha

a locality more inaccessible

has a wife Lakshmi or
Sri,

and

less

easy to identify with any definite spot on earth than

(p. 79).

Siva's

abode Kailasa
other

He

the goddess
sprung, with

of fortune and beauty,

who

is

fabled to have

precious things, from

the froth of the

p. 108).

ocean when churned by the gods and demons (see

And

as Vishnu

in

his

non-Avatara condition
in

lives

life

which has fewer features

that of Siva, so
wife Parvatl.
is

common

with humanity than

his wife

In fact
is

Lakshmi less human than Siva's the more human side of both Vishnu

and Lakshmi

reserved for their descents in

human form
as

Vishnu
Rukminl.

as

Rama and

Krishna,

Lakshmi

Sita

and

Nevertheless

some

details of Vishnu's

separate

personality, as distinct

from

his Avataras,

may
his

be gathered

from the Puranas.

a peculiar auspicious

For example, we are told that he has

mark

(SrI-vatsa)

on

breast^.

He
;

has four arms, and holds a symbol in each of his four hands

namely, a wheel or circular weapon (cakra) called Sudarsana,

a conch-shell
called
^

(saiikha)

called

Pahcajanya,

club

(gada)

KaumodakI, and a lotus-flower (padma). Of these the circular symbol may possibly have been borrowed from
Buddhism.
If so,
it

was

originally significant of the wheel

^ Described as a peculiar twist or curl of the hair. In one form of Krishna (as Vitho-ba in the Maratha country) his breast has a foot-mark, believed to be the indelible impress of the blow from the sage Bhrigu's

foot (see the story at p. 45).

One account describes the sacred conch-shell as thrown up by the when churned by the gods and demons (see p. 108). Another account makes Vishnu's shell consist of the bones of the demon Pahcajana. According to the Vishnu-purana (V. 21), 'this demon lived in the form
^

sea

of a conch-shell under the ocean.

Krishna (Vishnu) plunged into the

waters, killed him, took the shell which constituted his bones,

and ever

afterwards used
is

it

for

a horn.

When
and

sounded

it

fills

the demon-hosts

with dismay, animates the gods,

annihilates unrighteousness.' Vishnu

believed to take such delight in this shell, that a small shell of the
is used in pouring holy water over his idols and symbols performance of his worship. It is also frequently branded on the

same species
in the

arms of his worshippers.

I04

Vaishnavism or Worship of Vishrm.

of the Buddhistic law, or of the cycles of existence peculiar to that system.

Or, bearing in
it

mind Vishnu's connection with

In the later

the Sun,
of the

we may regard
it

as emblematical (like the Svastika^)

Sun's circular course in the heavens.

represents a missile

mythology, however,

weapon hurled by
are ever plotting

Vishnu, like a quoit, at the demons

evil against

who

gods and men, and with

conch-shell
;

whom

he

is

always at
like

war^.

Similarly the
in his battles

is

blown by him

trumpet

its

miraculous sound

filling his

ene-

mies with terror and helping him to secure victory.

club
is

The

also used in Vishnu's conflicts with his demon-foes.

is

Moreover he

armed with a wonderful bow

called

Sarnga

and a sword Nandaka.

He

has a jewel on his wrist

named

Syamantaka, and another on his breast called Kaustubha.

When
he
to
is

he moves through space to the aid of

his

worshippers

borne on the mythical bird Garuda^, closely related

the Sun and compared to an eagle, but represented as

in

semi-human
Possibly this

form and character, with a bird-like

personification of the

face.

Garuda may be a

sky

The

Svastika

mark may be a kind of

is left

curtailed form of this wheel,

consisting of four spokes crossing each other at right angles

of the circumference which

to denote the direction in

and a portion which it must

turn to symbolize the Sun's course in the heavens.

which
article
^

formed long ago, is confirmed by the in the Numismatic Chronicle.

late

This conjecture, Mr. Edw. Thomas's

of some of the chief demons thus destroyed by Vishnu Krishna identified with Vishnu) are Madhu, Kansa, Bana, Bali, Mura, etc. ^ In some parts of India (especially in the South) Garuda is an object of worship. I frequently came across images of him in Vaishnava temples. He is the son of Kasyapa and Vinata, and hence Aruna the Dawn, regarded as charioteer of the Sun, is his younger brother. Most of the Hindii deities are described as associated with or attended by their own favourite animals, which they sometimes use as vehicles (vahana). Brahma is attended by a goose or swan (hansa) Siva by a bull (see p. 8i) Karttikeya or Skanda by a peacock; Indra by an elephant Yama by a buffalo (mahisha) Kama, god of love,' by a parrot; Ganesa by a rat; Agni by a ram; Varuna by a fish Durga by a tiger. Serpents are associated with both Siva and Vishnu.
(or
;
;

The names

'


Vaisknavism.

Names of Vislmu and

names
Air-borne

Siva.

105
with

or ethereal element which supports Vishnu the

It is
is

identified
'

Sun

one of whose
p.

is

'

(Vayu-vahana).

noteworthy that Garuda,

like the

Krishna form of Vishnu,

the destroyer of serpents which typify destruction and evil

113).

(compare
character,

Yet serpents have

;

also

their

contrary

and even divine attributes

floating

for at the dissolution

of the Universe
as the
in

and between the intervals of creation, Vishnu,

on the waters
(p. 102), reclines

Supreme Being,

profound repose on the thousand-headed serpent Sesha

typical of infinity

while

his wife

Lakshmi chafes
Finally,
feet,

his feet,

and out of his navel grows the lotus which supports Brahma,
the active agent in reproducing the world.

Vishnu

has the river Ganges issuing from one of his

it

whence
(p. 80).

flows through the sky before

it falls

on Siva's head

/And here

it

may

be noted that the devotional enthusiasm

of Vishnu's worshippers has

endowed him with a thousand

is

names and epithets

^.

This

exactly eight less than the

Saivas have lavished on Siva, and, considering the rivalry

between the followers of the two

a

deities,

must be regarded as

modest allowance.

The

repetition of

any or

all

of these

names (nama-saiikirtana), either with or without the help of

a rosary, constitutes an important part of daily worship, and
is

productive of vast stores of religious merit.

in the

They

are all

enumerated with those of Siva

the Maha-bharata
(i

Anusasana-parva of

144-1266, 6950-7056)^.

^ Of course the greater number of the names are simply epithets. The Muhammadans reckon ninety-nine names and epithets of God, and make the repetition (zikr) of them a work of enormous religious merit. In the same way the Jews attach great efficacy to the repetition of the

Divine epithets.
of Christ, but

Christianity reckons,

believe, about ninety epithets

no Christian thinks of repeating them as a meritorious exercise. Aristotle, it is said, enumerates more than a hundred names and epithets applicable to Zeus but the Greeks and Romans do not appear to have believed in any religious advantage attending the mere mechanical recital of such names.
;

notice several repetitions of the

same name

in the catalogue

for

instance, Aditya, Sthanu, Srashtri.

''

io6

Vaishnavism.

Names of Viskmi and

it is

Siva.

In comparing the two catalogues

interesting to observe
deities.

how many names

especially, has

are

common
is

to

both

Vishnu,

a large number of names which he shares

with the rival god, and

while Siva
is

even called Siva the Auspicious

'
'

called Vishnu,

the Pervader,' each in fact usurp-

ing the functions of the other.

allotted an

Moreover, to both deities

titles

is

ample assortment of the usual

expressive of

almighty power

such as

'all-creating,' 'all-seeing,' 'all-know-

ing,' 'infinite,' 'self-existent,'

'all-pervading'

mixed

up with

many which

are

unworthy of beings claiming divine homage.

Vishnu has certainly fewer objectionable epithets than Siva.

Many names

of both gods are simply taken from those of

the Sun, Fire, and

divine attributes

Wind

and many are expressive of

called

lofty

once

believed to be the peculiar property

of Christian theology.

For example, Vishnu

is

'

the

holy Being' (Pavitram, also applied

(Satyah),
'
'

to Siva), 'the
spirit,'
'

True'

the Pure Spirit (or having a pure

'
' '

Putatma),
'

the

Way
'

(Margah),
Physician

'

the Truth
'

'

(Tattvam),
'

the Life (Pra-

nah),

the

(Vaidyah),

the World's

Medicine
(Pita),
^

(Aushadharn or Bheshajam Jagatah), 'the Father'

even
'

and

the

Holy
it

of the
is

Holy

'

(Pavitram Pavitranam)

an

epithet

which

difficult

to reconcile with

some

of the

actions of his Krishna manifestation.

On

the other hand, Siva

is

called

by the following names

in addition to those

already mentioned at pp. 81-85:

'the

Mother' (Mata, as well as

(Nirvanam),
Illusionist'
'

Pita, 'the Father'), 'Extinction'

'

the Year-causer' (Samvatsara-karah),

the great

(Mahamayah), 'the Night-walker' (Nisa-carah),

:-

'

Other remarkable names and epithets of Vishnu are the following

'the Bridge' (Setuh), 'the Guide' (Neta), 'the All' (Sarvah), 'the Refuge'

(Saranam), 'the Friend' (Suhrid), 'the Affectionate' (Vatsalah), 'the Benefactor' (Priya-krit), 'the Witness' (Sakshi), 'the Patient' (Sahishnuh), 'the Peace-giver' (Santi-dah), 'the Authority' (Pramanam), 'the Mysterious one' (Guhyah), 'the Undying-bodied one' (Amrita-vapuh), 'the Holy' (Brahmanyah), 'the Winkless' (Animishah), 'the Desired one (Ishtah), the Who ? (Kah), the What (Kim).
'

'

'

'

'


Vaishnavism.
'the

Ten Incarnations.

107

Submarine

Fire' (called

Badava-mukhah, 'Mare-faced'),

White One' (Suklah), 'the Enraged' (Mahakrodhah), 'the Root' (Mulam), 'the Ill-formed' (Virupah), 'the Mule' (Haya-gardabhih, mixture of the qualities of horse and ass?).
'the

Again, some of Vishnu's designations as Krishna, such as

Partha-sarathi,
is
'

Charioteer of Arjuna' (under which

'

title

he
hill

worshipped at Madras), and Vefikatesa,

Lord of the
;

Vehkata,' are, like those of Siva, merely local epithets

and

some
I

(as for

example Vitho-ba, worshipped

at

Pandharpur)

are the result of his identification with particular local heroes.

need scarcely repeat that the chief distinguishing cha-

racteristic of the

god Vishnu

is

his condescending to infuse

his essence into

animals and

men

with the object of delivering

his

worshippers from certain special dangers or of otherwise

benefiting mankind.

The

peculiar nature of these descents

(Avatara), and the vast difference between the

Christian
(p. 6'^.

Hindu and

idea

of incarnation, have been already described

fact,
is

Vishnu, in

believed to exist in an eternal

In

body antecedent

to his earthly incarnations.

some

of the

Puranas Vishnu's ten incarnations are multiplied to twenty-two,

twenty-four, and twenty-eight.
I.

The
is

ten best

known

are

'The Fish' (Matsya). Vishnu

fish

believed to have infused

a portion of his essence into a fish

or rather perhaps to have

man
from the universal deluge.

taken the form of a

to

save Manu^, the primeval

race,

and progenitor of the human

piety in an age of depravity.

This Manu, like Noah, conciliated the Deity's favour by his

approaching deluge, and was

Hence he was warned of the commanded to build a ship and

did
fish
so.

go on board with the seven Rishis, or patriarchs, and the seeds

of all existing things.

Manu

The
The

flood came,
its

and

Vishnu took the form of a vast

with a horn on
ship

head, to

which the ship's cable was fastened.

was thus

^ That is, the Manu of the present period not to be confounded with Brahma's grandson, the supposed author of the well-known Law-book. The name Manu is from the root man, to think.'
'

io8

Vaishnavis7n.

Ten Incarnations,
till

supernaturally drawn along and secured to a high crag

flood had passed.
/

the

1,

'

The

Tortoise

'

(Kurma).

Vishnu infused a portion of

tortoise to aid in
articles,

his essence into the

body of an immense
in

producing or recovering certain valuable

some

of

which had been

the

lost

the deluge.

For

this

purpose he

stationed himself at the bottom of the sea of milk

one

of

seven

concentric

circular

seas

surrounding the seven

concentric

circular continents

of the earth

that

his

back

might serve as a pivot

which the gods
Vasuki.

for the

mountain Mandara, around

and demons twisted the great serpent They then stood opposite to each other, and using
one by one, fourteen
i.

the snake as a rope and the mountain as a churning-rod,

churned the milky ocean violently,

till,

inestimably valuable and typical objects emerged-^,

nectar conferring
of the gods

The
The

immortality (Amrita).

%.

The

physician
3.

and holder of the nectar (Dhanvantari).

goddess of good fortune and beauty, wife of Vishnu (Lakshmi

or Sri).
(Candra).
4.

The goddess of wine (Sura)^. 5. The moon 6. The nymph Rambha^ celebrated as a kind
7.

of prototype of lovely women.

fabulous

high-eared

horse (Uccaih-sravas), the supposed prototype of the equine

race.
8.

The miraculous
9.

jewel Kaustubha, afterwards appro-

priated
all

by Krishna.

celestial tree (Parijata) yielding

desired objects.

10.

The cow
boons.

of plenty
11.

(Kama-dhenu
by the god

or Surabhi), granting

all

mythical elephant
vehicle,

(Airavata)
^

afterwards appropriated, as a

asked an Indian Pandit how it was possible to believe in an extravagant fable, I was told that it was simply allegorical, and only intended to typify the truth that nothing valuable can be produced without extraordinary exertion. ^ This is one proof out of many that the drinking of wine and spirits was once not only common in India, but also sanctioned by religion. In Vedic times wine appears to have been preserved in leathern bottles, see Rig-veda I. 191. 10 (Rajendralala Mitra's Essays, VII). Unhappily the sect of Saktas (see pp. 192, 193) may claim scriptural authority for their orgies, and appeal to the example of their gods Siva and Bala-rama.
I

When

what

to us appears


Vaishnavism,
Indra

Ten Incarnations.
elephantine race.
12.

109

prototype

of the

sacred

conch-shell (Saiikha), afterwards the property of Vishnu (or

Krishna), and supposed,

when blown
14.

as a horn, to insure
13.

victory over his enemies (see note, p. 103).

miraculous

unerring
3.

bow (Dhanus)^

A deadly poison

(Visha).

'The Boar' (Varaha). Vishnu infused a portion of his essence into the body of a huge boar symbolical of strength to deliver the world from the power of the demon Hira-

nyaksha,

who had
and

seized the earth

and carried

the depths of the ocean. the abyss,

The

divine

down boar dived down

it

into
into

after a contest of a

thousand years, slew the

monster and brought back the earth to the surface.

variety of this legend (given in the

Another

Vana-parva of the Maha-

bharata) represents the earth as submerged

by a deluge
it

pressed down by an ever-increasing and superabundant population

till

the boar descended into the waters, upheaved

it

on one of his tusks, rescued

from

its

watery grave, and

made
4.

it fit

to be reinhabited.

'The Man-lion' (Nara-sinha). Vishnu assumed the shape of a creature, half man, half lion, to deliver the world from the tyrant Hiranya-kasipu, who had obtained a boon from Brahma that he should not be slain by either god or man or
animal.

Hence he became powerful enough

to usurp the

dominion of the three worlds.

sacrifices

He

even appropriated the

intended for the gods and necessary for their suphis

port.

When

pious

son Prahlada praised Vishnu, the

tyrant tried to destroy the

boy

but Vishnu appeared sud-

denly out of the centre of a pillar in a shape neither god, nor

man, nor animal, and tore Hiranya-kasipu to pieces.

These
in

first

four incarnations are said to have taken place

the
^

first

and best (satya) of the four ages of the world.

such bows are mentioned in Hindu mythology, one the property and the other of Vishnu. It was by bending Siva's bow which no other merely human suitor was able to do that Rama won Janaka's
of Siva

Two

daughter Sita (see

Ramayana

I.

57).

1 1

o
5.

Vaishnavism.

Ten Incarnations.

'The Dwarf (Vamana). In the second (Treta) age of the world \ Vishnu infused a portion of his essence into the body of a dwarf to wrest from the tyrant-demon BaH (the analogue of Ravana and Kansa, the two opponents of the Rama and Krishna incarnations respectively) the dominion of
the three worlds.

The apparently contemptible

little

dwarf

presented himself one day before the Tyrant, and solicited as

much

land as he could step in three paces.

No

sooner was

his request granted

than his form expanded, and he strode in

left

two steps over heaven and earth, but out of compassion the lower world in the demon's possession.

6.

'

Rama

with the axe

'

(Parasu-rama).

Vishnu Infused a

portion of his essence into the axe-armed

Rama, son

of the

Brahman Jamadagni and descendant

over the Brahmanical.

of Bhrigu, in the second

age, to prevent the military caste (see p. 270) from tyrannizing

Parasu-rama

is

said to

have cleared

the earth twenty-one times of the whole KshatriyS. race.

Vishnu's essence seems to have deserted this hero before his

death, as implied in the account of the great

Rama's victory

over Parasu-rama, given

7.

in

Ramayana

I.

75, 76,

In the seventh descent Vishnu infused half of his essence

into the great

Rama, commonly
This

called

Rama-candra,

'

the

moon-like Rama^.'

celebrated

hero was believed to

have been manifested at the close of the second or Treta age

to destroy the tyrant-demon

Ravana who reigned

in

Ceylon.
its

India was never under one monarch, and in ancient times

kings were simply petty princes and chieftains,

districts of

more or

less

extended area,

who ruled over and Oudh (Ayodhya)

historical fact

was probably one of the more powerful principalities. As a Rama was no doubt one of the four sons of a king of Oudh, named Dasa-ratha, of the so-called Solar race, and
^

This would be the third age reckoning backwards, and

In paintings he
is
is

is

therefore

called Treta.
'^

The word candra

often

represented with a peculiar greenish complexion. added to names to express beauty.

Vaishnavism.
therefore a Kshatriya.

Ten Incarnations,
real date of

1 1

The

Rama's

birth, in the

absence of

all

trustworthy historical records, can only be a

matter of the most uncertain conjecture.

He

is

celebrated

throughout India as the model son, brother, and husband,

who
his

was banished by

his father to the southern forests.

There

pattern wife Sita was carried off

by Ravana, the tyrant-king of Ceylon, and recovered by Rama after making a bridge of He was aided by Hanuman a powerful rocks to the island. chief of one of the aboriginal tribes, poetically compared to

monkeys.

This story forms the subject of one of the two

great Indian Epics

the Ramayana and no story

is

in the

world

has obtained a wider circulation and celebrity.

Every man,
for

woman, and

child in India

familiar with

Rama's exploits

the recovery of his wife, insomuch that a

an ignorant person

Rama's

wife.'

one who does not From Kasmir to Cape Comorin

is
'

common phrase for know that Sita was

the

name

of

Rama
friends

is

on every one's

lips.
it

All sects revere

all

it,

and show their

reverence by employing

on
for

occasions.

For example, when

meet

it is

common
twice.

ing

Rama's name
and
in

given to children,
funerals

by utterThen no name is more commonly and no name is more commonly invoked at

to salute each other
It is a link of
it is

them

the hour of death.

union for

all

classes, castes,

and creeds.

And

yet

highly probable that,

during his lifetime,

Rama

received

little

more than the usual

His

homage

offered to every great, good,

till

and brave man.

apotheosis did not take place

after his death,

when he was
;

converted into one of the most popular incarnations of Vishnu

his servant
8.

Hanuman

also receiving divine honours.

' ;
'

The

eighth descent was as Krishna, the dark hero-god

the most popular of all the later deities of India.

of

This descent

Vishnu

at the

end of the Dvapara or third age of the

world, as the eighth son of Vasu-deva and Devakl, of the Lunar

race of Kshatriyas (called Yadavas),

was

for the destruction

of the tyrant Kansa, the representative of the principle of

evil the analogue of Ravana

in the previous incarnation.

112

Vaishnavism.

Ten Incarnations.

According to some, Krishna ought not to be reckoned as

one of the ten Avataras or descents of portions of Vishnu's
essence
;

for

he was nothing short of Vishnu's whole essence.

this doctrine substitute

Those who hold

strong

Bala-rama,

'

the

Rama,' an elder son of Vasudeva and Devaki, and

This Bala-rama

therefore elder brother of Krishna, as the eighth incarnation

of Vishnu.

is

more usually regarded

as an

incarnation of the great

serpent Sesha.

He

is

sometimes

called the Indian HerculeS; but without

any very good reason.

though

No

special prodigies of strength are recorded of him,

in

he wields a formidable weapon

share,
chiefly

the shape of a plough(musala).

as

well

as

a pestle-shaped club

He

is

remarkable

for his love of strong drink, in which, with

his wife Revati,

he frequently indulges to the verge of inebria;

tion (p. io8, note 2

p. 270).

When

he died a serpent came out

of his mouth and entered the ocean (Maha-bharata

XVI.

117).

The

details of the later life of

Krishna are interwoven with

the later portions of the Maha-bharata, but do not belong to

the plot, and might be omitted without impairing

its

unity.

He

is

certainly not the hero of the great epic.

He

merely

appears as a powerful chiefs

heroes

who

takes the side of the real

to divine

the

Pandavas

and
for,

his claims

rank are
since

often disputed during the progress of the story.

his apotheosis

Even

Krishna has always been peculiarly the god

;

of the lower classes

although of the kingly caste, he

cowherdesses,
is

was brought up

among cowherds,

and

the

families of peasants.

His juvenile biography

given with

much minuteness of detail in the Bhagavata-purana, from which we learn that Vasudeva of the Lunar race of princes who probably occupied the part of India now called

^ Krishna was no doubt a powerful chief of the Yadava tribe, who were probably Rajputs occupying a district of Central India south of Muttra (Mathura) and east of the Jumna. The real date of his birth, though kept as a holy day and holiday throughout a great part of India, cannot be fixed with any more certainty than that of Rama but in all probability he lived in more recent times than Rama.
;

Vaishnavism.
Rajputana^

Ten Incarnations.
and Devakl.

113

had two wives, RohinT

whom
them would
kill

The
It

latter

had eight

sons, of

the eighth was Krishna.

was prethere-

dicted that one of

Kansa, chief of Mathura

(Muttra), and cousin (not brother) of DevakT.

fore imprisoned

Kansa

Vasudeva and

his wife,

and slew

their first

six children.

Bala-rama, the seventh, was abstracted from

transferred to that of RohinT,

Devaki's

womb,
on

and so saved.

The
from

eighth was Krishna, born with a black skin, and the

his

mark

Sri-vatsa

breast^.

His

father

Vasudeva

escaped

Mathura with the

had a
child.

found a certain
lately

by the gods, herdsman named Nanda, whose wife had

child, and,

favoured

To

his
first

care
in

he consigned the infant

after-

Krishna.

Nanda
roaming

settled

Gokula or Vraja, and

wards

in

Vrindavana, where Krishna and Bala-rama grew up

in

together,

the woods, and joining in the sports of

the

herdsman's

sons

and daughters.
his divine origin

While

still

boy,

Krishna gave proof of

startling miracles.
L

by working a few
trampling and

Thus he destroyed the serpent Kaliya

evil

probably a type of

and malignity
lifted

by

dancing on his head.

He
Yet

up the mountain-range Goof these evidences of his

to very

vardhana on his finger to shelter the herdsmen's wives from

the wrath of Indra.
in spite

supramundane powers, Krishna was addicted

practices.

mundane

He

constantly sported with the Gopis or wives and

;

daughters of the cowherds

on one occasion stealing their

In time

clothes when they were bathing and making them come to him

naked.

Eight were his favourites, especially Radha.

Krishna migrated to Gujarat, built Dvarika on the

thither transported the inhabitants of

coast,

and

Mathura

after killing

^ The two most powerful lines of Indian princes, those of Oudh and Rajputana, were careful to trace back their pedigree to superhuman origins, the former claiming the Sun-god and some of the latter the Moongod as their primeval progenitors. Udaipur and others claim the Sun.
'^

Compare note

i,

p. 103.

The day

of his birth

is

called

Janmashtami.

kept on the eighth day of the dark half of the month Bhadra in some places, and of Sravana in others.
It is

114
Kansa.
sons,

Vaishnavism.

Ten Licarnations.
had countless wives and [o8,ooo
It is said that

He

is

fabled to have

and one called Pradyumna by Rukmini.

while Krishna was lying on the ground in

hunter,

meditation, a

named

Jara, mistook

by

piercing the

9.

Buddha.

game and killed him his foot of (Maha-bharata sole XVI. 126). The adoption of Buddha as one of the ten
him
for

incarnations of Vishnu appears to have been the result of a

wise compromise with

Buddhism

the

Brahmans

asserting

that Vishnu, in his compassion for animals, descended as the

sceptical

Buddha

that he

might bring discredit on Vedic

I.

sacrifices (see

Gita-govinda

13)

or,

according to another

theory, that wicked

selves

men might

bring destruction on them-

by accepting Buddhism and denying the supremacy of the gods. The fact was that the Brahmans appropriated Buddha much as some of them are willing to appropriate
Christ,
10.

and make

Him

out to be an incarnation of Vishnu.

Kalki or Kalkin.

The

descent of Vishnu in this cha-

racter has not yet taken place.

close of the fourth or Kali age,

Nor is he to appear till the when the world has become

the sky,

wholly depraved.

He

is

then to be revealed in

seated on a white horse, with a drawn sword blazing like a

comet, for the

final

destruction of the wicked, for the refor the renovation of all creation

demption of the good,

restoration
fact of the horse

and
the

of the age of purity (Satya-yuga).

From

playing an important role in this incar-

nation,

it

is

sometimes called Asvavatara.

Some

of the

degraded classes of India comfort themselves

sent depressed condition
their

in their pre-

by expecting Kalki

to appear as
their social

future

deliverer,
it

and as the restorer of

to exist

position.

Indeed

is

a remarkable fact that a belief in a

in
all
^.

coming Redeemer seems

cepting Buddhism and

religions,

not ex-

Muhammadanism

Looking more
^

closely at

these ten special incarnations,

;

In

succession of

Buddhism there is the future Buddha in Islam the Mahdi. The Buddhas may be compared to that of Vishnu's descents.

Vaishnavism.

Ten

Incarjiations.
in

115

we may observe
tions
in

that the

god Vishnu,

conformity with

his character of a Maintainer of Hfe, discharges his func-

his

first

three

descents

by pervading the bodies

of animals.

It is

remarkable, too, that these three zoomorall

phic incarnations
general
deluge.

have reference to the tradition of a

fourth

In his

descent Vishnu

takes

the

form of a being half animal, half man.

bination

Possibly this comlink, to

may

be intended as a kind of intermediate

connect the deity with higher forms.

the transition
is

From

half a

man,

to a complete

man, but the divine essence

on passing into human forms commences with a dwarf-'

the smallest type of humanity.
heroes,

Thence

it

advances to mighty

sent

into

the world to deliver

oppression of tyrants

mankind from the represented as evil demons whose

power increases with the increase of corruption and depravity

during the four ages.

The

eighth
;

is

the highest and so to

Jspeak culminating incarnation

for in this

Krishna

is

believed

to be, not a part of Vishnu's essence, but a complete manifestation of

Vishnu himself.

The
The

ninth

may

be passed over
to account for

as a

mere device on the part of the Brahmans

will surpass all

the existence of Buddhism.

tenth and final incarnation,

which remains to be revealed,

portance.
out,

the others in imentirely rooted

In

it

evil

and wickedness are to be

restored.

and the age of purity

Possibly this progressive

series of

what to us appear exceedingly absurd metamorphoses

connected with the idea of continuous development

may be

and just as the souls of men, regarded as emanations from the

Deity, pass into stones,
plants,

and animals, or

rise to

the

bodies of higher beings, so portions of the essence of Vishnu

pass through progressive stages of embodied existence for the

maintenance of the order of the universe.

As we have
into

already seen, Vishnu's essence divided

in his

itself

male and female, but he had no children

Nonin

avatara condition, as Siva had, unless Kama-deva, god of love,

said to

have been his mind-born son (afterwards incarnate

I

1 1

Vaishnavism.
p. 114),

Division into Sects.

Pradyumna,
wife Sita

be so regarded.

When

the male essence

faithful

descended as Rama, the female was born as Rama's

;

and when the male descended as Krishna, the

to give

female became Krishna's favourite, Radha.

We

now proceed

a description of the more im-

portant Vaishnava sects,

beginning

with those founded by

;

Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha, and Caitanya and may direct attention to some points in which they all
In the
first

first

we

agree.

place,

it

must be understood that

all

the sects

agree in maintaining, at least theoretically, that devotion to

Vishnu supersedes

all distinctions

of caste (compare p. 64).

As

a matter of

fact,

however,
ever

it

is

not to be supposed that

gives

a Vaishnava

Brahman

really

up

his

claim

to

superiority over the inferior classes.

Next,
are

it

must be borne
less

in

mind

that all the Vaishnava sects

more or

opposed to the non-duality (advaita) doctrine

of Sankara(^arya (see p. ^S) which

makes the

spirit of

man

identical with the one Spirit of the Universe

(Atma, Brahma).
all

Further, of Vishnu

we may
in

note that the bible of

worshippers
of the

his

most popular manifestation

that

hero Krishna, with his favourite wife

Radha

consists

of

two chief books, the Bhagavata-purana and the Bhagavadglta portion of the Maha-bharata
;

and that those who pay

exclusive adoration

to

the

other popular manifestation

in

the

hero

Rama also

acknowledge two special bibles

in

Valmiki's Ramayana, and

(Tulasl-das).

the

Ramayana

of Tulsl-das
find a

Undoubtedly these four books ought to

the
'

place

among
it

Sacred Books

'

of our Indian Empire.

all

Then

must not be forgotten that

agree in the wor-

ship of existing religious teachers

who

are supposed to be

embodiments, not only of divine wisdom, but of the very

essence of divinity.

In the foremost rank must always

come
is

the original founder of each particular sect, whose

A(^arya.
self,

title

He
may

is

regarded as

little inferior

to Krishna

him-

and

even be identified with him.

As

to the living

7
; '

Vaisknavism.
teacher of the day,
greater reality.
if

Division into Sects.

not elevated to equal rank, he

is

He

receives

homage

as a visible and tangible

mediator between earth and heaven.

He

is

to the

mass of

Vaishnavas even more than a mediator between themselves

and God.

He

is

the living embodiment of the entire essence

of the deity (sarva-deva-mayah).

is

Nay, he

is still

more.

He

God whose anger is to be deprecated and favour .conciliated, because they make themselves instantly felt. Next, all the Vaishnava sects agree, as we have seen
the present
(p. 61), in

-y

requiring a special ceremony of initiation (diksha)

into their

communion, accompanied by the

repetition of a

formula of words, significant of reverence for either Krishna or

homage to the divine son of Vasudeva (Om namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya), 'homage to the adorable Rama (Sri Ramaya namah), or the eight-syllabled formula, 'adorable
Rama, such
as,
' '

Krishna

is

my

refuge' (Sri Krishnah

Saranam mama).
sects, earlier.

Children are admitted to the religion of Vishnu at the

age of six or seven years

or,

by some
is

A
^,

rosary
usually

or necklace (kanthi) of one hundred and eight beads

made

of tulsi

wood

(pp. 6j^

3,'^?,),

passed round their necks

by the

priest (Guru),

and they are taught the use of one of

is

the foregoing formulas, which

repeated

by the Guru, very

etc.

much

as the

sacred words

'

In nomine Patris,'
rite

are re-

peated by the priest at the Christian

of baptism.

Then, at the age of twelve or

performed, corresponding to our

thirteen,

another

rite

is

confirmation.
rite
'

With

the

Vallabha sect
that
is,

it is

called the

'

Dedication

(Samarpana)

the consecration of body, soul, and substance (tan,

man, dhan) to Krishna

following effect
:

the formula taught being to the

'

bodily organs,

with
^

my

wife,

my my

life,

my my inmost soul, and its faculties, house, my children, with all the wealth
here dedicate to the holy Krishna

According

to

in

repeating any one of Vishnu's

Dr. Rajendralala Mitra this is merely to aid the possessor names 800 times, the eight additional

beads marking each hundred recitation.

ii8
I

Vaishnavism,
acquire here
I

Division into Sects.

and

may

or hereafter,

my own

self.

O
the
rite

Krishna,
case of

am

thy servant.'

These ceremonies may,

in

all

but Brahmans, take the place of the initiatory

of orthodox

Brahmanism, performed by investiture with the

characteristic of all the

sacred thread (to be described at p. 360).

Another general
is

Vaishnava sects

tenderness

towards

animal

life.

In this respect Vaish-

navism contrasts favourably with Saivism. and not even

No

life

must be
example,

taken by a worshipper of Vishnu, not even that of a minute

insect,

for sacrifice to a deity (as, for

to Kali),

and

least

of

all

must one's own

life

be taken.
self-

It is usual for missionaries to

speak with horror of the

immolation alleged to take place under the Car of Jagannath (Krishna).

dental, as
letter

But

if

deaths occur, they must be acciis

self-destruction
spirit of the

wholly opposed both to the

religion.
in

and

Vaishnava

Then, of course, the several sects agree

use of the perpendicular coloured
called

enjoining the

marks on the forehead,

Urdhva-pundra (described

at p. 67).

They

are supfeet

posed to denote the impress of either one or both the

of Vishnu, and to possess great efficacy in shielding from

evil influences

and delivering from

sin.

In addition to these

frontal marks,

most of the

sects

brand the breast and arms

with the circular symbol and conch-shell of Vishnu.

Finally, all

the sects believe that every faithful and viris

tuous worshipper of Vishnu

transported

to his heaven,

called Vaikuntha, or to that of Krishna, called Go-loka (in-

stead of to the temporary Svarga of orthodox Brahmanism,

p. 49),

and that when once admitted

there,

he

is

saved from

the misery of further transmigration.

merit of his works, he
of bliss, Salokya,
p. 234).

There, according to the

may

enjoy any of the three conditions

(p.

Samipya, or Sarupya
a Vaishnava

41

compare
of

Whether
into

may

be supposed capable

achieving the highest condition of beatification

absorption
the divine
essence

conscious
of

(Sayujya)

depends

Vaishnavism,

The Ramanuja

Sect,

119

course on the philosophical views of the sect to which he

belongs (see

p.

95).

One

point requires to be well under-

stood in comparing the Vaishnava religion with Christianity

namely, that God, with Hindu Theists, can only be propi-

by works. He may be called merciful, but He only shows mercy to those who deserve it by their actions, and
tiated
if

He

accepts faith

it

is

only because this also

is

a meritorious

act.

Every man's hope of heaven, and

of salvation from the

misery of successive births, depends on the amount of merit he

has accumulated during
life.

We

must

also bear in

mind that

although Vishnu
Saviour, yet he

is
is

supposed to be a Creator as well as a

not so in the Christian sense of the word
;

for all the sects believe in

some

material cause (upadana)

is

some

eternal substance out of

which the Universe

evolved.

Let us now advert to the principal Vaishnava

Sect

sects.

founded by Rmnamtja.
of the Visishtadvaita philosophy
is
^

The Vaishnava form

was born about

was

taught by Ramanuja, or as he

called

Ramanujacarya, who
believed to have

A. D. 10 17 at Sri

Parambattur, a town about

twenty-six miles west of Madras.

He

is

been an incarnation of Sesha or Ananta (pp. 105, 323) and is known to have taught at KancT-puram (Kanjivaram, p. 446),
to have travelled twice through India,
settled at SrI-rangam, near Trichinopoly.

and to have

finally

He

is

said to
in 11 37.

have

lived for

one hundred and twenty years and died

He

is buried in the great

temple of Sriranga-nath (see

p. 447).

The

distinctive point of his teaching, according to the Sarva-

darsana-sahgraha (Cowell and Gough), was his assertion of

the existence of a triad of principles (padartha-tritayam),

namely,
^

i.

the

Supreme
;

Spirit

(Para-brahman or Isvara)
'

There

the Visishtadvaita' printed

Pandit of

see above, p. 89, and see a catechism of and published in 1887 by N. Bhashyacarya, the Adyar Library, Madras, who is my authority for some stateis

also a Saiva form

ments here.

20

Vaishnavism,

The Raniamija

Sect.

2.

the separate spirits (Cit) of

is

men
;

and

3.

non-spirit (A-cit).

Vishnu
spirits
;

the

Supreme Being

individual beings are separate

is

the visible world (drisyam)

non-spirit.

All three

have an eternal existence and are inseparable, yet Cit and

A-dit are different from Isvara and dependent on Isvara.

This doctrine was clearly antagonistic to that of the great

Brahmanical

revivalist Saiikara,

who

lived three or four cen-

turies before (see p. ^S)-

According to Sankara, as we have

seen, the separate existence of the spirit of

man, as

distinct

from the one Universal

(Maya), too
rial

Spirit,
all

was only
eternity

illusory.

Illusion

existing from

was

the only mate-

or substantial

cause (upadana-karana) of the external

world, though this eternally creative Illusion was powerless

to

create the world

except

in

union with the one Spirit.

spirits of

Ramanuja, on the other hand, contended that the

men
one

are truly, essentially, and eternally different from the

Spirit,

though dependent on

it.

With regard

to the

external world his views appear to have been less dualistic

than those of the

Sankhya, and even than those of the

systems we have either Prakriti or
cause (upadana)

Vedanta,

for

in

these

Maya,

as the material
;

out of which the

Universe was created

whereas Ramanuja held that

God

is

himself both the creator (Karta) of the world and the substantial

cause or material out of which

it

is

formed.

He
stand

appears, too, to have asserted that the world and

God

towards each other

that
fact,

in

the relation of

body and
It will
fit
'

spirit,

and
in

body and

spirit are virtually one.

'

be found,

that the doctrine

ex nihilo

nihil

in

some form or

other holds good in every religious system which India has

produced independently of Christian

In support of the
really

influences.

doctrine that the spirits

of

men

are

and eternally distinct from the one Universal Spirit

in the

he appealed to a passage
rests
'

Mundaka Upanishad, which

(I.

on a well-known text of the Rig-veda

birds

164.20):

Two

the

Supreme and Individual

Spirits

like closely


Vaishnavism,

The Ra77iamija
same
Sect.

121

associated friends, occupy (cling to) the

tree (abide in

the

same body).

One

of

them

(the Individual Spirit) enjoys

acts),

the sweet fruit of the

fig (or

consequences of

the other,

without eating, looks on as a witness.'

As Ramanuja
spirit

admitted the

dependence of the human

union
is

on the

divine, so

he urged the duty of striving after

complete,

though

conscious,
:

identified with

Vishnu

with

the

Supreme
when he by the
').

'

Cut

the knot of man's heart,

all

solved are

all

his doubts,

ended are
^.'

his works,

has beheld the Supreme Being

good account of Ramanuja's opinions

K. M. Banerjea
is
('

is

given

late Dr.

Dialogues on Hindu Philosophy

His account

founded on Ramanuja's own commentaries on

the Vedanta-sutras (called Sariraka-bhashya, Vedanta-dlpa,

Vedanta-sara, Vedartha-sangraha), and his commentary on the

Bhagavad-gita,

etc.

We may
follows
:

suppose Ramanuja himself to be

us of two principles
vice, truth

speaking as

'All the Sastras

ignorance, virtue

tell

knowledge and
Thus we
are also
spirit

and

and falsehood.

see pairs everywhere,

so.

and God and the human

?

How

can they be one

am

sometimes happy, somealways happy.

times miserable.

He, the

Spirit, is

Such

is

the discrimination.

How
is

then can two distinct substances

be identical
to

? it

He

an eternal Light, pure, without anything

obscure

the
is

one superintendent of the world.

not
so.

But
on
of

the

human

spirit

Thus

a thunder-bolt

falls

the tree

of non-distinction.
:

How

canst thou,

slow

thought, say

am

He, who has established

its

this

immense

sphere of the universe in

fulness?

Consider thine

own

capacities with a candid mind.

By

the mercy of the Most

This

is

given in the Sarva-darsana-safigraha as one of Ramanuja's

similar precept at the end of the Kathopanishad. once heard an excellent sermon on this text delivered by Professor Bhandarkar in the house of prayer of the Prarthana-Samaj in Bombay.
precepts.
I

Compare a

122

Vais/mavis77i.
little

The Ramamtja

Sect,

High a
It is

understanding has

been committed to thee.

perverse one, to say,
I

not for thee, therefore,

am

God.

All the qualities of sovereignty and activity are eter-

nally Code's.

He

is

therefore a Being

endowed with

qualities,

but not under the influence of illusion (maya).

if

You
if

cannot,

you believe Him

to be all

to

be

all truth,

allow the possibility of His

projecting a deceptive spectacle.

Nor can

you,

you believe

Him

knowledge and

all

power, assent to the theory

of His creating anything under the influence of Avidya, or

Ignorance.'

Yet, notwithstanding the manifestly dualistic teaching of

Ramanuja
is

in

regard to the Supreme and

human

spirit,

he

usually credited with a modified acquiescence in the non-

duality doctrine of Sankara.

According to some,

in fact,

he

merely propounded a new view of the Vedanta non-duality

(a-dvaita) doctrine
qualified
;

that

is,

the non-duality of the one Spirit

by

its

connexion with Cit and A-cit, and therefore

'

called 'qualified non-duality

(visishtadvaita).

In the Sarva-

darsana-sahgraha

it

is

stated that Ramanuja's teaching, re-

garded from different points of view, was open to the charge

of admitting the three ideas of unity, duality, and plurality.

Unity,
living

it

alleges,

was admitted by him

in

saying that

all

beings and visible forms constitute the body

Spirit.

of the

one Supreme
the Spirit of

Duality was admitted in saying that

of

God and

man

are distinct.

Plurality
spirits of

was

admitted

in saying that the Spirit of

God, the

men
of
is

which are multitudinous, and the

these admissions
said to

visible
']'^^

world are
75.)

distinct.
first

(Cowell and Gough's translation, pp.

is

The

amount

to qualified unity,

and

therefore styled Visishtadvaita.

Ramanuja
the Universe

also held that at great periodical dissolutions of

human

spirits

and the world are re-absorbed

into

God, but without losing their separate identity and consciousness.

In the Tattva-muktavali (see Dr. Banerjea's 9th

Dialogue)

we

find

Ramanuja

represented as saying,

'

Many.

Vaishnavism,

The Ramanuja

Sect.

123

flavours of trees there are in honey,

and they are separable

three-fold disorin

from

it.

How
?

otherwise could

it

remove the

ders (p. 97)

at

Spirits, in like

manner, are absorbed

things,

the Lord

the dissolution
for

of

all

but are not unified with

Him,
is

they are again separated at the creation.

As

there

a difference between rivers and the sea, between sweet and

there a difference between

salt waters, so is
spirits,

God and human

Rivers,
it,

because of their characteristic

sea, are

distinctions.

when joined with the

between
salt

not altogether unified with

though they appear inseparable.

There

is

a real difference

and sweet waters.

Even

milk,

when mixed
^'

with milk, and water with water, do not obtain unification,

merely because they are supposed to be unified

With regard
that

to the various manifestations of the

Supreme
in

Being and the duty of worshipping Him, Ramanuja held

God
3.

is

present
;

on earth
2.

in

five

ways

i.

forms
(as
in

and images (murti)

in

partial

divine

embodiments
;

Rama)
spirit

in

full

divine

embodiments
soul

(as Krishna)
;

4.

the subtle (siakshma) all-pervading spirit

controlling

5.

in the internal

the

human

(antaryamin).

The

worshipper

may be
;

incapable of rising at once to any high

act of adoration

in

which case he must begin by adoring

in

Vishnu as manifested
is

the

first

of these five

ways

that

to say, in

images and

idols.

He may

afterwards ascend

by regular
till

steps through the other four

fifth.

modes

of worship
in attaining

he reaches the

If

he ever succeeds

to this highest stage

and so becomes capable of worshipping

the internal Spirit enshrined in his

identified

own

heart, then

Vishnu

with that Spirit raises him to his

is

own heaven

Vaikuntha, whence there

no return to human existence,

bliss of

and where he enjoys the exquisite

lation to the

conscious assimi-

God whom he

has adored on earth, and even

^ The twenty-ninth Sutra of Sandilya (translated by Prof. E. B. Cowell) mentions a sage Kasyapa who appears to have held doctrines coinciding to a certain extent with those of Ramanuja.

124

Vaishnavism,

The Ramanuja
God
^.

Sect.

of conscious absorption into that of conscious

Possibly this theory

absorption

may
'

constitute

another reason for

'

attributing the doctrine called

dvaita) to

qualified non-duality

(visishtaleft

Ramanuja.

Nevertheless the impression

on

the mind

sangraha

is

by the account of his system in the Sarva-darsanathat Ramanuja was even more opposed to the

doctrine of unity in regard to the divine and

human
is

spirits

than his brother sectarian Madhva.

out by the fact that his system
is

This impression

borne

treated of before that of

in that

Madhva, and so placed lower down

which
is

ascending scale

supposed to culminate
real

in

the orthodox Advaita.

is

Probably the

reason for

its

being so placed

that he

asserts three principles

the Spirit of
his first

God, the
;

spirit of

man,

and the

visible

world

as

axiom

whereas Madhva

only asserts two (see

p. 131).

Ramanuja
seventy-four

had

numerous
teachers

disciples,

and

among them

special

called
all

Acarya-purushas apmarried men, and the

pointed by himself.
children of

These were

some

of

them succeeded

to the Acaryaship.

of the most celebrated of his followers was Vyasacarya,

wrote a commentary on Ramanuja's works.

Of

course

One who many

of these followers modified his teaching in the usual manner,

introducing doctrines and practices which the founder of the

sect
in

had not enjoined and would not have sanctioned.

Then,

the 13th century or about six hundred years ago, another

of his followers

Vedantacarya

a put
;

learned

Brahman

of Kaiijlvaram,
as

named
giving

himself forward

reformer,

out that he was commissioned by the god Vishnu himself

to purify the faith

that

is,

to

sweep away Incrustations, and

restore the doctrines of the original founder.

These doctrines,

he affirmed, had

been

more

carefully

preserved

Northern Brahmans than by the Southern.

irreconcilable differences of opinion,
^

by the Hence arose

In

which resulted

two

See Sarva-darsana-safigraha (Prof. A. E. Cough's translation of the

system), p. 79.

Ramanuja

Vaishnavism.
great
antagonistic
parties

The Ramantija
of

Sect.
called

125
the

Ramanujas
Ten-galai

one
(for

northern school, Vada-galai (for Vada-kalai, Sanskrit kala),

the other the southern school,

Ten-kalai

^).

They

are far

more opposed

to each other than both parties

are to Saivas.

The

northern school accept the Sanskrit Veda.

The

southern (Ten-galai) have compiled a

'

Veda

of their own,

called

the four thousand verses

'

(Nalayira), written in Tamil,

and held to be older than the Sanskrit Veda, but really based

on

its

Upanishad portion.
is

According to Pandit N. BhashyaDivya-prabandha.

In
all

carya this work

called

their

worship they repeat selections from these Tamil verses.

An

important difference of doctrine, caused by different

views of the nature of the

separates the two parties.

human spirit's dependence on Vishnu, The view taken by the Vada-galais

'

corresponds, in a manner, to the Arminian doctrine of

will.'

free-

The human its own monkey clings to

Being by

spirit,

say they, lays hold of the Supreme

act,

will,
its

and

effort, just
is

as the

mother.

This

called the

young monkeyis

theory (markata-nyaya).

The view

of the

Ten-galais

counterpart of that of the Calvinists.

'the

It is technically styled

cat-hold theory' (marjara-nyaya).

The human

spirit,

they argue, remains passive and helpless until acted on by

the

Supreme
until

Spirit, just as

the kitten remains passive and

helpless

seized

and transported, nolens volens, from

place to place

by the mother-cat.
and
finite

Again, the Ten-galais maintain that the Sakti, or wife of

Vishnu,
is

a created

being,

though divine, and

that she acts as a mediator or minister (purusha-kara), not

as an equal channel of salvation
;

whereas the Vada-galais

regard her

as,

like

her consort,

infinite,

and uncreated, and

equally to be worshipped as a channel or means (upaya)

'

by
It

The

Satani branch of the

Ramanujas

is

not a separate school.

to

consists of a
It
It

Brahmanical usages. represents, in fact, the low-caste or out-caste converts to Vaishnavism. is among the Ramanuja Vaishnavas what the Liiigait sect is among

body

of

Sudras who are opposed

Saivas (see p. 88).


126
Vaishnavism.

The Ramaiitija
attained.
I

Sect,

which salvation

may be

heard

it

remarked by

a learned Ten-galai

Brahman
is

that no educated
'

men

believe

Vishnu
he
said,

to be really married.
'

What most
as

Ten-galais hold/

is

that

Lakshml

an ideal personification of the

those of mercy,

deity's
love,

more feminine
cornpassion
;

attributes, such

and
the

while
are

some philosophers contend

that

Hindu gods

only represented with wives to

typify the mystical

spirit

union of the two eternal principles

for the production of the Universe.
is,

and matter

The

central red mark, therefore,

in the

one

case, the

mere ex-

pression of trust in God's mercy;

in the other, of belief in

the great mystery of creation and re-creation.'

No

Arminians and Calvinists have ever fought more randifficulties

corously over their attempts to solve insoluble

than have Vada-galais and Ten-galais over their struggles

to secure the ascendency of their

own

theological opinions.

The
less

fight has

ended

in a

drawn

battle.

The two

opposite

parties,

exhausted with their

after

profitless

logomachy and use-

strivings

an impossible unity of opinion, have

agreed to

differ in

abstruse points of doctrine.

Their disputes are now chiefly confined to externals of

the most trivial kind.
It is

the old story repeated.

Sibboleths are intolerant of the Shibboleths.

The The Vada-galais

contend that their frontal mark (pundra, pp. 66^ ii8, 400)

ought to represent the impress of the right foot of Vishnu (the

supposed source of the Ganges), while the Ten-galais maintain
that

equal reverence

is

due to both the god's

feet.

It

is

certainly convenient from a social point of view that a man's

religious idiosyncrasies should be

stamped upon
parties are

his forehead.

Accordingly, the two

religious

most particular

about

their frontal

emblems, the Vada-galais making a simple

white line between the eyes (curved like the letter U) to represent the sole of one foot, and adding a central red

emblematical of Lakshml

mark while the Ten-galais employ a more

feet,

complicated device symbolical of both

which are sup-

Vaisknavism.
posed to
rest

The Ramanuja

Sect.

127
line

on a lotus throne, denoted by a white

drawn half down the nose.

The complete Ten-galai symbol

feet,

has the appearance of a trident, the two outer prongs (painted

with white earth) standing for Vishnu's two

the middle

(painted red or yellow) for his consort, Lakshmi, and the

handle (or white line

throne.
sect arise

down

the nose) representing the lotus

The worst

quarrels between the

two
is

divisions of the

from disputes as to which mark

in the

to be impressed

on the images worshipped

all

Vaishnava temples, to which

Tedious and expensive

Ramanujas
Both
sects,

resort indifferently.

law- suits are often the result.

however, agree
of Vishnu

in

stamping or branding the

the
conch-shell, the

same emblems
club,

the

discus,

and the lotus

but more generally the former two only,

and arms
(p. 118).
is

on

their breasts, shoulders,

Another point which distinguishes the Ten-galais

they prohibit their widows from shaving their heads.
married
she
is

that

Every

woman
is

in

India rejoices in long, fine hair, which

In the case of men, regular
it is

careful to preserve intact.

shaving

not only a universal custom,

to be deprived of
is

a religious duty.
of their hair
is

But

for

women

any portion

a shame.

shorn female head

throughout India the chief

is

mark

of widowhood.

The

general rule

that every

widow

should submit her growing locks periodically to the family

barber, though child-widows
I

among

the Marathas are exempt.

believe also that in Northern India

It is certain that

widows

are not obliged

to shave.

the Ten-galai widows are

from

all

obligation to dishonour their heads in this

i

exempted manner ^
sects
is

(compare

Cor.

xi. 5).

Again, a peculiarity

common

to both

Ramanuja

the strict privacy with which they eat and even prepare their

The Ten-galais quote a verse of Vriddha-Manu, which declares that any woman, whether unmarried or widowed, shave her head, she will be condemned to dwell in the hell called Raurava for one thousand times
^

if

ten million ages.

128
meals. are firm

Vaishnavism.

The Ramamtja

Sect.

No

Indians like to be looked at while eating.

believers in the evil influence of the

They human eye

(drishti-dosha).

Cooking

is

an

affair of

equal secrecy.

We

Europeans can-

not understand the extent to which culinary operations

may

be associated with
household
is

religion.

The

kitchen

in

every Indian

a kind of sanctuary or holy ground

almost

room dedicated to the family gods. No unprivileged person must dare to intrude within this sacred The mere glance of a man of inferior caste makes enclosure.
as hallowed as the

the greatest delicacies uneatable, and

if

such a glance hap-

pens to
tions,

fall

on the family supplies during the cooking operaof the water used
^

when the ceremonial purity

life

is

matter of almost

and death to every member of the

household, the whole repast has to be thrown

poisoned.

away

as

if

The

family

is

for
if

that

day

dinnerless.

Food
taint to

thus contaminated would,

the souls as well as

eaten,

communicate a

bodies of the eaters

taint

which
In

could only be removed

travelling

by long and
in

painful expiation.

over every part of India, and diligently striving

to note the habits of the natives

their daily
life,
I

every circumstance of

never once saw a single Hindii, except of

the lowest caste, either preparing or eating cooked food of

any

kind.

vagant extreme.
kitchens

The Ramanujas carry They carefully

these ideas to an

extra-

lock

the

doors of their

and protect

their culinary

and prandial operations

from the gaze of even high-caste Brahmans of tribes and

sects different

from their own.

(acaryas) of the two

Each
nuja

of the present chiefs

lays

Rama-

sects

claim to

be the true descendant of the

founder himself in regular, unbroken succession.

^

The VadaIt is

Caste-rules are an essential part of the

Hindu

religion.

the fashion

for enlightened

men who still keep up

Nothing
is

caste to excuse themselves

that

many

of the rules originated in social convenience, or the

on the plea need of

sanitary precautions.

so necessary for the preservation of

health in India as attention to the purity of water.

Vaishnavisin.
galai successor

The Ramanuja
lives at

Sect.

129

(named Ahobala)
district.

a monastery (Matha)
successor (named

in the Kurnool

The Ten-galai
Tinnevelly

Vanamamala)
preside

lives in the

district.

Though they
;

over monasteries, they are both married

whereas

Brahman Saiikara (who live The two Ramanuja at Srihgeri in Mysore) are celibates. Acaryas, however, are strict Ayengar Brahmans, and will probably in their old age become Sannyasis, according to the _ teaching of the ancient lawgiver Manu, who ordained that the
the successors of the orthodox

discharge of household duties

is

incompatible with the attain-

ment of greater nearness

therefore every twice-born
to give

to

the

man

as he advances in

Supreme Being, and that life is bound

VI.
i).

up

all

family

ties (p.

362,

Manu
in

Each Acarya makes a

is

periodical visitation of his diocese,

and holds a kind of confirmation

to say, every child or

every large town.

That

young person who has been initiated is brought before him to be branded or stamped as a true Boys may be branded at the age of follower of Vishnu.
seven or upwards
fire
;

girls

only after their marriage.

sacred

is kindled, two golden instruments are heated, and the symbols of the wheel-shaped discus and conch-shell of Vishnu

are

impressed on the breast, arms, or other parts of the

I

body.

was informed by an

intelligent

Brahman

at

Ma-

dura that the Acarya, or chief of the sect from the Ahobala Matha, visits that town once every eight or ten years,

when

as

many young

persons as possible take the oppor-

tunity of being branded.

Even those who have been

is

in-

vested with the Brahmanical thread require the addition of

the Vaishnava brand.

The Acarya
well-to-do
fees.

put to no expense.
in

He

is

the guest of

some

Brahman

the town,

and reaps a rich harvest of

We
'

pass on

to

the second great Vaishnava sect

that

founded by Madhva

whose

adherents are called

Madhvas.

They

are chiefly found in Southern India.

^o J

Vaishnavism.
Sect

Madhva

Sect.

fotmded by Madhva.

the Madhvas.

The next most important of the Vaishnava sects is that of They were founded by a Kanarese Brahman named Madhva otherwise called Ananda-tirtha said to

have been born about the year 1200 of our

place called Udipi, in South

era, at a sacred

Kanara
is

(sixty miles north

in

of

Mangalore), and

to

have been educated

doctrine

convent at
Duality

Anantesvar.
(Dvaita),

His
is

commonly

called

and

well

known

for the intensity of its opposition

to the Non-duality (Advaita) doctrine of the great Vedantist

Sankaracarya.
Purna-prajna

The

school he founded
its

is

sometimes called

a name also applied to

Madhva
is

founder.
to

In fact the teaching of

by some thought

owe

no

little

of

its

distinctive character to the influence of Chrisitself felt in

tianity,

which had made

the South of India before

is

the thirteenth century.

No

evidence whatever
his

forthcoming

on

this subject.

Nor has

system really much

it

common
Still their

ground with Christianity.

general drift

Nor would

be easy to give a

thoroughly exhaustive account of his doctrines^.

may

be correctly gathered from the Sarva-dar-

sana-sahgraha, though the points in which he differs from

Ramanuja are rather obscurely stated in that work. Of course Madhva, like Ramanuja, taught that there was only one God, whose principal name was Vishnu (or Hari), and who was the one eternal Supreme Being, all other gods
being subject to the law of universal periodical dissolution.
'

Brahma,

Siva,

and the greatest of the gods decay with the

;

decay of
Hari.'

their bodies

greater than these

is

the undecaying

(Professor Gough's translation.)

Perhaps the chief distinctive feature of Madhva's teaching

was that
^

his

first

axiom

asserted

categorically that

there

repeatedly questioned some of Madhva's more intelligent followers

I

whom

his views

met in the South of India as to the exact and those of Ramanuja, but no one was able

distinction
to give

between
very

me any

satisfactory reply.


Vaishnavisin.
are

Mddhva

Sect.

131
of three, as

two separate eternal

principles

(instead

asserted
as

by Ramanuja,

p. 119),

and that these two are related

independent and dependent, as master and servant, as king

and subject.

The one

is

the independent
is

principle,

God

(identified with Vishnu), the other

the dependent principle

;

consisting of the

innumerable as
It

human spirit, or in the Nyaya and

rather spirits

for these are

Saiikhya.

was Madhva's unqualified denial of the unity of the Supreme and human spirits which made him the opponent
of the followers of Saiikara.

The Vedantists maintained,

ference between one thing

as

we have

seen, that the difspirit

and another and between one

and another was wholly illusory and unreal.

that a real

Madhva

affirmed

and inextinguishable duality was to be proved both

^.

by perception and by inference

'The Supreme Lord,'

said

Madhva,
is

'differs

from the
its

in-

dividual spirit because the

Lord

the object of

obedience.
In their
followers

subject

who obeys

a king differs from that king.

eager desire to be one with the

Supreme Being, the

of Sarikara lay claim to the glory of his excellence.

This

is

mere mirage.

man

with his tongue cut off might as well

attempt to enjoy a large plantain.'

Again, according to

Madhva

the Vedic text,

'

This

is

Self

That
'

art thou,' points to similarity, not identity.

;

Like a bird and the string

rivers

like the juices of various trees

like

and the sea

;

like
like a

fresh

and

salt

water

like

robber and the robbed

the

man and

his

energy

so are

human

spirit

and the Lord diverse and

for ever different.'

Nor have
to the

these two principles a qualified unity comparable

spirit

union of

and body, as affirmed by Ramanuja.

They

are absolutely distinct.

its

With regard

to

the visible

world, he taught that

elements existed eternally in the

Supreme Being, and were only created by Him in the sense of being shaped, ordered, and arranged by His power and will.
^

See pp.

^Z,

90 of Cowell and Cough's 'Sarva-darsana-saiigraha.'


132
Practically he

Sect.

Vaishnavism,

Madhva

seems to have asserted three principles quite as plainly as Ramanuja did for his doctrine was that, when once the world had emanated from the Supreme essence, it remained
;

a distinct entity to
affirmed,
'

all

eternity.

'

There

is

a difference,' he

between human souls and God, and a difference beGod.'

tween insentient matter (jada) and

Probably, like

Bishop Berkeley, he saw the difficulty of proving the existence

of matter externally to the mind, and therefore contented

himself with asserting two distinct principles, the Supreme

and the human

visible

spirit.

In short, his

dogma was

that as the

world emanated from

God

it

was not distinguishable,

as an original principle, as the

from God, and was not even as distinct

it
^.

human

spirit

and body, though, when once produced,

its

was

as distinct from

Producer as an

effect
is

from
to

its

cause

According to Madhva the Supreme Being

in three

be honoured

ways

by naming, by worship, and by branding.

naming (nama-karana)
is

The
child
as a

act of

performed by giving a

one of the thousand names of Vishnu

such as Kesava
with the voice

memorial of

his dedication to the service of the god.

is

The
Veda
love,

act of worship

threefold

(i)

by
by

veracity, right conversation, kind words,

;

and

repetition of the

(2)

with the body

by
;

giving alms to the poor,

(3)

defending and protecting them

with the heart

by mercy,
Ma-

and

faith.

This

is

mere

repetition of the old triple

division of duties, according to thought, word,

and deed.

With regard

to the rite of branding (called ankana), the

Ramanujas and other Valshnavas, lay great dhva stress on marking the body Indelibly with the circular discus
sect, like the

and

shell of

Vishnu.

They firmly

believe that

it is

the duty of

Valshnavas to carry throughout

their persons,

life

a memorial of their god on

visible sign

and that such a lasting outward and

of his presence helps

^

them

to obtain salvation

through him.
who
equally

This was very

much

the doctrine of the Kabbalists,

It

held that nothing could be produced from nothing. theory of the Stoics.

resembles also the

'

Vaishnavisin.
*

Madhva

Sect.

133

On

his right

arm
!

let

the

Brahman wear

the discus, on his

left

the conch-shell
I

When
of

was

at

Tanjore

found that one of the successors

Madhva had

recently arrived on his branding-visitation.

He was engaged
disciples

throughout the entire day

fees

in

stamping

his

and receiving

from

all

according to their means.

Texts are recited

at the

time of branding, and in Sayana:

Madhava's time the following prayer was said

Discus

(Sudarsana), brightly blazing, effulgent as ten million suns,

show unto me, blind with ignorance, the everlasting way of

Vishnu.
sea,

Thou,

Conch-shell, aforetime sprangest from the

all

held in the hand of Vishnu, adored by

the gods,

to thee be adoration.'

(Sarva-darsana-sangraha, Cowell and

Gough,
I

p. 92.)

learnt, too, that

no

less

thaa eight Acaryas, established

in

eight different

monasteries (Maths) with temples attached,

claim

to

be successors of Madhva.
religious

There are also

who,

two
no

principal

parties

among

the Madhvas,

doubt, quarrel over their Shibboleths like the two divisions

of Ramanujas.

Maths, and the

At Udipi itself (p. 130), there are eight place is much frequented by pilgrims from
all

Mysore.

The
kof

frontal

mark of

the

Madhvas

is

the same, consisting

two thin

vertical lines

meeting below

in a curve, like that of

the Vada-galai Ramanujas.

lally
[idols

But a central black

line

is

gener-

made with
of Vishnu.

charcoal taken from incense burnt before the

So much for the doctrines of two sects which have some [common ground with Christianity and are therefore worthy of [especial attention. Perhaps Madhva's system is the more
interesting in
like

European thought, but his Theism, that of Ramanuja and of every other Hindu Theistic
its

relation to

[system, differed widely in

;

many important

points from the

Theism of

Christianity, especially in

making God the sub-

Istantial as well as efficient

cause of the visible world.

134

Vaishnavisrn,

Vallabha

Sect.

Sect foztnded by

Vallabha.
is

The
or, as

third great
is

Vaishnava sect

that founded

by Vallabha,

he

called

said to

have been born

by his followers_,Vallabhacarya (Maha-prabhu), in the forest of Camparanya about

^^'^ believed to

A.D. 1479.

^^

have been an embodiment

of a portion of Krishna's essence, and various stories are

fabled about him.
to

For instance,

his intelligence

is

alleged

have been so great that when he began learning at seven

years of age, he mastered the four Vedas, the six systems of

Philosophy, and the eighteen Puranas in four months.

After precocity so prodigious he was able at the age of

twelve to formulate a

new view of the Vaishnava

creed, but

one which was to a great extent derived from a previous

teacher
to

named Vishnu-svaml.

Soon he commenced

travelling

propagate his doctrines.

When

he reached the court of

Krishna-deva, King of Vijaya-nagar, he was invited to engage

in a disputation

with a number of Smarta Brahmans.

In this

he succeeded so well that he was elected chief Acarya of the

Vaishnavas.

He then travelled for nine years through different

and
finally settled in Benares,

parts of India,
to

where he

is

said

have composed seventeen works, among which was a

last,

commentary on the Bhagavata-purana. This descriptive of the early life its tenth book

especially

of Krishna

is

the authoritative source of the doctrines of the sect.

Val-

labhacarya's view of the Vaishnava creed has been called

Pushti-marga, the
self

way

of eating, drinking, and enjoying one-

But

in real fact

he simply dissented from the doctrine

to

that asceticism

was a mode of commending man

God.

He

maintained that worship of the Deity ought not to be

self-mortification, because every

accompanied with fasting and

individual soul

was a portion of the Supreme Soul, and

therefore to reverence, and
it.

every
his

man ought

even

foster,

own body which contained

He

held, in short, that individual

human

spirits

were

like

Vaishnavisin.

Vallabha

Sect.

135

sparks from the Supreme Spirit, and, though separate, identical

in

essence with

it.

His doctrine
it

is

called pure non-duality

(Suddhadvaita), to distinguish
duality (Visishtadvaita) of

from the qualified non;

Ramanuja
to

but,

when
at

closely ex-

amined,

it

seems to be a nominal distinction without much

real difference.

He

is

known
in the

have died

Benares

but,

according to his disciples, was transported to heaven while

performing his ablutions

Ganges.

His followers are numerous

India, particularly

in

Bombay, Gujarat, and Central

behind him eighty-four princihis doctrines in various direc-

among

the merchants and traders called

left

Baniyas and Bhatiyas.

pal disciples,
tions.

He

who disseminated

But

the real successor to his

Gadi (gaddi) or chair was

his his

second son, Vitthal-nath, sometimes called Gosainji from

having settled at Gokul, Krishna's abode near Muttra.

This Vitthal-nath had seven sons, each of

a

whom

established

Gad!

in

different districts, especially in

Bombay, Kutch,
title

Kathiawar, and Malwa.

successors
raja,
'

The

influence of Vallabhacarya's

became so great

that they received the

(for

Mahaof

great king,' the

name Gosain

Go-svamin

lord

cows

an epithet of Krishna) being sometimes added.

naturally to be expected, his followers exaggerated

As was
religion.

his teaching, especially in regard to his non-ascetical

view of

They have been

called

'

the Epicureans of India.'

in the costliest

Their spiritual leaders, the Maharajas, dress

raiment, feed on the daintiest viands, and abandon themselves

to every

form of sensuality and luxury.

The

children of the Vallabhacaryans are admitted to

memparts

bership at the age of three or four years, or, in

of India, later.

some

A
^,

rosary, or necklace (kanthi) of one

hundred

and eight beads

made

of tulsl wood,

is

passed round their

necks by the Maharaja, and they are taught the use of the
^ These help in the recitation of the chief names of Krishna as the Supreme Being" (see p. 105), or of similar epithets applied to the successors

of Vallabha

but see note to

p. 117.

136

Vaishnavism.
*

Vallabha Sect
is

eight-syllabled prayer,

The adorable Krishna

is

my

soul's

refuge' (Sri-Krishnah saranam mama).

The god worshipped

appeared
self
in his

the Krishna form of Vishnu, as he

child,

boyhood, when, as a mere

he gave him-

up

to childish mirth,

and condescended to sport with the

GopTs or cowherdesses of Mathura (Muttra).

was once present at a kind of revivalist camp-meeting near Allahabad, where a celebrated Hindu preacher adI

dressed

large

assembly of people and

magnified
all

this

condescension as a proof of Krishna's superiority to

gods.

other

Then, again, images used

in the

temples of the sect represent

life (in

K|*ishna in the boyish period of his

the form called

Bala-Krishna), supposed to extend to his twelfth year.

Ac-

cording to the higher Vaishnava creed, Krishna's love for

the GopTs

themselves

the wives of the cowherds

and
for

the

love of the Gopis for Krishna are to be explained allegorically,

and symbolize the longing of the human soul

union

with the Supreme (Brahma-sambandha).

strict

When
his

have asked

Vaishnavas
I

for

an explanation of Krishna's alleged

adulteries,

have always been told that

attachment to the

GopTs was purely spiritual, and that, in

fact,

he was only a

child at the time of his association with them.

Yet

it is

certain that the followers of Vallabha interpreted

that attachment in a gross and material sense.

Hence

their

devotion to Krishna has degenerated into the most corrupt

practices,
core.

and

their

whole system has become rotten to the

It is

even said that the male members of the sect

sometimes seek to win the favour of their god by wearing long hair and assimilating themselves to females and even
;

their spiritual chiefs, the Maharajas, the successors of Valla-

bhacarya, sometimes simulate the appearance of

is,

women

(that

of GopTs)

when they

lead the worship of their followers.

But the

real blot, or rather foul stain,

which defaces and

defiles the system,

remains to be described.

These Maharajas

Vaishnavism.

Vallabha

Sect.

137

have come to be regarded as representatives of Krishna upon

earth, or even as actual incarnations or impersonations of the

god.

So that

in the

temples where the Maharajas do homage

to the Maharajas,

to the idols,

men and women do homage

feet,

prostrating themselves at their

fruits

offering

them

incense,

and

flowers,

and waving

h'ghts

before

them, as the

Maharajas themselves do before the images of the gods.

One mode
his

of worshipping the boyish

in swings.

Krishna

is

by swinging

images

Hence,

in

every district presided over

by a Maharaja, the women are accustomed to worship not Krishna but the Maharaja by swinging him in pendent seats.

The Pan-supari
food,

ejected from his mouth, the leavings of his

and the very dust on which he has walked, are eagerly

his devotees,

devoured by

while they also drink the water

In the

rinsed from his garments,

feet,

and that used

shoes,

washing of

his

which

they
his

call

Caranamrita,

'feet

nectar.'

Others,

again, worship

wooden
It

or

prostrate

themselves
infinitely

before his seat (gadi) and his painted portraits.

Nay,
best

worse than

all

this

is

believed that the

in

mode

of

propitiating the

god Krishna
(in

heaven

is

by

ministering to

the sensual appetites of his successors and vicars upon earth.

Body,

soul,

and property

popular language tan, man, dhan)

rite called

are to be wholly

made

over to them In a peculiar

p. 117),

Self-devotion (samarpana, see

and

women

are taught

to believe that highest bliss will their families

be secured to themselves and

by the
of the

caresses of Krishna's representative?.

The
brated
the

profligacy of the Maharajas

trial

was exposed

in

the cele-

Maharaja

libel case,

which came before

Supreme Court of Bombay on the 26th of January, j(S62. The evidence given, and the judgment of the judges, have acted as some check on the licentious practices of the sect,
but
it

is

still

held to represent the worst and most corrupt

phase of the Vaishnava religion.

The

reform.ation of the Vallabhadarya system effected

will

by

Svami-Narayana

be afterwards described (see

p. T4(S).

138

Vaislmavism.

Caitanya

Sect.

Sect

founded by Caitanya.

The fourth principal sect of Vaishnavas is found in Bengal. They are the followers of a celebrated teacher named Caitanya, and their precepts and practices have a close community with those of the Vallabhacaryans already described. The biography of Caitanya^ as given by native
chiefly
writers,
is,

as usual,

legendary.

Only

scattered

elements

of

truth

are

discoverable amidst a confused farrago of facts, fiction, and

romance.

What

respect, indeed, for chronological or historical

in a

accuracy can be expected

vinced that their
is

people

who

are firmly con-

own

existence and that of every one else

an
I

illusion

believe
(

it

is

pretty certain that Caitanya was born at

in

Nadiya
era,

= NavadvTpa)
after

Bengal
in

in

the year 1485 of our

two years

Luther

Europe.

His father was an

orthodox Brahman named Jagan-nath Misra.

His mother

was the daughter of Nilambar Cakravarti.

is

Since Caitanya

held to have been an incarnation of Krishna, various pro-

digies are described as having

in

the world.

He was

thirteen

marked months
his

his first
in the

appearance

soon after his

holy

birth, at the

end of an

eclipse, a

womb. Then number of

to the
rice,

men (among whom was

child,

future
to

disciple Advaita)

arrived at the house of his parents

do homage

new-born
fruits,

and

to

present him with offerings of

gold and

silver.

In his childhood he resembled the

young Krishna in condescending to boyish sports (llla). Yet his intellect was so acute that he rapidly acquired a complete knowledge of Sanskrit grammar and literature. His favourite subject of study was the Vaishnava bible, consisting of the
Bhagavata-purana, and Bhagavad-glta.

Yet

Caitanya^,

notwithstanding his devotion to religious

study, did not

shrink from what every Hindii believes to

be a sacred obligation

the

duty of marrying a

wife,

and

becoming a householder

(grihastha).

He

even married again

Vaishiiavism.

Caitanya

Sect.

139
the a^xe of
all

when

his first wife died

(a. D.

from a snake-bite.

At

twenty-five

1509) he resolved to abandon

worldly

connexions, and gave himself up to a religious

ingly, like

life.

Accord-

Vallabhacarya and at about the same period, he

series
is

commenced a
six years,

of pilgrimages.

His travels occupied

and he

known

to

have visited some of the most

celebrated shrines of India, especially those of Benares, Gaya,

Mathura, Srirangam, and ultimately the temple of Jagan-nath

at Purl in Orissa.

Having thus prepared himself

for his mission,

he addressed

himself to the real work of preaching and propagating his

own view
in

of the Vaishnava creed.

It is

noteworthy that just

about the time that Luther was agitating the minds of

After making

men

Europe, Caitanya was stirring the hearts of the people of

Bengal.

many

converts he seems to have

appointed his

two most eminent followers,

his

Advaita
that
at
life

and
of
in

Nityananda, to preside over

India.

disciples

in

part

He

himself settled
lived
for

for twelve years

Katak
in

Orissa.

There he

the

rest

of his

close

proximity to the great temple of Jagan-nath, and contributed

to the reputation of the shrine
festivals.

by

his presence at the

annual

His success as a

preacher was

enemies were attracted

Even his by the persuasiveness of his manner

remarkable.
his eloquence.

and the magnetic power of

flocked to

The lower

classes

him by thousands.

Nor was

their admiration of

him

surprising.

The

first

principle he inculcated
(

was that

all

the faithful worshippers of Krishna

treated as equals.

= Vishnu)

were to be
in

Caste was to be subordinated to faith

of
God,'
said
(Jaitanya,
'

Krishna

^.

'

The mercy

regards

neither tribe nor family.'

^ This was his theory, but among his numerous followers of the present day the doctrine of equality does not overcome caste-feeling and caste-

observances except during religious services.

idol of

The

food presented to the

Jagan-nath

is

distributed to

all

castes alike,

and eaten by

all indis-

criminately at the annual festival.

140

Vaishnavism.

Caitany a

Sect.

By

thus proclaiming social equality he secured popularity.

In this respect he wisely imitated the method of Buddhists and

Saktas.

The

doctrine of the latter,

who abounded everywhere

(sakti)

in Bengal,

was that magical powers might be acquired by the

worship of the female principle or generative energy

in nature, personified as Siva's wife.

They

believed that the

male

principle, personified as the

in the

male god Siva, the great

Reproducer, was helpless

work of Reproduction with-

out the energizing action of the female principle.

Hence the

union of the sexes was thought by some to be typical of a

great cosmical mystery.
in the

This

will

be more fully explained

chapter on Saktism

(p. 180).

Caitanya professed to oppose these Sakta doctrines, both as

tending to licentious practices, and as ignoring the supremacy
of the god Vishnu over Siva.

Yet

his system, like that of

Vallabha, had a tendency in the same direction.

that the devotion of the

He
'

taught
to

human

soul to

Vishnu was
love.
"

be
art

symbolized under the figure of

dear to

human

Thou

my

heart, thou art part of

my

soul," said a
I

young
not."

man

to his loved

one

" I

love thee, but why,

know

So ought the worshipper to for his sake only. Let him

remuneration.

love Krishna, and worship

offer all to

him

God, and expect no

He who

asks for a return acts like a trader.'

this

Such are the words of a modern exponent of

system.
I

Vaishnava

have already pointed out that the idea of devotion (bhakti)

as a

means

of salvation, which

was formally taught by the

authors of the Bhagavad-glta, Bhagavata-purana and Sandilyasutra,

was scarcely known

of the
as

in early times.

The
is

leading docthat works

trine

Vedic hymns and Brahmanas

represented

(karma), especially

sacrifices (yajiia), constitute

by the performance of the shortest pathway to beatimainly on abstract meditathe

true

tude, while the

tion

Upanishads

insist

and divine knowledge (jnana) as

method.

Caitanya affirmed that intense devotion

displayed by com-

Vaishnavism.

Caitanya Sect.

141
the only real

plete union of the spirit with Krishna

salvation.
'

was
all

Devotion,
is

in

fact,

superseded

other duties.

Whatever

accomplished by works, by penance, by divine

knowledge, by suppression of the passions, by abstract meditation,

is

by charity, by effected by devotion

virtue,

by other

excellences,

all

this

to me.
Spirit,

Paradise, Heaven, beatitude,

union with the Supreme

every wish of the heart

is

obtainable by devotion to me.'

Such are Krishna's own words,

other Vaishnava

according to the belief of Caitanya and

teachers.

(Bhagavata-purana XI.)
feelings of Krishna's votaries are supfive

But the devotional

posed to be susceptible of

phases, or rather, perhaps,

to be exhibited in five different ways,

which are thus enu-

merated
2.

I.

Calm contemplation
;

of the

godhead

(santi)

Active servitude (dasya)

;

3.

A
;

feeling of personal friend-

ship (sakhya)
a child for
its

4.

feeling of

filial

attachment

like that of

parent (vatsalya)

5.

feeling of tender affec-

tion like that of a girl for her lover (madhurya)=

The

last

of these

is

held to be the highest feeling.

Indeed,

Caitanya taught that the great aim of every worshipper of

Krishna ought to be to lose

that he

all

individuality

and self-consciouson
this

ness in ecstatic union with his

is

god

and

it is

account

believed to have held the dualistic non-duality

doctrine (dvaitadvaita of Nimbaditya, see p. 147).

To

bring

about a condition of intense religious fervour various practices

were enjoined

for

example, incessant repetition of the deity's

name

(nama-kirtana), singing (saiikirtana), music, dancing, or

practised
^

movements of the body allied to dancing, such as were also by certain Saiva devotees ^. Caitanya was himself
These correspond to the Zikr and religious dancing of the Muhamdervishes. For even cold Islam has its devotees who aim at
expedients very similar to those of the
at
I

madan

religious ecstasy, resorting to

Laitanyas.
lations

have been twice present

the weekly services of the of

Cairo dervishes.

One

sect repeat the

name

God

with violent ejacu-

and contortions of the body, while another fraternity whirl themselves round till they swoon away in the intensity of their fervour.

142
in the

Vaiskuavism.

Caitanya

Sect.

constant habit of swooning

away in paroxysms of ecstatic

His biographers
he was translated directly to

emotion, which at last affected his reason.

assert that in

one of these

fits

Vishnu's heaven (Vaikuntha).

According

to

some accounts

he ended his

life

by walking

into the sea near Purl in Orissa,

fancying he saw a beatific vision of Krishna sporting on the

waves with

his favourite GopTs.

Certain

it is

that he disap-

peared mysteriously about A.D. 1527, at the age of forty- two.

Then happened what has

religious history of India.

constantly taken place in the

Men

of high aspirations,

who have
re-

laboured for the revival or reformation of religion, and

ceived

homage
life,

as inspired teachers from crowds of disciples

deities at death.
fol-

during

have been worshipped as actual

The only

question in the minds of Caitanya's devoted

full

lowers was as to whether he was a

manifestation of the

Supreme Being (Krishna) or only

of his essence.

a descent of a portion (ansa)

The

difficulty

seems to have been settled by Advaita and

deciding that Caitanya was none other than very Krishna

incarnate,

and that

his

two principal

disciples,

Nityananda, were
deity.

manifestations of portions of the

same

These three leaders of the

sect are therefore called

the three great lords (Prabhus).

triad of this phase of Vaishnavism.

They

constitute the sacred

But a fourth

leader,

named

Hari-das,
is

who during

his life-

time was a companion of Caitanya,

rate divinity in Bengal.

worshipped as a sepa-

Indeed,

all

the living successors and

(

the present leaders of the sect, called Gosains

are venerated as
this school.
little less

= Gosvamins),
and

than deities by the Vaishnavas of

living religious leaders

For the worship of

teachers

(usually called by the general name Guru) is a marked feature of this, as of all forms of Vaishnavism. The Guru with Vaishnavas is indeed more than a teacher, and even more than a mediator between God and men. He is the

present god

the visible living incarnation of the deity.

felt.

His
is

anger and favour make themselves instantly

He

on

Vaislmavism.
that account even

Caitanya

Sect.

143

god of

whom

he

is

more feared and honoured than the very the representative and embodiment.
is

Another feature of the system

the extraordinary value

attached to the repetition of Krishna's names, especially of his

name

Hari.

repeating this
fixed on

The mere mechanical process of constantly name Hari though the mind be vacant or

some other
Religious

object secures
are

admission to Vishnu's
comparatively
Vaishnavas.
for the

heaven.

ceremonies

useless.

This idea, however, prevails

is

among

all

Hari-das

said to

have retired to a secluded place

purpose of

repeating the word Hari 300.000 times daily.

Even

a blasphemous repetition of Krishna's

name may secure

beatitude.

In the Maratha country there

is

a form of devotion

called Virodha-bhakti,

which consists

in a

man's pretending to
bliss of

oppose the deity with the sole object of achieving the

being killed by him, and so transported to the god's heaven.

So

it is

said that Sisu-pala

;

was saved by constantly thinking of

and the cowherdesses by thinking of

Krishna through enmity

him through
a

lust (kamat).

It is related

of a certain wicked godless (one

of the

man

that he had

son

named Narayana

principal

names of

Vishnu).
last,

On

his

death-bed, and just before breathing his

the father called out his son's

remote intention of invoking the

name without the most The effect was that god.

to

Yama's messengers, who stood ready

bate's soul to a place of punishment,

convey the repro-

were obliged to make

carried the spirit off in

way

for the emissaries of Vishnu,

who

triumph to the god's paradise.

The

repetition of particular

Vedic texts
is

is

by some regarded

as equally efficacious.

story

told of a certain converted

Hindu who took occasion to recount his experiences before becoming a Christian. It appears that he had been troubled
with a constant longing for a vision of Vishnu, and in his
distress

consulted a

Brahman, who informed him that

to

obtain the desired vision he would have to repeat a particular

144

Vaishnavisvi at

Dakor and Poona.

This he accomphshed by dint
in three

text (Mantra) 8oo,coo times.

of hard

work night and day

months, and, on com-

plaining to his friend the

Brahman
text,

that no result followed,

slight verbal

was
in

told that he

must have made some

mistake
slip

the repetition of

some one
in

and that any such

necessitated his going through the whole process again.

]\Iany
treatises

held

high repute have been

written
(e. g.

by the

disciples of Caitan}-a in support of his tenets

the

Caitanya-caritamrita by Krishna-das in 1590).

The ceremonial
blance
to

acts practised in

worshipping the image of

Krishna (described at pp. 90-94) have

those of Siva,

many

points of resem-

but

had few opportunities of

where there
a

witnessing them.
I

visited the

temple of Dakor

in Gujarat,
p.

is

noted idol of Krishna (or Raii-chor. see

152) brought from

Dvarika

(p. 113}.

was made

to take off

my

shoes before

ascending the steps of the temple, but was not permitted to

see the

image closely or

to note the process of worshipping

I

it.

On

one occasion, however,

was allowed to look through an

accidental crevice into the shrine of a Vaishnava temple at

Poona while the early morning service (puja) was performed. idol of the god Krishna first underwent a process of being roused from its supposed nocturnal slumbers by the attendant priest, who invoked the deit}' by name. Then a respectful offering of water in a boat-shaped vessel was made to it. Next the whole idol was bathed and holy water poured over Then the attendant it from a small perforated metal lota.

The

priest standing near applied sandal-paste (candana) with his

finger to the idol's forehead

and limbs, and, taking a brush,

painted the face with a bright colouring substance, probably

saffron.

Next, the idol was dressed and decorated with costly

clothes

and ornaments.

Then

the priest burnt

camphor and

incense and

waved

lights before the image, at the

ringing a small bell (ghanta).

Then

flowers (pushpa)

leaves of the sacred tulsi plant were offered,

same time and the followed by an

Vaishnavism.

Idol-worship.

145

oblation of food (naivedya), consisting of cooked rice with

sugar.

Next water was taken out

to

of a small metal vessel

with a spoon and was presented for sipping (acamana).

The
on

god was of course supposed

its

consume the food or

feast

aroma, receiving at the end of the meal an offering of betel

for the

supposed cleansing of the mouth after eating, and

Finally the

a spoonful more water for a second sipping.

priest prostrated himself before the idol,

and terminated the

for the day.
acts,

whole ceremony by putting the god to sleep

appeared to be muttering texts, and
the whole service a
far off,

While he was going through these ceremonial

I

he

observed that during

Brahman was
life

seated on the ground not

who

intoned portions of the tenth book of the Bhagaof Krishna, from a

vata-purana, descriptive of the

copy of

the work placed before him.

At

the same time a band over

the entrance to the temple played a loud accompaniment with

tom-toms,

fifes,

and drums.

In the evening the process of waking, undressing, redressing

the image, and putting

bathing.

it

to sleep

was repeated, but without

Flowers and food were again offered, texts intoned,

services performed.

and musical
the priests.
worshippers,

The cooked

food offered to the idol

In large temples
it

is

ultimately eaten

by

is

also

distributed to the

who

receive
at

it

eagerly as divine nutriment, called

places (for

prasdda

(p. 69),

and

some

example

at a parti-

cular temple in Benares) considerable portions are sold at high

prices to outside applicants.

The water

in

which the

idol is

washed

is

called tlrtha (or

sometimes caranamrita). and

is drunk as holy water. Sometimes the mode of worship by Pradakshina (or Pradak-

shina)

that
is

is,

circumambulation, with the right side kept

towards the object (following the course of the sun)

formed.

The same

sort of

circumambulation

per but often on the

is

knees

performed round the holy house at Loretto

in Italy.

CHAPTER
Minor Vaishnava

VI.

Sects.

Reforming

Theistic Movements.

We cannot quit
some account of

the subject of Vaishnavism without giving

more important minor sects, as well as of certain reforming theistic movements which may be said We may begin with the to have grown out of it.
its

Sect This
is

founded by Nimbarka or Nimbaditya.

sects.

perhaps one of the oldest of the known minor

Its founder Nimbarka or Nimbaditya, whose followers are

sometimes called Nimanandis, sometimes Nimavats,

is

held

to have been identical with the astronomer Bhaskaracarya,

who
deva,
tury,

flourished about the twelfth century.

The poet Jayacertain that the

who

is

also supposed to have lived in the twelfth cendisciple.

may

have been his

If so,

it is

disciple did

more than

his

master to promote the doctrine of

devotion to Krishna.

In Jaya-deva's mystical poem, called

the Gita-govinda (compared

by some

to our

Song

of Solo-

mon), are described the loves of Krishna and the Gopis (wives

and daughters of the Cowherds), and especially of Krishna

and Radha, as typical of the longing of the human

soul for union with the divine.

spirit or

Others again believe Nimbarka to have been an actual

incarnation of the Sun-god, and maintain that he derived his

name

of

'

Nimb-tree-Sun

'

from having one day stopped the

it

course of the sun's disk, dislodged

confined
it

from the heavens, and

tree.

for a brief season in a

Nimb (Nim)

This

re-

markable miracle was worked to enable Nimbarka to

offer

Minor

Vaishiiava Sects.

Raniananda,

147

food just before sunset to a holy guest whose religious vows

prevented his eating after dark.

that of

Nimbarka propounded a Ramanuja, amounted

philosophical theory which, like

to a

compromise between dualism

and non-dualism, and was called dualistic non-dualism (Dvaitadvaita).

He

held that every man's spirit was capable of

Spirit,

being absorbed into God's

to be

and that such an end was

are not very numerous,

aimed

at.

His

followers,

who

are devoted to the worship of the

goddess Radha

in

con-

junction with Krishna.

Sect fottnded by

Rdmdnanda.

Ramananda is said to have been born in the thirteenth The sect founded by him in the fourteenth century has many adherents in Gangetic India, especially around They are often called Ramanandis or Ramavats, Agra.
century.

and are sometimes confounded with the Ramanujas, the

being that

fact

Ramananda was probably one of Ramanuja's disciples. The Ramananda Vaishnavas, however, have disThey worship Vishnu under tinctive doctrines of their own. Rama form of (the hero of the Ramayana) either singly the
or conjointly with his wife Sita,

and they are

not, like the

Ramanujas, hyper-scrupulous about the privacy of

Their favourite book
is

their meals.

the Bhakta-mala of Nabhaji

a work
and ad-

interesting for its biographies of certain Vaishnavas

herents

of the

sect,

among whom

are

included

two well-

known poets, Sur-das and TulasT-das (commonly Tulsi-das). The former was blind. He wrote a great many stanzas in
praise of Vishnu,

and

is

regarded as a kind of patron of blind

men, especially
TulsT-das,

if

they roam about as wandering musicians.

to this

whose verses are

day household words

in
is

every town and rural district where the Hindi language

spoken, ranks as a poet of higher order.

He was

born near

Citra-kuta about A.D. 1544, and settled at Benares, where he

L 2

148

Minor Vaishnava

Sects.

Svd7ni-Narayana.

became an

enthusiastic worshipper of

Rama
has

and

Sita.
is

His

Hindi poem, the Ramayana, or history of Rama,

translation of Valmiki's great work.
It
all

no mere

the freshness
died about

of an independent and original composition.

He

1624.

But Ramananda
disciples, the

is

chiefly noted for his twelve

immediate

most celebrated of
these again

whom

were Kabir, Pipa, and

Ravi-das.

Of

by

far the

most remarkable

Avas

Kabir.

He was
first

an enthusiastic reformer, who founded a dis-

tinct theistic sect to

be described hereafter (see

p. 158).

Let us

conclude our description of

strictly

Vaishnava

sectarianism

by giving some account of the comparatively modern Vaishnava sect founded by Svami-Narayana. This sect is worthy of notice, both because it affords a good example of the best aspect of modern Vaishnavism, and because
the efforts of
its

founder to deliver the system of Vallabh-

acarya from the corrupting influences of the profligate Maharajas (see pp. 136, 137)
is

worthy of

all praise.

Sect

fotmded by Svmti-Narayana.
proper

Svami-Narayana, whose

name was Sahajananda,

born at Chapai, a village

was a high-caste Brahman.

about the year 1780.
with the manner of
acarya,
life

He was

one hundred and twenty miles to the north-west of Lucknow,

He was

a Vaishnava, but disgusted

of the so-called followers of Vallabhpractice were utterly at variance,

whose precepts and

and especially with the

larities

licentious habits of the

Bombay Ma-

harajas (see p. 137), he determined to denounce their irregu-

and expose

their vices.

He

himself was a celibate,

virtuous, self-controlled, austere, ascetical, yet withal large-

hearted and philanthropic, and with a great aptitude for

learning.

He

left his

home about

the year 1800, and took

jurisdiction

up

his

abode

at

a village within the

of

the

Junagarh Nawab.

There he placed himself under the pro-


Minor Vaislmava
tectlon of the chief Guru,

Sects.

Svami-Narayana.

149

that holy

man removed

to

named Ramananda-Svami. When Ahmedabad, in 1804, Sahajananda

followed him.

In a large and populous city a

professed sanctity could not
fail

man

of evident ability and

to attract attention.

Soon

Sahajananda collected about

disciples,

his

which rapidly multiplied

own person a little band of into an army of devoted

power of mes-

adherents.

Some

attribute his influence to a

merizing his followers, but he probably owed his success to a

remarkable fascination of manner combined with consistency

of moral character,

and other

qualities

which singled him

out for a leader.

His disciples increased so rapidly that the

Brahmans and magnates of Ahmedabad began to be jealous of his popularity. He was obliged to fly, and sought refuge There he at Jetalpur, twelve miles south of Ahmedabad. invited all the Brahmans of the neighbourhood to the performance of a great
sacrifice.

The

native officials no sooner

collision

heard of the proposed assemblage than, fearing a

between his followers and other religious

parties,

they had

him arrested on some

prison.
It

frivolous

pretext and
its

thrown into

Such an act of tyranny defeated

soon released.

own
in

object.

excited universal sympathy, and increased his influence.

He was

Hymns

were composed

which

his merits

were extolled.

Verses were written descriptive of

his sufferings.

Curses were launched against the heads of his

persecutors.

Jetalpur then became the focus of a great religious gathering.

Thousands flocked
the
followers

to the

town and enrolled themselves

as

of Sahajananda,

who took

the

name

of

Svami-Narayana.
Bishop Heber,
in

his Indian Journal, gives the

following

interesting account of an interview with

his career
:

him

at this period of

About eleven

o'clock

had the expected

visit

from Svami-Narayana.

The holy man was

a middle-sized, thin, plain-looking person, about

my


150
own

Minor Vaishiava

Sects.

Svami-Naraymia,

age, with a mild and diffident expression of countenance, but nothing about him indicative of any extraordinary talent. He came in somewhat different style from all I had expected, having with him nearly two hundred horsemen. When I considered that I had myself an escort of more than fifty horse I could not help smiling, though my sensations were in some degree painful and humiliating at the idea of two religious teachers meeting at the head of little armies, and filling the city which was the scene of their interview with the rattling of Had our quivers, the clash of shields, and the tramp of the war-horse. troops been opposed to each other, mine, though less numerous, would have been doubtless far more effective, from the superiority of arms and But in moral grandeur what a difference there was between discipline. Mine neither knew me nor cared for me, though his troops and mine they escorted me faithfully. The guards of Svami-Narayana were his own disciples and enthusiastic admirers, men who had voluntarily repaired to hear his lessons, who now took a pride in doing him honour, and who would cheerfully fight to the last drop of blood rather than In my own parish suffer a fringe of his garment to be handled roughly. of Hodnet there were once, perhaps, a few honest countrymen who felt something like this for me, but how long a time must elapse before a Christian minister in India can hope to be thus loved and honoured. Chap. XXV.
!

It

soon became clear to Sahajananda that the success of

his future operations his

would depend on the consolidation of

retired with his followers to the

party.

He

therefore

secluded village of Wartal, where he erected a temple to

Narayana (otherwise Krishna, or Vishnu,

this central locality that his crusade

as

the
It

Being) associated with the goddess Lakshml.

Supreme was from

on.

against the licentious

habits

of the Vallabhacaryans was principally carried

'

His watchword seems to have been

(as

devotion to Krishna

the
life.'

Supreme Being) with observance of duty and purity

in the habit of

of

He
like a

was

making

periodical tours in Gujarat,

It was in one of these that Svami-Narayana was struck down by fever at Gadada in Kathiawar, where he died. His disciples now number more than 20o,cco persons.

bishop visiting his diocese.

They

are broadly divided into

two

classes

Sadhus,

'

holy
to

men,' and Grihasthas, 'householders.'

These correspond


Minor Vaishnava
clergy and laity; the
Sects,

Svami-Narayana,
who
are
all

151
being

former,

celibates,

supported by the

latter.

Those Sadhus who are Brahmans

362 of this volume).

are called Brahma-carls

(cf. p.

Of

these

there are about 300 at Wartal, the whole

body
still

of Sadhus, or
is

holy men, numbering about 1,000.

called Pala.

lower order

Of

these there are about 500.

The two
observances

principal temples of the sect are at Wartal (for

*

Sanskrit Vrittalaya or better Vratalaya,

')

abode of

religious
rail-

about four miles to the west of the Baroda

way, and at Ahmedabad.

The former

is

the most important

and best endowed, but both are presided over by Maharajas,

neither of
other.

whom

is

willing to yield the

precedence to the

Jealousies are

already springing up between them.

Probably, in process of time, a schism will take place, and

perhaps two antagonistic parties be formed, as

in the other

Vaishnava
In

sects.

company with

the Collector of Kaira I visited the Wartal

full

temple on the day of the Purnima, or

Karttik

moon

of the

the

most popular

festival of

the whole year.

month The

Maharaja greeted us
carriage, a palanquin

at the Borehavi station of the

Baroda

railway with a choice of conveyances

an elephant, a bullock-

and four saddle-horses, with a mounted

guard.

chose the palanquin and found myself moving com-

fortably forward, while

my

companion's vehicle oscillated

violently in response to the inequalities of the road.

The

Svami-Narayana
their chief temple.

sect are a wealthy

community, but clearly

access to

object to spend their

money on improving their One reason for this may be that

a shrine's

inaccessibility enhances the merit of pilgrimage.

We

were met at the entrance to the court of the temple

(mandira) by the Maharaja himself, attended by his minister

an old Brahmacarl, or unmarried Brahman.

a handsome structure.
in

The temple

dedicated to Lakshmi-Narayana, erected about sixty years

ago,
is

It

has the usual lofty cupolas,

and stands

the centre of a courtyard, formed

by the

152

Minor Vaishnava

Sects,

Svami-Narayana.

residences of the Maharaja and his attendants, the great hall

of assembly, and other buildings.

We were
least ten
all

conducted by the Maharaja through a crowd of at

thousand persons who thronged the quadrangle and

the approaches to the temple.

They were

waiting to

be admitted to the ceremony of the day

that

the
but

one object
privilege of
It

had drawn so many people to the spot

;

the

Darsana

that

is,

of seeing and adoring the idol.

was a
mani-

moment

of intense excitement.

Let a

man

bow down
its

before the jewelled image on this anniversary of

festation to the multitude,

and the blessing of the god attends

him

for the

whole year.

The

vast concourse
sea,

swayed

to

and

fro like the

waves of a troubled

each

man
I

vociferating to

his neighbours in a

manner quite

appalling.

could not help

thinking of our apparent helplessness in the surging crowd,

and asking myself how two solitary Europeans would be likely

to fare,
if,

from some accidental circumstance, the religious

fanaticism of a myriad of excited

Hindus were

to break loose

and vent
signal

itself

upon

us.

But the ten thousand people were docile as children. At a from the Maharaja they made a lane for us to pass, and
entered the temple
is

we

by a handsome

flight

of steps.

The

interior

surrounded by idol shrines.

On

the occasion of the

present festival the principal images were almost concealed

from view by rich vestments and jewelry.

The two
from
evil

principal shrines have three figures.

One

of

them

has an idol of Krishna in his character of Ran-chor, 'deliverer

V a form of Krishna specially worshipped at Dvarika

(see p. 144),

and throughout Gujarat

tator.
is

on the

left

of the spec-

An

in

the middle

image of Narayana (Vishnu as the Supreme Being) and Lakshmi, consort of Vishnu, is on the
;
'

So the name was interpreted to me, but it properly means fightand rather refers to Krishna's declining to take part in the great war of the Maha-bharata, between the sons of Pandu and Dhrita^

quitter,'

rashtra.

Minor Vais/mava
right.

Sects.

Svami-Narayana.

153

gong

to be struck in the performance of worship

(puja) hangs suspended before the shrine.

cipal sanctuary has

The

other prin-

Krishna

in

the middle, his favourite

Radha
sect,

on the
the

right,

and Svami-Narayana, the founder of the

latter
is

on

left.

The

here worshipped, like other great

reli-

gious leaders, as an incarnation of a portion of Vishnu

is,

that
In

he

is

held to be one of the numerous Naravataras or de-

scents of parts of the god's essence in the bodies of men.

an adjacent shrine are his bed and clothes, the print of his
foot,

and

his

wooden

slippers.

We

were next conducted to the Sabha-mandapa, or great

hall of assembly,

on one side of the quadrangle.

Here about

three thousand of the chief

members

of the sect, including

number of the Sadhus

or clergy, were waiting to receive us.

Chairs were placed for us in the centre of the hall, and before

r
_

us,

seated on the ground, with their legs folded under

them

in the usual

Indian attitude, were two rows of about thirty of

the oldest Sadhus, three or four of

whom

had been actually

contemporaries of Svami-Narayana.
delighted

These old men were

knowledge of their founder.

that they
all

when we questioned them as to their personal The only inconvenience was

wanted to talk together.
I

felt

indisposed to

check their garrulity, but the Maharaja had no such scruples

and invited us to another

hall in the story above,

where a

select

number of
greet us.
in

their best Pandits

and

officials

were assembled to
be-

The

regular Darbar or formal reception took place

this

room.

Here we were garlanded with

flowers,
fruits,

sprinkled with rosewater, and presented with

sweet-

meats, and pan-suparl, in the usual manner.

found the

Pandits well versed in Sanskrit.

One

or
it,

two astonished
and by

me

by the fluency with which they spoke

their

their readiI

ness in answering the difficult questions with which

tested

knowledge.
last act

The Maharaja's

building, used as a lodging-house or

was to conduct us to an adjacent asylum (dharma-sala)

154
for

Minor Vaishnava
the clergy.

Sects.

Sva77ti-Naraya7ia.
anniversary at least
in

On

the

present

six

hundred of these good men were collected

galleries called

long spacious

Asramas

(places of retreat).

dressed alike in plain salmon-coloured

clothes,

They were all each man

being located
feet long,

in

a small separated space not more than seven

four broad.

by three or
in racks,

Above

his head, neatly

arranged

were

his spare clothes, water-jar, &c.

When

we were
all
lie

introduced to the six hundred Sadhus they were

silent. At night they down on the hard ground in the same narrow space. These holy men are all celibates. They have abandoned all

standing upright, motionless, and

worldly

ties,

that they

may go

forth

unencumbered to

dis-

seminate the doctrines of their founder.

pairs, to cheer, support,

They

itinerate in

and keep watch on each

other.

They

travel

on

foot,

undergoing

many

privations
staff,

and hardships,
their

and taking with them nothing but a

back, their
instructions.

the clothes on their

daily food, their water-jar,

and

book of

They may be seen

here and there in the or-

dinary coarse salmon-coloured dress of ascetics, striving to

win

disciples by personal example and persuasion rather than by controversy. Surely other proselyting societies might gain some useful hints by a study of their method.

What
sect

saw of

their

whole system convinced

me

that the
their

Svami-Narayanas are an energetic body of men and

an advancing one.
their clergy, the leading

Notwithstanding the asceticism of

members

of the

community have

a keen eye to worldly wealth and the acquisition of land, and

are perhaps not over- scrupulous in carrying out their plans
of aggrandisement.
doctrines
effected
is

Without doubt the tendency of

life,

their

towards purity of

which

is

supposed to be

by suppression of the passions (udasa), and complete devotion to the Supreme Being in his names of Narayana, Vishnu, and Krishna. In an honest desire to purify the Vaishnava faith the sect has done and is doing much good
but there can be no question that
its

doctrines, like its gods,

Minor Vaishnava
its idols,

Sects.

Svami-Narayana.

155

and

its

sectarian marks, are part

and parcel of genuine

in vigour, and,
is,

Hinduism.

At any

rate the system lacks the true vivifying

it

regenerating force which can alone maintain

like other

Indian reformations and religious revivals,

I fear,

destined in the end to be drawn back into the all-absorbing

vortex of corrupt Hinduism.

After

my

discussion with the Pandits I

was presented with

San-

their Siksha-patri, or
skrit (with a

manual of
It

instructions, written in

long commentary), and constituting the religious

directory of the sect.

was compiled by

their founder, with

is

the aid of a learned

lection of

Brahman named Dina-nath, and two hundred and twelve precepts some

a col-

original,

some extracted from Manu and other sacred Sastras, and many of them containing high moral sentiments worthy of Christianity itself. Every educated member of the sect appeared to

know

the whole collection

by heart ^

Some
side of

of the verses were recited to

me by

the Pandits in

the original Sanskrit, and as they fairly represent the purer

Vaishnavism (which has been much corrupted by recent

ideas on all religious

teachers), as well as its confused

and

philosophical subjects,

here append a translation of a few

figures at the

I selected
No

specimens.

The

end of each precept

refer to the

number of the
flea or the

verses in the Siksha-patrl.

mine must ever intentionally kill any living thing whatmost minute insect (ii). The killing of any animal for the purpose of sacrifice to the gods is forbidden by me. Abstaining from injury is the highest of all duties (12). Suicide at a sacred place of pilgrimage, from religious motives or from
disciples of
ever, not

even a

passion,

is

No

flesh

prohibited (14). meat must ever be eaten, no spirituous or vinous liquor must

ever be drunk, not even as medicine (15). All theft is prohibited, even under pretence of contributing to religious
objects (17).

No No
^

male or female followers of mine must ever commit adultery (18). false accusation must be laid against any one from motives of

self-interest (20).

The

text

is

pubHshed

in the Journal of the

has been edited by me with a complete translation, and Royal Asiatic Society for October 1882.

156

Minor Vaishnava

Sects.

Svami-Narayana.
men

Profane language against the gods, sacred places, Brahmans, holy

and women, and the Vedas, must never be used

(21).

A
be

truth which causes serious injury to one's self or others ought not to

told.

Wicked men,

ungrateful people,

and persons

in love are to

be

avoided.

bribe must never be accepted (26). trust must never be betrayed. Confidence

must never be

violated.

prohibited {yj). Holy men should patiently bear abusive language, or even beating, from evil-minded persons, and wish good to them (201).
lips
is

Praise of one's self with one's

own

They should
spies
;

not play at any games of chance, nor act as informers or they should never show love of self, or undue partiality for their

relations (202).

offend

Wives should honour their husbands as if they were gods, and never them with improper language, though they be diseased, indigent,

or imbecile (159).

Widows
husband

should serve the god Krishna, regarding him as their only

(163).

They should only eat one meal a day, and should sleep on the ground (168). Every day let a man awake before sunrise, and, after calling on the name of Krishna, proceed to perform the rites of bodily purification (49).

Having seated himself in some place apart, let him cleanse his teeth, and then, having bathed with pure water, put on two well-washed garments, one an under garment, and the other an upper (50). My male followers should then make the vertical mark (emblematical of the footprint of Vishnu or Krishna) with the round spot inside it
(symbolical of Lakshml) on their foreheads.

Their wives should only

make

the circular

Those who

with red powder of saffron (52). are initiated into the proper worship of Krishna should

mark

always wear on their necks two rosaries made of Tulsl wood, one for Krishna and the other for Radha (4). After engaging in mental worship, let them reverently bow down before the pictures of Radha and Krishna ^, and repeat the eightsyllabled prayer to Krishna {Sri-Krishnah scwa7iavi mama, Adorable Krishna is my soul's refuge ') as many times as possible. Then let them apply themselves to secular affairs (54). Devotion to Krishna unattended by the performance of duties must on no account be practised (39). The duties of one's own class and order must never be abandoned, nor the duties of others meddled with (24). Nowhere, except in Jagan-nath-puri, must cooked food or water be accepted from a person of low caste, though it be the remains of an offering to Krishna (19).
'

It is

a characteristic of the Svami-Narayana sect that pictures, instead

of images, are used in

some

of their temples.

Minor Vaishnava

Sects,

Svami-Narayana.

157

Duty (dharma) is that good practice which is enjoined both by the Veda (Sruti) and by the law (Sniriti) founded on the Veda. Devotion
(bhakti)
is

intense love for Krishna accompanied with a due sense of

his glory (103).

good reward, but involving departure from proper must never be committed {^'^). If by the great men of former days anything unbecoming has been done, their faults must not be imitated, but only their good deeds (74). If knowingly or unintentionally any sin, great or small, be committed, the proper penance must be performed according to ability (92). Every day all my followers should go to the Temple of God, and there
act promising
duties,

An

names of Krishna (63). The story of his life should be listened to with the greatest reverence, and hymns in his praise should be sung on festive days (64). All males and females who go to Krishna's temple should keep
repeat the separate and not touch each other (40). Vishnu, Siva, Gana-pati (or Ganesa),
five deities

Parvatl, and the Sun these should be honoured with worship (84). Narayana and Siva should be equally regarded as part of one and the
;

same Supreme
forms of

Spirit, since
(47).
let it

both have been declared in the Vedas to be

in

Brahma

On

no account

be supposed that difference

living

forms (or names)

character of

makes any
its

difference in the identity of the deity (112).

That which abides within the

existent

human

spirit in the

internal regulator {antarydmitaya) should be regarded as the self-

Supreme Being who assigns a recompense to every act (107). That Being, known by various names such as the glorious Krishna, Param Brahma, Bhagavan, Purushottama the cause of all manifestations, is to be adored by us as our one chosen deity (108). Having perceived, by abstract meditation, that the spirit is distinct from its three bodies (viz. the gross, subtle, and causal bodies) and that lit is a portion of the one Spirit of the Universe (Brahma), every man [ought to worship Krishna by means of that soul at all times (116). Towards him alone ought all worship to be directed by every human being on the earth in every possible manner. Nothing else except devotion (bhakti) to him can procure salvation (113). The philosophical doctrine approved by me is the Visishtadvaita (of Ramanuja, see p. 122), and the desired heavenly abode is Goloka. There to worship Krishna and be united with him as the Supreme Soul is to be

considered salvation (121). The twice-born should perform at the proper seasons, and according to their means, the twelve purificatory rites ^ (sanskara), the (six) daily
^ Of these only six are now generally performed, viz. (i) the birthceremony, or touching the tongue of a new-born infant with clarified butter, etc. (2) the name-giving ceremony on the tenth day (3) ton: ; ;

sure

(4)

induction into the privileges of the twice-born, by investiture

158
duties
^,

Theistic Sect of Kabir,

and the Sraddha
offerings to the
spirits

of departed ances-

tors (91).

The

eleventh day of the waxing and waning

;

moon should be observed

as fasts, also the birthday of Krishna

also the night of Siva {Siva-rdtri)

with rejoicings during the day (79). A pilgrimage to the Tirthas, or holy places, of which Dvarika (Krishna's city in Gujarat) is the chief, should be performed according Almsgiving and kind acts towards the poor should always be to rule.

performed by

all {^'^).
;

of one's income should be assigned to Krishna should give a twentieth part (147).
tithe

the poor

Those males and females of

desires

my

followers

who

will act

according to
all

these directions shall certainly obtain the four great objects of

religious
now

human

merit, wealth, pleasure,

and beatitude

(206).

We

pass on to the reformed theistic sects founded by

Kabir and Nanak.

Theistic Sect

fotmded by Kabir.

cised a

There can be no doubt that the teaching of Kabir exermost important influence throughout Upper India in

the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

basis of the Sikh

That
is

it

formed the
from the

movement

in

the Panjab

clear

fact that Kabir's sayings are constantly

quoted by the Guru

Nanak and

his successors, the authors of the sacred writings

religion.

which constitute the bible (Grantha) of the Sikh

Kabir was a weaver, and

birth.

in all probability a

Musalman by

He

is

believed to have lived partly at Benares and

partly at Magar, near Gorakhpur, in the reign of Sikandar

Shah Lodi, between 1488 and 1512. According to a legend he was miraculously conceived by the virgin widow of a Brahman. His name Kabir an Arabic word meaning

'

Great

'

gives support to the

now

generally accepted opinion

with the sacred thread

(5)

solemn return home from the house of a

;

preceptor after completing the prescribed course of study

(6)

marriage.

They are described ^ The six daily

are
:

at p. 353.

duties (called Nitya-karma) according to

(2)
;

Parasara
;

(i)

bathing

morning and evening prayer (sandhya)

(3) offer;

ings to
(6)

fire

(homa)

(4) repetition of the

Veda

(5)

worship of ancestors

worship of the gods.

Theistic Sect of Kabir.

that he

159

was originally a Musalman. But he never had any sympathy with Muhammadan intolerance and exclusiveness.
It is

certain that in the end he

became a pupil

of

Ramananda
is

(see p. 147),

and

for a

time a true Hindu, and, what

im-

portant to bear in mind, a true Vaishnava, who, like other

Vaishnava leaders, had much of the democratic, tolerant, and

liberal spirit of

Buddhism.

No

wonder, then, that he laboured

in-

to free the

Vaishnava creed from the useless and senseless

it

crustations with which

had become

overlaid.

But he did
all

more than other Vaishnava reformers.

idol-worship and

He denounced

taught Vaishnavism as a form of

religion,

strict

monotheism.

True

according to Kabir, meant really

nothing but devotion to one God,

who

is

called

by the name
and Hari,

Vishnu, or by synonyms of Vishnu such as

or even

Rama

by the names current among Muhammadans.

as worshipping the

For
name.

Kabir, in his tolerance, had no objection to regard

Muham-

madans
In this

same God under a

different

way he was

the

first

to attempt a partial bridging

of the gulf between

all

Hinduism and Islam.

Nor

did he reject

the pantheistic ideas of Brahmanism.

We
other.

have already noted

how

in India all

phases of religious

belief are constantly

meeting and partially fusing into each

is

Polytheism
into

continually sliding into Monotheism,

Monotheism

Pantheism, and this back to Polytheism.

in

Vaishnavism and Saivism

their universal receptivity are

;

open to impressions from Islam

exclusiveness,
is

Islam, notwithstanding

its

adulterated with Vaishnavism and Saivism.

Hence

it

happens that Vaishnavism and Saivism, however

decidedly they

may

insist

on the separate personality of the

like a

Godhead, are perpetually slipping back,

into old pantheistic

broad wheel,

and polytheistic

ruts.

And

Islam, however
its

uncompromising
with

its

views of the Unity of the Deity, has

school of Sufi philosophers,

who

hold opinions almost identical

It
is

those of the Vedanta

Pantheists.

no wonder,

therefore, that

Kabir

while asserting the Unity of God, the


i6o
Theistic Sect of Kabir,

Creator of the world,

qualities

who

is

admitted to have attributes and

will

and

to

assume any shape at

also

maintained
'

that

God and man

its

are parts of one essence, and that

lives

both

are in the

same manner everything that

and moves and

has

being.'

Kablr's adherents

still

very numerous in Northern India

are generally called Kabir-panthis.

cepts are

His doctrines and preother

embodied

in

the Sukh-nidhan and

Hindi

works, as well as in the Sikh Grantha.

His successors have

added precepts of their own, many of which are attributed His alleged sayings are innumerable. to Kabir.
I

here subjoin a few specimens

;

it every moment. Without hearing the word, all is utter darkness. Without finding the gateway of the word, man will ever go astray. There are many words. Take the pith of them. Lay in provender sufficient for the road while time yet serves. Evening comes on, the day is flown and nothing will be provided. With the five elements is the abode of a great mystery. When the body is decomposed has any one found it.'' The word of the teacher

My

Hear my word go not astray. word is from the first. Meditate on

is

the guide.
;

That a drop falls into the ocean all can perceive but that the drop and the ocean are one, few can comprehend. The dwelling of Kabir is on the peak of a mountain, and a narrow
path leads to
it.

no crime is so heinous as falsewhere truth abides, there is my abode. d Put a check upon the tongue speak not much. Associate with the Investigate the words of the teacher. wise. ^ When the master is blind, what is to become of the scholar ? When
act of devotion can equal truth
in the heart
;

No

hood

the blind leads the blind both will

It
is

fall into

the well.

evident from these examples that the key-note of

Kablr's teaching was the duty of obeying spiritual teachers.

He

maintained, in

fact,

that every

man was bound

to search

for a true

and trustworthy

spiritual pastor (Guru), and,

having

found one, to make him his master

science,
^

to

submit mind, con-

and even body to

his

will

and guidance.

Yet he

Selected from H. H. Wilson's

'

Hindu Religious

Sects.'

The Sikh
never claimed
stantly
infallibility for his

Sect,

i6i
utterances.

own

He

con-

warned

his

own

disciples to investigate for themselves

the truth of every

word he

uttered.

And

this leads us to the religious

system founded

in

the

Panjab by Kablr's most celebrated follower Nanak, about the

time of the Emperor Babar.

The Sikh

Theistic Sect,

founded by Na^iak.

It is well
'

known

that certain sects of Christians call them-

selves

brethren,' to denote their relationship to each other

and

to their

Head

as

members

of a religious society typified

sect founded
'

by a family. Much in the same way the Nanak styled themselves Sikhs or disciples
'

by
the

to express their

close
'

dependence on their teachers or Gurus.

'

For

if

diapason

of Kabir's doctrine, and, indeed, of

'

all

Vaishnava

teaching, was,

Guru

is

the guide,'

Hear the word of the Guru, the word of the much more did Nanak insist on a similar
Guru
'),

submission.

Literally interpreted, the Sanskrit terms

(derived from the

Sanskrit root

gri,

'

to utter words
in Sanskrit
'

and

Sishya
is

corrupted into Sikh meaning

be instructed,'
are

one who
teacher

to

merely

correlatives

like

and taught.

Hence, the system might as suitably be called

Guruism as Sikhism.
Great light has been thrown on
labours of the late Professor
its

religious aspect

by the
called
in

Trumpp,
and

of Munich.

He was
is

commissioned by our Government to translate what

the Adi-Granth, or
first

Sikh

bible,

his

work appeared

1877 with valuable introductory essays.

ing this book that
of the

It is chiefly

by studypolitical

we

are able to form an accurate idea of one

most movements
I

interesting
in

and important

religious

and

the history of India.

With some

difficulty

myself procured a copy of the Adi-Granth at Amritsar.

In the light, therefore, of Professor Trumpp's investigations,

and

my own

inquiries at Lahore^

proceed to give a brief

62

The Sikh
Nanak and

Sect,

account of
teaching.
It

the characteristic features of Nanak's

appears to be a well-ascertained fact that this great

itself,

teacher was born, not in Lahore

but

in

a neighbour-

ing village, called Talvandi, on the river Ravi, not far from

Lahore,

in the

year

1469,

a few years before Caitanya in

in

Bengal and Martin Luther

biographies of

Europe.

Of course the
myths and

various

the Panjabi

called dialect are

Nanak
in

Janam-sakhls, and written in

with
stories of

filled

miraculous events, invented to justify the semi-deification of

the founder of the sect soon after his death.

That

all

the

Hindu gods appeared

capable of proof.

the

sky and announced the birth

save the world,
is

of a great saint (Bhagat) to

not quite

Nor can we

quite accept as a fact another

statement of his chroniclers, that one day angels seized him

while bathing, and carried him bodily into the presence of
the Deity,

who
earth.

presented

him with a cup

of nectar and

charged him to proclaim the one God, under the name of

Hari,

upon

But we need not disbelieve the statement

diligent student of Vaishhis

that at an early age he

nava religious

became a books, and that in

youth he imitated the

wandering to various

example of other
It is

incipient reformers,

shrines in search of

some

clue to the labyrinth of Hinduism.

even afifirmed that his travels included the performance

of a hajj to Mecca,
for lying
'

and that on being reproved by the Kazi

his feet towards the Ka'bah,

down with

he replied

Put

my

feet in that direction

where the house of God

is not.'

Nanak, however,
religion.

laid

no claim to be the originator of a new

His teaching was mainly founded on that of his

predecessors, especially on that of Kabir,

whom

he constantly,

quoted.

He was simply

a Guru, or teacher, and his followers

were simply Sikhs or

disciples.

But he was

also a reformer at deli-

who aimed,
India, from

as other reformers

had done before him,

vering Hinduism, and especially the Vaishnavism of Northern

its

incubus of caste, superstition, and idolatry.

The Sikh
Yet
it

Sect.

163

does not appear that Nanak directly attacked caste

it

or denounced

in violent language.

He

simply welcomed

persons of

all

ranks

as
'

his

followers,

and taught that the

a part

Supreme Being was no respecter of persons.' The plain fact was that Nanak found himself
of India where

in

population.

Muhammadans formed Though himself originally

to

the majority of the

a Hindu, he became

partially Islamized,
idolatry.

least of denouncing His idea was to bring about a union between Hindus and Muhammadans on the common ground of a

the extent at

belief in

one God.

Yet the creed of Nanak was

God, he
said, is

pantheistic than monotheistic.

over

all

(Paramesvara).

He may

be called

really more Supreme Lord Brahma, or by

other names^ such as Govinda,

etc.,

but his especial

name

is

Hari (= Vishnu).

This Supreme Being does not create the

it

Universe out of nothing, but evolves

a kind of expansion of his
for his

out of himself.

It is

own

essence which takes place

own amusement
(see p. 31).

(khela)

such

expansion being made

up of the three Gunas

equihbrium
turbs
this

Sattva,
It is

Rajas, and
Illusion or

Tamas in perfect Maya which dissoul.

in

equilibrium and causes the apparent separation

between God, the world, and the human

pure Brahmanism.
idolatry,
for

All this

is

We

find also that,

little

except

denouncing

Nanak

differed very
in the present
is

from a pure Vaishnava,

he taught that

age (Kali-yuga) the repetition

of the

name

of Hari

the only means of salvation from the

misery of successive births

gained by works and ceremonies

of this

notwithstanding the merit to be and that the knowledge

properly
It is curious, too, that

name

is

only to be acquired through a

ordained teacher (Guru).

a religious

movement which commenced

herents of Sikhism

in

an

effort

to

draw the ad-

and Muhammadanism together, should

animosity between them.

have ended

in exciting the bitterest

is

Nanak's death
October, 1538.

known to have occurred on the icth of One of his sons expected to succeed him,

164

The Sikh

Sect.

but to the surprise of those

passed over his

disciple

who were present at his death, he own son and nominated, as second Guru, his Lahana, whose name had been changed to Ahgada

because of his devotion.

He

had, so to speak, given up his

person (ahga) to the service of his master.

This appears to

have been his chief merit.

tradition

He

was quite ilHterate, though

called

makes him the inventor of the pecuhar alphabet Guru-mukhl (a modification of the Deva-nagari) in
Arigada nominated Amar-

which the Sikh bible was written.

das to succeed him as third Guru.

Seven others were ap-

pointed to the succession in a similar manner.

These make

up the ten chief Gurus of the Sikh

4.

religion.
;

They
;

were,

Ram-das
(for

5.

Arjun

6.

Har-Govind
9.

7.

Har-Rai
;

8.

Har-

Kisan
Sinh.

Har-Krishna)

Teg-Bahadur

and

10.

Govind-

Professor

Trumpp

has given an interesting account of each,

for the truth of the native biogra-

though he does not vouch

phies from which his details are taken.

One

thing

is

certain,

that notwithstanding the agreement of Sikhs and

Muhamma-

dans

in

regard to the great doctrine of the Unity of the God-

head, a violent political antagonism soon sprang up between

them.

The

truth was, that

when the Sikhs began

to

combine

together for the promotion of their worldly as well as spiritual

interests,

they rapidly developed military tastes and

abilities.

This was the signal for an entire change of attitude between

Sikhs and

Muhammadans.
were

So long
left

as the former
;

were a

mere

religious sect they

unmolested

but when they

began to band themselves together

for purposes of political

aggrandizement, they encountered opposition and persecution.

The Muhammadan Government

Internecine struggles
followed.
;

naturally took alarm.

It

could not permit the growth of an

imperiuin in imperio.

Both parties treated each

other as deadly enemies

but the hardy and energetic Sikhs,

though occasionally vanquished and dispersed, were not to be

driven off the
field.

Nor

is it

surprising that they gradually


The Sikh
Sect,

165

developed a taste for rapine and spoliation.

Mogul Empire was

aggressiveness.
associations

quite unable to hold

its

The decaying own against their

into powerful
chiefs,

Ultimately, they

combined

(misals)

under independent

marauding

seized large tracts of land, and took possession of the whole

Panjab.

The

first

to

inspire the Sikhs with a desire for political

union was the fourth Guru, Ram-das.

He was

himself a

quiet unassuming man, but he understood the value of

money

and the advantage of organization.

attracted crowds of adherents,

His affable manners

who

daily flocked to his house

offerings.

and voluntarily presented him with

tributions thus received he

With the conlake of nectar

was able to purchase the tank

'

called Amrita-sar (Sanskrit, Amrita-saras,

'),

and build the well-known lake-temple

at the place

now known
rallying-

as Amritsar (Umritsur), which afterwards

became a

point and centre of union for the whole Sikh community.

Ram-das conveyed
of verses.

his precepts to his followers in the

form

Many

of his stanzas, together with the sayings of

first

the previous Gurus, and especially of the

Guru, Nanak,

were

for the first

time collected by

his

son, the fifth Guru^

who was appointed by his father to the Guruship just From that time forward the succession was made hereditary, and the remaining five Gurus
Arjun,
before his death in 158 1.

were regarded as rulers rather than as teachers.

With regard
that to keep

to the

fifth

Guru, Arjun,

it

that he was a worthy successor of his father.

his

may be observed He perceived

it

Sikhs or disciples together,

w^ould

be

necessary to give them a written standard of authority, and

some

sort of

machinery of government.

It is to

him, therefirst

fore, that the

Sikhs owe the compilation of their

bible
is

called the Granth, or

book (Sanskrit, Grantha)

all

and to him
in

due the establishment of an organized system of collecting

a regular tax from
localities.

adherents of the sect

different

Moreover, under him the sacred tank and temple

66

The Sikh

Sect,

founded by Ram-das became the nucleus of the sacred town

Amritsar, which
is
still

the metropolis of the Sikh religion.

He was
said to

the

first

Sikh Pope who aimed at temporal as well

It is

as spiritual power.

not surprising, then, that his death

is

have been brought about by the Emperor Jahanglr.

lives of

The

the sixth, seventh, and eighth Gurus

may

be

passed over as unimportant.

attracted the attention
fanatical

of

The ninth Guru, Teg-Bahadur, the Emperor Aurangzib. This

monarch, who was bent on forcing the whole world

to

embrace Islam, did not long leave the Sikhs undisturbed.

imprisoned Teg-Bahadur, and tortured him so cruelly
life,

He

that the Guru, despairing of

induced a fellow-prisoner to

But Aurangzlb^s tyranny was quite powerless to suppress the Sikh movement. It was rather
put an end to his sufferings.
the chief factor in Sikh progress.

The murder

of the ninth

Guru was the great turning-point in the history of the sect. Thenceforward the Sikhs became a nation of fighting men.
Teg-Bahadur's son, Govind-Sinh, succeeded as tenth Guru.
Burning to avenge
his

father's death,

he formed the am-

bitious design of establishing

an independent dominion on the

Empire.

ruins

of the

Muhammadan

He
will,

was a man of
but, born

extraordinary

energy and strength of

and

brought up at Patna, was deeply imbued with Hindu superstitious feelings.

felt

The

better to prepare himself for

what he

was too gigantic a task to be accomplished without

supernatural assistance, he went through a course of severe

religious austerity.

He

even so

far

abjured the principles of

his predecessors as to propitiate the

is

goddess Durga.

Nay,
offer

it

even affirmed that, instigated by the Brahmans to

one

of his

own sons

as

sacrifice,

and unable to obtain the

bloody goddess.

mother's consent, he allowed one of his disciples to be be-

headed as a substitute at the

altar of the

The
In

story

is

noteworthy as pointing to the probable prevasacrifice at that

lence of

human

time

in

Upper

India.

fact, it

was the tenth Guru, Govind, who converted the

The Sikh

Sect.

167
His character was a
superstition,

Sikhs into a nation of fighting men.

curious

compound
If

of pugnacity, courage,
first

and

fanaticism.

Nanak, the

Guru, was the founder of the

Sikh rehgion, Govind, the tenth Guru, was the founder of the Sikh nationality.

Many

reformers had attempted to abolish

caste as a part of religion, but

Govind regarded

its evils

from
great

a purely

political

standpoint.

He

perceived

that

national weakness resulted from the disunion caused

by

caste.

He

therefore proclaimed social equality in the Sikh

com')

munity.

Nor was
hair,

this all.

to their other

They were to add the name Sinh (' lion names. They were to be distinguished by long

they were always to carry a sword

the

in

token of engaging

in perpetual warfare with

Musalmans

to

refrain

from

smoking tobacco, and

ordinary Dhoti.
liar

to

wear short trowsers, instead of the

to be called Khalsa, or the pecu-

They were

property of the Guru, and were to be admitted to disciple-

ship

by a kind

of baptismal rite called Pahul

in water,

that

is

to say,

sugar was dissolved

consecrated

by the

repetition of

certain texts taken from the Granth,

and

stirred with a

two-

edged sword.
styled nectar

Then

part of this decoction

euphemistically
disciple,

was administered to each new

on the head, mouth,
eyes,

and the
his

rest sprinkled

and other parts of

body, while he was

certain

made

to take an oath not to

mix with
his

excommunicated persons, not

to worship idols, not to

bow

to

any

one, except a Sikh Guru,

and never to turn

back on a

foe.

He

was enjoined to repeat the Granth during meals and

at

other times (both the Jap-jl of

Nanak and
to

that of Govind).

The Vedas,
credited
;

Sastras, Puranas,

and the Kuran were not to be

be observed,

no Hindu ceremonies were

no

Sraddhas performed, no mark was to be applied

head (see p.
used,
killed
66),

to the fore-

no sacred cord was to be worn, no rosary to be

to be allowed,

no tobacco

no animal to be eaten, unless

to be touched.

by a Sikh, and no beef was

Especial

68

The Sikh

Sect.

care was to be taken in preparing the Karah-Prasad.

This

corresponded to the Hindu Prasada (see

of
it

p. 145),

and the eating

tian

compared by Professor Trumpp to the ChrisCommunion. It was made of flour, sugar, and ghi. When
in

common
it

is

prepared
praying.

was distributed to the people who

sat

round

it,

Moreover the Sikh was never to wear a cap, nor to shave

his

head or beard

nor to take off his turban while eating.

Govind even composed a second bible (Granth), which was

added as a supplement to the

the tenth Guru.

first,

and called the book of

his successors,
full

The

precepts of

Nanak and

which had been compiled by Arjun, were too

suggestive of meekness and pacific feelings.

of passages

In his

own

sup-

plement Govind adhered to the religious teaching of the AdiGranth, but he introduced precepts the direct object of which

was to rouse the martial ardour of

followed in the
Christian
Bible,

his followers

he substi-

tuted war for peace as a religious duty,

reversing the order

which advances from the

sanction of war in the Old Testament to the inculcation of

universal peace in the

New.

Thenceforward they were to

religion,

imitate the

Muhammadans

they were to spread their

not by persuasion, but by the sword. Nay, they were to live by the sword, and even to worship the sword. Govind was himself more of a military than a religious
leader.

He
by

was not only a brave

his

soldier,

but a daring and

resolute
tensified
It

commander, and
not, therefore,

fighting propensities

were

in-

his innate superstition

and fanaticism. was passed and

his

need

be matter of astonishment that the

greater part of Govind's

warfare.

own

life

in strife

But he was no match

for the

Emperor Aurangzib,
and greatly
Forced to with-

who was

his equal in fanatical intolerance,

superior in ability and military resources.

draw from a hopeless

still

contest,

he retired to Central India and

is

built himself a residence in

Malwa (called Damdama), which

a point of resort for the Sikh community.

On Aurangzib's

The Sikh
death,

Sect.
his successor,
in the

169

Govind gained the goodwill of

Shah, and even accepted a military

assassination and

command

Bahadur Dekhan.
his

There a Pathan, who owed him a grudge, attempted

wounded him

so severely that he died at the

town of Nader, near the Godavarl (a.D. 1708). Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the
system was the quasi-deification
Granth.
ship, but

later

Sikh

of

the

sacred book, or
to the

Govind refused to appoint a successor

Guru-

he well knew that to maintain the Sikh religion as a

distinctive creed

some

visible representative

and standard of
with person-

authority was needed.

He
title

therefore constituted the Granth

it

a kind of permanent religious Guru, endowing

ality,
'

and even with the

shall

Sahib (Lord).

'

After me,' he said,

you

everywhere mind the book of the Granth-Sahib as

;

your Guru
It

whatever you shall ask

it

will

show

you.'

may be worth
the

while, therefore, to inquire a little

more

closely into

nature of the book thus exalted to the

position of an infallible guide, and

made

to

do duty as a kind
the Adi-Granth

of visible vicegerent of
It consists, as

God upon earth. we have seen, of two parts,

is

or

first

book, which

the portion most generally revered, and

the book of the tenth Guru, Govind, which finds greater

favour with the more fanatical section of the community.

We
it

can only here glance at the form and contents of the AdiGranth.

The

translator (Professor

Trumpp)

considers

to

be

'

an extremely incoherent and wearisome book, the few

it

thoughts and ideas

variations.'

contains being repeated in

endless

Nor
it

will this estimate of its merits

is

be matter of
is,

wonder when

found that the Adi-Granth

in fact,

jumbling together of metrical precepts and apophthegms sup-

posed to have been composed by at

authors,

least thirty-five different

among whom were

or saints

six of the ten chief

Gurus (Nanak,

Angada, Amar-das, Ram-das, Arjun, and Teg-Bahadur), fourteen Bhagats

(Ramanand, Kablr, Plpa, Ravi-das,

etc.),

Dhanna, Namdev, Sur-das,

and

fifteen

Bhats or pro-


lyo
fessional panegyrists,

The Sikh

Sect.

whose names are not worth recording.

These
and

latter

were employed to write eulogies on the Gurus,

their panegyrics, introduced into the Granth, are curious

as specimens of abject adulation, though absolutely worthless

in themselves.
It is noticeable

that one verse

by Govindis

Sinh has been appended to the Adi-Granth, and

as an integral portion of the volume.

regarded

The language in which the whole work is written is not so much the old Panjabi dialect as the old Hindi. This ancient
dialect

was probably used by the Sikh Gurus, though natives

whole Hindu community.
it

of the Panjab, that they might be better able to

their utterances to the

It

commend may be

conveniently called Hindu-! to distinguish

from the modern

Hindis

The

graphic system used by the writers was a modi-

fication of the

Deva-nagari alphabet, called Guru-mukhi, the

is

peculiarity of which

that

it

preserves the forms of

some

Sanskrit

letters,
it is

but changes their phonetic power.

as unjust to disparage the Granth as to exalt

Perhaps
its

merits
is

unduly.

To

say that

it
it

thoughts

as true as to say that

many noble abounds in much silly

contains

twaddle and inane repetition.

Nor can it be fairly accused of absence of arrangement. The verses, though unconnected, are arranged in six divisions: (i) we have the Japu (commonly called Jap-jl), which consists of introductory verses by Nanak (2) then follows the So-daru (3) the So-purkhu
;
;

(4)

the

Sohila, three

short

sections, consisting
;

chiefly of
(5)

verses adapted for evening devotion

lastly

come
body

the

Rags, verses sung

in particular

Rags

or musical keys, thirty-

one

in

number, which

constitute

the

great

of

the

Granth, especially the

first four,

called Sir!
(6)

Rag,

Rag Majh,

Rag

Gaurl, and

Rag Asa; and

the Bhog, consisting of

verses
^

by Nanak, Arjun, and the

I

earlier

Gurus, besides others

its

believe

was one of the

first to

recommend

being so distinguished,

in the Preface to the first edition of

my

Sanskrit-English Dictionary,

published by the University of Oxford in 1872.

Sect.

The Sikh
by Kablr, whose sayings
I select

171

are also scattered everywhere through

every section of the Granth.

a few examples from the book, slightly abridged
:

and altered from Professor Trumpp's version

At the beginning is the True One. Know, that there are two ways (that of HindQs and that of Musalmans), but only one Lord.

By

thyself all the creation

is

is

produced

by
;

thyself,

having created,

the whole

Thou,

caused to disappear. Hari, alone art inside and outside

thou knowest the secrets

(of the heart).

Mutter the name of Hari, Hari, O my heart, by which comfort is brought about by which all sins and vices disappear by which poverty
; ;

and pain

cease.
I,

Thou

art

am

thou, of

what kind

is

the difference

Like gold and

the bracelet, like water and a wave.

By

the perfect

my

beloved,

my my

king.

Guru the name of Hari is made firm in me. Hari is If some one bring and unite (him with me), my

life is

revived.
art father,

Thou
mercy
I

my

mother,

my

cousin,

my

brother,

my
?

protector

in all places.

Then what fear and grief can there be to me have known thee. Thou art my support, my trust.
is

By thy
Without

thee there

none other
is

all is

thy play and thy arena,

Lord

The Lord

my

dear friend.

He

is
;

sweeter to
like

father, sister, brother,

and

all

friends

than mother and thee there is none other,

me

Lord

Be united with the Lord of the Universe. After a long time this (human) body was obtained. In some births thou wast made a rock and mountain. In some births thou wast produced as a pot-herb. In the eighty-four lakhs (of forms of existence) thou wast caused to wander about. No hot wind touches those who are protected by the true Guru. The Guru is the true creator. Protected by the Guru he is admitted to the true house and palace (of Hari). Death cannot eat him.
I
I

am continually a sacrifice to my own Guru. am become a sacrifice to my own Lord. From

(the Kuran),
is

the Veda, from the

book
of

from the whole world he

is

conspicuous.

The King

Nanak

openly seen.
!

offer

Having forgotten all things meditate on the One up (thy) mind and body

Drop

false conceit,

The

following are examples of Kabir's sayings quoted in

:

the Granth

Kablr says I am the worst of all, every one Death, of which the world is afraid, is joy to
:

is

good except me.

mind.

my

172
The
If
I

The Sikh
gate of salvation
is

Sect,

narrow, not wider than the tenth part of

a mustard-seed.
the earth
if I make the trees my pen, if I make God (Hari) cannot be written. Hope should be placed on God (Ram), hope in others is useless. What thou art doing to-morrow do now what thou art doing now do

make

the seven oceans ink,

my

paper, the glory of

at once.

Afterwards nothing

will

be done when death descends on thy

head.
It will

be

sufficiently evident

from these passages that

in its essence

Sikhism was a great religious reform, and yet

very
little

better than

either

Vaishnavism or Brahmanism.

The Granth
is

declares the Oneness of the Deity, but

its

when we
is

sound the depths of

inner doctrines

we

find that this unity

based on a substratum of pantheistic

ideas.

There

but

thing.

One God, but He manifests Himself everywhere and is everyFrom various passages of the Granth it is clear that
names Hari, Krishna, Rama, and Govinda
are
are

the Vaishnava

accepted by the Sikhs as names of the Supreme.

They

even willing to regard the different divine personalities represented by these names as manifestations of the one
Being.

Supreme
is

The

point on which they pride themselves

the
of

prohibition of image-worship.
their

Yet they make an

it

idol

own

sacred book, worshipping

it,

as truly as the

Hindus
it

do
to

their idols, dressing

decorating
it

it,

fanning

it,

putting

bed at

night,

and treating
a

much

in the

same manner

as

the idols of Krishna are treated.

We
system

have seen that one great distinguishing feature of their

is

that

war

is

made an
In

essential part of religion.

To

indicate their belief in this doctrine they worship the military

weapons of the Gurus.

some

respects they conform to

the customs of the Hindiis.

They even

surpass the ordinary

;

HindQ
of a

in

some

of his most inveterate superstitions

as, for

example,

in ascribing divine sanctity to

is,

the cow.

The
^,

killing

cow

with Sikhs, the most heinous of crimes

was

meriting
a cow

At one time
kill

than to

in the Panjab a daughter.

it

infinitely

more criminal

to kill

The Sikh
nothing
less

Sect,

173

than capital punishment

not,

however, from

any injunction
any
;

to that effect in the Granth, but from simple

opposition to the Musalrnans, who, whenever they conquered

district

peopled by Hindus, invariably slaughtered cows,

both to

ratify their victories

and to show

their

contempt

for

Hindu

superstitions.
"n all
its

Then again they accept

trine of

fulness the

Hindu doc-

metempsychosis, believing that there are eighty-four

lakhs (or eight million four hundred thousand) of forms of

existence through which
all souls

or spirits
life

represented
life

as

flames emanating from the fouitain of

before returning to their souice.

are liable to pass

are
;

These forms of
1,100,000

supposed to consist of 2,300,000 quadrupeds

animals;
1,000,000

900,000 aquatic
creeping

feathered aiimals

animals
stones)
all
;

1,700,000 immovable cieatures (such as trees and

1,400,000 forms of

human
is

beings.
\he

Deliverance from

individual existence (Nirvana)

summum bonum.
is

But, after

all,

the chief distinctive feature of Sikhism

that, accepting the

Vaishnava doctrine of complete submisreligious teacher, the

all

sion to the
is is

Guru or ordained

Sikh Guru

madC; so to speak, to out-Guru

other Gurus.

His word
First,

to be law in every single matter,

human and

divine.

he baptizes the novice with a decoction of sugar and water,

which he has previously consecrated and

stirred with a

two-

edged dagger.

Then he imparts

the

name
him

of Hari to his

disciple in a particular sacred text,

which
tells

loses all its efficacy

unless orally communicated.

petually, enjoins

He

to mutter

it

per-

him

to fix his

mind

on Hari's excellences,
in

and never to
that of Hari.
disciple,

rest until

he has merged his own existence

In return for the instruction thus imparted, the

in the earliest

even

period of Sikhism, had to render

a certain amount of personal and even menial service to his

Guru.

Then

as

Sikhism advanced and the Guru gained

temporal as well as spiritual authority, he became to his

disciples

exactly what

Muhammad became

to his followers

174
in

The Sikh

Sect.

Arabia not only

teacher and spiritual pastor, but master,

Finally,

military leader, and king.

act as a military leader, he

when he had ceased

to

was regarded as an all-powerful

ani even as an actual god to

mediator between

God and man,

whom

prayers were to be addressed as to the

Supreme Being

Himself.

Before concluding this sketch of one of the most interesting religious

I

movements
at

that hss ever taken place in India,

ought to state that

Guru Arjun
and the
Amritsar.
I

tombs of Ranjit Sinh and Lahore, the biith-place of Govind at Patna,

I visited t'le

sacred

metropolis or Jerusalem

of Sikhism

at

noticed that the mausoleum which contains the ashes of

Ranjit Sinh at Lahore had idols of the Hindu gods Ganesa

and Brahma over the

elevated

entiance.

Inside, resting

on a small
all

platform, was tte sacred Granth, and

around

were eleven small tombs, mere mounds of earth, under which

are preserved the ashes of Ranjit's eleven wives,
Satis at his death.
It

who became
it

may be worth
relatives

while here to mention that

is

against

the practice of the Hindus to preserve the remains of their

deceased

in

tombs.

however
scattered

illustrious the

The body is burnt, and, man may have been, the ashes are
were, like
their

The Sikh leaders on sacred rivers. Muhammadans, ambitious of perpetuating memories after death. They continued the Hindu
the
in erecting magnificent

own

practice of

burning their dead, but, like the Muslims, spent larger sums

tombs

for the reception of their

own
self-

ashes than in building palaces for their

own

ease and

indulgence during

life.

The temple
was
rebuilt
after

dedicated to the tenth Guru Govind, at Patna,

forty years ago.
I

by Ranjit Sinh about

found

it,

some

trouble, in a side street,

hidden from view and

approached by a gateway, over which were the images of the

first

nine Gurus, with

Nanak

in

the centre.

The

shrine

is

The Sikh
open to the
air

Sect.

175

on one

side.

Its

guardian had a high-peaked

turban encircled by steel rings (cakra), used as weapons.

He
less

was evidently an Akall

or

'worshipper of the time-

God

'

term applied to certain Sikh zealots who bein putting

I

lieve

themselves justified

every opponent of their

religion to the sword.

As
I

entered the court of the temple,

friend, this

accompanied by a Musalman
great excitement, and

Akali displayed

began to

fear

an outburst of fana-

ticism which might have been dangerous to us both.

Happily
under

my

companion knew the man we had

to deal with, and,

a process of judicious handling, the fiery zealot cooled down,

and even allowed us to inspect the

shrine.

interior of the tenth Guru's

On
room
before

one
in

side, in

a small recess

supposed to be the

actual

which Govind was

bom more

than two centuries

were

some

of his garments

and weapons, and what

was once

his bed, with other relics, all in a state of decay.

On

the other side was a kind of low altar, on which were

lying under a canopy a beautifully embroidered copy of the

Adi-Granth and of the Granth

of Govind.

In the centre,

on a raised platform, were numerous sacred swords, which

appeared to be as much objects of worship as the sacred
books.

As
'

to the golden temple at Amritsar, called Hari-mandira,

it

the temple of Hari,' or sometimes Durbar Sahib,

may be
most

said to rank next to the Taj at

Agra

as one of the

striking

sights of India.

To form

an idea of the unique

spectacle presented

by
in

this sacred locality,

one must picture

to one's self a large square sheet of water, bordered

by a

marble
town.

pavement,

the

centre

of a

picturesque

Indian

Around the margin

fine

of this artificial lake are clustered

many

mansions, most of them once the property of

Sikh chiefs who assembled here every year, and spent vast

sums on the endowment

houses
is

of the central shrine.

One

of the

occupied by Sirdar Mangal Sinh Ramgharia, a well-

176

The Sikh

Sect,

known and much esteemed member

It

of the Sikh community.

I

has two lofty towers, from one of which

its

enjoyed a grand

panoramic view of the lake and

rare sights seen at intervals during

vicinity

one
fix

of those

life,

which

themselves

indelibly on the

memory.

In the centre of the water rises

its

the beautiful temple with

gilded

dome and

cupolas, ap-

proached by a marble causeway.

It is quite unlike

any other

place of worship to be seen throughout India, and in structure

and appearance

may be

regarded as a kind of compromise

between a Hindu temple and a

Muhammadan

mosque,

re-

minding one of the attempted compromise between Hinduism

and Islam, which was once a favourite idea with both Kabir

and Nanak.
In point of mere size the shrine
is

not imposing, but

its

proportions strike one as nearly perfect.

is

All the lower part

of marble, inlaid, like the Taj, with precious stones, and

silver.

here and there overlaid with gold and

The

principal

entrance facing the causeway looks towards the north.

interior is

The
the
richly

even more gorgeous than the exterior.

is

On
its

ground-floor

a well-proportioned vaulted hall

gilded ceiling ornamented with an infinite

mirrors,

and

its

walls

designs, flowers, birds,

number of small decorated with inlaid work of various and elephants. Four short passages,
one on each of
it

entered

by carved

silver doors,

its

four sides,

lead to this vaulted chamber, giving

that of a Greek cross.
corridor.

a shape not unlike

is

All around on the outside

a narrow
sits

In the interior, opposite the principal entrance,

the presiding Guru

his

legs folded under

him on the bare

ground

with

the open Granth before him.

He

is

attended

by other

oflicials of

the sacred texts.

infuse his essence

the temple, who assist him in chanting The Brahmans maintain that God may into images, but they never make an idol of
is

the written Veda, which, according to their theory,

divine

knowledge communicated orally to inspired sages, and by them orally transmitted not written down. Sikhism, on the

The Sikh
contrary, denies that
believes that he
is

Sect.

177

God

associates himself with images, but

manifested in a written book (Granth).

is

Hence, although the temple

dedicated to the one

free

from images, and

is

God under

his

name Hari

(applied

also to Krishna or Vishnu), a visible representation of the

invisible God is believed to be The Granth is, in fact, the real
is

present in the sacred book.

divinity of the shrine,

and

treated as
it

if it

had a veritable personal existence.

Every

morning

is

dressed out in costly brocade, and reverently

placed on a low throne under a jewelled canopy, said to have

been constructed by Ranjit Sinh at a cost of 50,000 rupees.

All day long chowries are waved over the sacred volume,

and every evening

it

is

transported to the second temple on

it is

the edge of the lake opposite the causeway, where

to repose for the night in a golden

made

bed within a consecrated

all

chamber, railed off and protected from

profane intrusion

by

bolts

and

bars.

Of this

was myself a witness.

visit to

On
in

the occasion of

my

first

the Golden

Temple

two or three rows of temple

officials

and others were seated

a circle round the vaulted chamber, to the number of about

a hundred, listening to the Granth which was being chanted

by the presiding Guru and his assistants in a loud tone, with an accompaniment of musical instruments. The space in the centre was left vacant for offerings, and was strewn with
flowers,

grain,

and small

coin.

constant line of worafter the other, cast

shippers,

male and female, entered one

down

their offerings,

bowed

their

heads to the ground before

the Granth and before the presiding Guru, and reverently

circumambulated the corridor of the temple.

one poor old

noticed that

woman

threw

in

two small

coins,

and then,

bending low, touched the marble

floor with her forehead.

On

leaving the temple

talked for a time with an in-

telligent

Sikh

who had
I

received

an

English

education.
set

Pointing to an idol
the margin

of Krishna which had been

up on

of the lake,

asked whether the Sikhs were

178

The Dadu-panthis.
'

returning to the worship of Vaishnava images.

said,

Yes,'

he

'we are gradually lapsing back into our old habits. Our first Guru abolished caste and forbad the worship of idols. Our tenth Guru was a thorough Hindu at heart, and

by
so

own example encouraged that of the Sikhs now found

his
caste,

the return to

Hindu

practices

in the Panjab a large

adopt
tivals,

wear the Brahmanical thread,

number keep Hindu fes-

observe Hindu ceremonies (such as the Sraddha), and

in

even present offerings to idols

Hindu

temples.'

In short, a careful observation of the present condition of

Sikhism must lead to the conclusion that the Sikh reforming

movement,

like others

which preceded

it,

is

gradually being

drawn back
navism.

into the all-absorbing current of ordinary Vaish-

Yet the possession of a distinct rule of faith and standard of doctrine in the Granth must have a prophylactic
effect.

It

must keep the crumbling elements of Sikhism

together for a time.

Nor need the process of reabsorption

all
is

involve the obliteration of

as the strength of

distinctive

marks.

For

just

Hinduism

Vaishnavism, so the strength

of Vaishnavism

is its

tolerance of an almost infinite diversity

within
will

its

own

pale.

Probably, in the end, the Granth

itself

be accepted by the whole body of Vaishnavas as a

census of ten years ago

recognized portion of their sacred literature.

The
India

made

the

number

of Sikhs in

amount

to 1,853,426, of whom only 806,928

were females.

In regard to the sect called

Kukas

see p. 268.

But Sikhism was not the only offshoot of the school founded

by
is

the great reformer Kabir.

He

is

said to have
;

had twelve

disciples, like his predecessor

Ramananda
line

and each disciple

supposed to have taken a distinct

(panthah) of his own,

and to have originated a

distinct school of religious thought.

for special notice

Two

of these

may

be singled out

the

Dadu-panthls and the Satnamls.

The Dadu-panthls,

as their

name

implies,

were founded by

Dadu, a cotton-cleaner of Ahmedabad, who flourished about

'

The Sabtamts.
A.D. 1600.

79
;

They

are really Vaishnava Theists like the Sikhs

that

is,

worshippers of the one

the

God under some

all

of the names

of Vishnu, according to

doctrine of Kablr, on whose

precepts the religious works of the sect are

founded.

same way the SatnamTs are only Vaishnava Theists, who call the one God by a peculiar name of their own
In the
I'

(Satnam), and base their doctrines like the Sikhs on Kablr's

school of theology.

According

to Professor

H. H. Wilson, the founder of the

(for Jagaj-jTvana-das), a native
is

Satnamis was Jag-jivan-das

and Ajudhya.

of

Oudh, whose samadh or tomb

at

Katwa, between Lucknow

in

He

is

said to have flourished about A.D, 1750,

tracts

and to have written certain

India

Hindi, called Jiiana-

prakasa, Maha-pralaya, and Prathama-grantha.

last in
I

When

was

heard of a branch of the Satnamis at Chatlsgarh,

in the Central Provinces.

They

are the followers of a lowhis son Balak-das,

I

caste
%

Chamar named Ghasl-das and

who

flourished about the beginning of this century.

to obtain

was able

some account of their tenets and practices from the missionaries of the Church Missionary Society at Madras. They are also described in one or two numbers of the Madras
Missionary Record for 1872.

Like other varieties of Hindu Unitarians,

all

of

whom mix

up pantheistic ideas with monotheistic doctrines, they submit implicitly to their Gurus, regarding them as vicegerents of

God upon
the Deity.

earth,

and occasionally as actual incarnations of

The
title

following are a few of their precepts and rules

the universe.

God pervades

He

is

present in every single thing.

The

Lord (Sahib) should be added to every object in which God is present. God is the spring and source of everything good and evil. The ordained religious teacher (Guru) Idols must not be worshipped. is holy. Even the water in which his feet are washed is holy, and should be drunk by his disciples. Distinctions of caste are not to be Feed the poor. Wound no one's observed. Fasts need not be kept. feelings. When the dead are burned let no one cry or weep let them only exclaim, The Lord gave, and the Lord has taken away
; ' !

CHAPTER

VII.

Saklism, or Goddess-worship.

Saktism

in

the simplest acceptation of the term

is

the

worship of force (Sanskrit Sakti) personified as a goddess and

women. Doubtless there may be some educated Hindus whose worship of this goddess amounts to little more than reverence for a personification of the energy
subordinately in
all

of Nature

but a true Sakta adores her with a view to the

acquisition of supernatural faculties through her help, or to

the destruction of enemies through her co-operation.

by all Saiva and Vaishnava sectarians that the gods Siva and Vishnu, as identified with the Supreme Being, are themselves the source and spring as well as the controllers of all the forces, energies and phenomena of nature. Yet we must bear in mind that it is a rooted idea with all Hindu theologians, of whatever denomination,
course
it

Of

is

alleged

that the highest condition of the Self-existent Being

is

condition of complete quiescence and inactivity, as well as

of complete oneness, solitariness, and impersonality.

In fact

Brahmanism holds
is

that the

One
for.

Universal Self-

existent Spirit

Existence, Thought, and Joy

or,

in other

words

is

Life without anything to live

Thought without

anything to think about, Joy without anything to be joyful

about.

But the moment

this

one Self-existent pure Spirit

begins to be conscious

(in

our sense) of existence and to

exercise thought and feel joy

it

assumes personality and

in fact,

material organization.

It

becomes,
wills to

a personal

God

and when

this personal

God

put forth energy for the

creation or evolution of a world out of himself his nature

becomes duplex.

Evidently the absolute unity and strictly

Saktism^ or Goddess-worship.

i8i

masculine character of that nature might have been preserved

in his personal
in

development, but the idea of a kind of duality

itself

unity very soon suggested

to possess a

to the

Hindu mind.

He

was held

double nature, partly male and partly

female, the female constituting his left side.

Then, again,

this duality

might have been evenly balanced,

been

or the preponderance of active energies might have

assigned to the male side.

The Hindus, however,

in

dividing

the divine nature into two halves, had no idea of any due co-

ordination of working power between

man and woman.

his

The
more

male side of the god was believed to relegate

onerous executive functions to the female.
side of the personal

Hence

the female

god

is

often
is

more propitiated than the

male, and the worshipper

inclined to turn with greater

devotion to the goddess than to the god

when he

supplicates

any powerful intervention on

of unusual exigency or
peril.

his

own

behalf in circumstances

The Kumarl-tantra says The whole world is embodied in the woman. One should be a woman one's self. Women
' :

are gods.

Women

are vitality.'
true theory of Saktism in
It is
its
is

This

believe to be the

simplest and most general aspect.

certainly

a theory which

more

closely connected with Saivism than with

any

other system.

Like Saivism,

too,

it

traces

back

its

origin to
to the

philosophical Brahmanism, and through

earliest conceptions

Brahmanism
Veda.

foreshadowed

in the

Perhaps the
be found

first

dawn

of the idea of duality in unity

is

to

in the

well-known 129th

hymn
(p.

of the loth
In that

Mandala

of the Rig-veda already quoted

find
it

13).

hymn we
Desire

stated that in the beginning

when the universe was

about to be developed there arose

in the

One Being
(p. 29).

which produced Mind and

all

existing things

But the idea of a universe proceeding from a female principle brought into union with a male is more fully developed
in other

Vedic

texts.

82

Saktism, or Goddess-worship.
(Prithivi)

Probably Heaven (Dyaus) and Earth

are

the

most ancient of
as

all

Vedic gods, and from

supposed to spring.
(janitri,
3).

their fancied union,

husband and

wife, the other deities

and the whole Uni-

verse were at

first

They
is

are often depitara, III.

scribed as parents
3. II
;

Rig-veda X. no. 9;

matara,

I.

155.

Or Heaven alone

called father

(pita)

and Earth mother (mata).

in

On

the other hand, else-

where

the

Veda

the

female

deity

Aditi

probably
seems

a
to

personification of the sky or of universal nature

stand alone, taking the place of both Heaven and Earth

as parent

of the

deities,

her counterpart being Diti the

in the

mother of the demons.

Rig-veda
is

Another important goddess

(Ushas,
'Hcoj),

the

Dawn^

the Sky's

daughter,
;

who
is

is

of course closely connected with the Sun-god

but

not described as married to him, though followed by him,

is
it

as a mistress

pursued by her lover.

And
of two

here

may be

noted as remarkable that the wives

Indra and

chief Vedic

gods,

Agni (Indrani and

Agnayi), are not associated with their husbands or exalted

to equal

rank as objects of worship.

Nor

is

the popular

goddess Lakshmi, afterwards wife of Vishnu, mentioned at

all

in the

Rig-veda

-.

Nor
is

is

SarasvatT held to be the con-

sort of

Brahma.
in

She

rather a river-goddess, though often

invoked

other characters,

and once associated with a

It is

river-god Sarasvat
to the

(VH.

96. 4, 6).

only when

we come
in the

Brahmanas and Upanishads

2.

that

we

find the duality

of the divine nature clearly enunciated.

For example,
etc.),

Satapatha-Brahmana (XIV.

4.

4,

before

noticed,

and Brihad-aranyaka Upanishad

^
'^

(3)

we read

to the following

Sometimes spoken of as

plural.

Dr. Muir shows this (Sanskrit Texts, V. 337), and points out that Lakshmi is once used for good-fortune in Rig-veda X. 71. 2, and that in

Atharva-veda VII. 115. i a plurality of Lakshmis is spoken of. Five are often mentioned. At Madura I noticed carvings of seven or eight different Lakshmis who preside over different kinds of good-luck. They are often found over the doors of houses.

Sdktism, or Goddess-worship.
effect
'
:

183

The One Being

did

not

enjoy

happiness when
divided himself

alone.

He was

desirous of a second.

He

into two.
fore

Hence were husband and

this (second)
is.'

wife produced.

There-

was

only a half of himself, as the half of

then related

a split pea

It is

how

all

beings were pro-

duced by the union of the divine male and divine female.

Safikara, in
his

comment on
above passage
:

the Upanishad, observes, in

*

relation to the

Because

this

male half

is

void
wife

as
it

wanting the female

half,

therefore
half, as

after taking a
is

is

completed by the female

its

a split pea

by

being joined with

If

other half (see Roer's translation).

we

pass on to Manu,

described as dividing his

we find that the Self-existent is own substance and becoming half

;

male and half female

Turning next
to

(I. 5, etc.

see

p. 30).

the

Sahkhya philosophical system, we

know
called

that
'

it

teaches the separate existence of eternal Spirit

'

the Self or

Male' on the one side and of an eternal

of the two was believed to be indisresult.

productive force or prolific germ (Prakriti fem., or Maya) on

the other.

The union

pensable before any creation could

The Vedanta system is virtually very similar (see p. 37). Of course ordinary thinkers gave a concrete reality to all such metaphysical speculations. The Spirit which was

called

'the

Self (Atman)

in

one system and 'the Male'

in the

(Purusha) in the other

rate

became
The union

popular creed a sepa-

male god, while the productive

prolific force

became a

separate female god.

the later mythology

of the two was expressed in

by the Ardha-narl or androgynous form of Siva in which the right side of the god is represented or by the as male, and the left side as female (see p. 85) united male and female symbols (Linga and Yoni) set up in

innumerable shrines throughout every part of India.

pare the union of

(Combut

Hermes and Aphrodite.)

is

The same

doctrine

often repeated in the Puranas

it

even in those writings

is

to be noted that although they

184

Saktism, or Goddess-worship.
and even promote Sakta views by making

often countenance

the active power of the goddess a subject of special laudation,

and by according greater honour to the female deity

(as for

example

in

placing the goddess

first

in

such com-

pounds as Lakshmi-Narayanau, Sita-Ramau, Radha-Krishnau

is
^),

yet no exclusive or extravagant worship of the goddess

inculcated.
It

was reserved
to teach

for the latest sacred writings called

Tantras

(see p. 205) to personify

Energy or Force

as a female deity,

and

an undue adoration of the wives of Siva and

Vishnu to the neglect of their male counterparts.

Practically, as
is

we

shall see, the

Saktism of the present day

It inculcates

a mere offshoot of Saivism.

an exclusive

adoration of Siva's wife as the source of every kind of supernatural faculty and mystic craft.
This, in fact,
is

the central

doctrine and leading idea of

all

Tantrik writings.

For the

Tantras, believed as they are to be a direct revelation from

Siva to his wife Parvati

(p. 205),

are the bible of Saktism, just

as the Puranas are the bible of ordinary Saivism

and Vaishof

navism.

That they are regarded

by some

as

equal

authority with the Puranas, and even as a kind of secondary

revelation,
is

evident from a passage in Kulluka's

II. 1.

commenis

tary on

two kinds that revealed

'

Manu

There he
in the

asserts that divine truth

of

Vedas and

that found in the

Tantras.'

It is

even alleged that Sarikaracarya was a Sakta.

Unhappily a vast proportion of the inhabitants of India,

especially in Bengal, are guided in their daily
life

and practices

by Tantrik teaching, and are

culcated in these writings.
It is

in

bondage

to the doctrines in-

noteworthy, too, that the system

is

closely connected

with the mysticism of the

rupt forms of
^

Yoga philosophy and with

in

the cor-

Buddhism prevalent
a Varttika on Panini
first in

Tibet (see

my

volume

According

to

more honourable should stand

II. 2, 34 (Kasika Vritti) the a compound, as in Mata-pitarau,

Sraddha-medhe, Brahmana-Kshatriya-Vit-Sudrah.

Saktism^ or Goddess-worship.
on Buddhism,
p.

185
life

223).

Its

demoralizing effect on the

and

conduct of the Hindiis cannot be doubted.

And

indeed

it

can scarcely be doubted that Saktism

at
its

is

Hinduism arrived
development.

worst and most corrupt stage of

To

follow out the whole process of evolution

Suffice
it

would not be easy.

navism

to say that just as

Hinduism

resolved itself into two great systems

Saivism
first

and Vaish-

so the

adherents of those two systems respectively

separated into two great classes.

'

The

are

now

called

followers of the right-hand path

'

(Dakshina-margTs).

These

make

the Puranas their real

Veda (Nigama), and

are devoted

to either Siva or

Vishnu

in their

double nature as male and

for the

female.

But they do not display undue preference

female or left-hand side of the deity; nor are they addicted

to mystic or secret rites.

The second
'

class are called

'

fol-

lowers of the left-hand path (Vama-margis).

These make the

Tantras their peculiar Veda (Agama), tracing back their doctrines to the

Kaula Upanishad, which

;

is

held to be the original

their

authority for their opinions

whence

system

is

called

Kaula, as well as Sakta, and they themselves Kaulikas.

And

it

is

these left-hand worshippers who,

repeat, devote

themselves to the exclusive worship of the female side of Siva

and Vishnu^

that

is,

to the goddess
;

Devi) rather than to Siva

to Sita rather than to

to

Durga or Kali ( = Amba, Radha rather than to Krishna

;

Rama

but above

all

to

Amba

or

Devi, the mother-goddess, sometimes confounded with Siva's

consort, but rather, in her

more comprehensive character, the great Power (Sakti) of Nature, the one Mother of the Universe (Jagan-mata, Jagad-amba) the mighty mysterious Force, whose function is to direct and control two quite

distinct operations

namely,

first,

the working of the natural

appetites and passions, whether for the support of the

^

body

The wives
is in

of the deities are generally placed on their

left.

The only

exception

representations of the marriage ceremony.

On that occasion

the bride takes her station on the right of the bridegroom.

86

Saktism, or Goddess-worship.
for the

by eating and drinking, or

propagation of living organ;

isms through sexual cohabitation

secondly, the acquisition

of supernatural faculties (siddhi), whether for a man's

own

in-

dividual exaltation or for the annihilation of his opponents.

And

here

it

is

necessary to observe that the Sakta form of

Hinduism is equipped with a vast mythological Personnel of an immense array of female personalities, constiits own tuting a distinct division of the Hindu Pantheon.

Yet the whole

less

array, spreading out as

it

does into countof

Siva.
first

ramifications,

has
is

its

root

in

the

wife

By
point

common

consent she

held to be the source or

of departure of the entire female mythological system.

also stands at
its

She
every
is

head

and

it

is

remarkable that

in

one of the male god Siva's characteristics,

his consort
all his

not

only his counterpart, but a representation of

intensified.
it

attributes

have already pointed out (pp. 76-78) how came to pass that the male god gradually gathered under

We

his

own

personality the attributes and functions of

all

other

divinities,

and thus became

to his

own

special worshippers
^.

the great god (Maha-devah) of Hinduism

Similarly and in

much

greater degree did his female counterpart

become the
re-

one great goddess (Maha-devi) of the Sakta hierarchy;

presenting in her

own person

all

other female manifestations

all

of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, and absorbing

tions.

their func-

For

this reason

even the wives of Brahma and Vishnu

were said to be her daughters.

As

to

the contradictory
difficulty

qualities attributed to her, these are

no source of

to a

Hindu mind.

She

is

simply

in all respects a duplicate

of her husband, painted in deeper or more vivid colours.

And
both
in

just as Siva (p. 80)

is

at

one time white (Sveta, sukla)

at another black (Kala)

complexion and character,

so his female nature also

became one half white (whence her

name
^

Gauri) and the other half black (whence her

name

Kali).

ples

At Pokhar and on the road to Amber in Rajputana I passed two temwhere the Liiiga of Siva has four faces and is worshipped as Brahma.

Saktism, or Goddess-worship.

187

Then^ again, each of these opposite characters became

variously modified and endlessly multiplied.

mild nature

ramified into
etc.
;

the

Saktis called

The white or Uma, Gaurl,

into
just

LakshmT, SarasvatT,
as Siva has ioo8

the black or fierce nature

those called Kali, Durga, CandT,

Camunda,

etc.

And

names

or epithets, so his wife possesses a

feminine duplicate of nearly every one of his designations.

At
her,

least

one thousand distinct appellations are assigned to

ferocious
if

some expressive of her benignant, some of her

Notably
it is

character.

declared in the Tantras that

letter vi,

any

one repeats eight of her names containing the

kings
all his

become his difficulties come

will

servants, all
to a

men

will love

him, and

In short,

all

happy termination. the other Saktis came to be included by the

Saktas under the Sakti or female energy of Siva, which eventually

developed into innumerable separate personifications.

personifications, following the analogy of

These

some of

Vishnu's incarnations, are sometimes grouped according to a

supposed difference of participation

for

in

the divine energy, such

example

as the full energy (purna sakti), the partial (ansa-

rupinl), the still

more

partial (kala-rOpini),

and the

partial of

the partial (kalansa-rupini), this last including mortal

in various degrees,
all

from Brahman

women women downwards, who are

in the

worshipped as forms of the divine mother manifesting

herself

upon earth
usual

for

it

must not be forgotten that

is

Sakta creed every female

a present divinity.

The more
Maha-vidyas.

classification,

however, begins with the

in

These are held

to be ten

number, that

number being probably selected to match the ten chief incarnations of Vishnu. They are called Maha-vidyas as sources
of the goddess's highest knowledge
;

that

is

to say, of the

knowledge which confers preternatural powers.

all

They have

different attributes,

and

are thus

designated:

i.

Kali

(sometimes called Syama), black

in character.
2.

in colour, fierce

and

irascible

Tara,a more benign manifestation, worshipped

88

Saktism, or Goddess-worship.
3.

especially in Kasmlr.
(also called Tripura,
5.

Shodasi, a beautiful girl of sixteen

in

worshipped

Malabar).

4.

Bhuvanesvari.
in

Bhairavl.

6.

Chinna-mastaka, a naked goddess holding

in the other her

one hand a blood-stained scimitar and

severed head, which drinks the

own

warm
8.

blood gushing from

her headless trunk.

7.

Dhumavati.

Vagala or Bagala or

Bagala-mukhi.
10.

9.

Matangi, 'a
or

Kamalatmika

woman of the BhangI caste.' Kamala. Of these the first two are
and the
last

especially Maha-vidyas, the next five Vidyas,

three Siddha-vidyas.

The next

class of personifications or manifestations of the

(or Maha-matris), the great

goddess are the Matris or Matrikas

mothers of the Universe.

These are more important than the

Maha-vidyas

in their

connexion with the prevalence of Mother-

worship, a form of religion which,

among

the peasantry of

India, often takes the place of every other creed.

This

will

be

more

fully

explained in the chapter on tutelary deities

or

(p. 209).

The Matris
god Brahma.
IndranT.
5.

Mothers are

i.

Vaishnavl.

2.

Brahmi or
like the
4.

Brahmani, often represented with four faces or heads

3.

Karttikeyi, sometimes called Mayuri.

6.

Yami.

Varahi, connected with the boar in7.

carnation of Vishnu.
trident in one

Devi or

IsanT, represented with a

8.

hand

as wife of Siva.
is

Lakshmi^.

Each of

these divine Mothers

represented with a child in her lap.

is

Closely related to the Mothers

fications called the eight

a class of female personi-

Nayikas or mistresses.

These, of
is

course, are not necessarily mothers.

In fact no other idea

connected with them than that of illegitimate sexual love.

They

are called Balini, Kamesvarl, Vimala, Aruna, Medini,

Jayini, SarvesvarT,

and Kaulesi.
is

Another
^

class of manifestations

that of the Yoginis.

Some

lists

give nine Matrikas

;

(viz.

i.

Varahi;
Indranl),

4.

VarunI

5.

some

sixteen,

Lakshml and some

6.

Kali;

7.

Narasinhi Kapall;
etc.

2.

Camunda;
;

3.

8.

fifty-two,

among whom

Kurukulya 9. are enumerated

Narayanij Kaumarl, Aparajita, Durga, Mahesvarl,


Sdktism, or Goddess-worship.
These are sometimes represented as eight
\

89

fairies or sorceresses

created by and attendant on Durga, sometimes as mere forms of that goddess, sixty or sixty-five in number, and capable of

being multiplied to the number of ten millions.

Other classes not worth enumerating are the DakinTs and

These are simply female fiends or ogresses of most repulsive habits, and are not so much manifestations of the
Sakinis.

goddess as impish servants always attendant on

her.

But

it

is is

in

the form Kali

at

goddess

worshipped
is

the form under which Calcutta that she most

is
^
:

the

terrible.

The
'

following

a free translation of two passages in the

Tantras descriptive of Kali's appearance

One should adore with liquors and oblations who has a terrible gaping mouth and uncombed
demons whom she has
slain

that Kali
hair
;

who

has four hands and a garland formed of the heads of the

and whose blood she has drunk

;

who

holds a sword in her lotus-like hand

;

who

is

fearless

and awards blessings

who

is

as black as the large clouds

;

and has the whole sky

for her clothes

who

has a string

of skulls round her neck and a throat besmeared with blood

who wears
carrries

ear-rings (consisting of
in

two dead bodies)

who

two dead bodies

;

her hands;
is

who
;

has terrible teeth

and a smiling face

burning-grounds

whose form

awful and

who

dwells in

(for

consuming corpses)

who

stands on the

breast of her husband

'

Maha-deva

^.'

Kaulika

(i.

e.

a Sakta) should worship Kali,

;

who

lives
;

amongst dead bodies

who

is

terrible

and has
;

fearful jaw^s

who

has uncombed hair and a glowing tongue

;

who

constantly
""

drinks blood

who

stands over her husband Maha-kala

and

^ All my extracts from the Tantras are taken from the Hon. Rao Bahadur Gopal Hari Deshmukh's work called Agama-prakasa, where the original

Sanskrit of
^

all

the passages quoted in this chapter will be found,

The images of Kali at Calcutta husband. The explanation of this is thousand-headed Ravana (whose story
for ten years,

represent her trampling on her

that she

had a contest with the Adbhuta-Ramayana) and, having conquered him, became so elated and danced so
is

told in the

190

Saktisni^ or Goddess-worship.

wears a garland of skulls on her blood-besmeared throat

has prominent breasts
as well as
;

who

who

is

waited on by

all

the Siddhas

by

the Siddhis.'
thirsts for blood,
is

It is this

goddess who
;

and especially

for

human

blood

and

if

the blood of animals

not offered to her,

kings are
sacrifice

she takes that of men.

directed to appease her
(nara-bali).

In one of the Tantras

by blood and even by human

of a tiger
is

The blood

said to satisfy her for

100 years, and that of a

It

man

for

1000 years.
like this,

might have been expected that a creed

infinite

which

admits of an

multiplication of female

deities

and

makes every woman an object of worship, would be

hand and of witchcraft on the
other.

likely to

degenerate into various forms of licentiousness on the one

But

if

such consequences

might have been anticipated, the actual

In Saktism

fact has

been worse

than the most gloomy pessimist could possibly have foretold.

we

are confronted with the worst results of the

worst superstitious ideas that have ever disgraced and degraded

human race. homage of sensual

the
social rules

It is

by

offering to

women
\

the so-called

love

and carnal passion

and by yielding

free course to all the grosser appetites,

wholly regardless of

and

restrictions, that the

worshippers of the female

power (Sakti)
faculties,

in

Nature seek to gratify the goddess representto obtain union with the

ing that power, and through her aid to acquire supernatural

and even ultimately

Incredible as
it

Supreme

Being.

may

appear, these so-called worship-

pers actually affect to pride themselves on their debasing

doctrines, while they maintain that their creed
is

the grandest

movements had not Siva mercifully interposed his body. When the goddess found that she was treading on her husband's sacred person, she suddenly ceased dancing, and, as is not unusual with Hindu women when struck with horror or shame, protruded her red tongue in a manner not altogether consonant with European ideas of womanly dignity. ^ The Tantras make no secret of the fact that the virile retas itself is regarded as the offering most pleasing to the goddess.
energetically that the Universe would have collapsed under her


Saktism, or Goddess-worship.
of
all religions,

191

because to indulge the grosser appetites and

passions, with the

mind

fixed on union with the

all

Supreme

Being,

is

believed to be the highest of

pious achievements.

Indeed, according to the distorted ideas and perverted phrase-

ology of the

sect, all

who
^),

are uninitiated into this system arc

styled 'beasts' (pasu

perfect ones.'

the initiated being called Siddha, 'the

The rite
Guru or

of initiation (Dlksha) must be performed by a proper

teacher,

who does

little

more than impart a know-

ledge (upadesa) of certain mystic texts and syllables to the

candidate, but the rite ought never to take place unless moon,
planets,

and

stars are favourable.

If a pupil

can be initiated

during the occurrence of a solar eclipse wonderful advantages

may be expected to accrue to both teacher and taught. Of course, the principal rites, or rather orgies, of Sakta worshippers take place in secret and with closed doors. This secrecy
is

strictly in
'

accordance with Tantrik precept. Thus, we read

in the

One

should not practise the Kaula system

presence

of the uninitiated (Pasus or beasts),

recite the
'

any more than one should

Veda

in the

presence of a Sudra.

One

should guard the Kaula system from the Pasus just as

one guards money and grain and clothes from thieves.

'

One should
;

conceal the Kaula system like the water in the

cocoa-nut
ternally,

one should be a Kaula internally, a Saiva exat public meetings.

like a

and a Vaishnava when talking

Sastras,

'The Vedas, the

and the Puranas are clearly

(kept secluded).'

common woman
is

(open to

all),

but this mystical Saiva science

like a

high-born

woman

Hence no one who has been

initiated into the practices of

the sect can be persuaded to speak of

them

to the uninitiated.

Probably the spread of education and

the influence exercised

are gradually

by Christian men and women throughout India

operating to abolish
all

the grosser forms of Saktism, as they

Another name

for

an uninitiated person

is

Kantaka,

'

a thorn.'

192

Saktism, or Goddess-worship.
SatI,

have already helped to do away with

female infanticide,
Still it is

human known
all its
is

sacrifices,

and other monstrous

evils.

well

that even in the present day, on particular occasions,

the adherents of the sect go through the whole ceremonial in

revolting entirety.

When

such occasions occur, a circle

formed composed of men and

women
^.

seated side by side

without respect of caste or relationship

Males and females

are held for the particular occasion to be forms of Siva and

his wife respectively,
in

conformity with the doctrine prohis wife

;

pounded
says
:

in

one of the Tantras, where Siva addressing

men have my form and all women thy form any one who recognizes any distinction of caste in the mystic
'

All

circle

(Cakra) has a foolish

soul.'

The
liquors

actual performance of the ceremonial then follows.

:

It

consists of five separate actions

i.
;

The
2.

drinking of wine and

the
;

of various
;

kinds (madya)

eating of meat
4,

(mansa)

3.

the eating of fish (matsya)

the eating of

parched or

fried grain

(mudra)

5.

sexual union (maithuna)^.

With regard
sorts of meat.

to the first four of these acts the Tantras

prescribe twelve sorts of liquors, three sorts of wine, and three

Pulastya, one of the ancient sages

who

are the

supposed authors of certain law-books, also enumerates twelve

kinds of liquors as follow
bread-fruit
:

i.

liquor

extracted
;

from the
grapes

(panasa),
3.

called

Jack-liquor
;

2.

from from
;

(draksha)

from date-palm (kharjurl)

5.

4.

common
6.

palm
^

(tall),

or toddy;

from cocoa-nut (narikela)

from

The

caste at these meetings

verse cited as the authority for the temporary suppression of is as follows Prapte hi Bhairave (fakre sarve
:

varna dvijatayah Nivritte Bhairave cakre sarve varnah prithak prithak. On entering the circle of Bhairava, all castes are on an equality with the best of the twice-born on leaving it, they are again separated
'
;

into castes.'
- The five acts are called the five Ma-karas, because the letter begins each Sanskrit word. The assemblage of five things beginning with the letter M,' says one of the Tantras, satisfies the gods.'
' '

The term Mudra, which here means

mystical intertwinings of the fingers.

'

fried grain,' is also

used to denote

Saklism, or Goddess-worship,
sugar-cane (ikshu)
;

193
;

7.
;

from the Madhvika plant

soap-berry liquor (arishta)
;

8.

long-

pepper liquor

(saira)

9.

10. liquor

from the Bassia Latifolia (madhijka)

times Maireya)

11. a

kind of rum or

liquor prepared from molasses, etc. (called GaudI, or

;

somerice or

12. arrack, or liquor

prepared from

other grain (sura, or varum, or paishtl).

Besides the above twelve kinds of spirituous drink others

are frequently mentioned
;

for

example, Tahka, made from

the jujube
;

wood-apple

Koli,

made from
that

and Kadambarl
or

the last being the favourite beverage of Bala-rama.

The meat may be

parched grain
is

of birds,

beasts,

fish.

The

eaten, like dry biscuit, as a relish with the

wine and spirituous liquors.

drink
is

The

drinking of each kind of

its

supposed to be attended with

own

peculiar merit

and advantage.
learning,

Thus one

liquor gives

salvation,

another

another power, another wealth, another destroys

sin,

enemies, another cures diseases, another removes

purifies the soul.

another

Mitra) makes Siva address his

The Matrika-bheda Tantra (quoted by Dr. Rajendralala own wife thus O sweet:

speaking goddess, the salvation of Brahmans depends on

drinking wine.
born,
I

impart to you a great truth,

mountain-

when
as
;

say that the Brahman

its

who

devotes himself to

drinking and

accompaniments, forthwith becomes a Siva.

a pitcher merges into
destruction of the

Even
metal

water mixes with water, and metal blends with

in

even as the confined space

the great

body of surrounding space on the

air,

confining vessel, and air mingles with

so does a

Brahman

melt into Brahma, the universal Soul.

'

There

is

not the least doubt about

this.

Likeness to

the divinity and other forms of beatitude are designed for

t Kshatriyas and others
;

but true knowledge can never be

;

acquired without drinking spirituous liquor

therefore should

Brahmans always

drink.

No
O

one becomes a Brahman by

;

repeating the Gayatri, the mother of the Vedas

he

is

called

194

Saktism, or Goddess-worship.,

a Brahman only when he has knowledge of Brahma.

The
it

ambrosia of the gods

through

is

their

Brahma, and on earth

;

is

arrack (or liquor distilled from rice)

it

and because one attains

is

the condition of a god (suratva), therefore

that

liquor called sura.'

It is

not surprising, therefore, that

families,

in

Bengal some respectthe above

able

mothers of

who
own

believe

passage

to be a direct revelation from Siva

and who would not dream

never say their

of drinking spirits for their

gratification,

prayers without touching their tongues with a pointed instru-

ment dipped

in arrack,

and never

offer flowers to their

god

without sprinkling them with a few drops of that liquor.

In short, the drinking of spirituous liquor

essential part of the

Sakta ceremonial as the

sacrifices,

much an drinking of Soma

is

as

juice
(sura)
ficial

was of the Vedic

and the drinking of arrack

sacrirites

was
rites.

of the Sautramani

and Vajapeya and other

Indeed these ancient

are appealed to in

the Tantras as a justification for the Sakta practice.

Nor can

there be any doubt that at one time the drinking

of wine and spirituous liquors

was prevalent

all

over India^.

^ This is well shown by Rajendralala Mitra in one of his Essays on the Indo-Aryans. The reason given for the cessation of the custom of winedrinking among the Hindus is that wine and spirituous liquors were on

two particular occasions cursed by the gods Sukra and Krishna. The cause of Sukra's curse is related in the First Book of the Mahabharata It appears that Kac^a, son of Vrihaspati, had become a pupil of (ch. 76). Sukra Acarya with a view to learn from him the charm (mantra) for restoring dead men to life, which none else knew. The Asuras came to know of this, and, dreading lest the pupil should obtain, and afterwards impart, the great secret to the Devas, assassinated him, and mixed his ashes with the wine drunk by his tutor, thus transferring him to the bowels It happened, however, that during his pupilage Kaca of Sukra Acarya. had won the affection of Deva-yanI, the youthful and charming daughter of Sukra Acarya, and that lady insisted upon her father's restoring the youth to her, threatening to commit suicide if the request was not granted. Sukra, unable to deny any favour to his daughter, repeated the charm, and forthwith, to his surprise, found the youth speaking from his own stomach. The difficulty was now to bring the youth out, for this could not be accomplished without ripping open his tutor's abdomen. Sukra

Sdktism, or Goddess-worship,

195

Some
Siva
^

of the gods were supposed to set the

example

notably

with his wife Durga, and Balarama elder brother of

Krishna with his wife RevatI

products of the

we find that one of the ocean when churned by the gods and demons
from
rice,

and

was Sura, or

spirit distilled

and that one of the

in fact

seven seas encircling the earth was believed to be composed

entirely of that liquor
^.

Drunkenness
it

an

evil

that to

remedy

a kind of temperance

became such movement

to

appears to have been

eventually organized, leading

complete reaction to the other extreme of

total abstinence.

spirits

Hence we find that in Manu's time the penalty for drinking was to commit suicide by drinking them when in a
In the same

boiling state

(XL 91). way the

eating of meat was once universal in

^

India

cows were

sacrificed

and the

flesh eaten, especially at

Sraddhas, where the aroma of beef was thought to be an

excellent aliment for the spirits of the dead.
all

Manu

allows

sorts of animal food to

first

be eaten, provided that small

portions are

offered

to the gods

and

to the spirits of

A(^arya thereupon taught the youth the great charm, and then allowed

himself to be ripped open, and Kaca, in grateful acknowledgment for his

life, immediately repeated the Mantra and resuscitated But Sukra Acarya, seeing that it was spirituous liquor which had made him swallow the ashes of his pupil, and that pupil a Brahman, prohibited for ever afterwards the use of any kind of strong drink by Brahmans. From this day forward,' said he, the Brahman, who,

own

restoration to

his tutor.

'

'

through infatuation, drinks arrack (sura) shall lose

all

his religious merit.

The wretch shall be considered guilty of the sin of killing Brahmans, and be condemned in this as well as in a future world.' With regard to the curse pronounced by Krishna on all spirituous liquor,
the reason assigned for
^

it is

that his

kinsmen the Yadavas had brought

it is

great trouble on themselves

It is

by

their potations.

said that even in the present day

not

uncommon

for the

ad-

herents of the Sakta sect to sprinkle spirituous liquor instead of water on

the lihga of Siva.
^

See Vishnu-purana.

The Taittirlya-brahmana mentions

had
to

various
well

ceremonies

at

which

cattle

be

sacrificed.

All this

is

shown by Dr. Rajendralala

Mitra.

196

Saktism, or Goddess-worship.
;

departed ancestors (V. 32)

and Valmiki, when he entertained

(as described in the
'

Vasishtha at his hermitage

caritra),

Uttara-Rama-

regaled

therefore,

him with the ground for good have

Yet

fatted

calf.'

The

Saktas,

asserting that, in drinking

wine and eating meat, they are merely reverting to the practice of their ancestors.
it is

curious that they think

it

necessary to go through the form of neutralizing the curse

of the great Sukra
their potations.

Acarya

(see note, p. 194) before beginning

This they do by repeating three particular

Mantras and certain magical formulae, after drawing a triangle

on the ground with the finger dipped
in spirituous liquor.

The
actual
all.

fifth

act of the Sakta ceremonial

the

union of the

man and woman is

held to be the most important of

it is

In the minds of some

supposed to symbolize a great

cosmical mystery

the

production of the universe through

the union of Purusha and Prakriti (see pp. 30, 31)

constantly kept before the mind stone symbols Liiiga and Yoni.
'

a mystery
of the two

by the worship
'

The only

salvation,' says a Tantra,

liquors, meat,

is

that which results

from spirituous

and cohabitation with women.'

meeting of the members of the

The holy
sect
is

circle (sri-cakra) or

on solemn occasions (represented by a mystical diagram)

'

said to be

the door to the highest form of salvation

comdiffer-

plete union with the

Supreme Being (sayujya-mukti,

p. 41).'

These

circles are of different

kinds according to the

ence in the rank, character, and occupation of the

(saktis) present at

women
;

them.

Thus

there

is

the VTra-(^akra

then

the Maha-cakra, the Deva-dakra, the Raja-cakra, etc.

It is to

be observed, however, that

all

the five acts

we have

described do not necessarily take place at every meeting.

Moreover, besides the

five so-called

ceremonial acts per-

formed by Saktas at their secret meetings, there are six other

methods of propitiating the goddess with a view to acquire superhuman powers (siddhi) namely, by the use of Mantras,

Bijas (or Vljas), Yantras, Kavacas, Nyasas, Mudras.


Mantras and
The
subject of the

Bijas,

197
or sacred texts,
is

employment of Mantras
its

their use, misuse,

and prostitution to the worst purposes,

one

of the greatest interest and importance in

bearing on the

past and present rehgious condition of the Hindus.

Mantra, as most persons know,

is

properly a divinely

inspired Vedic text, but with the Saktas,

and indeed with the

it

great mass of the

Hindus

in

the present day,

loses this

character and becomes a mere spell or charm.

Even though
(p. 8),

the text be taken from the Rig, Yajur or Atharva-veda

and be generally employed as a prayer

or invocation with

a definite meaning and application attached to the words,

it

becomes with the Saktas a mere

and sounds, which,
if

collection

of magical

letters

properly uttered and repeated

in
itself

according to prescribed formularies, possesses

mystical power capable of causing every conceivable good

to one's self or evil to one's enemies.

The

Bijas, again, are mystical letters or syllables invented

for the sake of brevity to

denote the root (mula) or essential

part of such Mantras, or the

name
:

of the deity to

whom

it

may

be addressed, or some part of the body over which that

deity presides.

For example
the sun,

Am

is

said to denote Siva,

Vishnu,

Hrim

Lam

the earth.

Nam
Pam

the mind,

Dham

both the goddess Bhuvanesvarl and the tongue.

Nam
etc.
little

both the goddess Anna-purna and the nose,

the ear,

Perhaps the following abridgment of a passage from a

work by Pratapa-dandra Ghosha, descriptive of the worship of Durga (Durga-puja) in Bengal;, and giving directions for the
performance
'

of
evil

preparatory

rite

called

Bhuta-suddhi,

removal of

demons,' will give the best idea of the uses

:

to which the Bljas are applied

on the
left

Holding a scented

flower, anointed with sandal,

temple,

repeat 07n to the Gurus, Orn to Ganesa, Oni to Durga.

Then

with

Om

phat rub the palms with flowers, and clasp the hands thrice over the head, and by snapping the fingers towards ten different directions, secure immunity from the evil spirits. Next utter the Mantra Rani^ sprinkle water all around, and imagine this water as a wall of fire. Let the priest identify

'

198

Mantras and

Bijas.

himself with the living spirit (jivatman) abiding in man's breast, in the form of the tapering flame of a lamp, and conduct it by means of the Sushumna nerve through the six spheres within the body upwards to the Divine Spirit. Then meditate on the twenty-four essences in nature viz. the Producer, Intellect, Egoism, the five subtle and five gross ele;

ments, the five external organs of sense, the five organs of action, with Conceive in the left nostril the Mantra Yam, declared to be mind. the Bija or root of wind repeat it sixteen times while drawing air by the same nostril then close the nose and hold the breath, and repeat the
;

Mantra

sixty-four times.

Then meditate on

the Matrika, and say,

'

Help me, goddess of speech

to the right eye,

Am

to the forehead.

Am

to the

mouth,

Im

Im

to the

left eye,

Utn to the right

cheek.

ear,

Um

to the left ear, l7?t to the right cheek,

hn
to

to the

left

Rim

to the right nostril,

Rmi

to the left nostril,

Lrim

the right cheek,

Lrlm

to the left cheek, teeth,

Eju
to

lower

lip,

Om

to the

upper
left.

Atim

upper lip, Aim to the the lower teeth. Tarn, Tham,

to the

Da7n,

Dham, and
Phain

Nam
to the

to the several parts of the left leg,

Pa7n

to the

stomach, Yam to the heart, Ram to the right shoulder, Latn to the neck-bone, Vam to the left shoulder, Sa?n from the heart to the right leg. Ham from the
right side,
to the back,

Bam

Mam to the

heart to the

left leg,

Ksham

from the heart to the mouth.

To

US

it

may seem

extraordinary that intelligent persons

can give credence to such absurdities, or lend themselves to

the practice of superstitions so senseless
in

but we must bear mind that with many Hindia thinkers the notion of the as propounded in Patanjali's Mahabhashya eternity of sound Purva-mlmansa of Jaimini is by no (I. I. i) and in the means an irrational doctrine. According to the well-known Mimansa aphorisms (I. i. 18-23), sound is held to have
;

existed from the beginning.

Hence the

letters of the alphabet,

being the ultimate instruments by which sounds are uttered

and thoughts expressed, are considered

qualities

to possess supernatural

and attributes and to contain within themselves an

occult magical efficacy.

Let a man only acquaint himself with the proper pronunciation and application both of the Mantras and of their Bijas
or radical letters, and he
as to acquire through

may thereby propitiate

aid,

the Saktis so

them superhuman power

(siddhi)

nay,

he becomes, through their

conceivable object.

competent to accomplish every

Mantras and

Bijas,

199

At the same time it is to be observed that for any ordinaryman to make himself conversant with the Mantras is no easy
task
;

if

at least

we

are to believe a statement in the Tantras

^

that the primary Mantras are seventy millions

in

number,

while the secondary are innumerable.

This, no doubt,
is

an absurd exaggeration
certain

but

it

must be

borne

in

mind that only a

and that
in

number

are regarded as

efficacious,

the present day there are Brahmans

a knowledge of these Mantras

called Mantra-sastris

who make

their peculiar business, learning

object of using

them

as spells and charms.

them by heart with the sole Only a few, how-

ever, are believed to

have acquired perfect mastery over the

most powerful Mantras, which must be pronounced according

to certain mystic forms
efficacy
is

and with absolute accuracy, or their

Indeed, this

destroyed.

kind
it

of craft, though

supposed to endow the possessor of

omnipotence,
is

with very enviable

not unattended with unpleasant risks and

if

drawbacks
mistake
is

for

in the repetition of

a Mantra the slightest

made, either by omission of a syllable or dewhich

it

fective pronunciation, the calamity

was intended to
on the head of

bring

down on an enemy

will inevitably recoil

the repeater.

Then, again, there are various methods of ob-

structing or neutralizing the effect of Mantras used

sastris

for

the destruction or

by MantraThe humiliation of others.

is

difficulty, of course, is to find

out the exact Mantra which

so,

being employed for one's injury; but, having done

such Mantra
face
is

every

rendered powerless by uttering

full

it

with one's

bending over a vessel

it

of milk and then swallowing

leaf of a

the milk, or by writing

on the
^.

banian tree and

throwing the leaf into a river

It

must be noted,

too, that

Mantras are not always repeated

is

without a knowledge of their meaning, though the meaning

^

The same number

is

given in the Saiva-darsana of Madhava's Sarva-

darsana-sangraha.
^

Full directions are given in the Tantra-sara.


200
of
little

Bijas,

Mantras and

importance compared with the magical force of the

letter

and sound.

Their efficacy also

is

greatly increased

if

they are employed on lucky days or at particular times and

seasons.
in the

One Tantra teaches that Mantras should be repeated month Caitra to give valour in Vaisakha to obtain
;

jewels

in

Magha

for intelligence

on Sundays

for

wealth
life,

on Mondays
so on.

for tranquillity;

on Tuesdays

for long

and

The

intercalary

month ought always

^

to be avoided ^
:

A few
'
'

translations of

common Mantras

are here given

Cause stupefaction (stambhana) of the enemy, paralyze his

;

mouth and tongue

confuse his senses, arrest his speech.'

to the

Om reverence
;

Lord

svaha.
me

Let everything be
perish
;

auspicious

let

everything opposed to

let

every-

thing be favourable.'
'

Let Brahmani, Mahesvari, Kaumari, Indranl, (Tamunda,

Varahi, and Vaishnavi protect

heart, waist

my

head, mouth, neck, hands,

and

feet,

together with

my

whole body; protect

is

me,

O
I

great goddess, Bhadra-Kali.'

;

This Mantra

worn as

a kavaca or amulet
'

see p. 204.

invoke BhavanI, accompanied by her husband, attended

subordinates,

by her by her
'

by her retinue, by her power (sa-saktika), by her weapons, and by all defensive things.' Salutation to the god of love (Kama-deva) with his five
vehicle,
:

arrows

the
;

arrow that puts to

flight
;

(dravana-bana)

the

arrow that enchants (sammohana)

(vasikarana)

the arrow that fascinates

;

the love-kindling arrow (sandlpana)

the love-

inflaming arrow (santapana).'

The Gayatrl
therefore, that

or holiest text of the Rig-veda (see p. 19)

all

is

of

course the most potent of

Mantras.

It is not surprising,

many Mantras employed by the Saktas composed after the model of that text. The following
:

are are

translations of Gayatrl Mantras

^
'^

The Tantra-sara gives The original Sanskrit

full

directions on this subject.

text of these, as of all the extracts

from the

Tantras, will be found in Gopal Hari Deshmukh's Agama-prakasa.


Mantras and
'

Bijas.

201

We

meditate on that being

of

who

has ashes for weapons

teeth
;

we

think

that

being

who
him.'

possesses sharp

let

our fever (jvara) incite

gayatrl.
'

This

is

called

the

fever-

We
is

meditate on the goddess of nectar

;

we

think of the

goddess of love (Kamesvari)

let

our affection incite him.'

This
'

called the nectar-gayatrl.

We

meditate on the lord of water (Jalesvara)

;

we
is

think
called

of the fish-net

let the fish

(mina) incite

him.''

This

the fish-gayatrl.
'

We

meditate on that being

;

who has

a snare for snaring

animals

we

think of the act of cutting off the victim's head

;

(Siras-cheda)

let

our offering (bali) incite him.'

This

is

called

the bali-gayatrl.

No

magician, wizard, sorcerer or witch whose feats are rein history,

corded

biography, or fable, has ever pretended to

be able to accomplish by incantation and enchantment half of what the Mantra-sastrl claims to have power to effect by help of his Mantras. For example, he can prognosticate futurity, work the most startling prodigies, infuse breath into dead
bodies,
kill

or humiliate enemies,

afflict

any one anywhere

enchant armour

with disease or madness, inspire any one with love, charm

weapons and give them unerring

and make
it

efficacy

^,

impenetrable, turn milk into wine, plants into

all

meat, or invert
to the gods,

such processes at

will.

He is
it is

even superior

and can make gods, goddesses, imps and demons

carry out his most trifling behests.

Hence
is

not surprising

that the following remarkable saying

everywhere current
the gods are

throughout India
'

The whole

universe

is

subject to the gods

natural powers,

Warlike weapons when thus charmed were supposed to possess superand to assume a kind of divine personality like the genii of the Arabian Nights. Certain spells had to be learnt for their restraint as well as for their use. When once let loose, he only who knew the secret Mantra for recalling them could bring them back.
^

202

Mantras and
;

Bijas,

subject to the Mantras

fore the

the Mantras to the

^.'

Brahmans

there-

Brahmans

are our gods

Often these Mantra-sastrls are mere fortune-tellers.

I

may mention

as an illustration that a

Sakta Brahman of

this

type came to see

me

one day at Patna.

it

He

asked to
prophe-

look at

sied that

my hand, and, after examining my stay in India would be

I I

for a minute,

except that on that day fortnight

disappointment.
to forecast

happy and prosperous, should meet with a great

it

smiled at the absurdity of his attempting

is

my

future biography, but

certain that

only

met with one unexpected and most mortifying contretemps from the day of my departure from England to the day of my
return,

and that happened on the very day predicted.

also give an outline of a story told to

It

must
a

at least be
I

acknowledged that the coincidence was remarkable.

may

me by

Maratha Pandit, which well

illustrates the sort of use these

Mantra-sastrls are supposed to

certain

make of their magical powers. Sakta Brahman, named Bhaskaracarya, well-versed

in the

Mantras, expected to be asked to a dinner-party given

by a wealthy friend, but received no invitation. This so irritated the Brahman that he determined to revenge himself on the householder who had ventured so imprudently to slight him. Having waited till the moment when the assembled guests, with appetites stimulated by the fragrance of an array
of choice dishes, were about to feast on the delicacies prepared
for their

consumption, he quietly in his

own house
it

selected a
all

particular Mantra,

and by simply repeating

turned

the

viands into foul and fetid excrementitious matter.

The

story

goes on to relate
this disastrous

how

the householder, suspecting the cause of

in

metamorphose, sent a messenger

hot haste to

implore the immediate presence of the offended Brahman,

The Sanskrit version of this saying is given incorrectly by Dubois n)' I have heard it variously rendered. Perhaps the following is the most usual Devadhinam Jagatsarvam Mantradhlnas-ca Devatah Mantras-ca Brahmanadhlna Brahmana mama Devatati.
^

(P-

Yantras, or mystic diagrams.

203
to

who thereupon becoming

mollified, obligingly consented

all

repeat another Mantra which reconverted

the

filth into

the

most delicious ambrosial food.

We

now

pass on to the Yantras.

These are mystical

dia-

grams drawn on

metallic tablets, often of copper

generally

combinations of triangular figures like the inverted triangles

of the Freemasons

supposed to possess occult

her,

powers.

Each

of the goddesses worshipped

by the Saktas has a

sometimes placed in the centre of a lotus-diagram, the Blja belonging to the goddess

Yantra assigned to

which

is

being also inscribed a certain number of times on each petal.

The

SrI-dakra or holy circle

is

delineated in a diagram of

this kind

and then worshipped.

It is

supposed to represent the

the drawing

orb of the earth, nine triangles being drawn within the circle
to denote the nine continents.

In the centre

is

of a mouth, which

is

believed to typify the female energy

(Sakti) presiding over the circle.

ties,

According

to

some

authori-

even the orthodox Sahkaracarya must have been a Sakti;

worshipper

for he

is

known

to

have placed a representation of

the SrI-cakra in each of the four monasteries founded

by him.

These Yantras or mystic diagrams are thought

a combination of both
held to be absolutely

to be quite

as effective in their operation as the Mantras, and of course

is

irresistible.

An enemy may
or a whole

be killed or removed to some other place,

destroyed, or salvation and supreme felicity

army

in a future state

obtained by drawing a six-sided or eight-

sided diagram and writing a particular Mantra underneath.

If this

be done with the blood of an animaP killed

sacrificially

in a place

where corpses are burned (Smasana), no power

terrific

in

earth or heaven can resist the

potency of the charm. Yantras

are

Triangular,

pentangular,

and

nine-triangled

equally efficacious.
^ It may give an idea of the depths of superstition and degradation to which Saktism can lead if we note here that the Retas (semen) of either male or female is believed to be still more efficacious.


204
Kavacas, Nyasas, and Mudras.
I

Let us pass to a brief explanation of the Kavacas.

tell

need not

Sanskrit scholars that the word kavaca properly means a

kind of cuirass, breast-plate, or similar armour worn as a defence in battle.

With the Saktas a kavaca some

is

an amulet or

talisman worn as a preservative against evil influences, or to

bring about the attainment of
desired object.
It

may

consist of a stone, piece of paper, metal, leaf or other material

on which Mantras, Yantras, mystical words and formulae of

various kinds are inscribed.
It is

then worn on the neck,

of pestilence and

breast, arms, or loins, especially in times

sickness.

Women

often

wear kavacas with the object of

propitiating the goddess,

favourable to

and so inducing a condition of body the production of male offspring.

is

The term kavaca

also applied to

whole hymns when

mentally assigning

they are used as charms.

As

to

the Nyasas, these consist in

various parts of the

body

to the protection of tutelary pre-

siding deities, with imposition of the

repetition of texts, mystical words,

hand or fingers, and and syllables.

The Mudras, on

the other hand, are intertwinings of the

fingers supposed to possess

an occult meaning and to have

the morn-

extraordinary efficacy.

Their use as well as that of the

in treating of

Nyasas
It

will

be more fully explained

ing and evening religious services called Sandhya.

may be

noted here that four days, or rather nights, are

festivals

kept as principal
namely,
p.

by the
(2)

left-hand worshippers

(i) the night of

the Krishna-janmashtami (see note

;

2,

113), called the Kala-ratri

the Moha-ratri, or Kali-

caturdasl, kept

on the fourteenth day of the second half of

Asvina

(3)

the Siva-ratri or Maha-ratri, kept on the four-

teenth of the dark half of

Magha

(4)

the Daruni Ratrih,

kept on the day before the Holl

fifteenth

festival,

which

is

on the

day

of the

first

half of Phalguna.

But besides

these four festivals, nine nights in each of the

Caitra,

months Asvina,

Pausha, and Ashadha

are

also

observed as holy

'

The Tantras,
nights.
It
is

205

declared that ceremonies performed on any

of these nights must of necessity confer superhuman power

(siddhi).

Before concluding this part of our subject,

to note a few

it

may be

well

more

particulars in regard to the

works we have

so often quoted as the chief authority for the doctrines and

practices of the Saktas.

The

Tantras,

repeat, are the bible of Saktism.

fifth

Like the

Very commonly, too, the name Agama, that which has come down (also applied to the Brahmana portion of the Veda), is given to
Puranas, they are sometimes called a
'

Veda.

them
for

in contradistinction to

Nigama, which

is

a general

name

the \ipdas, Dharma-sastras,

Puranas, and other Smriti

is

works.

Sometimes the authorship of the Tantras

attributed

to Dattatreya,

who is worshipped
(p.

as an incarnation of
is

Brahma,

Vishnu, and Siva

267), but the general opinion

that they

were revealed by Siva alone.

printed or translated in Europe.

None of them have as yet been They are said to be sixty-

four in number, without counting a large collection of works of

a Tantrik character and Sakta tendency.

As

a general rule

they are written

in the

form of a dialogue between the god Siva

like a Purana, to treat

and

his wife

and every Tantra ought,

of five subjects

the creation, the destruction of the world, the

is

worship of the gods, the attainment of superhuman power, and

the four modes of union with the Supreme Spirit (given at
p. 41), to

which

sometimes added a

fifth,

Sarshti,

'

attaining to

the same
it is

rank as that of the Deity.'

In

some of the Tantras

stated that five

Amnayas

or sacred systems of teaching

have been handed down from primeval times, one having

issued from each of Siva's five mouths.

As

a matter of fact

very few conform to any systematic arrangement.

Those

have examined seem to be mere hand-books for the practices I have attempted to describe, which to Europeans appear so
monstrous that the possibility of any persons believing
their efficacy
in

seems

in itself

almost incredible.

2o6

The Tantras.
teach

Whole Tantras
making use of
for

nothing

but

various

methods of

spells for acquiring

magical power.

Some give collections of charms for making people enamoured,

destroying enemies and
rivals, for

producing or prevent-

ing diseases, for curing blindness, for injuring crops.

Others

simply describe the most effectual

modes

of worshipping the

Saktis, Maha-vidyas, Matris. YoginTs, Vatukas, or

by whatever

name

the innumerable manifestations of Siva and his wife

called.

may

be

Others confine themselves to an explanation

of the Yantras, Bijas, and

Mudras

(intertwining of the fingers)

belonging to each manifestation, the places suited for the

worship of each, the names of trees and plants sacred to each,

or permeated
each.

by

each,

and the days of the year

allotted to

Some

few touch on nearly every conceivable topic of

contain here and there really interest-

human knowledge, and

ing matter.

Even alchemy comes

Sakta idea of
vidya)
is

in for a

share of attention

but the

this
its

pretended science (Rasayana^, Rasesvarais

that

only use

to enable the devotee to trans-

mute the decaying particles of his body into an incorruptible substance by means of elixirs compounded of mercury and
mica, supposed to consist of the essences of Siva and his wife

Gaurl respectively.

After long persistence

in

the practice of

swallowincr o these elixirs the candidate for beatitude becomes immortal, and not merely united with Siva but identified

with

him.
'

This kind of transformation

life
^.'

is

called

Jivan-

mukti,

salvation during
is

So
that

little

known about
and
still

the composition of the Tantras

it is

not possible to decide at present as to which are the

less as to

most
^

ancient,

the date to be assigned to

One

of the systems described by

is

Madhava

in his

Sarva-darsana-

which teaches the use of mercury or quicksilver as a means of strengthening the body and giving it divine stability capable of resisting death and preventing further transmigration. Mercury is said to be named Para-da because it gives
sangraha
called the Rasesvara-darsana, or the system

para

or the farther shore of Metempsychosis.

The Tantras.
any of them.
panishad.
It

207

They

are

all

said to be founded on the Kaulofor

may, however, be taken

the oldest

granted that the

extant treaties are, like the extant Puranas, based on older

works

and

if

known Purana
earlier

is

not older than the

sixth or seventh century, an

attributed to the oldest

date can scarcely be

known Tantra.

Perhaps the Rudra-

yamala

is

one of the most deservedly esteemed and most

in its teaching^.

encyclopedic

Others are the Sakti-sahgama,

Visva-sara, Maha-nirvana, Vira, Kularnava (a text-book of

the Kaulas), Syama-rahasya, Sarada-tilaka, Uddlsa,

Kama-

khya, Vishnu-yamala.
Full as the above works are of doubtful symbolism, they
are not
all

necessarily full of

impure

allusions,

though the

teaching contained in the best of them unquestionably tends

towards licentiousness.

When

they are better known, their

connection with a distorted view of the Sarikhya philosophy,

and with some of the corrupt forms of Buddhism,

bably be made
clearer.

will proin-

Doubtless they have greatly

fluenced the later Buddhist literature of Nepal, and would

probably throw much light on the magical hymns and spells

of the Atharva-veda.

the

There are also works called Vaishnava Tantras, such as Gautamiya and the Sanat-kumara, but even in these
is

Siva

the narrator and

their teaching,

his

wife

the supposed

listener.

Moreover

which makes Radha, the wife of

Krishna, take the place of

adoration, has the

Durga

as

the chief object

of

same tendency

as that of the other Tantras,

and equally leads

dying out
in

to licentiousness.

Happily the worst abominations of Saktism are gradually

British

India

and

its

true character

is

im-

pressing itself on the convictions of the

more highly edu-

cated Hindus.

It is said to consist of 100,000 verses. A section of mala, treating of caste, has been printed at Calcutta.

it,

called Jati-

I-*


2o8

The Tantras.
the power of the Mantra-sastris stand against the
intellectual revolution

Nor can
moral and

which

is

slowly but surely

upheaving the whole fabric of superstition.

already much weakened, and the

That power

is

field for its exercise

among
Still in

a people, steeped for centuries in debasing and degrading religious

and

social ideas,

is

daily

becoming narrower.
all

most

of the native
still

States,

where

the grosser forms of

is

Hinduism are
no
faith in

rampant, the whole system

as firmly

established as ever.
it

Even those

in

high positions,

who have

themselves^, find themselves unable to offend

the prejudices of their subordinates

in

by venturing to engage any work or perform the most ordinary act without the sanction of crafty and ignorant Brahmans claiming divine
and professing
to

authority

work miracles through

their

knowledge and application of the Mantras.

Well may the enlightened Brahman before quoted

p. 189) give

(see

expression to his indignation thus

'All sensible people ought to say to the Mantra-sastris,

We

have suffered much misery through your

deceit,

we have
in

been taxed very heavily by you, and you have involved us

the results of
all

your wickedness.

It is true

your ancestors

had some knowledge of

of that knowledge to us.
fed

different sciences

and imparted some

In return for these benefits

we have
interests.

you and supported you and promoted your

after
is

When you
mischief.

found your power established over us you abanknowledge, and worked only
a mere reflection of your

doned the duty of seeking

Your teaching

now

ignorance, wickedness, folly, and hypocrisy.

injure us in a

You
is

harass and

thousand ways.
it,

If

our knowledge increases,

if

you try to prevent

your customers
artifices.

thinking that,

inquiry

encouraged,

will decrease.

We

begin to see through your

Begone, every one of you, and don't attempt to

deceive us any more.'

CHAPTER

VIII.

Tutelary a^id Village Deities.

It

may be

said that all deities ought to be called tutelary,

is

and no doubt the idea of protecting from harm

the later idea of a god.
the
first

essential to

But among rude, uncultivated races

is

conception of a god

never that of a beneficent

saviour.

Primitive man, just emerging from the depths of a

merely animal existence, finds himself face to face with

mighty mysterious natural

their operation.

forces.

He
and

sees, feels,

and dreads

He

personifies

deifies

them, and gives

their

them names expressive

of the

awe with which

power has
It is
in

impressed him, or of his desire to propitiate them.

question whether any of the primary

names

for

God

any

country are significant of his

Saviour,

attributes

as

a Guardian,

and Deliverer.

In India tutelary functions were

no doubt ultimately associated with both Siva and Vishnu,

but
in

the case of Vishnu they were delegated, as

we have
the case

seen, to his Incarnations or descents

on earth, and

In

of Siva to his sons

Ganesa and Skanda and

of

to his consort the

great goddess Devi, regarded as the mother of the world and

worshipped under a great variety

different localities.

dlfi"erent

names

in

In the South of India another tutelary

god named Ayenar, the reputed son of Vishnu and Siva

(see p. 218),
is

very popular

among
these
or

the peasantry.
village
deities

Whether the worship of devata) Is a mere offshoot

of Siva

(grama-

ramification of the reh'glon

It
Is

and Vishnu

is

very doubtful.

much more
and more
even be

probable that the village gods

primitive objects of worship.

represent far earlier

Possibly they

may

2IO

Tutelary a7id Village Deities,

fetishes

developments of local

once held

in

veneration

by
has

uncivilized aboriginal tribes and afterwards grafted into the

Hindu system by the Brahmans, whose wise policy

ever been to appropriate and utilize
all

it

existing cults, cus-

toms, and superstitions.

It is certain that

even

in

the present
in

day scarcely a
India,
is

village,
its

and indeed scarcely a household

in

without

tutelary divinity, usually represented

some rudely carved image or symbol, located

shrines or over doorways, or,
it

by homely

may

be,

denoted by simple

patches of red paint on rocks or under sacred trees or in

cross-ways, and always taking the place of the superior gods
in

the religion of the lower orders.

The
homely

question however arises

In

what sense are these

or

village deities tutelary?

?

From whom

what are

they believed to protect

A Christian, when he prays for deliverance from

not only deliverance from a personal
evil of sin evil spirit,

evil,

means
world

but from the

and from the general

evil existing in the

around him.

An

ordinary Hindu peasant's religion consists mainly

in

seeking deliverance from the evil inflicted by demons.

The

religiously-minded are no doubt sincere in their desire to

be freed from inborn

are

sin

and

its

effects

through ceremonial
but the majority

washings and purificatory

rites (sanskaras),

much more eager to escape

In truth
I

the calamities which

may over-

take them through demoniacal, planetary, and atmospheric

influences.

am

convinced that those Europeans

who have
bear

lived in closest contact with the Hindi!

mind

will

me

out in

my

assertion that the great majority of the

are,

inhabitants

of India

from the cradle to the burningis

ground, victims of a form of disease which

best expressed

by by

the term demonophobia.

They

are haunted and oppressed

a perpetual dread of demons.

They

are firmly convinced

that evil spirits of all kinds, from malignant fiends to merely

mischievous imps and elves, are ever on the watch to harm,

Worship of Ganesa and Sii-brahmanya.

harass and torment them, to cause plague, sickness, famine

and

disaster, to

impede, injure and mar every good work.

Hence a

tutelary

god among the Hindias

is

simply one

that delivers from the calamities, actual and potential, believed to be

due to demons.

Worship of Ganesa (Ganapati^ and Su-brahmanya,

At

the head of tutelary village deities

place the two sons

of Siva:

i.

Ganesa

(p.

59)

also called Gana-pati (commonly

;

Gan-pati, and in Southern India Puliyar, 'the son')

i.

Skanda

often called Karttikeya, and

manya.
that

still

more commonly Su-brahtwo gods

I

But

in so placing these

must explain
from that

my

investigations in India

have led

me

to take a view of

their character

and functions somewhat

different

hitherto propounded
logy.

by European

writers

on Hindu Mythowhereas the whole

is

It is usual for

such writers to describe Ganesa as the

letters
^
;

god of learning and patron of

province of speech, language, and literature

really placed

under the presidency of the goddess Sarasvatl^.

possible ground
I

The only

have been able to discover for connecting

is

Ganesa with the patronage of learning

namah.

the circumstance

that every Indian book opens with the formula Sri Ganesaya

But the

real explanation of this

is

that the writing of a

book

is

among

Hindias a very serious and solemn underliable

taking, peculiarly

to

obstruction

from

spiteful
is

and
an
In

jealous spirits of evil,

to

and the favour of Ganesa

It

invoked
to

counteract their malignity.

seldom

occurs

ordinary Hindii writer to suppose that the failure of his

literary efforts
^

is

likely to

be due to his own incapacity.

find that

even M. Barth,

in his recent excellent

work on the religions

of India, falls into this mistake.

^

Thus we

find the first verse of the

Mahabharata addresses homage

to Sarasvati, not to Ganesa.

P 2


2T2

Worship of Gane'sa and Su-brahmanya.

other enterprises, want of success
skill,
is

this, as In all

attributed

not to want of
in taking

energy, or persistency, but to negligence

proper precautions against demoniacal jealousy and I

obstruction.

So
is

far

indeed

is

peculiarly the

Ganesa from being the god of learning, he god of the lower orders and uneducated
be extracted from the old
called the

classes.

Hence
it is

in a verse said to
is

version of

Manu he

Again,
if

usual to describe

god of the Sudras^. Skanda as the god of war,

as

he were a kind of

Hindu Mars, whereas

his martial quali-

ties

are only displayed in leading the armies of the gods

ap-ainst the countless

host of their enemies the evil demons.

to a fuller explanation of the history

With a view then

throughout India,
I

and

character of two gods so generally honoured and propitiated

must begin by pointing out that the cultus of both Ganesa and Su-brahmanya is a mere offshoot of The very name Ganesa (Gana-isa) or Gana-pati, Saivism.

meaning 'lord of
p. 77), for

hosts,'

belonged originally to Siva (see

seen, surrounded
officers,

Siva

is,

as

we have

by

countless
are con-

troops or hosts (gana) of servants and

stantly in readiness to traverse earth
tion of his orders.

who

and

air for the

execu-

And just

as Siva

is

ever engaged in two opposite duties

directing

on the one hand, as

ling dissolution

Rudra and Kala,

and controlas Siva

life

and death, on the other hand, Sambhu, presiding over re-integration and new
figment of mythology, those of his emissaries

and

so by a
evil

who

are charged

with carrying out the former operation are converted into

demons, imps, and

latter

devils, while those

who

are agents in the

are held to be

good

angels, ministering spirits,

and

beneficent genii.

And

hence

it

is

that two entirely opposite classes of de-

moniacal beings are believed to be continually roaming about

^

The verse

is

Vipranam daivatam Sambhuh Kshatriyanam tu Madhatu

vah Vaisyanam

bhaved Brahma Sudranarn Gana-nayakah.

Worship of
earth, air
life,

Gaiie'sa

and Sit-brahmanya.
all
;

21

and sky
the

the

one ill-disposed towards

the

forms of
the one

human and

divine,

other well-disposed
;

destroyers,

other

protectors

the one instruments of

calamity and disaster, the other agents of good-fortune and

prosperity.
It is to

be observed,

too, that differences of rank^ character,

and function are supposed to separate both good and bad

spirits
^

into various subdivisions.

For example, the highest

called arch-fiends, disdain

order of evil demons,

who may be

gods

any lower aim than the humiliation and subjugation of the and, to effect this, they will sometimes undergo long
;

courses of austerity and

self-mortification,

in

the hope of

making themselves omnipotent. The next in order vent and hostility upon human beings. Of these, again, some destroy life, some inflict diseases, some disturb religious rites. Another class are mere demons of mischief
their rancour

and obstruction who delight

frightening
elves,

in

hindering good works or

women and

children, like the ghosts, hobgoblins,

tale

and bogies of nursery

and

fable.

Similar differences are supposed to divide good

into various orders
It
is

demons
demons

and degrees of rank and power.

evil

over these countless hosts of good and

that

the

god

Siva

exercises

sovereignty.

primarily subject to his authority; but the

They are all actual command

less generally
office.

over them

is

delegated to his two sons, Ganesa and Skanda.

As

for

Skanda, although the younger and

ambitious
is

worshipped, he holds the more

called the

He

is

god of war, because he

commander-in-chief or

generalissimo (Sena-pati) of the good

demon

armies.
evil

These

he leads against the hosts of their enemies the

demons
is

notably against those rebellious and arrogant

arch-fiends

who

seek to overcome and enslave the gods.

He

often

called Karttikeya,

from his foster-mothers, the six Krittikas

'
'

^ The use of the term spirit demons are incorporeal spiritual

for

demon

is

not intended to imply that

beings.

214

Worship of Gane'sa and Su-brahnianya.

These

or Pleiades, and then has six heads ^ and twelve arms.

are to enable

a person
times.

him to hold weapons of different kinds, like armed with the many-chambered revolver of modern
is

But he
example,

not seldom represented in other characters.

For

some places he appears as simply a beautiful riding on a peacock, divested of all martial (Kumara) youth Again, in the South of India, where his cultus attributes.
in

prevails

most extensively, he

is

not worshipped as presiding

'

over war, but under the

sacred.'

name Su-brahmanya,

very pious or
I

He

is

sometimes held to be unmarried, but

found

that his temples are either frequented

by those who seek

evil spirits, or else

through his intervention to be delivered from

by women who hope by

sons.

propitiating

him

to obtain

handsome

He

is

himself married, and has two wives popularly

called

DevayanI and Valll-amman.

devils,

These, like their hus-

band, are believed to grant children, to prevent the attacks

and thwart the malice of

and when

evil spirits

have

actually taken possession of any one, to be capable of casting them out. At Tanjore and other places in the South of

India

found the temples of Skanda

side

in his

character of

Su-brahmanya
and
in

by

side with those of his brother Ganesa,

some
to

districts

Su-brahmanya
is

is

the

more popular.

He

has a celebrated temple on the Pulney

hills.

As
trary,

Ganesa,

it

certain that

he has no pretensions

whatever to be regarded as a martial deity.

On

the con-

he

is

essentially a

homely

village-god.

Fighting and
nature, which,
full

activity

of any kind

are repugnant to his

however, appears to be somewhat contradictory and

curious enigmas.
well-fed

of

His form resembles that of a bloated,

Brahman seated at his ease with legs folded under him on a lotus-throne, the very beau-ideal of satiated appetite
and indolent self-complacency, but with the head of an
The
heads were to enable him to be nursed by his

six

six nurses.

Worship of Ganesa and Sti-brahmanya,

215

elephant to denote shrewdness or wisdom, and with four

arms, holding an elephant-hook, a noose, a
cake, one in

each of his hands.

rat,

mace ^, and a Not unfrequently he is

always associated with

represented riding on a

and

is

images of that animal, probably as emblematical of sagacity.

In Southern India
I

occasionally found his idols in

company

with those of Nagas or snakes.

Sometimes he has a garland

not generally repre-

round

his

neck,

sometimes the sacred Brahmanical cord.

is

Unlike Su-brahmanya or Skanda, he

sented as married
;

though according to some he has two

Su-brahmanya, we must
is

wives called Riddhi and Siddhi^, 'Prosperity' and 'Success.'

Contrasting Ganesa then with

always bear

in

mind that Ganesa

good and bad

not the

commander

and leader, but rather the king and lord of the demon-host,
ruling over both
alike,

and controlling those

and causing

malignant

spirits

who

are

ever plotting evil

difficulties. But he controls them, not as Skanda does, by the exercise of bravery and physical energy, but by artifice and stratagem, very much after the manner of some indolent, wily Brahman who, skilled in the Mantras, sits

hindrances and

comfortably at
texts,
spells

home and by
cabalistic
his behests.

the simple repetition of a few

evil

and

words, compels good and

spirits to

obey
it

Nor
is

is

out of

harmony with

this

theory of the true

character of the god that the Ganesa of modern mythology

thought by some Pandits to be a development of the

'

Vedic Brahmanas-pati or Brihaspati,

the
personification

lord of prayer

'

once

of religion

and devotion

who

by the

simple force of his supplications protects the pious from

the

machinations of the impious.

It

is

certain that the

Instead of a
of

ment
^
'

mace he has sometimes a lotus, and sometimes a fragone of his own tusks which he once broke off in a fit of uncon'

trollable passion.

Others make his two wives Buddhi and Siddhi,

Intelligence

'

and

Success.'

2i6

Worship of Ganesa and Su-bralmiaiiya.

in the
in

modern popular Ganesa has no place

thet
23.

Veda, the
Rig-veda

epiII.

Gananam
I,

Gana-patih,

which occurs
^.

having reference to Brahmanas-pati as lord of the

divinities

Ganas or troops of

What

the Ganesa or Gana-pati of the present day really

is

represents

a complex personification of sagacity, shrewd-

ness, patience,

and

self-reliance

of

all

those qualities, in short,

which overcome hindrances and

forming religious

difficulties,

whether

in per-

acts, writing books, building houses,

making
things
usual

journeys, or undertaking anything.

He

is

before
;

all
its

the typical

embodiment
is

of success in

life

with

accompaniments of good-living, plenteousness, prosperity, and

peace.
his

This

the true secret of his popularity.

This

is

why

images and shrines smeared with red paint are seen everyIn
all

where throughout India.

rites ^
It

ceremonies, except funeral

is first

and

in all

undertakings Ganesa

invoked.

should be noted, however, that although his principal

is

office
rites,

to

remove impediments, especially from

;

religious

he

in his

may also cause hindrances and this in fact is implied names Vighnesa and Vighna-raja, lord of obstacles.'
'

So

also,

although he

is

essentially a

god who presides over

evil

domestic happiness and rural prosperity, driving away

demons from houses,

roads,

fields, crops,

and herds, he

may

also, if

not propitiated, allow malicious imps to haunt houses, infest

mar
I

harvests,

and cause a murrain among

cattle.

When

was nearly dashed to pieces by

restive horses,

one

of which broke

away from

my

carriage and

was precipitated

over a precipice on the Ghat between Poona and

lesvar,
I

Mahaba-

was told by a wise-looking native who witnessed the

accident that the road in that district was infested

by demons
all

who

often caused accidents, and that

if

had taken care to

propitiate

Ganesa before starting

all risk

should have escaped

molestation and
*

of being upset.

The same expression Gananam Gana-patih occurs also in the Vajasaneyi-Samhita of the Yajur-veda, XXIII. 19.

Worship of Gane'sa and Stt-brahinanya.

Altogether, the god Ganesa represents a being
curious

who

is

mixture of divine and demoniacal, benevolent and

all

malevolent, intellectual and animal propensities,

are typified

of which

by the somewhat grotesque and

is

bizarre assem-

blage of symbols noticeable in his image.

Notably, too, his worship

other god.
It is

combined with that of every

For

all sects

unite in claiming

him

as their

own.

on

this in

account that his shrines and images are generally

those of other deities, and
arc

found

association with

usually to be seen in the approaches or vestibules of large

temples.

Often, however, they stand alone, and are then to

villages,

be found outside

under

trees, or in

cross-ways, or

indeed in any kind of locality, but always smeared with red

paint in token of good-luck

and auspiciousness.

Solitary
rare.

temples of large size dedicated to Ganesa are

largest
I

The

saw anywhere
It
I

in India

was at Wa-i, between Poona

and Mahabalesvar.
and
in this

contained a colossal image of the god,

noticed a singularly simple and easy

temple

method of doing him honour.

vessel of holy water

man

entered with a small

river.

from the neighbouring

He

re-

peated no prayers, but with a diminutive spoon poured a

the huge image and then retired.

little

of the water two or three times on the lower extremities of

Another large Ganesa

^.

temple which

visited

is

on the summit of the rock of

Trichinopoly, Ganesa being there called Ujjhl Puliyar

In point of fact Ganesa has in the present day few exclusive adorers
trust to
;

that

is

to say, there are few sectarians

who
him

him alone

for salvation,

though

all

propitiate

for success.

In former times the Ganesa or Ganapatya sect,

(see p. 59),

as

it

was called

was divided

into six sub-sects

who

worshipped six different forms of the god, named respectively

(according to the Sankara-vijaya) Maha-Ganapati, Haridra^ There is also a shrine to Su-brahmanya on this celebrated rock, and noticed as a peculiarity that the image of a peacock was represented looking into Ganesa's shrine, not into that of his brother.

2i8

Worship of Ayenar.

Ganapati, Ucchishta-GanapatI (also called Heramba), Navanlta-Ganapati, Svarna-Ganapati, and Santana-Ganapati

^.

Worship of Ayenar.
Closely allied to the worship of Ganesa and Skanda (Su-

brahmanya), and generally to Saivism,

is

the worship

of

Ayenar

a village-god very popular in the extreme South

little

of India, but

known
noticed

in other parts.

One

distinction,

however,

may be

between the worship of Ayenar

and that of Siva's two sons.

positive good.

He

is

never asked for any

He

only protects from harm, and his worpropitiation.

ship

consists solely in

His name Ayenar

(

is

said to be a corruption of Hari-hara

= Vishnu

and Siva,

see p. 6^^ and he

deities
;

is is

believed to be the son of both these

that

is,

he

the product of the marriage of Siva

latter

and Vishnu when the

took the form of a beautiful

^,

woman.

He

is

popularly called Ayenar-appan

'

and somea
to

times has another name, Sasta,

the ruler or governor.'

is
is

Like Ganesa and Skanda, the popular deity Ayenar

lord and leader of the demon-host, and his province

guard the

fields,

crops,

and herds of the peasantry, and drive

away

their enemies the devils

inflict disease, blight,

and

fiends,

who

are ever on the

watch to

and other

calamities.

Accord-

ingly, outside every village in

Southern India, and generally

among a group

of trees to the west of the village,

may

be

seen the shrines of Ayenar, surrounded with rude clay or

Dhundhi-raja, said to
at

mean 'king
I

of Siva's hosts,'

is

another popular
in his

form of Ganesa

Benares.
at that

noticed numerous worshippers at his

shrine, as well as

of another shrine of the

same god

In this latter character he is usually called Sakshi-Vinayaka (vulgarly Sakhi-Vinayaka). Every pilgrim who has been the round of the shrines in the PaficakosI of Benares must
finish

character of Sakshin or witness.

up by a visit to Ganesa, the witness,' who then bears testimony to the completeness of the difficult task he has accomplished.
'

Appan

is

the Tamil for

'

father/ as

Amman

is

for

'

mother.'

Worship of Aye^iar.
terra-cotta figures of horses
size

and other animals

often of hfe-

on

which he
is

is

supposed to ride when keeping guard.

His image

that of a

human form

painted a reddish colour

in

and very roughly carved, sometimes

sometimes on horseback.
ought to have a crown on

a sitting posture,

When

properly represented, he

his head, the Saiva

mark on

his

forehead, a sceptre in his hand, and ornaments on his person.

Often images of Ganesa are placed near him.

wives (known
generally
in driving
sit

He

has two

by the names PuranT and Pudkala), who

especially at night,
fields

on each side of him, and take an active part

away demons,
ride

when

like their

husband they

about the
in

on horses.

It is

on this
in

account that no villager

Southern India

likes to

be out

the fields at night, and on no account will any one pass near
the shrines of

Ayenar and

his

wives after dark.

If

any
an

venturesome person happens to cross their path when they

are careering about the fields, he
evil spirit
is

liable to

be taken

for

and

slain.

After recovery from sickness, or to commemorate any piece

of good-fortune, the villagers place fresh clay horses round

the shrine of Ayenar, as thank-offerings or in fulfilment of

vows.

He

is

also at such times propitiated

by

offerings of the

blood of swine, goats, sheep, cocks and other animals, or by

cooked food and libations of strong

If cholera or pestilence of

liquor.

any kind breaks

out, the villagers

redouble their offerings to the priests of the shrine,

who

are

generally very poor and of the lowest caste, and are very glad
to receive

any money or consume any eatables that may be

interest

offered to the god.

I

examined with great

to

many
It

shrines of

Ayenar

in

Southern India, and

particularly one at

Permagudy, on

my

way from Madura

Ramesvaram.

was situated close to

a grove of small trees not far from the village.

Under a
idol.

rough stone canopy was a rudely carved stone male

The

wives of the god were not represented, but about twenty-

2 20
five toy-like

Worship of Hamtman,
terra-cotta horses,

some

as large as

life,

were
fictile

ranged on each side of the shrine.

Several of these

animals had grotesque images upon them representing

riders,

and some of them were so badly formed that

it

w^as difficult

to say whether they were intended for lions or horses.

In

the front of the shrine was a rude stone altar for sacrifices

and

oblations, but I

saw no signs of any recent

offerings,

nor
I

was a

single worshipper of the

all

god

to be seen anywhere.

noticed indeed that

the shrines of
is

Ayenar had a deserted

appearance, the fact being that he

sense of the word.

never worshipped in our

He

is

only propitiated in emergencies.

is

Every year

after harvest-time a festival

kept

in his

honour,

when numerous animals

village streets

are sacrificed, and images of the god

are decorated with ornaments and drawn about through the

on the rude clay horses which

have described.

Worship of Hammian.
In connexion with the subject of local tutelary deities
it

ought to be mentioned that a very

Dekhan, Central
of

common village-god in the and Upper India, is Hanuman (nom. case

'

Hanumat, a name meaning possessing large jaws god derives his popularity from the part he took in

').

This

assisting

Rama
away

to recover his wife Sita after she to

had been carried

Ceylon by the demon Ravana.

He

is

one of the

chiefs of a host of semi-divine

monkey-like beings who, ac16),

cording to the

Ramayana

(I.

were created to become

little

Rama-candra's allies. In point of fact, there can be doubt that Hanuman was originally a mere poetical
cation
tribes,

deifi-

some well-known leader of the wild aboriginal whose appearance resembled that of apes, and who
of

really rendered effective assistance to

Rama

in his battles

with

Ravana.
chiefs,

There were several of these powerful aboriginal

were held to be the progeny of various

who, from their accomplishing apparently supernatural

feats of strength,

Worship of Hannmdn.
gods.

221

Thus

the Simian king Sugriva was said to be a son of

the Sun, and another chief

named Bali was a son of Indra. Hanuman, on the other hand, was believed to be a son

of

the wind (Pavana or Maruta).

will,

He

could assume any form at

air,

wield rocks, remove mountains, dart through the

seize clouds,

and

rival

Vishnu's divine bird Garuda in swift-

ness of flight.
that he
is

His devotion to Rama's service was so great

faithful

worshipped over a great part of India as the type

devoted servant.

and model of a

Many

believe that,

when
in

propitiated, he can confer supernatural muscular strength

and bodily power.

(sindura)

His images, which, to denote the reverence

are generally rudely formed.

which they are held, are always smeared with vermilion

and

oil,

noticed,

however, that they were most

common

in

the Dekhan, where

they are generally found outside

villages.

Not

that there

is

any lack of them

I

in large

towns.

In the centre of Poona,

came
was

across a shrine containing a shapeless idol, which

said to be an
It

set
it

was image of Hanuman several hundred years old. up under a Banian tree. man was in the act of

painting

with bright red paint as

full

passed, and another

man was
before
it.

prostrating himself at

length on the ground

Again,

visited

a large temple
It
is

dedicated to

Hanuman

outside the town of Kaira.

Offerings of
oil

said to be well endowed.

are constantly presented to

of oil

Hanuman, and

eighty

Maunds

had

recently been offered to this idol.

his

Within the enclosure of

temple were shrines to

Rama

and Krishna, both of which occupied subordinate

positions.

Of

course the worship

of

Hanuman

is

usually connected

with that of Vishnu, but here in this enclosure was also a

Linga shrine
and
sala,
all

^,

and another of the goddess of small-pox,

cloister

around was a

which served as a Dharma-

or lodging for travellers.

According

to

some legends, Hanuman was a son

of Siva.

222

Mother-worship.
veneration in which apes and
fail

The

monkeys

of every kind

are held throughout India cannot

to strike a stranger as

remarkable.
paid to

This

is

doubtless connected with the

It is not,

homage

Hanuman.
;

however, identified with that

homage

for

although monkeys are believed to be his near

relations,

they were probably independent objects of worship

earliest

from the

times

^.

Yet these animals are very ungodOften a

like in their habits,

and not one whit superior to the most

appearance
in

mischievous monkeys in any other part of the world.

troop will

make

its

an Indian

village, tear off

the roof of a native house, or do even worse

sheer wantonness.
reprisals.

damage out of Yet no householder would ever dream of The sacred character of the monkey shields him

from

all

harm.

Mother-worship,
Undoubtedly the most popular
the divine Matris or Mothers.
tutelary deities of India are

The

propitiation of

Ayenar
is

and

his wives

is

confined to the South, but mother-worship

In the
first

extended everywhere throughout India.

every living mother
children.
is

place,

venerated as a kind of deity by her

Then every village has its own special guardian Mata or Amba, Generally there is also a male deity, who protects like the female from all adverse and
mother, called

demoniacal influences.
of adoration
;

But the mother

;

is

the favourite object

and no wonder

for,

as

we have

seen in the

preceding chapter, activity, power, and force (sakti) are sup-

posed to be her peculiar attributes.

reason for her attracting more she
is

Perhaps however the real

is

homage than the god

flattery,

that
is

held to have a thoroughly feminine nature.

easily propitiated

She
;

more

by prayer,

and

offerings

more

^ It seems not unlikely that the Vrishakapi of Rig-veda X. 86 may point to a very early veneration of apes, arising, perhaps, from their

mysterious resemblance to men.

Mother-worsh ip.
ready to defend from
evil
;

223
and wayspiteful,

ward

in

her temper and

more moods

irritable, uncertain,
;

and prone to
In point of
is,

inflict diseases, if

more dangerously offended by neglect.

fact,

the worship of the divine Mothers (Matris)

as already pointed out, a branch of Saivism, and particu-

larly of that

form of Saivism called Saktism

(p. 181).

Indeed, one of the most remarkable features of the multi-

form and many-sided Hindu religion

to belong to this form of worship.

is

the efficacy supposed

Probably the idea of

the
early

Mother-worship had
of ancient

its

origin in the patriarchal constitution

Aryan

society.
tie,

Among

Aryans the

paternal and maternal

and, indeed, the whole family bond,

was intensely strong.

If the father
life,

was regarded with awe

as the primary source of

the mother was an object of

devotion to the children of the family as the more evident

author of their existence.

And

again,

if

the father was vene-

rated as the food-supplier and protector (pita), the mother

was beloved
as the

as the meter out (mata) of daily nourishment

the

arranger of the household, measuring and ordering

its affairs

moon (also called mata) measured the time. To the Aryan family the father and mother were present gods. Can we wonder that, with the growth of devotional ideas
and the increasing sense of a higher superintending providence, the earliest religious creed

was constructed on what

may

be called paternal and maternal lines ?

all,

At

first

the sky

(Dyaus, Zeus), bending over

was

personified as a

Heavenly

Father (Dyaus-pitar, Jupiter), and the Earth as the Mother

of
all creatures.

Then,

in place of the

Earth, Infinite Space

(A-diti)

was thought of
all

as an eternal Mother.

Then

Prakriti

was the germinal productive principle

capable of evolving

the

eternal Mother,

created things out of herself, but never

so creating unless united with the eternal spiritual principle

called the eternal

Male (Purusha).
I

To

the prevalence of such ideas must,

think, be attri-

buted the fact that everywhere throughout India are scattered

24

Mother-worship,

shrines which on inspection are found to contain no images or

shaped hke human beings, but simply stone symbols of a double form, intended to typify the blending of the male
idols

and female principles

in creation.

The

casual tourist,
is

whose

notions of propriety are cast in a European mould,

shocked

by what he

considers an evidence of the utter degradation of

Indian thought.

He

turns

away

in disgust,

and denounces

the Hindu religion as simple abomination.

My
me

own

researches into Indian religious thought have led

to view in these

symbols a proof of the hold which the

ancient dualistic philosophy has on the

Hindu mind.
is

It is

common
it
is,

to say that

Brahmanism

is

Pantheism, and no doubt

broadly speaking, true that Brahmanism

;

a kind of

Pantheism

but to apply the term Pantheism, without any

qualification, to the ordinary religion of the

Hindus^

is

alto-

gether misleading.

small minority of orthodox

Brahmans
in

are strict Pantheists according to the Vedantic doctrine (see

p. 36),

but a large majority of the Hindus are believers

is

one personal God

their

that manifestations and

Theism
is

to say, in either Siva or Vishnu or

are therefore Theists.

Yet

it

is

true that their

It constantly

no stern belief

in the unity of

God.

tends to pantheistic or polytheistic superstitions,

in unity

and especially to the mystical theory of a duality

before explained (see p. 181).

Such a theory

rests,

as

we

have seen, on the philosophical doctrine of two distinct eterSpirit regarded as a male principle, nally existing essences

and Matter or the germ of the external world regarded as a female. Without the union of the two no creation takes place.

To any one imbued

either types of the

with these dualistic conceptions the Liiiga

ideas.

and the Yoni are suggestive of no improper

They

are

two mysterious creative forces the efficient and material causes of the universe or symbols of one divine power delegating procreative energy to male and female organ-

isms.

They
^

are mystical representatives, and perhaps the best

have heard
it

As

applied by Missionaries and others.

Mother-worship.

225

possible Impersonal representatives, of the abstract expressions

'

paternity

'

and

'

maternity.'

Of

course, such ideas are too mystical for the masses of the

people.

Yet the ordinary Hindu

finds

no

difficulty in ac-

cepting the theory of a universe proceeding from a divine

father and mother.

Hence, as we have already seen, some

images of Siva (called Ardha-narisa) represent him as female

on one side of
that

his

body and male on the

in

other, to indicate

he combines

his

own person maternal

all

as well

as

paternal qualities and attributes, and that

the mothers of
I

India are simply manifestations of portions of his essence.

need not repeat here that the god's energy

located

is

supposed to be

more

especially in the female half of his nature, and

that the divine mothers are variously classified according to

various degrees of participation in that energy, the highest

being identified with different forms of his supposed consort,

the lowest including

human mothers downwards, who

the

are

all

worshipped as incarnations of
capacity of nature.

one divine productive

Compare
numerous
all

p. 183.

There are about one hundred and forty

in Gujarat, besides

distinct

Mothers

varieties of

some

of the

more

popular forms.
declared
consort

In

likelihood every one of these, though

to

by the Brahmans
Kali,
is

be separate forms of Siva's

of

really

the

representative

some

local

deity (Grama-devata), worshipped

by the

inhabitants from

time immemorial.
images, others
for preferring

Some

are represented

by rudely carved

by simple symbols, and others are remarkable empty shrines and the absence of all visible

representation.
I visited on reaching had as usual two It Gujarat. in was Bombay in 1875 shrines, one to Siva and his son Ganesa, the other to the

The

first

genuine country village

local

Mata

or Mother,

believed

to
'

be a manifestation of
Mischief.'

Siva's wife and called Khodiyar, or

The

attitude

of

mind and usual disposition of

this

Mother towards the

2 26

Mother-worship.

villagers appears to

when
little

visited

it

Her shrine be anything but maternal. was of a very rough and ready character,
mere

better than a

mud
all

shed, open to

all

the winds of

heaven and
too was

accessible to

comers

even to unbelievers like

Her image
its

myself, quite as

much

as to her faithful votaries. attractive in

by no means
It

contour and accom-

paniments.

was carved

in the rudest

manner, and might

have done duty for an African fetish. I noticed that in some villages the Mother is represented by a simple unworked
stone, but always recumbent, never erect,

and occasionally a

wall or

some markings on

it

are believed to symbolize the

presence of the goddess.

It is

a mistake to suppose that every

Hindu temple has an anthropomorphic idol. I passed a shrine near Allahabad dedicated to a local Mother euphemistically
called

Alopi or

'

Non-destroyer,'
in the

who

here takes the place

of the goddess worshipped

South under the name of

in Alopi's shrine,

Mari-amman, the

'

Destroying Mother,' or goddess of smallonly

pox
a

(see p. 228).

There was no image

flat

stone slab, on which, in

consequence of a late outbreak

of offerings of flowers,

of small-pox, an

immense number

by a succession of worshippers, both Hindu and Muhammadan. On the other hand, when I visited the village over which
cocoa-nuts, and grain were being laid

Khodiyar
appeared.

presides, I found

no offerings near her image

or

if

any had been placed there before

my

arrival

they had dis-

Most probably the few that had been offered had been already appropriated by the village priest, who was The name Khodiyar, Mischief,' is nowhere to be seen.
'

very significant of this particular Mother's character, for

although her function
is

to

shield

from harm, she

is

more
in the

inclined to turn mischievous

and cause harm, and

ruffled

will cer-

tainly

do so

if

her temper

is

by any remissness
her.

daily process of coaxing

and conciliating

Hence

it is

no matter of surprise that an outbreak of

sick-

ness in the village

was attributed

entirely to a little

temporary

Mother-worship.
slackness in supplying her with her daily nutriment.

227
Extra-

ordinary offerings, therefore

the killing of animals and

some
that

of

pouring out of blood

abated.

them accompanied by had to

be made
remained
appeased,

till it

the disease had

When
Mother's

no sickness
anger was
everything

was

believed

the

no

further

trouble was

taken, and

returned to the old routine.

Had any

native of the district,

who happened

to have been
little

educated at the

Bombay

Presidency College, suggested a

attention to sanitary rules as a more effective remedy against cholera or small-pox, he would have been laughed to scorn by
his fellow-villagers.

Each
shrines.

of the remaining 139 Mothers of Gujarat has

some

speciality.

One, named Becarajl, has numerous imageless

shrine

The

most frequented

is

at a place seventy-five
is

miles north of

Ahmedabad.

Sometimes she

represented

by

a coloured square figure, divided into six compartments.

named Untai, causes and prevents whoopingcough another, named Beral, prevents cholera another, called
Another,
; ;

Maraki (popularly Marki), causes cholera

controls

another, Hadakai,
;

mad-dogs and prevents hydrophobia

another, Asa-

pura, represented by two idols, satisfies the hopes of wives by giving children. Others are Kalka and Hingraj. Not a few are worshipped either as causing or protecting from demoniacal possession as a form of bodily disease. The offering of goats' blood to some of these Mothers is supposed
to

be very effectual

the animals are not always killed.

story

is

told of a

Hindu doctor who cured a whole

village of

an outbreak of virulent influenza, attributed to the

malignant influences of an angry goddess, by simply assembling the inhabitants, muttering

some

cabalistic texts,

and

solemnly letting loose a pair of scape-goats into a neighbouring wood as an offering to the offended deity.

The small-pox goddess is a form

of divine mother universally

adored under different names through every part of India.

2 28

Mother-worship.
is

In the upper provinces she

Devi.
Death.'

called Sitala
is

Devi, or simply
'

In the South her

name

This goddess

may

either

Mother of of which avert small-pox

Marl-amman,

there are three different kinds

cause

small-pox, or be herself

small-pox.

In

some

parts of the country persons

lest

who

die of

small-pox are not burnt,

burnt too.

the goddess herself should be

She

also presides over cholera

and other diseases

causing death.
lages,

Her

shrines are generally found outside vil-

under

trees, or in groves,

and are often associated with

local

the shrines of Ganesa.

Some
tresses

of the

most important

Mothers

in the

South are
benefac-

deifications of celebrated

women who were

after

great

and came to be regarded

death as manifestations
(for

or forms of Siva's wife.

Such are MinacI

Minakshi,

worshipped at Madura), KamacI, Visalaci, and others.

In the South of India the Mothers are called

Ammans.

daries,

Notably a Mother named EUa-amman presides over bounand is supposed to have great power over serpents and
fish.
is

to be particularly fond of

Another, called Pidarl,

devils,'

said to be

'

a queen

among

the

because

all

who hang

or poison themselves, or die

any

violent death, are turned into malignant

destroy the whole

human

race

if

not kept in check

/

demons who would by Pidari.

them_

Other Mothers dreaded

selves

for their fierce nature are

_

simply demons

for

example, Camunda, Marudayi,

evil spirit inhabiting

and Katerl.
is

The

last is

an

the

air,

and

thought to be too aerial

in character to

be represented by

an image.
All these Mothers are believed to delight in blood and to
drink
all
it.

Hence

the blood of swine, goats, and cocks, besides

kinds of cooked grain, are offered to them.

One Mother

called

Kulumandi-amman

is

said to have a special fancy for

black kids, and can only be appeased and prevented from

causing sickness and death

four

if
is

the blood of at least three or

thousand such kids

presented to her

every year.

Mother-worsh ip.
Sometimes she
is

229

personated by a

the shoulders of two other

man who is carried on men and sucks up some of the

blood of the slaughtered animals.

When
is

woman

dies unpurified within fifteen days after

childbirth she

becomes a demon called Cudel (Churcl). She then always on the watch to attack other young mothers.

On

the other hand, the power of at least one well-disposed

in

Mother
set of

Gujarat

is

exerted in a remarkable

way

for the

benefit of

women

after childbirth.

Among
it is

a very low-caste

basket-makers (called Pomla)

the usual practice of

if
is

work immediately after delivery, as nothing had happened. The presiding Mata of the tribe
a wife to go about her
to his

supposed to transfer her weakness to her husband, who takes

bed and has to be supported with good nourishing food.

(Chathi)
protects
infants,

The goddess Shashthi

represented

and

is is

therefore worshipped on the sixth

day

after delivery.
tree.

She

by a simple stone

set

up under some

The

eight Mothers worshipped

are each represented with a child in her lap,

able that

Uma,

wife of Siva,

by the Tantrikas of Bengal and it is remarkwhen worshipped as a type of

is

beauty and motherly excellence,

virgin
^.

always regarded as a

All the Mothers are believed to have control over magical

powers, and especially over the secret operations of nature

and
fied

all

those mysterious occult agencies which are intensiinvisibility.

by darkness and
faculties

These powers and preterif

natural

they can impart to their worshippers,

properly propitiated.

This

is

a proof of the intimate con-

nexion subsisting between Mother-worship and the doctrines

of Saktism as described in the preceding chapter.

^ So in particular churches at Munich and elsewhere the shrines of the black Virgin are frequented by vast numbers of pilgrims, who hang

up votive
altar, in

offerings, often consisting of

the firm belief that they

waxen arms and legs, around her owe the restoration of broken limbs and

the recovery from various diseases to her intervention.

CHAPTER

IX.

Demon-worship and Spirit-worship.

This
subject has already been to

some extent

anticipated

in the previous chapter.

There

have endeavoured to point

out that the universal prevalence of the worship of tutelarydeities

among

the great mass of the population in India

is

the result of a perpetual dread of evil

demons

a dread which

haunts Hindus of

all

ranks and stations, from the highest

to the lowest, with the exception of those fortunate persons

whom

a European education has delivered from the dominion

of superstitious ideas.

My

object in the present chapter will be to

show that
just as
cir-

the very

demons and

evil spirits are as

much

objects of wor;

ship as the gods

who defend men from

their malice

the tutelary deities themselves

may

under aggravating
require
to

cumstances

turn into angry

demons who

be

propitiated (see p. 245).

In

fact,

a belief in every kind of demoniacal influence has

always been from the earliest times an essential ingredient

in

Hindu

religious thought.

The

idea probably
air

had

its

origin

in the

supposed peopling of the

by

spiritual beings

the
Cer-

personifications or companions of storm

tainly

and tempest.

no one who has ever been brought into close contact

in their

with the Hindus

own country can doubt

is

the fact

that the worship of at least ninety per cent, of the people

of India in the present

day

a worship of

fear.

Not

that

the existence of good deities presided over by one Supreme

Being

is

doubted

but that these deities are believed to be

;

too absolutely good to need propitiation

histories of the Slav races,

just as in ancient

we

are told that they believed


Demon-worship and
in a

Spirit-worsJiip,

231
last

white and a black god, but paid adoration to the

alone, having, as they supposed, nothing to

apprehend from

the beneficence of the

first
is

or white divinity.
evil

The

simple truth

that

of

all

kinds, difficulties,
pestilences,

dangers,

and

disasters,

famines,

diseases,

and

death, are thought

demons,
devils

by an ordinary Hindu to proceed from more properly speaking, from devils, and from alone. These malignant beings are held, as we have
or,

seen, to possess varying degrees of rank, power,

and male-

volence.

Some aim

at

destroying the entire world, and

of the

threaten

the sovereignty

gods themselves.
children, out of a

Some
mere

delight in killing men,

thirst for

women, and

human

blood.

Some
it

take a mere mischievous plea-

sure in tormenting, or revel in the infliction of sickness, injury,

and misfortune.

All

make

their business to

mar

or

impede

the progress of good works and useful undertakings.

And
certain

the remarkable thing

is,

that the

power wielded by
is

arch-demons over men, and even gods,

supposed

to have been acquired

It is said of

by the practice of religious austerities. the demon Ravana, that after undergoing severe
for

austerities in a forest

ten thousand years, standing in

air,

the midst of five

fires

with his feet in the

he obtained

from the god Brahma powers greater than those possessed

by the gods themselves.

We
that in

must, however, at the outset guard against the idea

Hindu mythology the expressions

8td/3oA.o?

devil

and demon

any more than the Greek

vertible terms
;

and

baifxcov

are

con-

or that these two words at

all

adequately

express the immense variety of spiritual beings supposed to

hold communication with

relationship with him.
It
is

man

or liable to be brought into

well

known

that

Indian literature makes constant

mention of numerous regions above and below the earth which

serve as the abode of such beings.

Thus we

learn from the

Epic poems and Puranas that there are seven upper and

232

Demon-worship mid Spirit-worship.

^

seven lower worlds

(see p. 102, note),

and beneath the

6
^.

latter

are twenty-one hells.

They
in

are enumerated in

Manu

IV.

88-90, and others are added

Vishnu-purana

II.

The
fering

hells are for the infliction of various degrees of suf-

on

sinful

men.

Yet they are not places of

darkness
;

eternal

punishment.
is

They

are merely temporary purgatories.

;

One

a place of

terrific

another consists of heated

caldrons (tapta-kumbha)
loha)
;

another of red-hot iron (tapta;

another contains pits of red-hot charcoal

;

another of
;

blood

another
is
;

is

a dense forest whose leaves are sharp swords

;

another
fetid
^

a hell of pincers (Sandansa)

another

is

a sea of
^.

mud

another

is

a plain paved with iron spikes

In

All fourteen worlds are believed to rest

;

great serpent Sesha

or the earth which

to

is

worlds

is

supposed

be supported

at

on the thousand heads of the the lowest of the seven upper the quarters and intermediate

quarters of the sky by eight male and eight female mythical elephants.

Then, again, the earth is thought to be composed of seven great circular islands (most of which are known by the name of some tree or plant, such as Jambu, Kusa, Plaksha, Salmali), surrounded by seven circular seas, all of which are described in Maha-bharata VI. 236, etc., and in the Vishnu-purana II. 2, etc. See also my Indian Wisdom,' p. 419. ^ This Purana and the Bhagavata make twenty-eight hells. ^ In a recent number of a Chicago paper I find the following curiously parallel ideas quoted from a Roman Catholic book for children, by the Rev. J. Furniss The fourth dungeon is the boiling kettle. Listen there is a sound like that of a kettle boiling. The blood is boiling in the scalded brains of that boy the brain is boiling and bubbling in his head the marrow is boiling in his bones. The fifth dungeon is the redhot oven, in which is a little child. Hear how it screams to come out it beats its head see how it turns and twists itself about in the fire against the roof of the oven it stamps its feet upon the floor of the oven.' The idea of terrific torture lasting to all eternity seems a wholly Western conception. The same Chicago paper goes on to quote from another author The world will probably be converted into a great lake or liquid globe of fire, in which the wicked shall be overwhelmed, which shall always be in tempest, in which they shall be tossed to and fro, having no rest day nor night .... their heads, their eyes, their tongues, their hands, their feet, their loins and their vitals shall for ever be full of a glowing, melting fire, fierce enough to melt the very rocks and elements.' So, again, a celebrated preacher is reported to have said in a sermon When thou diest thy soul will be tormented alone that will be hell for it ; but at the Day of Judgment thy body will join thy soul and thou
'
:

'

'

'

Demon-worship and Spirit-worship.

the

^ '^ 2 00

same way the Svarga

or heaven of
;

Brahmanism

is

merely

a temporary paradise (pp. 49

71).

On
to the

the other hand, the seven worlds immediately below

all.

the earth are not places of punishment at

According

Vishnu-purana

(II. 5)

they are regions adorned with

diffuses

beautiful palaces, groves

light,

and streams, where the sun

not heat, and the

;

moon

shines for

illumination, not

for cold

where the
all

air is

resonant with the song of birds, and

where are
with the
habited

kinds of delicious food and beverages.

All seven lower regions (which are not to be confounded

hells),

and especially the one

creatures

called Patala, are in-

by demoniacal
(p. 238),

such

as the Daityas

and

Danavas

of a nature not necessarily wicked, and in

some
but,
if

respects superior to that of men.

According to one
no),

legend, the
this

Demon

Bali reigns in these regions^ (see p.

is

be accepted, he

not to be confounded with

Yama (p.
321-323),

290).

Notably they are peopled by a race half men,

half serpents, called Nagas.

These serpent-demons

(see pp.

who

are described as having jewels in their heads,

are fabled to have sprung from

Kadru

wife of Kasyapa, and

some

of the

said to

among them (naga-kanyas) are have married human heroes^. They are ruled
females
chief serpents called Sesha, Vasuki,

even over

by three

and Takshaka,

who
infest

also

exercise control over

the ordinary snakes which

the earth.
is

Again, the seven upper worlds, including the world which

wilt

have twin

hells

suffused with agony.

In fierce

thy body sweating drops of blood, and thy soul fire, exactly like that we have on earth,
;

thy body will be, asbestos-like, for ever unconsumed

for the feet of pa-in to travel

all

thy veins roads

every nerve a string on which the devil shall for ever play his diabolical tune of hell's unutterable lament.' ^ At the Calcutta Exhibition of 1 883-1 884, I was greatly amused by

on

a native clerk

coming across an image of the Demon Bali, which had been labelled by King of the Netherlands.' " In this way Ulupl became the wife of Arjuna, and, curiously enough,
'

a tribe of Rajputs,

now

existing, claims descent

from the Nagas.

2 34

Demon-worship and Spirit-worship,

by
all

the peculiar abode of man, are inhabited

countless hosts of

superhuman and semi-divine creatures of

kinds. Apparently

some of the highest worlds

of absolute perfection
for

are set apart for the exclusive occu-

pation of those beatified creatures

;

who have

attained a state

example, the Siddhas and others.

But the regions

just

above the earth

corresponding to the atmosphere, called Bhuvar

especially the region are tenanted

may
They
Like
'

by numerous demonized
fitly

spirits of

dead men and superhuman

beings, who, like the inhabitants of the lower worlds,

be designated by the general name

in

demons
and

^.'

have been already alluded to

chapter VIII
free-will,

(p. 209).

men, they are generally gifted with

may have
fall

good or

evil proclivities,

and even the best of them may

virtue.

away from

religion

and

They may be

pious or im-

pious, benevolent or malevolent, merciful or cruel.

They may

be obedient to the gods as their servants or followers, or

be opposed to them as enemies.

the friends or foes of man.
stantly traversing the earth

Similarly they

may may be

Some

of these beings are con-

and the world immediately above

constitute

the earth.

They

are innumerable and

it

a vast

Pandemonium,

for ever balancing, as

were, the equally vast

Pantheon of 330 million gods.

is

Moreover, this Pandemonium

shall see,

constantly replenished, as

we

with new inhabitants

from the world of human beings.

And
in

here again

we must guard

against the notion that

the demons, whether good or bad, of

their

Hindu mythology

are

nature and organization wholly spiritual and

im-

material.
writers

Though they are sometimes called by English on Hindu mythology 'spirits,' and though they are
endowed with frames
of a finer

certainly

and more ethereal

visible

structure than the bodies of men,

and not necessarily

In point of

to men, yet these frames have for their essential elements

gross (sthula) material particles.

^

fact,

according
demons and

The

Sanskrit term Bhuta, though often restricted to evil

devils,

may be

used generally

in the

same way.

Compare

p. 242.

Demon-worship and
to

Spirit-wo7'ship.

235

of

Hindu ideas, the corporeal organization of the gencraHty demons stands midway between that of men and gods. For it is must be borne in mind that, in accordance with the theory before explained, even the gods have forms, composed
of material

atoms requiring the support of daily food

(see

pp. 22, 28, Bhagavad-glta III. 11), that they are capable of

undergoing austerities (see

liable to passions

Manu

and

affections like

XI. 243, 244), that they are men and animals, and

that

all,

not excepting the one Supreme Personal God, are

subject to the inexorable law of disintegration and ultimate

absorption into the one universal and sole eternal Essence.

In short, gods, demons, and

men

are so closely connected

and inter-related that

tions

it

is

difficult to

draw any

line of de-

marcation between them.

of

All three are subject to distinc-

sex

all

three have bodies

made up

of

gross

elementary (sthula) particles

these
men

bodies being

ethereal

in the case of gods, less ethereal in the case of

demons, and

earthly in the case of men.

It is noticeable, too, that all

living

on the earth are

said

to

fall

under two categories, those who have divine

(daiva) natures,

and those who have demoniacal

(asura),

and

that instances are recorded of

demons

allying themselves with

in

mortal women.

These ideas are quite

keeping with the

theory of transmigration (pp. 26-29). Moreover, it is to be observed that, as

it is

common

to find

the bodies of even secondary deities possessed of an extra

Again, as

number of hands and arms, the same all the gods have the power they like and of moving through the
also have the generality of

is

true of the demons.

of assuming

any shape

air in all directions, so

demons.

In epic poetry the bodies

of the gods are described as very similar to those of men.

They

differ

only

in

the power of walking above the surface of

in

the ground, in being shadowless,

spiration, in

being free from per-

having eyes that never

w'ink,

and flowery ornathese latter

ments that never wither (Nala V.

24).

Whether

236

Deni07i-worship

and

Spirit-worship,
is

attributes belong

also to all

demon-frames

not so clear.

Some
than

classes of

demons have shapes

peculiarly their

own which

they cannot

alter.

In general they are dwarfish and shorter

men ^, but
would be

the majority enjoy the faculty of assuming any

shape suited to their needs, and even that of

It
difficult in fact to

human
all

beings.

enumerate

the varieties

of these beings, separable as they are, both good and bad,

into

numberless classes according to

differences

of rank,

powers, and functions.

Nevertheless,
it

is

important to note that they

first

all

fall

under two grand divisions. The demons created by God at the brought into existence by the act
times.

division

embraces

all

creation

of the world, or

of superior deities at other

The second comprehends

existence
is

all
is

demons whose

creation

or

due

to

men, that

to say, to the spirits of

men

who have once

lived

upon the
first

earth.

To
it is

begin with the

of these grand divisions, although

said to comprise seven principal classes of beings cor-

responding to the seven worlds

frames
in stature

seven
it

demon-kings, with

equal to a palm-tree^, being mentioned in

the Sankara-vijaya (chap. LI)

yet

would be easy to show

later sacred literature

by

extracts from both the earlier

and

that

no clearly

definite
in

classification

or

arrangement

of

demoniacal creatures
possible.

any regular

series or gradation is

Probably the

earliest Sanskrit expression for a

'

demon

'

is

Asura
later

and we know that although literature as a general term for

;

this
evil

word

is

used

in the

demons of malignant

disposition,

it

was

originally restricted to beings of a god-like

to the

nature,

and even applied

in the

gods themselves.
is

Thus

Rig-veda the word Asura

used as the epithet

is

of Indra, the Maruts, Rudra, and other deities, and

^

espe-

noticed that

all

Siva's troops of

demons

are represented as dwarfish

in the sculptures of the caves of

Elephanta.

Demon-worship and Sphdt-worship.

cially

237
is first

an attribute of the ancient deity Varuna, who

an impersonation of the vault of heaven, and then identified

with the Supreme Being.

Furthermore,
said that

in the Taittiriya-Sanihita (VI. 4. 10. i)

it

is

there was an

original

equality in goodness and

power between the gods and Asuras^.

In the Taittiriya-Brahmana, Praja-pati, or
Creation,' creates the
'

the Lord of
In the
of the

Asuras with
to

his breath (asu).

Satapatha-Brahmana the seventh Manu

present period)
is

(or

Manu

made

produce gods, Asuras, and men.

In other passages of the Brahmanas they are said to have

their

own

priests

and

sacrificial rites.

On

the other hand, in the

beings are spoken of under the

Veda name

various orders of evil

of Dasyus, Rakshasas,

Yatudhanas, Kimldins, and are described as without religious

rites,

godless,

haters

of

prayer (brahma-dvish),
in form,

eaters

of

flesh (kravyad),

monstrous

and possessors of magical

powers

^.

Then, again,

in

Manu's law-book

(I.

37)

we

find

it

stated

that the ten Praja-patis or secondary creators, after creating

the gods and great sages, afterwards created various orders of

beings, such as the Yakshas, Rakshasas, Pisacas, Gandharvas,

Apsarasas

(pi.

of Apsaras), Asuras, Nagas, etc.

It is

not af-

firmed that any of these beings were aboriginally evil-minded,

though they were certainly capable of becoming

the
to

so.

In

Ramayana constant mention is made of gods and men called Rakshasas. They are

beings hostile
the haters and

disturbers of religious rites, they change their shapes at will,

harass holy

men and

devotees, and utter

frightful

sounds

in the ears of the faithful.

Most Rakshasas are men-eaters, and one,

called Viradha,

is

described as resembling a mountain-peak, with long legs, a

crooked nose, hideous eyes, pendant belly, and an open

Muir's Sanskrit Texts,

v. 230.

Ibid.

ii.

418.

238

Demon-worship and Spirit-worship.

like that of death.
is

mouth

At

the head of

them

is

the

Demon
It

Ravana, who
wicked.

an impersonation of

selfish ambition.

does

not appear, however, that in other respects he was innately

On

the contrary,

it

was only by severe

religious

austerities carried

on

for ten

thousand years that he acquired

Others, too, of these

unbounded power over gods and men.

same Rakshasas are described as virtuous and pious, and

among them

especially Vibhishana,

who

is

the brother of

Ravana, and exactly his opposite

in character

and conduct.

In the Maha-bharata, again, Kansa, Kali, and numerous other

demons
of evil.

are, like

Ravana
is

in the

Ramayana, impersonations

Kansa
for

the

implacable

enemy

of Krishna, and

Kali
in

is

ever instilling evil thoughts into men's hearts

an age of universal degeneration.

We may
made
them.

note, too, that in epic poetry frequent

class

mention

is

of another

of beings
for

who

are

more
in

especially

hostile to the gods,

and

ever

engaged

warfare with

They

are called Daityas, as the supposed children

of the goddess Diti

Aditi).

by Kasyapa

(the gods being children of

Others, too, are often alluded to under the

name
classes

of Danavas, as daughters of Danu.

Both of these

of beings are said in the Vishnu-purana to occupy some of

the seven
(II.
5),

regions

below the earth of which Patala

is

one

and appear to belong to a higher order of creation

is

than the Rakshasas, whose nature

of a type inclined to

baser forms of wickedness, and whose

particularly directed against men.

malignity

is

more

Then there are troops (ganas) of beings called Pramathas, who constitute the armies of the god Siva. There are also the Yakshas, who wait on Kubera (Kuvera), and the Gandharvas
(Atharva-veda XI.
5.

2)

or

heavenly choristers, and their

wives the Apsarasas,

who

attend on Indra.

To

these

may

be added the Kinnaras (with human figure and equine head), the Kimpurushas, the Vidya-dharas, Pannagas, &c.

Most of these creatures are good and benign

in character

Demon-worship and Spirit-worship,

but
fall

239
liable to

all

were created

free agents,

and are therefore

away, and, after committing acts of

towards gods and men.

sin or disobedience,
spirit

may become
bitter hostility
It is in

malignant beings animated with a

of

consonance with the theory of a continual conflict

evil that

between the powers of good and the powers of

find the chief

we

gods of the Hindu Pantheon constantly repre-

sented in the act of crushing; their

is

seen bruising the head of the great

demon foes. Thus Krishna demon serpent Kaliya,

in

while Siva tramples on the arch-fiend Tripura, and holds

venomous serpents
over
all

in

his

hands

token of his supremacy

malignant influences.

Hence, too, a great number of the t,ooo names of both

Vishnu and Siva

'

will

be found to be simple epithets

'

like

Murari enemy of Mura,' Purari

of
their

enemy

of Pura

'

significant

victory

over

certain

typical
in the

demon

antagonists.
deities,

Furthermore, the symbols held

hands of both

the discus and club of Vishnu, and the trident and

Siva, are merely

bow

of

weapons of supposed

irresistible efficacy in

their conflicts with the spirits of evil.

We
world
is

pass on

now

to the second great division of the

is

demon
This

that which
far the

said to

owe

its

creation to man.

by

more important

of the

two great

divisions in its
it is

bearing on the subject of the present chapter, for

to those
spirits

chiefly

demons whose existence

is

derived from the departed

human beings commonly offered.

of

that adoration and propitiation are

And, indeed,
of
all

it is

a noteworthy point in the rehgious creed

ordinary Hindus that the majority of malignant devils

are believed to have been originally

If

human

beings.

any man

is

killed

by a

tiger or the bite of a snake, or

has died a sudden violent death of any kind, away from his

and out of reach of proper funeral ceremonies, he forthwith becomes an unquiet spirit, roaming about with
relations

malevolent proclivities.

In one place

found people wor-

240

Demon-woi^ship and Spirit-worship.

shipping the ghost of a milkman

who was

killed

by a

tiger

and became a

devil.

In another place the ghost of a potter

became a devil and a terror to the neighbourhood. The priests of these demons were milkmen and potters respectively. And a curious notion prevails in some parts of India that, the better the man, the more mischievous will his ghost turn out to be, if his body has not received proper cremation, or if from any accident the succeeding funeral rites have not
been carefully performed or partially omitted.
Again, a
still

more remarkable doctrine

There
it is

is

rife in

India,

especially in the South.

a fixed article of belief

that

when a man notorious for any particular vices dies, the man himself may become extinct, but his evil nature never
;

dies

nay, every one of his vices

may

then assume personality

and

live after

him

as a

demon.

And

this applies equally to

women,

so that the resulting

is

demons may be of
applies
to

either sex,

and the female

not unfreIt also

quently more spiteful and malignant than the male.

persons of
all

castes,

high or low, so that the

demons created may be

refined or low tastes.
It is

of all ranks,

and may have

either

thus that legion after legion of foul fiends and un-

clean spirits, bearing

as
deceit-devils,

names corresponding

to such expressions
pride-devils,

lying-devils,

gambling-devils,

cruelty-devils, lust-devils, gluttony-devils, strife-devils,

drunk-

enness-devils, are supposed to have originated.

The same
crimes or

applies to a

man who

has been guilty of great

sins.

His crimes and

sins live after

him

in the

shape of malignant demons.

Hence have

arisen

any number of murder-devils,

blasphemy-devils,
victims,

theft-

devils, perjury-devils, adultery-devils,

who

are always on the look-out for

instigating

weak-minded
a

and ever

them

to the

commission of similar crimes.

Nay, a man
dying
;

may sometimes become

in the

demon without

for

example, we read

Maha-bharata and Vishnu-


Demon-ivorship and Spirit -worship.
241

purana that Nahusha son of Ayus was changed Into a serpent-

demon,

in

consequence of a curse pronounced on him by the

sage Agastya for his excessive pride in having gained by

penance the rank of Indra and then insulted some of the

Rishis (Maha-bh. V. 343 Vishnu-purana, p.413
;

Furthermore,

all

the diseases that either

Manu VII. 41). human or bestial

;

flesh is heir to are personified

and converted into demons and of

cattle-disease.
is

such as the demons of small-pox, of cholera, and of various

forms of typhus and jungle

this idea of personifying

fever,

And

and demonizing diseases

and
all

extended

to unseasonable calamities

disasters,
in

such as hail-storms,
the devil army.

drought and blight, which

Indeed,
I

do duty

found that some villages in India possess a pro-

fessional exerciser or charmer, called Garpagari (probably for

Gar-apakarl, gar in MarathI meaning

business
is

'

hail

'),

whose peculiar

to

repeat incantations for warding off the hailcrops.

is in

storm-demon from the growing

It is

important, however, to bear in mind that there

Hinduism a per-contra

side to the vastness of the demon-host.

For if it is an awful thought that year after year, and even day by day, men and women are themselves through their sinful
habits causing fresh accessions to the demon-armies,
it
is,

on

the other hand, a comforting reflection that the ranks of good

demons and benevolent

spirits are continually recruited

by

the deaths of righteous men, saints and sages,

who

are ranged

with the gods on the opposite side of the battle-field, and

are ever contending with their fiendish antagonists.
It
is,

then, these lower forms of evil

demons

once

the

occupants of

human

bodies

that

are most dreaded

generality of Hindus, and therefore

by the most worshipped. Such

demons

fitly

take rank with devils.

According to some authorities they

the three
classes

may be grouped under

and
Pisaca,

of Bhuta,

Preta,

each class

having a distinct origin.

Bhuta, they say,

is

spirit

emanating from a man

242

Demon-worship and Spirit-worship.

by accident, suicide, or punishment, and has not had proper funeral ceredied a violent death either
is

who has
capital

monies performed afterwards.

Preta

the spirit of a deformed or crippled person,

or of one defective in
dies prematurely,

some limb

or organ, or of a child that

owing to the omission of ceremonies during

It is

the formation of the embryo.

not necessarily wicked or

malicious or evil-disposed towards living men.

Pisaca

is

demon

created

by a man's

vices.

It is

the

ghost of a
or of one

liar,

drunkard, adulterer, or criminal of any kind,

insane.
is

who has died

In real truth, however, this kind of triple classification

nowhere universally accepted,

tained.

and

is

never consistently main-

My

own

inquiries led

me

to the conclusion that the

all

terms Bhuta and Preta are as a general rule applied to

demons and ghosts indifferently, and the term Pisaca to Such demons malicious and mischievous imps and fiends. and malicious beings haunt cemeteries or take up their abode in trees, and are addicted to roaming about between the They may take either hours of 12 and 3 in the morning.
hideous or beautiful shapes, and even the form
of men.
;

They
what

require, as
satiates
is

we have

their appetites

nutriment

the blood of

and more than any other kind of living animals. But according to
seen, the support of food

popular belief they

carrion,

may

also feed

on corpses, ordure and

and

may

even occupy and vivify dead bodies.

Nay,
if it

they

may

enter living bodies through the open mouth,

happen

to be

opened imprudently wide. Thus,

if

man
his

in

an

unguarded moment yawns or gapes without holding

or snapping his fingers before his face, they

hand

may promptly

dart in and take up their abode in his interior, feeding on

the refuse of the food as

it

passes through the intestines.

of

When
bodies of
pleasant

malignant
living

demons thus take possession

they

the

men,

may

cause diseases and

or

unthe

affections

of all

kinds,

they

may

agitate

Demon-worship and Spirit-iuorship

limbs of the person possessed, and

24

'>

impel him to frantic

movements,

in

which

all

devils take particular delight.

Occasionally they

may

take the shape or character of a

It is fully believed that

dog, cat, serpent, or other animal.

if

a person happens to be possessed

by a dog-demon he
it

will

take to barking like a dog.

With regard
that there
is

to so-called demon-worship,
real worship.

must be noted

no

Nor has any demon not even

in

one of the highest

erected to him.

class

any imposing temple-like structure

tree, or

Often a mere heap of earth piled up

pyramidal shape near some

a similar erection formed

with bricks and painted with streaks of white, constitutes the only shrine, while another heap in front with a does duty
for the altar.
flat
is

surface

Sometimes the whole

covered

with a wooden roof supported on rough columns.

rarely

There

is

any

idol

though sometimes,

if

the demon's origin be

traceable to the ghost of

some high personage, whose elevation of rank or office made him during lifetime formidable to his followers, he may be represented by a rude image of some of
the terrible forms of Siva.
shrines,

No

real prayers are said at

such

though incantations

may

be recited.

The
in

propitia-

tion consists in offerings of food, as

mentioned

the preceding
differ in

chapter

(p.

221),

and

in various

ceremonies which

different localities.

A
is

spirit

of one of these classes highly reverenced and very

propitiated

commonly

by

villagers in
'

some parts of India

earth-spirit.'

one popularly called Bhumya, or the

spirit of the

He

is

supposed to be the
a village
is

founder

of the village.

If

deserted

by

its

inhabitants, no

new colony

of

people will dare to settle there without going through a

careful process of propitiating the earth-spirit,

who

never,

under any circumstances, quits his old haunts.

Another
in

class consists of the spirits of

fathers.

have died without becoming

young men who These wander about

a restless miserable manner, like people burdened with

244

De^non-worship and Spirit-worship.

an enormous debt which they are quite unable to discharge.

They

are

euphemistically called
to

Pitas,

'

fathers,'

by the name propitiated by

which they are

least

entitled,

that and are

is,

offerings presented at small shrines of a very

simple construction erected

near rivers

or

pools of water.

Often these shrines are formed

bricks with a little interval
brick.

by merely setting up two between them covered by another

And

here

it

should be noted that although nearly every

village has

its

own

special

demon, whose cultus may not

only have existed from time immemorial, but

origin antecedent to the introduction of

may have
it

an
is

Hinduism, yet

always possible to connect every form and variety of such

worship with that of the god Siva, his consort Durga (or
Devi) and his two sons Ganesa and Su-brahmanya (see
It is
p. 212).

important, too, to bear in mind that as the South of

the region in which Saivism
it

India

is

is

particularly prevalent,

so also

is

among

the inhabitants of the South that devil-

worship

is

most systematically practised.

No

one who has

is

travelled in that region can

doubt that demonophobia

is

disease with which the whole Southern population

almost

hopelessly and incurably

this

afflicted.

Possibly one reason of

may

be that when the Dravidians invaded India they

found the South inhabited by wild aboriginal savages, whose

whole aspect and demeanour appeared to them to resemble

those of devils.
the South found
well as

Again, the Aryans as they advanced towards

it occupied by hostile Dravidian races, as by apparently aboriginal tribes, and their excited

imaginations converted these powerful enemies into supernatural giants, and the most formidable of

them

into veritable

demons (Rakshasas).
In due time Aryans, Dravidians, and

aborigines blended

amicably together, but the dread of demon-foes remained,

and

this

dread

still

prevails not only in the South, but over

every part of India.

In fact, so deep-seated and ineradicable

Demon-worship and
is

Spirit-zuorship,

245

the fear of evil spirits in the minds of the lower orders, that

in

many

villages of India the doors of the houses are never

lest

allowed to face the South,

the entrance of

some dreaded

demon should be
devil-region
is

facilitated.

Perhaps, however, the true

the

extreme Southern peninsula, near the

Island

of Ceylon.

island, the

The nearer indeed we approach that more do we find the people (like the Shanars of
evil spirits, ghosts,

Tinnevelly) steeped in demonolatry and saturated with every

form of superstitious fear of

and goblins.

Every

village has its ow^n peculiar devil or devils, to the

it

attacks of which

is

constantly in imagination exposed.

also,,

Happily every village has

its

as

we have already pointed

out,

own

tutelary deities.

Curiously, too,

many good

spirits

are believed to be equestrian in their tastes.

villagers suppose that

Possibly the

by turning them into a kind of cavalry regiment they give them an advantage over their impish opponents, who prowl about on foot, and sneak into the village domain at unguarded corners.
Certain
it is

that to propitiate these tutelary divinities the

villagers set up horses of baked clay in their fields

often as large
in a semicircle

as

life,

and generally ten or twenty

in a

row or

round a shrine

and

present them as offerings to the good

divinity of the shrine, in token of gratitude for deliverances.

They

are especially presented

though

not without other

(see p. 219),

oblations

to

the male guardian

God Ayenar

who

is

believed to be a daring

horseman capable of clearing

hedges and ditches and riding down the most active demonantagonist.

As to the female tutelary deities called Mothers (see p. 223), we have already seen that if not propitiated by constant
and especially with blood, they will themselves assume the personality of the very demon dreaded by the villagers, and inflict the very plague from which they usually
offerings,

protect them.

The most

terrible of all

demons

are thought to be those

246
created

Demon-worship and Spirit-worship.

by Europeans.
to
spirit is to

Of
the

course the propitiating process

character of the

must vary according

demonized
tastes

man whose
His

be coaxed into good-humour.

life

and idiosyncrasies during

must be carefully inquired

story
is

into

and judiciously indulged.

The

told of a certain

choleric

Englishman who was a terror

to the inhabitants of a
after his

district in the

South of India, and whose ghost

death

had to be constantly appeased by offerings of good cooked

meat, brandy, soda-water, and cigars placed
daily on
his

tomb.

The same was done

to secure the continued good-will

of a philanthropic sportsman,

who when he was

alive delivered

a large tract of country from the ravages of tigers.

And

here

evil influences of

we may note other methods of neutralizing the demons prevalent in Southern India. Male
supposed to delight
wild
cries,

and female
larly

devils are

in dancing, particu-

when accompanied with

violent gesticulations,

ringing of bells, and noisy discordant music.

that,

Hence

it

happens

when

pestilence

is

rife

in

any

district,

professional

wizard-like exorcisers, or persons selected for the purpose,

paint their faces, put on hideous masks, dress up in fantastic

garments, arm themselves with strange weapons, and com-

mence

dancing.

Their

object

is

to

personate particular

demons, or to induce demoniacal

of those possessed
dancers,
selves

spirits to leave the

persons

by them and

to

occupy the persons of the

and work them-

who

shriek, fling themselves about,

up

into a

phrenzy of excitement, amid beating of tombells.

toms, blowing of horns, and ringing of

When

the

dancers are thoroughly exhausted by their gesticulations they

sink

down
a time

in a

kind of trance, and are then beHeved to be

actually possessed
for

into

by the spirit of the demon and are turned demon-mediums, gifted with clairvoyance

and a power of delivering prophetic utterances.

tators ask
events,

The

spec-

them questions about missing

relatives or future

This

is

and their deliverances are supposed to be oracular. akin to Shamanism.

Demon-worship and Spirit-worship,

I

247

witnessed such a dance on a dark night In a garden near

in

Colombo

Ceylon.

The dancers

represented the demons of

various forms of typhus fever, carried flaring torches, wore

hideous masks, and had jingling bells on their

wild cries and horrible antics will

legs.

Their

remain indelibly impressed

p. 217,)

on

my

recollection.
I

(See

my

'Buddhism,'
late learned

When

was

at

Tanjor the

Dr. Burnell, then

judge of that

district,

gave

me some

interesting information in

regard to the demon-festivals which recur periodically in the

district of

Mangalor, where he held

office for

some

time.

One
Nema,

of the most popular of these festivals, called Illecchida

is

celebrated

every fifteen

or

twenty years.
is

At
sup-

another called Kallyata, a wild dance

performed every

sixtieth year before a particular rock or stone,

which

is

posed to tremble and shake periodically.

Sometimes the performance takes place in a large shed in the middle of which burns a common lamp under a canopy.

Around
a foot

are images of the Bhutas.

in

At

the distance of about

front of the

lamp

is

placed a

common wooden
is

tripod-stand,

two or three

feet high,

on which

constructed

a square frame of cocoa-nut leaves.

Inside this frame rice

and turmeric are piled up

in

the form of a pyramid into

is

which a three-branched iron lamp

arranged offerings consisting of
as fowls and goats.

inserted.

Around

are

fruits

and

living victims, such

The

latter are

adorned with garlands,

and both fowls and goats are afterwards decapitated, the warm blood being either poured out on the ground or on the
altar, or else

drunk by the
thirsts

officiating priest.

The

idea

is

that
his

the

demon
is

for blood,

and becomes
sole

irritated

if

cravings

are not satisfied.

The

object

of sacrificing

animals

to assuage his thirst and appease his anger.

is

All this

preliminary to the principal performance, which

of the slaughtered

takes place in an open space in front

victims.

The priest, or some other devotee who has undergone a long preparatory fasting, comes forward to personate

248

Demon-worship and Spirit-worship.

demon.

a particular

He

is

dressed up in a fantastic costume,

often covered with grotesque dangling ornaments and jingling

bells.

Sometimes he wears a hideous mask

is

sometimes his
In one hand

faced

daubed with paint of

different colours.

he holds a sword,
bell in the other.

trident, or other

implement, and perhaps a

He

then commences dancing or pacing up

and down

in

an excited manner, amid beating of tom-toms,

all

blowing of horns, and

kinds of noisy music, while an

attendant sings songs, or recites rude poems descriptive of

the deeds of the demons.
distributed, the performer

Meanwhile

spirituous liquor

is

becomes violently excited, and the

Finally he suc-

demon cumbs
any
consult

takes complete possession of him.

in

an hysterical

fit,

and gives out oracular responses to

inquiries

addressed to him.
as to
their several

Most of the bystanders

wants and
destinies, or the

him

welfare of absent relatives, but are not allowed to

do so with-

out

first

presenting offerings.

Of

course, variations occur in different districts.

in his

According to Mr. Walhouse,

paper read before the

Anthropological Institute, the structures and observances connected with devil-worship on the Western coast of India are

both domestic and public.

towns, there
is

In villages, and very generally in

in

every house a wooden cot or cradle, placed

chains,

on the ground or suspended by ropes or

to the

and dedicated
a
bell,

Bhuta of the

spot.
filled

On these are deposited

with water,
all

a knife

or sword, and a pot

called the

which are collectively

in

Bhandara of the Bhuta, and kept either

itself,

a part

of the house

or in a small

separate building.

The

object seems to be to propitiate the spirit that haunts the spot

by making a

sort of

abode

for

it.

On

the last day of every lunar

month
;

flowers are laid on

the cot, and perfume burnt before

it

and once a year, towards

is

the end of April, a ceremony called Tambila

performed.

fire

is

lit

on the spot where the cot and paraphernalia

stand, then fried rice,

mixed with coarse sugar and grated

Demon-worship and Spirit-worship.

cocoa-nut kernel,
placed on
the
is

249
which are

heaped on two plantain

together with

leaves,

cot,

some young
is

cocoa-nuts,

pierced ready to drink from.

rice,

A A
is

ball

then formed of boiled

coloured yellow with turmeric, and laid on a piece of

is

plantain-leaf on a small stool, which

placed before the cot,

held above the riceto

with a lighted torch upon

ball

it.

fowl

is

and

torch, its throat cut,

ball
;

and the blood allowed

burnt, and the

drop

upon the

some perfume
is

ceremony ends.

Should a member of the family be stricken with any unusual

attack, a fowl
face, its

turned three times round before the patient's

let fall

neck then twisted, and the blood

life

upon him

the meaning being to offer

for life

the fowl

in lieu

of the

man.

The

family priest

is

then consulted,

who recommends

alms to be given to himself to

satisfy the hostile stars, with

a promise to perform a special ceremony to the Bhuta.

Mr. Walhouse informs us that these demons have shrines

called Bhuta-sthans,

sometimes of considerable

size,

but far

more commonly small plain structures, four by two or three wide, with a door at one
windowless.
Inside the Bhuta-sthan a
in

or five yards deep

end, covered

by a

portico supported on two pillars with a thatched roof, and

number

of brass images

roughly

made

human

shape,

or

resembling
usually

animals

such as pigs,

tigers,

fowls, etc., are

found.

The

Bhiatas themselves are

stones.

commonly

represented

by mere rough

These

rustic fanes are thickly scattered over the face

hill-sides,

of the country

under a green-tree, on
by
festival called

down

in holrice-

lows, in jungles, on plains,

fields,

roadsides, in villages,

amid

but always on a small plot of waste ground.

Once a year a
villagers

Kolla

is

held.

The

festival
all

always takes place at night, and about nine o'clock

the

assemble

in

their best attire.

Then

the Pujari, or

priest, takes the

Bhuta sword and

or

bell in his

hands, and whirls

round and round, imitating the supposed gestures of the demon.

Dher (Dheda),

man

of the lowest caste

at other times

regarded with contempt, but

now advanced

to the foremost

250
post

Demon-worship and Spirit-worship.

comes

forward

naked,

except

round the

loins,

his

head and body being grotesquely and frightfully besmeared with white, yellow, and red paint. Meanwhile a dozen or

more tom-toms are beaten with a continually increasing din, and the Dher (Dheda) presently breaks into a maniac At dance, capering, bounding, and spinning vehemently. demon, and fixed and full of the stands is length he stops he
;

rigid,

with staring eyes.

Presently he speaks, or rather the

in loud, hoarse,

demon speaks through him,

commanding tones,
Various

wholly unlike his own, or indeed any natural voice.

disputes and litigated matters, especially

when evidence and

and
his

ordinary means of adjustment

fail,

are then brought forward

and submitted

to the decision of the Bhuta,

is

award,
not
al-

pronounced through the Dher,

ways, submitted
food,
to.

generally, though

After this the

demon

desires to

have
of
of

and the Dher eats fried rice and drinks the milk young cocoa-nuts or, if the demon he represents be one
;

low degree, he eats animal food and drinks arrack.

Among
Kallurti,

the

demons most

feared in

Kanara are

Kalkatti,

and

Panjurli.
is

The

story of the former two

as follows

Kalkatti

and

Kallurti

were respectively the son

and daughter of one

in

Kalkuda, a sculplor, who must have lived

century of our
era.

the fifteenth

Kalkatti was a mason, and one day found

fault with his father's

work, which so distressed him that he

forthwith killed himself.

trade,

The son then

followed his father's

and succeeded so well that he made the celebrated

After completing this masterpiece

Jain statue at Karakal.

he wanted to go elsewhere, but the king of the country

forbad him, and to prevent his producing any similar statue
cut
off his left

hand and

right

leg.

Notwithstanding
still

this

mutilation he went to
there.

Yenur and made a

larger statue

His

sister Kallurti

determined to join him at Yenur.

both

There they
committed

lived
suicide.

together for some time, and then

It

was thus that they became formidable

Demon-worship and Spirit-worship.

251

demons, who revenged themselves on the king of Karakal by

burning down
his

palace and
in

town and annoying people

Their story
is

throughout the country

appeasing their anger.

various ways.
it

long one, and the books which recount

give directions for

The

story of Paiijurli

is

also a long one.

it

He

is

a terrible

pig-faced demon, created,

is

said,

through a curse of Siva

laid

pronounced on some young pigs which had

single mischievous

waste his

garden, and were thereupon collectively transformed into a

demon.
is

In South Kanara, according to Mr. Walhouse, there

noted temple, which

is

beHeved to be the residence of seven

Certain devil-stones are sold there in

most dreaded demons.

which the powers of the Bhiitas are held to be inherent.

These are taken home and used by the purchasers against

their enemies.
I

add an extract from Bishop Caldwell's account of the

in cultivating
its juice.

Religion of the Shanars, a tribe in the South of India, whose

occupation consists
tree for the sake of

and climbing the palmyra

largely con-

They have been

chiefly

verted

to

Christianity,

and

through

the

Bishop's

devoted labours

among them.
:

In his description of their devil-worship, he says

Every
'

malady, however
to be inflicted
its

trivial, is

supposed by the more superstitious

by a

devil,

and a

sacrifice

is

necessary for

removal

but the unusual severity or continuance of any

disease, or the

appearance of symptoms which are not reof possession of

corded

in the physician's Sastra, are proofs

which no Shanar can entertain any doubt.

of

The medical
occurrence.

science of so rude a people not being very extensive, cases

unquestionable
a

possession

are

of

frequent

weep and laugh alternately, without any adequate cause, or shriek and look wild when no snake or wild beast can be perceived, what Shanar can
is

When

woman

heard

to

suppose anything but a devil to be the cause of the mischief?

252

Demon-zvorship and Spirit-worship.

native doctor, himself a Shanar,
is

The
but
in

sent for to give his

advice.

He

brings

his

Hbrary with him (he cannot read,

his

it is all

in his

memory),

complete science of medicine

one hundred stanzas, as revealed by the sage Agastya to

;

his disciple Pulastya

in vain

but in vain he recites his prescriptions,

he coins hard words.

is

As no

description of hysterical

complaints

contained in his authorities, what can he do

but decide that a devil has taken possession of the woman,

and recommend that a

sacrifice

be offered to him forthwith,

?

with a cloth and a white fowl to the doctor

'

Sometimes the
call

friends are not desirous of expelling the

evil spirit all at once,

but send for music, get up a devil-dance,

to prophesy.
devil,

and
'

upon the demon

If

they desire to expel the

there

is

no lack of

moving ceremonies and powerful

incantations, each of which

If

has been tried and found successful innumerable times.

the devil should prove an obstinate one and refuse to leave,

charm they never so wisely, his retreat may generally be hastened by the vigorous application of a slipper or a broom
to the shoulders of the possessed person, the operator taking

care at the

same time

to use the

most scurrilous language he

can think

of.

After a time the demoniac loses his downcast,

sullen look.

He

begins to get angry and writhe about under

cries, " I go, I

the slippering, and at length

go."

Then they
tells

ask him his name, and

why
;

he came there.

He

them

he

is

such and such a devil,

whom

they have neglected,

and he wants an offering

time, has

or he calls himself

by the name
learn
for the

of some deceased relative, who, as they

first

now

become a demon.

As
;

soon as the demon

consents to leave, the beating ceases

immediate preparations are made

for

and not unfrequently a sacrifice, as a comas from

pensation to his feelings for the ignominy of the exorcism.

The

possessed

person

now awakes

a sleep,

and

appears to have no knowledge of anything that has happened.'

Demon-worship and Spirit-worship,

I

25

must not omit

in

to note

one or two other

facts

connected

with a beHef

demoniacal influences and their counteraction.

Demons

or evil spirits in India are supposed to be often

the cause of what in

Europe

is

called

'

an

evil eye,' that

is,

a mysterious power of fascinating, bewitching, or inflicting

some

injury

on others by a fixed look, gaze, or glance.

is

Indeed, a look of admiration from friend or foe

to be fraught with great to

believed

danger and possibly serious calamity

the object of
it.

any individual who

is

Europeans who are often unaware of the universal prevalence of this superstition
are

occasionally the

innocent
children

cause

of great distress to the parents of Indian

at

by looking

them approvingly and uttering some exclamatold

tion of praise.

A
its

story

was

me
all

with

the

utmost gravity

as

if

truth

was beyond

dispute

of a person who
spirit

was born

a twin, but

whose twin brother was a

gifted

who

constantly

attended
faculties,
It

him and
to

him with various preternatural

evil

and amongst others the power of an

be a
fact,

eye.

was declared

that

whatever

this

person

looked at with admiration instantly faded away and perished.

Old women who are believed

ticularly

to

have

this

power are parfell in

dreaded and shunned as dangerous witches.

Another story was told

his neighbour's wife.

me

of a

man who

love with

By

calling in demoniacal aid he

was

able to fix his gaze on her, and after successfully bewitching

her to cause her death.

Then he managed

to get possession to

of a hair or two from her head.

These he handed over

a well-known sorcerer at Lahore, who, once possessed of a

portion of her person, had no difficulty in

life

bringing her to

again by his incantations, and in return for a good

sum

of

money delivered her to her lover, who married her. Some sorcerers, if called upon to get rid of an enemy, mould a human ^^^y in wax, pronouncing over it a few mysterious cabahstic words. The waxen figure is then placed

2 54

Demon-worship and Spirit-worship,

fire,

before a

and, as

it

melts, brings

down deadly
Or,
if

calamities

on the head of the person to be destroyed.

recited over

human

bone from a cemetery can be procured, and certain Mantras

it,

very

fatal results will

ensue (compare

p. 201).

Many charms
at

are used against the misfortunes which

spirits,

may

by evil influences connected with the human eye. In some parts of India a tiger's claw or tooth is worn on the neck and held to
or

any time be brought about by malicious

be very

efficacious.

In other places an image of the

liiiga^ is

worn, or some bright ornament

cowries

such

as a string of white

which
is

is

supposed to arrest

evil glances, or divert

them from the person wearing such a necklace.

iron ring

A
in its

small
It is

also

commonly
if

carried about as an amulet.

particularly effective
is

inlaid with pearls.

Frequently a lime
reposed
pro-

carried in the turban,

and great
again,

faith

is

any ornament with a figure of Hanuman (p. 220) engraved on it makes an admirable charm which few demons can withstand.
phylactic properties.

Or

In

some

districts

especially

in

the South

have often

remarked white
in the fields,

pots, with black

marks or grotesque objects

to avert

covered with streaks of white paint, placed here and there

and intended to catch the eye so as

or the

envious

glances

malignant
In

influences

of

demons
was oc-

from the growing crops.

casionally
disease,

remote

villages, too,
for

to

be observed an apparatus
(as

curing cattlein

when caused

universally believed

India)

by

the machinations of evil demons.

village

At

the entrance to the

were two upright posts with a cord stretched between

etc.,
I

them, on which were hung rude models of ploughs,

in the centre

and

dangled a large pot-cover.

On

inquiry
in

found
rather
all

that

charms resembling physicians' prescriptions

unreadable hieroglyphics were written on this cover, and

the afflicted cattle driven under them.
^

The power

of such
is

to this

In Southern Italy an ornament with a finger pointing downwards day used as a charm against the evil eye.


^Demon-worship and Spirit-wo^^ship.
charms
is

255

supposed to depend a good deal on the reputation

of the sorcerers employed to write them, and every village

does not possess such men.

They

are sometimes sent for

from great distances, and,

elapse before any filtering
classes will avail to

in

my

opinion, a long period

must
vil-

down

of education from the upper

faith

undermine the

of the simple

lagers in the efficacy of a pot-cover inscribed with the

charms

of the more noted sorcerers^.

following abridgment of an article on Indian Haunted Bungataken from the Graphic' newspaper (June 9, 1883), will be interesting in connexion with the subject of the chapter here concluded 'The notion of Indian houses being haunted is, on first thought, rather ridiculous. Nevertheless, there is scarcely a station in Hindostan which has not its haunted bungalow. The spirits appear to the appalled beholders by sunlight as well as by night, and are apparently indifferent to the time of day. A curious and very well authenticated instance of this disregard of the hour is that of an after-noon ghost, which punctually appears at sunset in a certain house at Madras. But there are evil and beneficent spirits in India. There is a wellknown haunted house in one of the stations of the North of India, where the "house-ghost," if we may so call him, evinces malicious and malignant idiosyncracies. It is this wretched spirit's mundane amusement to try and upset the charpoy, or bed, on which the bewildered tenant seeks repose and so persistent are his efforts in this direction, that they have been compared to shocks of earthquake, and to the explosions of subterraneous mines. People laugh, but no one particularly cares to sleep twice in that haunted bungalow. Another species of malignant spirit which becomes most intimately associated with an Indian house is a disease. There are houses in Indian towns and stations of which the citizens say it is as much as any man's life is worth to enter them. C, who was superior to super^
'

The

lows,'

'

'

'

stition, went into a house of this character, just to show the absurdity of believing " in such rot," and speedily lost his wife and three children.
It cannot be denied that the mortality unlucky reputation is unaccountable.
'

in

some Indian bungalows of an

It is

a relief to turn from the vagaries of evil spirits to the beneficence

of the good.

England one seldom hears of a good ghost, or of a ghost who way to oblige any one but, in India, ghosts of Sometimes they assume this cheerful temperament are quite common. the appearance of Europeans sometimes that of natives. These ghosts have done the living no end of good. The warnings and other information they have imparted have been endless.'
'

In

puts himself out of his


256
I

De^non-worship and Spirit-worship,

add a statement
of one part of the creed of

also

ists in
'

the present day (written

American Spiritualby the Rev. C. Ware, and quoted in the

Religio-Philosophical Journal'), as offering

'

many

curious analogies to
'

ideas current in India for centuries before

Spiritualism

was ever heard

of in either Europe or America

*

It is a fact that myriads of disembodied human beings are living in a world that is merely the duplicate or counterpart of the earth, a realm "as closely connected with the earth's atmosphere as the atmosphere is with the earth itself; all above it and below it being links of one endless chain. This is what we mean by earth-bound spirits they are so earthly,
;

their nature

is

so unrefined, so material in

its

tendencies, that they canrise to those

not rise above their surroundings.

light,
;

They cannot

spheres of

and love, and blessedness because the external surroundings of a spirit always correspond with its inward condition they must remain in that first sphere, which is only a step higher than the earth, until they
;

become
'

spiritually developed.

Religious professors talk about going on the wings of faith to the home beyond the skies, but, unfortunately for them, everything in the
infinite

universe

is

be

set aside, laws

determined by immutable laws, laws which cannot which are self-operating; and by these laws is the

relative position of every individual spirit determined.

You

will

pass

into the spirit-world with your spiritual body, but your position there

be determined by the degree of refinement which characterizes that The tippler, the smoker, the glutton and the spiritual body. sensualist, are, whether they recognize it or not, constantly defiling themselves with the elements which will keep them down to earth. If It is such habits and tendencies that make spirits "earth-bound." these habits are not conquered and overcome here, they will have to be there, before the spirit can rise to association with the pure and
will

same

the holy.

This immense realm, then, which is earth's counterpart, surrounds and its myriads of inhabitants constantly exert an influence and this is a solemn thought, when you remember upon this world that here dwell millions of ignorant, debased, degraded souls, where they remain exerting their baneful influence, until they are enlightened,
'

this earth,

purified
'

and reformed.

particularly we mean by earth-bound spirits, not only those who, through ignorance, sensual habits, and material tendencies are kept down by their own specific gravity, but also those who are fettered Thousands to the earth by wrong-doing, crime and injustice committed. they have to repent, to do of such are here wandering, full of remorse their best to repair the wrong and to make atonement, before they can

More

rise.'

CHAPTER

X.

Hero-worship and Saint-worship.

The

worship of great men, saints and sages,

who have

been remarkable for the possession of unusual powers or

striking qualities

of

any kind,

is

a phase of religious deveis

lopment which perhaps more than any other

the natural

outcome of man's primitive devotional

the earliest period.

instincts.

In India

a tendency to this kind of worship has always prevailed from

Nascent

in

Vedic times,

it

speedily grew

with the growth of a belief

tion

in the doctrine of divine incarnait

and embodiment.

For although

is

true that Indian

philosophers disparage the body and invent elaborate schemes

for getting rid of all corporeal

encumbrances, yet

it is

equally

true that

nowhere

in

the world has the conception of God's

of His

union with man, and

not only of

ennobling the bodily frame,

men but

of animals

and

plants,
in

upon Himself, struck root so deeply

as in India.

by taking it the popular mind

We
of

know indeed that, according to the pantheistic creed Brahmanism, God and the Universe are One. His pre-

sence pervades inanimate as well as animate objects, and

every

human

being

is

a manifestation of His energy

all great,

but

He

is

believed to be specially manifested in

good,

and holy men. All such men are held to be

at the
their being

entitled to worship
in virtue

hands of their less-favoured fellow-men,

of

embodiments

in a

higher degree of portions of His not always amount to

essence.

The homage they receive may

life,

actual worship during

but after their decease their claim

S


258
'

Hero-worship and Saint-worship,

is

to a position in the celestial hierarchy

fully recognized
;

pretty sure to be

and any extraordinary or miraculous occurrences, they soon beif

their

lives

have been marked by

come
niche

objects of general adoration.

is

It is

not merely that a

allotted to

them among the

countless gods of the

p.

Hindu Pantheon (popularly 330,000,000, see shrine is set up and dedicated to their deified
earth,

44).

A
upon

spirits

and generally

in

the locality where they were best

known. There they are supposed to be objectively present

not indeed visibly to men, and not always represented
visible

by

images or symbols
support (see

but
12).

as ethereal beings possessed

of ethereal frames which need the

for

aroma or essence of food

idea seems to be that

their

p.

The

the localizing of a deified

or canonized spirit involves the

duty of

its

maintenance.

and

if

by a happy

accident

Hence oblations are daily offered, some miraculous event, such as

rises, till

the unexpected recovery of a sick man, occurs in the neigh-

bourhood, the celebrity of the new god rapidly

takes rank as a first-class divinity, and

he

his sanctuary be-

comes a focus

to

which tens of thousands of enthusiastic

limit to this kind of deififor

devotees annually converge.

There seems indeed to be no

cation,

and

it is

often a

mere device
in

making some

locality

popular.

Volumes might be written

the country.

describing

instances

that

have occurred and are constantly occurring

in all parts of

And

it

is

remarkable that the rank or importor

deified

ance to which a canonized

human being may

which he was held,

attain in the world of spirits does not always depend, as a

matter of course, on the estimation

in

or even on the measure of divinity attributed to

him while

on the earth.
during
life

Any man

of the lowest rank,

insignificant,

whose influence
be elevated

was perhaps quite

relatives

may

to the highest

pinnacle of honour

restrial ties, if his

when severed from tercan show that his career was

Hero-worship and Saint-worship.

marked by any extraordinary
or so-called miracle.

259

act of self-sacrifice or heroism,

it

Nevertheless,

is

important to note

that the idea of divinity seems to be specially associated with

five classes of living

persons

kings, warriors, Brahmans, every

king
is

saints,

and sages

and that these enjoy a kind of

in

a-priori claim to

subsequent apotheosis.

And
is

first

regard to kings

regarded

as little short of a present god.

said to be created

In Manu's law-book a king

eternal particles from the
4).

by drawing
mere

essence of the eight guardian deities (VII.

*

Again, he says,

king, even

though a
if

child,
;

must not be treated

he
is

with contempt, as
in

he were a mortal
8).

a great divinity

human shape
it is

'

(VII.

In proof of the hold which these ideas

people,
stated in a recent

still

have on the
the

number

of a native newspaper,

that there

is

now

a sect of persons in Orissa

their chief divinity.

who worship

Queen

of

England as

The
riors

transition

from the worship of kings to that of miliis

tary heroes and conquerors

of course easy.

Great war-

have always

in

India

commanded
full

a large share of

popular homage, though their

apotheosis

has generally

been deferred until after death, and until their

has become obscured in the mists of

human origin tradition. The most

noteworthy instances of such deification have been

Rama

and Krishna, both of whom,

parentage and

notwithstanding their

human

career,

were ultimately^, as

human we have
first

seen (pp. 110-114), exalted by their worshippers to the

rank

among

Vishnu's incarnations.

And,

to this day, all living persons remarkable for great per-

sonal valour and strength, or for supposed miraculous powers,

run the risk

like

Paul and Barnabas at Lystra

of being
or strange

converted into gods.

eccentricity
^

Even any unusual deformity

may

be an evidence of divinity.
divinity of Krishna
is

as

In the Maha-bharata the by Sisu-pala and others.

occasionally disputed,

S 1

'

26o

Hero-worship and Saint-worship.

story has often been told of a

The

number

of

Hindus

in

the Panjab

Sen worshippers.

who formed themselves into The explanation of this

a sect of Nikkal
was, that General

Nicholson was a soldier of such unexampled bravery and heroism, that neither argument nor force could prevent his native

admirers from worshipping him.

the great power
of

'

This man,' they

said,

'

is

God.'

He

endeavoured by punishing

them

to put a stop to the absurdity, but this only filled

them

with greater awe, and

made them

persist in their puja with

more obstinate determination.

Nor
that

is

the object of such adoration always really worthy

It is well

of honour, or even decently respectable.

known

a certain tribe in

India worship a notorious robber,

whose deeds merit nothing but general execration.

be found
in

Perhaps,

however, a sufficient explanation of this circumstance

the fact that the tribe in question
its
is

may
itself

addicted to occasional plundering on

It

was on a similar

principle that the

own account. Thugs (Thags) wor-

shipped Kali as goddess of destruction, and strangled their

victims in her honour (see chap. XXII).

Another robber, who was hung

after him.

at Trichinopoly,

became

so popular, as a demon, that children were constantly

named

Turning next to Brahmans, we

that

find

it

affirmed

by Manu
divinity,

Brahman

is

mighty god, a supreme

if

whether he be learned or unlearned, and even

in

employed
his

inferior occupations' (IX.

317,

319).

'From

birth

alone a

Brahman

is

regarded as a divinity even by the gods

(XI. 84).

With regard
his person
is

to a
still

Brahman who
more
sacred,
p.

is

also a
is

Guru

or teacher,

and he
117).

everywhere the
Siva be angry

object of divine honours (see

is

'The teacher (Guru)

If
is

God, and the teacher

is

a refuge

(gati).

the teacher becomes a protector, but there

if

no other refuge

the teacher be offended.

Any

one who worships another


Hero-worship and Saint-worship,
god or goddess when
perdition.
his preceptor
is

261
terrible

at

hand incurs

The preceptor
is

alone

is

the divine power, whether

he be learned or unlearned.
bad, but he

His ways

may
I

be good or
p. i).

the only safe guide' (Tantra-sara,

I

In illustration of this

may

mention, that

was admitted

as a great favour to a sort of religious

camp-meeting which
in all India

took place at one of the most sacred places

the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumna.
that a celebrated preacher

There

found

about one hundred persons,

attention.

was addressing a congregation of who hung upon his lips in rapt

in

The
first

subject of the sermon, which was delivered

with great eloquence, was the condescension of Krishna

becoming

a child and then a

man

for the benefit of the

human

race.

No

sooner was the sermon over than certain

persons in the audience took lighted lamps, and standing up

before the preacher,

waved them before him

^.

in

homage

as

before the chief deity of the place

Perhaps the most readily conceded of

theosis
is

all

claims to apo-

that of the

saint

or

holy sage

who

has become
ties,

a SannyasI

that
a
life

is

to say, has renounced all family

self-denial,

and

lives

of asceticism,

and
is

austerity.

When
buried,

such a

man

dies in India, his

is

body

not burnt but

at
all.

because in fact he
believed to
lie

not supposed to die

He

is

in

a kind of trance, called Samadhi

sanctity exhales
called a

Samadh

often becomes a noted place of pilgrimage,

from his body, and his tomb
popularly

by myriads from all parts of India. Very similar is the adoration paid to the faithful wife, commonly called Suttee ( = Sanskrit Sati), who in former days burnt herself on her husband's funeral pile. Monuresorted to

ments are erected over her ashes, and within the shrine

is

^ I witnessed a similar proceeding in a Roman Catholic Cathedral not long ago. During the mass, and after waving the censer full of incense before the altar, one of the officiating attendants waved it before the

chief-priests

who were

present, in token,

presume, of homage.

262
often

Hero-worship and Saint-worship.

a
representation
of her
foot-prints,

which are wor-

shipped with the greatest veneration.

Of

course jealousies and

rivah'ies

occasionally spring up

between the adherents and admirers of various departed

saints or heroes,

especially

if

much expense has been

in

in-

curred in erecting shrines

and monuments
in

the hope of
is

attracting pilgrims to particular localities.

Nor

there any

dominant
trating

ecclesiastical authority

India capable of arbirelative rank

between competing claims or fixing the

of fresh accessions to the celestial sphere.

It

seems that such things are managed better

in

China.

In that country, according to Sir

A. Lyall,
like a

'

The Emperor

himself
fication,

a sacred and

semi-divine personage

seems

to
deilike

have gradually acquired something

the right of creating peers.'

monopoly of

which he uses as a constitutional prerogative,

In
fact,
its
'

The government
;

not

only bestows on deceased persons

marks of posthumous
it

approbation and rank in the State Heaven

also decorates

them with

titles.'

The Peking Gazette

title
is

of

May,

1878, contains
spirit of

a decree conferring a great

upon the dragon

Han Tan
tablet
is

Hien, in whose temple

'

the well in which the iron

deposited.

This

spirit

has from time to time maniin-

fested itself in

answer to prayer, and has been repeatedly

of honour.

vested with

titles

In consequence of this year's

drought prayers were again offered up, and the provinces

(mentioned) have been visited with sufficient
rain.

tude
shall

is

indeed profound, and

we

ordain that the

title

be invested with the additional

of the

Our gratiDragon Spirit Dragon Spirit

of the Sacred Well.'

title

Another

spirit

had already obtained the

of

'

Moisture-diffusing, beneficial-aid-affording, universal-

support-vouchsafing-Prince,' and received additional titles in a

Gazette of 1877 ^
It

might have been conjectured that

in

India a crafty

Asiatic Studies,' by Sir Alfred Lyall (John Murray), pp. 138, 139.

Hero-worship.
priesthood would

Vitho-ba.
care
to

263
its

have taken

lay

hands on a
as that

prerogative so valuable and far-reaching in

its effects

thus exercised by the Chinese government.

find

But we do not

that the

Brahmans have ever claimed the exclusive

privilege of converting

men

into gods, or even of conferring

honorary
spirits.

degrees
origin

and

titles

of

distinction

on

departed
celebrated
it

The
is

of the

popularity

of

many

shrines

lost in

remote antiquity, and without doubt

has

often been due to a

happy

hit

on the part of the

relatives

of

some well-known

over his ashes or

speculation,
its

who have erected a tomb a monument to his memory on simple

character,
to advertise
in

and then sent agents everywhere

virtues or spread reports of great miracles

worked

the

neighbourhood.

Such shrines may often bring

of Vishnu's two most

in a large

revenue to their

proprietors, and may even be more frequented than those

celebrated
in

incarnations, Krishna

and

Rama

but

it

must be borne

mind

that in almost every

case where a local hero or remarkable

person of any kind

has attained to deification, he ends by being worshipped as

a form of either Vishnu or Siva.

To
under
at

give a

few instances of local

observation in India
in the
:

deifications

which

fell

my own

It is well

known

that

Deccan (on the Bhlma, about 112 miles south-east of Poona) and in the surrounding districts the Very little is favourite god is Vitho-ba (also called Viththal).
Pandharpur

known of his origin, but he is said to have been a Brahman named Pundarlka (sometimes corrupted into Pundalika), who
gained a great reputation for
filial

piety,

and so pleased

Vishnu that the god,

in recognition of his merits, infused into

him a

large portion of his

own

essence. Vitho-ba

is

now

every-

where regarded as a form of Krishna.

Idols of
is

him are com-

mon, and have

on a brick on the
hips.

this peculiarity, that

he

represented standing

(vTt for it)

with his arms akimbo, the hands resting

legend has been framed to account for this

264
position.

Hero-worship.
Probably
it
^.

Vitho-ba.

was a favourite attitude of the man

before his deification

sion of a kick given

Some

of his images have the impresfoot clearly

by the sage Bhrigu's

marked
Maratha

on the breast
Pandharpur

(see p. 45).
is

one of the most sacred places

in the

country, and vast numbers of pilgrims flock to the shrine of

Vitho-ba twice a year

once
The
for

in

the

month Ashadha, and

Indeed
it

once again

in

Karttika.

place was probably at one

time a stronghold of the Buddhists.

to me^ as one reason
idol took the place

was stated

the great popularity of Vitho-ba,

of an image of the
all

that his principal

Buddha, and so became acceptable to

believe
caste
is
it

castes.
is

Others

to have been a Jaina idol.

There

no doubt that

still

to a great extent ignored

by the worshippers
remarkable, too,

of Vitho-ba at

times of pilgrimage.

It is

that worshippers
special benefits.

make him no

offerings,

nor ask the god for

all

He

is

supposed to love
;

mankind, and

require nothing but love in return

so people simply praise

him, and sometimes

which

is

said to be
dresses,

in jewelled

The idol, svayambhu (p. 69), is dressed every day and hymns are sung before it. It is
even embrace his image.
its

supposed to change
the morning, a

appearance and look like a child

in

man

at noon,

and an old man

in the evening.

Doubtless Vitho-ba owes much of his celebrity to the songs

of the

Maratha national poet Tuka-rama.

common
'

de-

votional service

among

the pilgrims

is

a Kirtana or

song

of praise

'

extracted from his poems.

in

Hundreds of men and

women sit are many

a circle on the ground, while behind the sitters

standing.

inner semicircle.

The principal singers form a kind of The leader thereupon gives out a verse,
:

such as the following

fore
^

'

All earthly things are vanity

elevate
'

there-

draw thy heart away and

of Tuka's

it

to Vitho-ba.'

These

One

Abhangas begins,

the brick, resting his hands on his

possible that the

loins.'

name Vitho-ba may

is that object, upright on cannot agree in thinking it be derived from vit a brick,' and

Beautiful
I

'

udkd

'

upright.'


Hero-worship,
Tzika-7'dma.

265

words are caught up by the other performers, and then

chanted enthusiastically by
all

with a vigorous accompani-

ment of

lutes (vinas),

cymbals, and drums.

Sometimes
Dr.

discourse on the vanity of

human

life

follows the singing.

Even a woman may be the

Mitchell visited

preacher.

When

Murray

Pandharpur a widow named Salu-bai ad-

dressed a large audience,

ing the

commencing her discourse by utternames Rama, Krishna, Hari, which were caught up by
in

her hearers

a prolonged shout (Indian Antiquary, June

is

882).

ceremony

also performed

which consists

in

breaking
contents,

a large black clay-vessel fastened on a tree.

consisting of curdled milk

The

and

grain, fall

on the ground and

are eagerly snatched up

by the struggling crowd.

caste

The
Siva-jT,

celebrated national poet of the Marathas, Tuka-rama,

was a Sudra of the trading

about 5Poo hymns.
object

who

lived in

the days of

about 250 years ago, at Dehu near Poona, and wrote

Though he devoted
is

his genius to the

is

extolling of Vitho-ba as a form of God, he

himself also an

of adoration, and

believed
in

to

have worked many

miracles
in

amongst others ascending

Dehu
is

bodily shape to heaven

Vishnu's car.

now

a much-frequented place of

pilgrimage, especially at an annual festival

when

the poet's

ascension

is

at this place

commemorated. People of all castes who worship and at Pandharpur are called Varkari. The follow:

ing

is

a specimen of the religious sentiments in Tuka-rama's

songs translated by Sir A. Grant

Sing- the

song with earnestness, making pure the heart you would attain God, then this is an easy way Make your heart lowly, touch the feet of Saints, Of others do not hear the good or bad qualities. Tuka says: Be it much or little, do good to others'.
If
:

' A musician performed before me on the Sitar at Poona, and sang a song from Tuka-rama, which may be thus translated O God, grant this boon that I may never forget Thee, and that I may sing Thy praise with zest. This is all the wealth I ask. I desire not extinction, nor riches. I want not emancipation from existence. I pray that I may live to praise Thee, and enjoy the company of the good.'
'
:

266
Another
Jejurl
is

Hero-worship.
deification,

Khando-ba,
(also called

Khando-ba
in the

Khande-Rao),
hill

was a personage who lived

(

neighbourhood of the

= Sanskrit
who made
is

Jayddri\ thirty miles from Poona.

himself useful to the Brahmans.
in his

He
is

probably a deification of some powerful Raja or aboriginal

chieftain

He

now The
hill

regarded as an incarnation of Siva

legend
that the

form Mallari.

god Siva descended

Mallasura,

in this

form to

destroy a powerful

demon named

who

lived

on the

and was a terror to the neighbourhood. Parvati descended

at the

same time

to

become Khando-ba's
I

wife.

His worship is
the family god
sacrificed
is

very popular

among
is

the Kolis and people of low caste in the

Maratha country.
of Holkar,

was informed that he

is

who

of the shepherd caste.

Sheep are

at the principal

temple on the
;

Jejiarl hill,

where there
are

an

image of the Linga

and a bad custom prevails of dedicating

young
(or

girls to

the god's service.

They

called

Muralls

and although nominally wives of the god, are simply prostitutes. Khando-ba is sometimes represented
Murlis),

with his wife on horseback attended by a dog ^

As

to

another
in

local deification

called

Jnanesvara (pro-

nounced

Marathi Diiyanesvara and popularly Dilyano-ba),

he was a learned Brahman, living at a place called Alandi,

twelve miles from Poona,

who wrote

a commentary in verse

on the Bhagavad-glta called Jnanesvarl.

his life

Towards the end of

he became a SannyasI, and on dying, or appearing

body was, as usual, not burnt, but buried, and a tomb (Samadh) erected over it. The belief, of course, is that he merely lies in a trance, and that he occasionally
to die, his

shows himself

alive to his worshippers.

is

He
said

is

held to have

been an incarnation of Vishnu, and

earth

to

have given

evidence of his divinity while he lived as a

Brahman on the

by one or two notable

miracles.

For example, he one

a

day caused a buffalo

to speak

and

recite

hymn from

the

^ A sect existed in Sankara's time who worshipped Mallari as 'lord of dogs (see Sankara-vijaya, chap. 29). So Rudra is lord of dogs (see p. ^^).
'

Saint-worship.
Veda.
he was

Dattatreya.

267

On

another occasion, he

commanded

a wall on which

sitting to transport

him

for a mile into the

presence

of a holy person

who wished
day
at

to see him.

The

wall obeyed,

and remains to

this

some distance from the town, but

the old mouldering erection seemed likely to disappear under

the plundering hands of relic-seekers, and the piety of the

inhabitants has therefore recently cased
still,
it

with stone.

It

is

however, greatly venerated, and a hole has been

made

in

the stone-casing to enable pilgrims to express their faith

by

touching the original structure.

Indeed, in the belief of the

generality of Hindus, such miracles are of

common
moment
in

occur-

rence

all

over India.

No

one

is

troubled

by any misgivings
that a

as to their improbability, or supposes for a

saint of

any pretensions could be incapable of working them.

I

Again,
country
Dattatre),

found that
holy

in certain

localities

the Maratha
(vulgarly
era, is

Brahman,

named
all

Dattatreya

who

lived

about the tenth century of our

three gods,

worshipped as an incarnation of
Vishnu, and Siva,
or,

Brahma,

according to some, especially of Vishnu^

for his

He

was greatly revered

his death

wisdom and
the

self-mortification,

and before
scattered
I visited a

became a Sannyasi.
in

His shrines are

around
Poona.

here

and there

districts

remarkable one at

Wai

sacred town on the

Krishna (Kistna) near Sattara

where

the image of Datta-

treya has three heads, to represent the Hindu triad.

or three worshippers of the

Two

male sex appeared to be enidol.

gaged

in earnest

devotion before this

is

Another

deification

that of Vyaiikatesa (Veiikatesa) or

Tri-pati (for Sanskrit Sri-pati), a

Krishna when he became incarnate

called
Bala-ji.

name given to Vishnu or in a man popularly

that
^

known about this man, except he was a person remarkable for many extraordinary
Little
is
is

parts of India.

a strange legend connected with Dattatreya current in some Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva are said to have visited the wife of a holy man and tried to seduce her, but without success.

There

268
qualities,
hill

Hero-worship.
and that he
celebrated
lived
in

Vehkatesa.
the

neighbourhood
It
is

of a
cer-

called Seshadri in

the

Madras presidency.

tain

that a

temple dedicated to him has been

erected at that place

Vyafikata

usually called the Hill of Tri-pati or (Vehkata) and that pilgrimages are made to
it

from every part of the country.

for religious shaving.

It is especially resorted to

Of more
amples
followers

recent deifications and canonizations a few exgiven.

I

may be
of

have already described how the

or

Brahman named Sahajananda

him

Svami-

Narayana, who flourished about the beginning of the present

century, regard
as a portion of Vishnu (see p. 153).

The same may be said of the followers of the cottonbleacher Dadu, who lived in less recent times (see p. 17^). Then Mira-bai, a princess who lived in the time of Akbar, and married the Rana of Udayapur (Udaipur), is worshipped by a sect, who believe that she disappeared one day into her
tutelary idol

an image of Krishna which opened to receive

She
is

her and protect her from persecution.

of

the authoress

some

religious odes.

Again, Ram-singh, the son of a carpenter, was a

man who

founded a small sect of Sikhs called Kukas, which had to be

repressed not long since with an iron hand, because in their
fanaticism they took to murdering the butchers
for food.

who killed oxen

(Com-

His followers scarcely worshipped him as a god, yet

paragraph at
172 of this volume.)

they fully believed in his power of working miracles.

pare the
last
p.

Another founder of a sect Ram-das was the Guru of Siva-jl. His followers, who are numerous in the Maratha
country, adore

him
is

in

connexion with the worship of the

worship

great

Rama, and
or

therefore also

Hanuman.

His

tomb
I

Samadh

at Parali, near Sattara.

may

add, that in a village of Gujarat called Sarsa there a

lives (or did live in 1878)

is

man named Kubera.

This

man

of the Koli caste.

He

has been a teacher of rehgion

Saint-worship.
for

Santa-rain.

269
to be

more than
at

thirty-five years,

and gives himself out

portion of the

god Krishna.
disciples,
call

He

has gathered around

into a
re-

him
also

least 20,000

and formed them

ligious society

who

themselves Hari-jana.

They

are

called

Kuber-bhaktas.
as

They worship

or worshipped

Kubera
villages,

their founder,

a living

incarnation, in his

dwelling, but they have temples or meeting-houses in

own many
Like

and send missionaries to

all

parts of Gujarat.

the Svami-Narayana sect, they are divided into Sadhus and

Grihasthas, or Clergy and Laity (see p. 150).
their

At one

of

temples

(Mandirs)

in

their

clergy minister daily.

town of Nariad, two of Several members of the sect

the

attend and listen to expositions of their sacred books, but

worship no

idols.
I

Another considerable temple which

dedicated to a holy
rama, or perhaps Santosha-rama).
precincts of the temple, and
I

saw
is

at

Nariad

is

man named Santa-Ram (probably = SantaHis body

buried in the

observed that the courtyard

around was kept scrupulously

clean.

He

has no very large

number of
their
I

disciples,

but they appeared to be very devoted in

homage.

heard of another

man

in

Gujarat,

named Hari-Krishna,

who

not very long ago proclaimed himself to be a mani-

festation of the

Supreme Being, and

attracted a few disciples

now dead, and the sect has also, I believe, died out. Again, when I was at Kaira I visited a small shrine, dedicated to a Sadhu or holy man whose name I understood to be Parinama. There was no image, but only the empty seat
but he
is

which he had once occupied as a

of the vestments

religious teacher, with

at the

some

which he wore
as

time of his decease.

I

Yet the place was regarded

believe the followers of this
will ultimately disappear.

so sacred that

was not

allowed to enter without taking off

I

my

shoes.

man
In

are gradually decreasing,

and

fact, it

ought to be noted
heroes and the

that the most astounding exploits of great

70

Hero-worship.
startling miracles of

Parasu-rama.
liable to
still

most

eminent saints are

be

eclipsed

by

still

greater wonders, wrought

by

greater

heroes and saints,

who

are always appearing on the scene and

engrossing the attention of an ignorant

multitude.

and superstitious honour now

'

In no other

way can we account

for the little

paid to such an

eminent hero as Bala-rama,

the strong

Rama,' who was an

elder brother of Krishna and brought up

with him (see p. 112)^.

Again, as to the well-known Parasu-rama, or

Rama with the

axe

he was
into

Brahman who achieved

so great a reputation

in conflicts

with the Kshatriyas that his admirers converted

incarnations
in

him
p.

one of Vishnu's ten principal

(see

no).

Yet he

is little

worshipped except

some

parts of

the western coast of India.

The

story of his clearing the

ulti-

earth twenty-one times of the Kshatriya race and of his

mate defeat by

his rival the great

Rama-dandra, who was the

Kshatriya incarnation of Vishnu and also one of the god's

ten principal descents, proves that the

axe-Rama was

at one

time a

man

of pre-eminent valour and renown (see p.

no,

and Maha-bharata Vana-p. IT071; Santi-p. 1707; BhagavataTradition ascribes the colonizing of the purana, book IX).

Konkan

called

Parasu-rama-kshetra

and

the creation

of

the whole country of Malabar (Kerala) to Parasu-rama.

He
is

must have been a very extraordinary personage,

have compelled the ocean to

for

he
the

believed to

retire for

formation of the
fissures in the

Malabar
the

coast,

and to have caused vast

Western Ghats and other mountains by blows

of his axe^.

At

same time he

is

said to

have reared

great stone cairns on the Travancore mountains, and to have

scattered small spangle-like gold coins everywhere on the
soil.

the great

Both Bala-rama and Krishna refused to take any part as warriors in war between the Pandava and Kaurava princes. ^ Unusual formations in hills and other curious physical phenomena are often attributed to Parasu-rama, and sometimes to Bhima.
^
.

Hero-ivorship.
It is certain

Five Pandavas.

271

that

earthen vessels containing coins are often

dug up on the hills. No wonder that he has many followers in Malabar and the Konkan\ but I met with no actual worshippers in other places who adore him as a god.
Similarly the five Pandava princes, Yudhi-shthira, Bhima,

Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva,

the Maha-bharata, receive
little

who

are

all

great heroes of

actual worship at the present

day, though Krishna, another great hero of the

is

same poem,

universally adored.

The
his

five

brothers were the reputed

children of

Pandu and

wife KuntI (or Pritha), but are

believed to have really derived their origin from

the gods

Yama
into
birth.

Dharma-raja), Vayu, Indra, and

the two Asvins

respectively.

These

deities infused portions of their essences

Kunti's children, and great prodigies occurred at their

When grown

up they had one wife

(in

in

common,
little
^.

called

Draupadl.

DraupadI

Southern India Draupadl-Amman)

five

has several shrines, but her

tion.

husbands receive

adora-

This story proves the prevalence of polyandry

Nevertheless, any marvel or prodigy, any rock of fantastic

shape, or

any wonderful work the performance of which

appears to be beyond
the Pandavas.
I

human

power,

is

often ascribed to

visited

some remarkable Buddhistic caves

the

tribe of

Brahmans

in

Konkan
:

calied

Lit-pavans

is

said to

have been created by Parasu-rama thus After his contest with the Kshatriyas he took up his abode in the mountains of that part of India. There he had a quarrel with some Brahmans who resided with him in the same region. Then to spite them he went to the sea-shore, and finding fourteen funeral piles (citas = caityas) with the remains of a number of persons who had been burnt, resuscitated them and converted them into Brahmans. ^ Certain hill-tribes in the Himalaya mountains are still given to polyandry. It is practised also among the Todas and the Nayars in
Malabar, and
Iroquois,
tion

among
in

certain tribes in

New

Zealand, the Pacific islands,

the Aleutian islands, Africa, Australia, as well as

and

among the Kalmucks, Bhotan and other barren regions where a large populato
14.

is not easily supported. The ancient Britons, according were addicted to the same practice. See De Bello Gallico, v. pare Lubbock's Origin of Civilization,' p. 139.
'

Caesar,

Com-

272

Hero-ivorship.

Five Paridavas.
in the hills

excavated at a considerable height from the ground

near Nasik.

The people

of the country fully believe

call

them

to

have been the work of the Pandavas, and

It is therefore surprising that so

them Pandu-lene.

few shrines dedicated to these

India.

heroes are found

in

any part of
galleries

In one of the

of the temple at
all

Tinnevelly
;

observed well-carved images of

being especially conspicuous

the five brothers

Arjuna

with his

bow Gandlva, and

note, too, that five

Bhima

with his club.

It

is

worthy of

rough stones smeared with red paint

seen set up in
fields.

may

occasionally be

These are probably intended to repre-

sent the five Pandava princes

who
in

are supposed

to

guard

the crops.

Such stones abound

five

various parts of India,

but are not always

in

number, sometimes as
in a

many

as

twenty being ranged together

Again,
I

kind of

circle.

saw images to the honour of the Pandavas at Madura, and at Buddha-gaya, but no worshippers were near
them-^.

Yet the characters of these heroes are quite

as

much

venerated

now

as they ever were in ancient times, and their

virtues, as narrated in the

Maha-bharata, are to
Arjuna,

this

day pro-

verbial throughout India.

is

who

is

the most renowned,

;

a pattern of bravery and

generosity

Yudhi-shthira of
;

justice, passionless

self-command, and cold heroism

Nakula
;

and Sahadeva

of wisdom, temperance,

and beauty

while

Bhima

is

a type of brute courage and physical strength.

Representations of Bhima's gigantic form are not uncommon,

but are rather curiosities to excite wonder, than objects to

attract worship.
I

saw a huge image of him on one of the

fort,

Ghats

at Benares,

and another near the Agra

and another
This
last is

in a corridor of the Linga temple at Tinnevelly.

about 20 feet high and holds a huge club.

bright red and

It

is

painted

made

for

moving about
is

in processions.

Bhima's great strength

^

illustrated

by a

curious story.
if

In the Maratha country a single rudely-carved figure, especially

is

mounted,

called a Vir [vira, hero), or

sometimes a Dev {deva, god).

Hero-worship.

Karna,

273

Soon after his birth his mother, who was carrying him in her arms up a mountain, accidentally let him fall over a precipice, and on descending in great agony of mind, expecting to find her baby dashed to pieces on the rock beneath, she found to her amazement and delight that the boy was unhurt, and the rock shivered to atoms by contact with his
body.

Karna, too, another of the Maha-bharata heroes (also son

of Kunti

by the Sun-god),

is

greatly revered, and often cited

in proverbial expressions, as

a model of liberality, chivalrous

I

honour, and self-sacrificing generosity.

saw one or two

images of him

in

Southern India, but met with no shrines

dedicated to his worship.

Clearly the hero-worship of India
is

subject to constant
;

changes and fluctuations.

Worshippers are capricious

great
find

warriors, great saints, and great sages have their

day and

themselves gradually pushed into the background, while their

places are taken
to be
still

by
^.

rival warriors, saints,

and sages who claim

greater

^ That man-worship is not confined to India may be proved by numerous examples drawn from all countries. In Africa the King of Loango is honoured as a god. His person is so sacred that no one is allowed to see him eat. In Peru a particular Inca was adored as a god during his lifetime. In New Zealand the warrior chief, Hongi, was called a god by his followers. At the Society Islands, King Tamatoa was worshipped, and in the Marquesas there are several men named atiia believed to possess the power of gods. At Tahiti the king and queen were once held so sacred that the sounds forming their names could not be used for ordinary words. See Origin of Civilization,' by Sir J. Lubbock, p. 355.
'

CHAPTER

XI.

Death, Fmieral Rites, and Ancestor-worship.

In the two preceding chapters we have had occasion to
state incidentally the

Hindu doctrine

in

regard to the

spirits

of the dead.

We

have seen that they are supposed to pass

into one or other of

two very different conditions.

state of evil

They may

be degraded to the

demons

or elevated to the

position of divinities^.

In the former case they are rather

;

feared and propitiated than worshipped

are rather reverenced

in the latter

they
In

and worshipped than propitiated.

have to point out how
far this

the present chapter

varying

condition of deceased persons depends on the performance of

funeral

and ancestral

rites

by

living relatives

and descendants.
to

Of
is

all

forms of religious devotion

^.

homage

dead relations
all
^.

the most widely extended

It

forms a part of nearly

religions,

and

is

an element

in the creed of nearly every race

is is

Perhaps the one exception

Protestant Christianity.

The

Roman
cations

Catholic Church, as

well known, teaches that suppli-

and prayers may

spirits

avail to

improve the condition of

only, therefore does
it

departed

in purgatory.

Not

^ In the same way among the Romans some souls of the dead were good, pure, and bright, and therefore called Manes while others, called Larvae and Lemures, wandered about as unquiet ghosts, and were often Compare also the Roman ideas respecting the regarded as evil spirits.
;

With regard to the ideas prevalent among the Greeks, the Penates. following passages bear on the existence of the -^vxh after death as an
el'fifoXoi/

in

Hades
ii.

II. xxiii.

72, 104

Od.

xi.

refer

any one who doubts

chap,
of
xviii.

this fact to

xxiv. 14. xx. 355 213, 476 Mr. E. B. Tylor's Primitive

;

'

Culture,' vol.
^

Madagascar stated not long ago, that when he had descend a dangerous stream in that island, the boatmen made offerings

The Bishop

to
to

the spirits of their ancestors before attempting to shoot the rapids.

Death, Ftme7'al Rites and Ancestor-worship. 275

^

permit special masses to be offered for the souls of deceased

relations,
it

introduces a prayer for the dead into the regular

^.

daily mass

According to the Protestant creed, on the other hand, the

condition of the dead
liorating
it

is

irrevocably fixed.
is

To

think of ame-

by human

intercession

nothing short of heresy.

act, peri-

Nor

is

it

customary to perpetuate by any kind of

odically repeated, the

relatives.
It
is

memory

of one's nearest and dearest

no doubt true that tombs are occasionally

memorial
it

visited, and,

in the case of royal personages,

;

ser-

vices

performed

and an eminent Bishop

dead

once gave

as his

opinion that the Church of England does not

services for the spirits of the
^
;

condemn
I

special

provided,

presume,

that their condition

is

not supposed to be thereby altered.

every respectable

It is also true that

man who
man

has had a

respectable father or mother will be careful to reverence their

memory*, but
his
^

question whether the same

ever feels

it

duty to bestow a single reverential thought on either of

Our prayer for the Church mihtant has, In some Roman Catholic countries
I it

believe, taken the place of

is

this.

customary
is

to

exhume

skeletons at intervals of several years, and to place their skulls in a

small chapel adjoining the parish church.

This chapel

in

German

Switzerland called the Schadel-haus,

'

Skull-house,'

and

is

used as an

oratory where people pray for their dead relations and friends.
^ According to the late Bishop of Peterborough, the belief was once general in the early Church that the souls of the faithful, though free

from all suffering, were capable, while awaiting their final consummation and bliss, of a progress in holiness and happiness and that prayers for Accordingly, such progress might lawfully be made in their behalf. prayers for the rest and refreshment of the departed abound in the early liturgies of the Church. See the Bishop's letter to the Rev. J. Mason's parishioners who complained of Mr. Mason's having given notice that he intended celebrating the Holy Communion for the repose
;
'
'

of Dr. Pusey's soul.

^

All Souls'

day

is

observed as a

festival (on

Nov.

2) in the
is

Church
feasting

of

Rome.

It is

said that in countries where superstition

rife

takes place, and the souls of the dead are supposed to join in the festivities
*

The
'

and consume the essence of the food before it is eaten. feeling seems to find expression in putting periodical advertisein loving

ments

memory

'

in the obituary of

modern newspapers.

276 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship,

his departed grandfathers

and grandmothers, and whether the

world would

feel quite

sure of the sanity of any one

who was

in the habit of offering periodical

homage

to his

two great-

grandfathers and great-grandmothers.

This utter neglect of one's ancestors, which seems to spring

not so

sympathy with the departed as from a disbelief in any interconnexion between this world and the world of spirits, is perhaps with good reason regarded as

much from any want

of

a defect in our religious character and practice.

In Eastern countries, especially India, China, and Japan,

the opposite extreme prevails.
religious

We
is

know

that in India, every

duty

is

magnified and intensified.

There, to speak

of mere reverence for the dead

sion.

a very inadequate expres-

The

constant periodical performance of

is

commemora-

tive obsequies

regarded in the light of a positive and

It is

peremptory obligation.

the simple discharge of a solemn

debt due to one's forefathers

debt consisting not only in

reverential worship, but in the performance of acts necessary

to their support, happiness,

and progress onward

divinities,

in the spirit-

world.
tions,

A
are

man's deceased

relatives, for at least three

genera-

among

his

cherished

and

must

be

honoured by daily offerings (see

kind
is

p. 410),

or a Nemesis of

some

certain to overtake his living family.

in fact, seemed to me more noteworthy in comHinduism with other religions, than the elaborate
its

Nothing,
paring

nature of

funeral rites and the extraordinary importance

attached to marriage, with a view to providing sons for the

due performance of these

rites

and of the subsequent

cere-

monial worship called Sraddha.

And
of

here at the outset "it

may

be well to point out that the

is

main object of a Hindu funeral European obsequial

It
spirit
is

very different from that

rites.

nothing

less

than the investiture of the departed

with a kind of intermediate

it

body a

peculiar frame
terres-

interposed, as

were

parenthetically,

between the

Death, Ftmeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 277

body which has just been destroyed by fire, and the new terrestrial body which it is compelled ultimately to assume. The creation of such an intervenient frame comtrial

gross

posed of gross elements, though

earth

less

gross

than those of

becomes
its

necessary, because the individualized spirit

of man, after cremation of the terrestrial body, has nothing

left

to withhold

it

from re-absorption into the universal

not only proof against the

soul,

except
of the

incombustible subtle body, which, as composed

elements,
pile,
is

subtle

fire

of the funeral

but

is

incapable of any sensations in

(p. 49),

the temporary heaven or temporary hell

or other of which every separate

through one
to

human

spirit is forced

pass before returning to earth and becoming reinvested with

a terrestrial gross body.

Were
created

it

not for this intermediate frame

offerings

believed
body

to

be

by the

made during
its

the funeral ceremonies

in the con-

the
spirits,

spirit

would remain with

in

subtle

dition of an

impure and unquiet ghost (preta) wandering

the air

about on the earth or

among demons and

evil spirit-^.
it

evil

and condemned

itself to

reception of the intervenient

become an body converts

;

Its

from a Preta

or ghost into a Pitri or ancestor

all
its

but this does not satisfy

needs.
as
It

The new body

that of
if

it

has received, though not

so

gross

earth,
possible,

must be developed and supbe rescued from the

fire

ported.

must,
It

of

purgatory.

must
higher

be

assisted

onwards

in

its

course
earth.

from

lower

to

worlds

and back again to

which

And

these results

can only be accomplished by the cere-

monies called Sraddha

ceremonies

may

in

some

It is

curious that the

Hindu notion

of the restless state of the soul

performed agrees with the ancient classical superstition that the ghosts of the dead wandered about as long as their bodies remained unburied, and were not suffered to mingle with those and cf. ^n. vi. 325 of the other dead. See Od. xi. 54 II. xxiii. 72 Lucan, i, ii Eur. Hec. 30.
until the
is
;

Sraddha

278 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship,

respects

be compared to the

Roman

Catholic

masses for

the dead.

The

first

Sraddha

to be described

(at p. 303, etc.)

is

performed very soon after the funeral

affair.

rites,

and

is

always

a costly

In

England, the religious services at a funeral occupy

all
its

about half an hour, and the entire ceremony, with

attendant circumstances,
little cost.
is

performed

in the present

day

at

In India, the funeral ceremonies of the older

members

of a

family^ occupy ten days, and with the succeeding Sraddha

rites

carried

on with the help of Brahmans and including

the

feasting of numberless guests

and the distribution of

I

presents

may
cost

involve an
to

enormous expenditure.
in

found

that the
forty

even the poorest respectable person was

the world

rupees,

and that any one well-to-do

would incur the everlasting obloquy of

less

his family

and

friends

and be almost excommunicated from society

funeral of a father

if

he spent

than six thousand or seven thousand rupees on the

and

in the

carrying out of

all

the other
It is well

necessary ceremonies

consequent on his death.

known
rich

that the expenditure incurred on such occasions

by
In-

Bengal Rajas and Zamlndars of high family has often

for

impoverished them

the

remainder of their

lives.

stances are on record of a single funeral and Sraddha costing

sum

equivalent to

;^

120,000, the greater part of that

amount

being squandered on worthless Brahmans, indolent Pandits,

hypocritical devotees, and

vagabond
of

religious mendicants.

In truth, the expenditure

time,

money, and energy

needed to
before he

satisfy public

opinion before a

man

is

held

to

have discharged the debt due to a deceased

is

father,

and
evil

relieved from the long

is

course

of fasting and

mourning he

expected to undergo, constitutes an

till
it

which has gradually grown

has become a veritable

curse to the country, and one of the principal bars to

^

any

The

funeral rites of children are

much

simpler and shorter.

Death, Ftmeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 279

advance
there
in
its

social

condition (compare p.

^'^'2i).

Nor

is

any warrant

for the

system

in the

more ancient books

held sacred in India as authoritative guides.

Let us try to ascertain the ancient practice by a reference

to the

Veda and

Sutras.
in

The
simple.

ce remonies

Vedic times

must have been very

We

gather from the i8th

hymn

of the 10th
in all

Man

dala of the Rig-veda that the dead

biljf}^

body was,

proba-

-\s^^

not burnt hnt huripH

It

was deposited near a grave-^

dug ready
as

for its reception, while the

widow lay down

or

seated herself

by

its side,

and the

relatives
all

female as
around.

well

male

ranged

themselves in a circle

Their

first

concern seems to have been to propitiate Death, sup-

posed to be personally present and to be naturally eager

to take the opportunity of laying his

hands on any other

member
his

of the family,

who might be

brought,

by the

necessity

of attending the funeral, within easy and tempting reach of

clutches.

ceremony addressed Death,

of the path of the
living,

Hence the person appointed to perform the calling upon him to keep clear
and deprecating any attack on
to

the survivors,
for their

who were assembled

relative,

perform pious

rites

dead

but had no idea of yielding them-

selves

up

into his power, or

renouncing the expectation of

leader of

a long

life

themselves.

The
mark

the funeral next

placed a boundary of stones between the dead body and

the living relations^ to
thority.
off

the limits of Death's au-

Then

followed a prayer that none of those present

might be removed to another world before attaining to the This full period of a life lasting for a hundred years.
prayer was no
after

doubt accompanied with oblations

in

fire,

which the widow's married female relatives were

di-

rected
return

by the performer of the ceremony to prepare for the home. They were to lead the way without weeping

or any signs of grief, and without taking off their jewelry \

^

The words

of the

hymn

are,

Anasravo 'namivdh

sii-rat?td

a rohantu


28o Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship.

'

Then

the

widow
in

herself

was

told to leave the corpse of her

dead husband

the

inner circle

assigned to

Death, and
line.
'
:

join her surviving relations outside the

boundary
effect

She

was addressed

in

words to the following

nari),

Rise up,

O woman
living
;

(udlrshva

come back

to the world of the

;

thou art lying by a dead

man

come back.

Thou

hast sufficiently fulfilled the duty of a wife to the husband

who

formerly wooed thee

i8. 8).

and took thee by the hand

in the

(Rig-veda X.

Next, the performer of the ceremony

took a bow, previously placed

hand of the deceased,

and gave

it

to his relatives in token that the

life

manly courage

he had displayed during

was not to perish with him,

Addressing the dead

but to remain with his family.

man
pro-

he

said

'

I take the

bow out
and

of thy hand for our

own

tection, for our glory,

for

our strength

remain thou
in
all

here,

we

will

remain here as heroes, so that

foes' (X. i8. 9).
its
^

battles

we may conquer our

ham, Rig-veda VII.
mother Earth,
thee,

The body was then

'

tenderly committed to

house of clay (mrin-mayarn

gri-

89. i), with the

words: 'Return to thy

lie

may

she be kind to thee and

;
'

lightly

on

and not oppress thee

and with other similar words,

:

which

may

be thus freely translated

Open thy arms, O earth, receive the dead With gentle pressure and with loving welcome. Enshroud him tenderly, e'en as a mother
Folds her
soft

vestment round the child she

loves.

(X. 18. II.)

Finally, a

mound

or

column (sthuna) of earth was reared

to preserve

over the grave, and the Pitris or deified ancestors and the

god

Yama

were entreated
*

it.

janayo yonim agre, without tears, without sorrow, bedecked with jewels, let the wives go to the house first.' It is said that the Brahmans fraudulently substituted agneh, of fire,' for agre, first,' and that this verse was then quoted as the Vedic authority for the burning of widows whereas neither the Veda nor Manu directed or even hinted at the concremation of the living wife with her dead husband.
' '
;


Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-zvorship. 28
It is
r

remarkable that
16. 3) there are

in

some passages of the hymns (X.

hints of a belief in the possible

58. 7;

dim

migration of the spirits of the deceased into plants, trees, and

streams.
It is to

Compare

pp. 18

24.

be noted, however, that no very distinct account

of the condition of the virtuous

dead

is

to be found in the
life is

oldest

hymns

of the Rig-veda, although a future

Pitris

fully

recognized,

and although the

or

departed ancestors
;

are addressed with the utmost reverence (VI. 52. 4

0^^.

VII.

12

X.

14. 7, 8, etc.).

Nor do we

find

any

clear

mention

of hells or places of torment for the wicked, although

we

read of dark and

deep abysses into which bad men are

evil

thrown along with the

demons^.

Passing from Vedic times to the period

when

the Asva-

layana and other collections of domestic rules (Grihya-sutras)

were composed, probably about

Christ,

five

or six centuries before

still

we

find that funeral rites,

though

conducted with

much
more

simplicity,
in unison

were beginning to be more elaborate and

If the practice of creit

with present custom.

in

mation was doubtful

Vedic times

was now

invariable,

except in the case of infants and of great saints.

as

As

far

can be gathered from a study of the rules laid down,

the ceremonial must have been

much

as follows

When

man

died, his

immediate family, headed by the

burning ground,'

eldest son or other near relative, formed a procession to a

properly prepared place in the Smasana or

carrying the sacred
fires

'

and

sacrificial

implements.

The

younger walked
from the

first,

the elder behind

the

men

separated

women ^ bearing

the corpse, the hair and nails of

sacrificial

which had been clipped, and leading the

animal.

Indra and

not one of them

Soma plunge may again

5. 5
;

the wicked in inextricable darkness, so that See Rig-veda VII. 104. 3, issue from it.'
8.

and compare IV.

^

IX.

'j'^.

In the present day the only part

women

take in funeral ceremonies

cries of grief at

is

that of

weeping and wailing and uttering loud

home.

282

Death, Ftmeral Rites, mid Aiicestor-wo7^ship.

either a

cow

-^

or a black she-goat.

followed with their

dishevelled

The remaining relatives garments hanging down and their hair

the

elder in front, the younger behind.

When

they reached the funeral ground, the son or brother or other

near relative appointed to perform the ceremony, taking a

branch of the SamT-tree, sprinkled holy water on the spot

excavated and prepared for the
pile,

repeating

Rig-veda

X.

14. 9

'
:

Depart (ye

evil spirits), slink

the Fathers (his departed ancestors) have

place of
rest.'

away from here made for him this

Then the
up
of

sacred

fires

were deposited around the margin

of the excavated place, and a heap of fire-wood

inside the sacrificial

was piled

ground

(antar-vedi).
pile

Next, a layer

Kusa

grass

was spread over the

along with the black

skin of the goat.

Then
it,

the clipped hair and the dead body

fires

were placed upon

with the feet towards one of the

and the head towards the other.

Next, the widow was

down on the funeral pile north of the body, along with the bow of her deceased husband, but was not
to
lie

made

allowed to remain there long.

funeral called

Soon the leader

of

the

upon her

to rise, repeating Rig-veda

X.

18. 8,

already quoted (see

p. 280).

Next, he took back the bow, repeating Rig-veda X.

(quoted at
p. 280).

18. 9

Then he placed the

different

various

sacrificial

implements and
This being

portions of the sacrificial animal in the two hands and on

parts
of

the

body

of

the corpse.

done, he kindled the three sacred fires. While the body was burning, portions of hymns of the Rig-veda (such as

The

sacrifice of a

cow

(called Anustarani) at ancient funeral cere-

monies proves, according to Dr. Rajendra-lala Mitra, that in early times there was no law against the eating of flesh, and even of beef. A cow was killed, that the dead might have a supply of the essence of beef for their journey and when the spirits of the departed had feasted on the aroma of the immolated animal, the actual flesh was left for the living.
;


Death, Funeral Rites, and
X.
14. 7, 8, 10, II
;

283
were

A 7icestor-worship.
18. II
;

16.

1-4;

17. '^-6',

154. l-S)

repeated.

The

following are free translations of

Soul of the dead
!

some

of the verses

depart

take thou the path

The ancient path by which our ancestors Have gone before thee thou shalt look upon The two kings, mighty Varuna and Yama,
;

Delighting in oblations

thou shalt meet

The Fathers and receive the recompense Of all thy stored-up offerings above.
Leave thou thy sin and imperfection here Return unto thy home once more assume A glorious form. By an auspicious path Hasten to pass the four-eyed brindled dogs The two road-guarding sons of Sarama Advance to meet the Fathers who, with hearts Kindly disposed towards thee, dwell In bliss With Yama and do thou, O mighty god. Intrust him to thy guards^ to bring him to thee, And grant him health and happiness eternal.
; ; ;
;

(X. 14. 7-1

1.)

When
with
its

a dead body was thus burnt the

spirit

invested
rise

incombustible subtle frame

was supposed to

along with the smoke to heaven.

Then

the performer of the ceremony repeated the verse

18.
living

(Rig-veda X.

3):
men, survivors, now return

We
And

leave the dead;

may

our oblations please

!

The gods and

bring us blessings
jest

now we go
life.

To dance and

and hope

for longer

After this they proceeded homewards, the younger walking

in front, the elder behind.

But before re-entering the house

grains of barley,

they purified themselves by chewing leaves of the Nimbatree

2,

and by touching

fire,

oil,

and water.

During one night they cooked no food, and

ate nothing containing
salt.

for three nights

After the tenth day the bones and ashes of the deceased
^

These are the two four-eyed watch-dogs mentioned at p. 289. This, however, is not mentioned in the Asvalayana Sutras.

'

'

284

Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship.

in

were gathered together and placed

funeral vase.

a plain undecorated
in

This particular

act,

which

modern times

is

generally performed on the fourth day, was called Asthi-

sancaya,

'

bone-collection.'
it,

hole was excavated and the

:

vessel placed in
'

while Rig-veda X. 18. 10 was repeated

Return to thy mother Earth, the Widely-extended, the

;

Broad, the Auspicious

may

she be to thee like a young

!

maiden, soft as wool (urna-mrada)

may

she protect thee

!

from the embrace of the goddess of corruption

Then

earth was scattered over the excavation, with re-

petition of the twelfth verse of the

same hymn.

Lastly, a
filled
'

cover was placed over the vase and the hole was

up

with earth, while the thirteenth verse was repeated

raise

up the earth around thee

on thee without causing
funeral

for a support, placing this cover

injury.
!

monument
!

for thee

May the Fathers May Yama establish a

guard

this

habitation

for thee there

The

principal rite being thus brought to a close, the re-

lations returned

home,

and

after

performing an ablution

offered the
I

first

Sraddha to the deceased person.

here that, being one day on the

may mention
I

Bombay
'

burning-ground,

was a spectator of a

'

bone-gathering
in

cere-

mony
in

(see p. 302)5
rite.

which had many features

the ancient

Brahman and

five

common with women were seated

burnt.

a semicircle round the ashes and bones of a young mar-

ried girl of

low

caste,

whose body had recently been

Before them was an earthenware vase, and around

flowers, fruits,

it

were

and betel-leaves.

The Brahman had

a metal

vase shaped something like a tumbler in his hand containing

consecrated or holy water.

With a small round spoon or

it

ladle

he took out a small portion of the water and poured

into

the hands of the woman, at the same time muttering texts

and prayers.

Then he poured water

into the vase,

flowers,

and on
leaves.

the top of the water placed the

fruit,

and

Next, he collected the half-calcined bones, and having put

Deaths Funeral Rites, arid Ancestor-worship. 285

them
carefully

and reverentially into the

vase,

he made a
it.

hole in the ground a few yards off and buried

told that the vase

was

would be

left

there for ten days,

when a

Sraddha would be performed

in

the

same

place.

Turning next to the law-books

expected,
that

(see p. 51),

which follow
might be
little

on the Sutras and are based on them, we

the practice
in the

find, as

they inculcated differed

Funeral
is

from that enjoined

'

Sutras.
that

rites are called

the last sacrifice

'

(antyeshti),

to say,

the sacrifice

of the

body

in

fire.

They

are
is

regarded as inauspicious

(amarigala), because impurity

tact with a
spirit,
is still

thought to result from con-

dead body and from connexion with the departed

which, though released by the burning of the body,

regarded as impure until the Sraddha ceremonies are

performed.

Manu

even declares that some implication of

impurity attaches to the sound of the Sama-veda because

it

is

chanted at funeral services.

the other hand,
it

The Sraddha, on
(maiigala), because

is

held to be auspicious

is

performed for the benefit of a de-

ceased

person after he has received an intermediate body

Pitri

and become a

or

beatified

father.

It

is

true

that

both funeral and Sraddha ceremonies consist

texts and prayers
is

in

the offering

of balls (pinda) of rice or fiour and libations of water, with

;

but in the funeral

rites

the ball of rice

for the

nourishment of the ghost and

as
its

for the formation

of a
is

body

vehicle,

whereas

in the

Sraddha the Pinda

is

said to represent the

body so formed, and

it is

offered as

an act of homage.

Nevertheless

plainly declared in
Pitris
for

Manu

(III.

i-^^"])

and elsewhere that the embodied

require the periodical offering of these Pindas and water

their continual

nourishment and refreshment.

of relatives are supposed to partake in the

large

number

benefits of the Sraddha.

They

are as follow:

(i) Father,

father's father, father's grandfather; (2)

Mother, mother's
if

father,

mother's grandfather

(3)

Stepmother,

any

(4) Father's

2 86

Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worsJiip,

(5)

mother, his grandmother, and his great-grandmother;

Father's
sisters;

brothers;
(8)

(6)

Mother's

brothers;

(7)

Father's
(10)

Mother's sisters;

(9) Sisters

and brothers;

Fathers-in-law.
(gotra)
is

We

know,

in fact, that the

held to be a corporate society,

Hindu family bound together

This

by
the

a right of participation in the Sraddha offerings.

right furnishes the principal evidence of kinship, on which

title

to share in the
wills

patrimony
in

is

founded, no power of
or

making
ritative

being recognized

Manu

any other autho-

code of Hindu jurisprudence.

All

who

unite

in

presenting to their deceased ancestors the balls (pinda) of

rice or flour

and

libations of water (udaka), are called Sa-

pindas

and Samanodakas to each other, and a kind of

interdependence
is

intercommunion and

thus

continually

maintained between the dead and living members of a family

between

past, present,

and future generations.

side.

Practically,

however, the closeness of the interconnexion extends only

to three generations

on each

In this
is

family chain, consisting of

seven links,
link,

way a kind of formed. The

himself linked
side,

householder represents the central

to
father, grandfather,

and

is

and great-grandfather on one

and great-grandson
first

and to

son,

grandson,

on

the
to

other

(Manu V.

60).

The

three are supposed

for their

be de-

pendent on the living paterfamilias

happiness and

support, through the constant offering of the ball-like cakes

and water

and he himself, the moment he

kept up by the

dies,

becomes
offering

similarly dependent

on the three succeeding generations.

is

The connexion which

are no longer

common

of water lasts longer, and ends only

when the family names

is

known

(V. 60).
all

Manu's law-book, however,

the others and

which stands at the head of

in date,

the earliest

makes no

positive statement as to the precise dis-

^ According to the Mitakshara school, Pinda may also signify body, and some interpret sapiiida to mean persons united by bodily relationship. The other school is that of the Daya-bhaga, which prevails in Bengal.


Deaths Fune^'al Rites afid Ancestor-worship.
^

287

tinction

between the funeral or Sraddha ceremonies.

Nor

does
trial,

it

discriminate clearly between the subtle, the terresIt

and the intermediate bodies.

merely affirms that a

Sraddha means an oblation of

ance of Sraddhas by a son

grain, water, or other sub-

stances offered with faith (sraddha), and that the performis

necessary to deliver a father

;

from the
Put-tra,
'

Put (IX. 138) whence a son is called rescuer from Put ^.' This, of course, sufficiently
hell called

explains the desire of every

rather than a daughter.

Hindu

for the birth of a son

cepts

The law-book of Yajnavalkya is later in date. The preit lays down (Book III) prove that in the early centuries
Still,

of our era funerals were conducted in a simple manner.

much

of the practice

was

in

harmony with modern

(p.

usage,

as well as with that of the Grihya-sutras

281).

For example, a
also
son,

child under

two years of age was not burnt

but buried, and no offering of water was

made

to

it.

(See

Manu

V.

68.)

The

corpse of any other deceased perascetic,

except that of a great saint or

was accom-

panied by a procession of relations to the burning-place,

and there burnt with common

fire

(laukikagnina), while a

hymn

to

Yama

was repeated.

Next, the relatives poured

out a single libation of water to the deceased, uttering his

name and family. Then, instead of shedding tears or giving way to grief, the relatives, after performing their ablutions,
seated themselves on a spot covered with soft grass, while the elder repeated to

the younger

some

verses from the

:

ancient Itihasas, such as the following (freely translated)

Does

it

not argue folly to expect

man, who is as transient As a mere bubble and fragile as a stalk

Stability in
^

wholly inconsistent with the true theory of Hindiiism that the deliver a man from the consequence of his own deeds. Manu says, Iniquity once practised, like a seed, fails not to yield its but Hinduism bristles with such fruit to him that wrought it' (IV. 173)
It
is

Sraddha should
'

inconsistencies.

288

Deaths Funeral Rites, mtd Ancestor-worship.

Why
Is

Composed

should we utter wailings if a frame, of five material elements,

force of its

decomposed by

own
its

acts,
?

And
The

once again resolved into

earth, the ocean,

parts

and the gods themselves

Must perish, how should not the world Of mortals, light as froth, obey the law Of universal death and perish too ?

After hearing verses of this kind they set out homewards,

the younger ones leading the way.

On

reaching the house

they made a solemn pause outside the door.

Then they

all chewed leaves of the Nimba-tree (popularly, Nim), rinsed their mouths with water, touched fire, water, cow-dung, and

white mustard-seed, and placed their feet on a stone

then

they slowly re-entered the house.

ceremonies

Impurity caused by the

the

connected

with

touching

corpse

(savam
In

asaucam) lasted
later

for either three nights or ten

nights.

times the
p.

season

of
3).

mourning and impurity lasted

practice.

longer (see

306, note
to the

Turn we now

more modern

Perhaps the best authority

for the present

creed of the

Hindias in regard to the future state of the soul, and the

best guide to the right performance of funeral and Sraddha

ceremonies,

is

the Garuda-purana.

This

is

a comparatively

modern work probably not older than the seventh or eighth century, and possibly still more modern. It is written, like
other Puranas, in the form of a dialogue
teresting, as portions of
in
it
;

and

is

the more in-

are recited at funerals

and Sraddhas

the present day.

The

dialogue

is

between Vishnu and

Questioned

Garuda

the

divine bird represented as always attendant on

the god and serving as his vehicle (see p. 104).

by Garuda, Vishnu

reveals the secrets of the future world

and

the nature of the punishment in store for the wicked.

prescribes the proper ceremonies.
ever, the

He also
how-

As

a matter of

fact,

forms

now observed do

not always agree with the

directions in the Garuda-purana, or in

any other guide.

different castes.

They

vary according to different

localities

and

'

Death, Fune7^al Rites anei Ancestor-wo^^ship

^

289

To

describe

all

the variations within the limit of a sino;le

I

chapter would be impossible.

principal

can only advert to some

usages

in

the case
to

of the

death of persons of

higher caste.
state clearer

And

make

the Hindu theory of a future

as
it

complicated

is

by numerous

contra-

dictory statements and inconsistencies

to trace the

it

will

be necessary

development of the prevalent ideas concerning

the character and functions of the god of death,

Yama.
(Lat. gemino).

Probably the name

Yama

in

the
'

Veda

is

to be connected
'

with an obsolete verb yam, meaning to double

At any
been
'

rate,

the Vedic meaning of the word seems to have

twin,'

and

Yama

himself, with his twin sister

first

YamT,
the

were held to be the

pair

of mortals born

into

world, being both children of Vivasvat the

this

Sun

(see p. 11 of

volume, and compare Rig-veda X.

first

10).
it

As he was

sup-

posed to be the
that the
earliest

of

men who

died,

was only natural

office

myths should

invest

him with the

of conducting the spirits of other

men who

die to the spiritlater authorities,

world
is

world which, according to some

to

be regarded as divided into three regions, the upper

air,

sky, middle

and the atmosphere

lowest.

just

above the earth

the ancient patriarchs occupying the highest region, and the

more recently deceased, the

The next
in

of the ancient ideas concerning

Yama

was that

he reigned as a kind of president of the dead

the upper sky.

(Pitri-pati)

There the

spirits

of the just, invested

in

with celestial lustre, wafted by gentle breezes or borne

became themselves There gods to be worshipped under the title of Pitris. they enjoyed the society not only of Yama, but of the god
heavenly
cars,

continually arrived, and

Varuna, also supposed to dwell there.

The road
'

to this

abode was guarded by two four-eyed watch-dogs, called

Syama,
(see

'

dark,'

and Sabala
14.
(fire),

(or

sometimes Karbura), spotted

Death, and

Rig-veda X.

10-12, and pp. 283, 422).

sometimes Agni

were regarded as Yama's messengers

290

Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship

spirits

charged with the duty of conducting the

of the dead
the god

heavenward, while

Yama

himself was not so

much

as the friend of departed spirits.

veneration, but not

the god of

He was looked up to with by any means with terror, as if he were punishment. (Compare p. 16 of this volume.) Yama
now
developed into a much more
terrific

Turning now to the period of the Epic poems and Puranas,

we
in

find

being.
sits

He

is

the Judge and punisher of the dead,

to

who

judgment upon them, and, so

hell.

speak, holds the

'

keys of heaven and

Hence he
'

is

called

the Restrainer
'

or Punisher' (Yama, from yam, to restrain), or

Justice
'
'

the

King of
'

(Dharma-raja), or simply
'

Justice
*

'

(Dharma), or
(Pasin).

the Rod-bearer

(Danda-dhara), or

Noose-bearer

Sometimes he

is

represented as acting in these characters

is

on behalf of Rudra-Siva, who

the real god of the dead.

Many

descriptions of his appearance

may be
is

found

in

the

Epic poems and Puranas. grim and awe-imposing

in red, riding

There he

usually depicted as

in aspect,

green in colour, clothed

in

on a buffalo, and holding a club

in

one hand

and a noose

the other.

He

is

also one

of the eight

guardians of the quarters of the sky, his

own

quarter being

the South, in which direction in some region of the lower

world and somewhere on the confines of the places of torment, which are called the
'

terrific

provinces

'

of his

kingdom

(Vishnu-purana H.

6),

are his city and palace called

Yamaabode
spirits

pura and Yama-sadana.

Between the earth and

^,

this

flows the terrible river VaitaranI

which

all

departed

must

cross.
is

In the later Puranas

and especially in the Garuda

Hindu Pluto
or Minos,
his
is

Yama

generally regarded as a stern and terrible god

of punishment only.

He
he

is

a kind of

and nothing more.

But there
is

this

inconsistency in

position, that although

appointed to punish every

man

according to his works, he has, in the creed of

^

many

Hindus,
N.E.

Baitarani (or VaitaranI)

is

the

name

of Kuttack.

On

its

bank

is

a shrine called

of a river in Orissa 45 miles Yama's abode.'

'

Death, Funeral Rites and Ancestor-worship,

^

291

no power over those worshippers of Siva, Vishnu, Krishna,

and Brahma, who have

lived virtuous lives,

and who when

they die are transported to the heavens Kailasa, Vaikuntha,

Nor has he power over those whose death-beds are protected by the due performance of the requisite ceremonies and by the payment of sufficient fees to the Brahmans who superintend such cereCompare p. 118. monies. In attempting, therefore, to give some idea of the present
Go-loka and Brahma-loka respectively \
creed of the Hindus in regard to death and a future state,
it

will

be necessary to begin by describing the career and

from some defect
in

history of a deceased mortal who, from his evil deeds during

life

or

the proper ceremonies at his

decease,

becomes subject

to

Yama's

penalties.

We
tines

are told in the Garuda-purana that

when such a man

intes-

dies his spirit

takes a downw^ard course through the

in

and emerges

the

same manner

as

the excreta
of a good

whereas

as we
'

shall see in the sequel

the

spirit

man

finds its w^ay

is

through the tenth aperture of the body,

which

a suture at the top of the skull, called the Brahma-

randhram,

Brahma's

crevice.'
ter-

No

sooner has death occurred and cremation of the

restrial

body taken

place,

than Yama's

two

messengers

(Yama-dutau), who are waiting near at hand, make themselves visible to the released spirit,

which retains
is

its

subtle

body composed
of the size of a
terrific
;

of the subtle elements, and

said to be
is

thumb

(arigushtha-matra).

Their aspect

for they have glaring eyes, hair standing

skin,

erect,

gnashing teeth, crow-black

they hold
in their
if

and claw-like

nails,

and

hands the awful rod and noose of Yama.

appearance
in this

Then, as

their

form were not

suffici-

ently alarming, they proceed to terrify their victim

visions of the torments (yatana) in store for him.
^
'

by

terrible

The

servants and ministers of

Yama and
2

his tortures are unavailing

against one

who

places his reliance in Vishnu.'

Vishnu-purana

III. 7.

292

Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor- worship.

In a story told in the Vana-parva of the Maha-bharata

(16,754),

Yama

himself appears before a dying man.

He

is

clothed in blood-red garments with a glittering crown upon

his head, and, like

Varuna, holds a noose

spirit

in his

hand, with

which he binds the

it

and

its

subtle frame after drawing

from the sick man's body.

The
perform

usual theory, however,

this
office.

is

that his

two messengers
spirit

They
it

then convey the bound

along the road to Yama's abode.

There being led before

Yama's judgment-seat
side with an

is

confronted with his Registrar or

Recorder named Citra-gupta ^.

note

This officer stands by Yama's

It is his

open book before him.

business to

down

all

the good and evil deeds of every

his
life,

human

being

committed during
account
that

with the resulting merit (punya)

and demerit (papa), and to produce a debtor and creditor

being

made up and balanced on the day of his death, when is brought before Yama^. According to the
is

balance on the side of merit or demerit

judgment pro-

nounced.

Truly the prospect of so

scious of his sins
it

terrible

an ordeal to a

man

con-

might appear absolutely unbearable, were

not for his belief in the doctrine that the ceremonies perhis behalf

formed on
power,
if

by

his relations

after his death,

have

properly carried out, to turn the scale and perhaps

place a considerable balance to his credit.

As however
frame,

a disembodied

spirit

can neither enjoy heaven

nor suffer the pains of hell until reinvested with a physical

composed

as
it

already pointed out

is

of gross

though

ethereal

particles,

instantly after
;

its
it

sentence hurried

back to the place of cremation

where

acquires a frame of

the necessary sensibility by feeding on the oblations of rice

is remarkable that the enterprising and intelHgent Writer caste (Kayastha) of Bengal claim to be descended from a Brahman, named Citra-gupta and secretaries are sometimes called by that name.
;

Mt
-

Compare Rev.

xx. 12,

'

And

the dead were judged out of those things

which were written

in the books,

according to their works.'

Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship.

and libations of water oftered
the burning of the terrestrial
for ten consecutive

293
after

days

body ^
(Pinda) of rice offered

On

the

first

day the

ball

by the
on

eldest son, or other near relative, nourishes the spirit of the

deceased

in

such a

way

as to furnish

it

with a head

the second day the offered Pinda gives a neck and shoulders;

on the
a navel
cealed
;

third, a heart
;

on the fourth, a back

on the

fifth,

on the

sixth, a groin,
;

and the parts usually conon the eighth and ninth,

on the seventh, thighs

feet.

knees and
is

On

the tenth day the intermediate body

sufiiciently

formed to produce the sensation of hunger and

it,

thirst.

Other Pindas are therefore put before

and on the

eleventh and twelfth day^ the embodied spirit feeds voraciously on the offerings thus supplied, and so gains strength
for its

journey to

its

future

abode (Garuda-purana
it is

I.

51, etc.).

Then on
to

the thirteenth day after death

hells.

conducted either
it

heaven or to one of the

If to the latter,
it

has need

of the most nourishing food to enable

to bear

up against

the terrible ordeal which awaits

it.

The road by which Yama's two

described in the
first
is

officers force

a wicked

man
is

to descend to one or other of the twenty-one hells (p. 232)

two chapters of the Garuda-purana. The

said to be 86,000 leagues (yojanas).

length of the

way

condemned

soul, invested

with

its

sensitive

The body and made to

trees,

travel at the rate of

200 leagues a day, finds no shady

no

resting-place,

no food, no water.

At one time
;

it

is

scorched

by a burning
another
is
it is

heat, equal to that of twelve meridian suns, at

rent

dogs,
^

by icy cold winds now its tender frame by thorns now it is attacked by lions, tigers, savage venomous serpents, and scorpions. In one place it has
pierced
;

This frame

deha),
called

is sometimes called 'the upward-going body' (urdhvawhence the obsequial ceremonies that produce it are sometimes Aurdhva-dehikam. Another name for this body is Adhishthana-

deha
^

(see p. 28).

In some parts of India these are also the days on which the relations
are performing the funeral rites have their festive dinners.

who

294

Deaths Funei^al Rites, and Ancestor-worship.

whose leaves are swords
in
;

to traverse a dense forest

it

in

another

falls

into deep pits

;

another

it

is

precipitated from
;

precipices
in in

in

another

it

has to walk on the edge of razors

;

another on iron spikes

here
it

it

stumbles about helplessly

profound darkness

there

struggles through loathsome

it

mud swarming
sand
;

with leeches; here

progress
is

toils

through burning

there

its

arrested

by heaps of red-hot
it

charcoal and

stifling

smoke.

Compelled to pass through

next encounters a

every obstacle, however formidable,

succession of terrific showers not of rain, but of live coals,

stones, blood, boiling water

and

filth.

Then

it

has to descend

into appalling fissures, or ascend to sickening heights, or lose

itself in vast caves,

or

wade through
it

lakes seething with fetid

ordure.

Then midway

has to pass the awful river VaitaranI,

breadth,
of unfathomable
filled

one hundred leagues

in

depth

flowing with irresistible impetuosity,

hair,

with blood, matter,

crocodiles,

and bones
;

infested with

huge sharks,

and

sea-monsters

darkened by clouds of hideous vultures and

obscene birds of prey.

stand trembling on the
before them.

Thousands of condemned
thirst,

spirits

banks, horrified by the prospect

Consumed by a raging
feet,

they drink the

blood which flows at their

the torrent

then tumbling headlong into

waves.

they are overwhelmed by the rushing

Finally, they are hurried

down

to the lowest depths of hell,

officers

and yet not destroyed.

the detail of which

Pursued by Yama's

they are

dragged away and made to undergo inconceivable tortures,

is

given with the utmost minuteness in

the succeeding chapters of the Garuda-purana.

description so monstrous would be scarcely worth rein

producing
important

any form, did

of the

it

not profess to represent an majority of our

It in

article

creed of a vast

fellow-subjects in regard to a future state.

might indeed
the possibility

be thought that a belief

a

in

such horrors and

of undergoing a fate so awful would be calculated to produce

salutary deterrent effect

on wicked persons, did we not

Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship.

find that,

295

however intense

is

a Hindu's belief in the reality

most excruciating torments, as described in the Garuda and other Puranas, he is equally ready to accept
of
hell's

the doctrine laid

down

in

the

same works,

that

certain religious rites

and giving
of sin

gifts to the

by performing Brahmans all

the
hell

terrific penalties

may be

avoided and the god of

p. 291, first line).

disappointed of his victims (compare

then,
is

What,

the nature of the various

modern ceremonies

which secure

this

the course of the departed

immunity from future punishment and make spirit however guilty peaceful

and pleasant

We

can only give an outline of some of those

in

most usually practised

In the
place,

the present day

among

religious

families of the higher classes.

first

when a man becomes

seriously

ill,

it

is

common
his case

for his relatives to

is

assume rather prematurely that

therefore

hopeless.

They

make

preparations for

performing the
decease, in a

last offices of religion, in anticipation of his

manner which

to us
crisis.

Europeans would appear

Perhaps his only chance

not unlikely to hasten on the

of warding off the approach of death

may depend on
his

perfect

repose of body and mind.

Yet how can

kinsmen allow

him

to run the risk of falling into the

little

hands of the god of

punishment, when by a

exertion they

may

secure for

him the protection of the sacred river which flows perhaps not more than ten miles from his abode ? Hence, his eldest son and other near relatives lose no time in placing him on a litter and conveying him to the banks of the nearest holy stream. If such a river as the Ganges or Narmada or GodavarT or Krishna (Kistna) happen to be within reach, the relatives of the dying man are the more eager to bring him
into close proximity to the sacred waters.
is

At

Calcutta this

often

done two or three days before death supervenes.

S. C. Bose,
'

According to Mr.

Persons entrusted with the

at the burning-ghat [on

care and nursing of a dying

man

the Ganges] soon get tired of their charge, and rather than

296

Deaths Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship,

administer to his comfort, are

known

to resort to artificial

means, whereby death

is

accelerated.

They

unscrupulously

pour the unwholesome,

^.'

muddy

water of the river down his

already choked throat, and in some cases suffocate him to

death

Of

course the Ganges

is

of

all rivers

held to be the most

If

divine and the

most potent

in its efficacy.

simply looked

upon during the death-agony, the messengers of Yama,

are eager to seize

and bind the

soul, are powerless to

who harm it.

is

But neither the Ganges nor any other sacred stream

always to be reached.

In such cases various other preventive

officers of
to,

measures calculated to keep the

force

Yama

at

bay or

them

to retire,

may be
most

resorted

according to the

practice believed to be

efficacious in different localities.

it

For example,
scatter

in

many
it

families

is

thought enough to

Sesamum

seed and

Kusa

grass around the sick man's

;

couch or to encircle

with a kind of cordon of cow-dung

p. 69) is

or

a Salagrama stone (see

brought and placed on a

stand close to the dying man's side, while at the same time

a Tulasi plant

is

deposited near him.

is

Or
head
;

again, a sprig of

that sacred plant

wound round
^
;

his

or

its

leaves are

placed in his

mouth

or a piece of gold

^ is

inserted between

the teeth

or a

little

mud

from a sacred stream

may be
;

brought from a distance and plastered on his forehead

or

Ganges water may be poured down

his throat.

moribund man's bed, and he

^
'

Then again a cow duly decorated is brought close to the is made to grasp its tail, under

The Hindoos as they are,' p. 252. According to the Garuda-purana (IX. 7, 8), 'The house in which there is a single sprig of the Tulasi is Hke a holy place of pilgrimage. Yama's messengers cannot enter it. Yama cannot look upon the man who dies with the Tulasi in contact with his body, even though he may have committed hundreds of crimes.' In verse 11 the same efficacy is ascribed to Kusa grass, which is said to be pervaded by Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva.
^
^

To

secure the presence of gold in the

it

mouth

at death, a healthy

man

will

sometimes have

inserted in his teeth.

Death, Funeral Rites, and A^icestor-worship.

the notion that

297

by the sacred animal's

This, however,
is

assistance he will be

safely transported over the terrible river of death, Vaitarani

(see also p. 290).

a precautionary measure
is

which

will

be quite ineffectual unless the cow

gift to

afterwards

handed over as a
Others again

the Brahmans.

who

believe that the passage of the

all,

Hindu

Styx

is

compulsory on

and that
aid,

it

cannot be accomplished

without direct Brahmanical

take care to send for two or

three priests for the performance of the Vaitaranl-rite.

This
in

ceremony, which

is

very usual

in

Bengal, consists mainly

in return

paying money to the Brahmans, who

deceased

mutter a

few-

texts and prayers, supposed to be efficacious in helping the

man

across the dreaded river.

Of course Mantras or texts from the Vedas are repeated, and hymns to Vishnu and Siva are occasionally recited. Then at the last moment the dying man is made if possible
to repeat the Taraka-mantra or
'

saving-text,' according to
it

the sect to which he beloncrs. o

uttering

In most cases

consists in

1 J

one of the names of Vishnu, such as Rama, or

(p.

Narayana
'

62),

or
is

Hari, or the eight-syllabled Mantra,

\

Blessed Krishna

my

refuge.'
is
'

One common formula

Hari bol
' !

or
j

cry uttered by the attendants

When
to

the

moment

of death arrives the spirit

Is

supposed
p.

escape,

invested

only with

its

lihga-sarlra

(see

28),

through the top of the head or through one of the upper

or lower apertures of the
for

body ^, according
life

to the character

good or

evil

it

achieved during

(see p. 291).

The

corpse has

now

to be transported to a place
in

where

its

cremation

may

be accompHshed

due form and according

to prescribed rules, but not until certain other rites have been

performed.

And

first

the eldest son or his nearest repre-

sentative carefully shaves the body^.

^

This he does without

The seven upper apertures are the mouth, the eyes, the nostrils, and ears.
This
is

according to the directions in the Garuda-purana.

At Benares

the shaving process generally takes place at the burning-ghat.


298

Death, Funeral Rites, a^id Ancestor-worship.

removing the hair from under the arms and without clipping the nails. Next he bathes it with water from a sacred
stream and decorates
in place of
it

''

with sandal-wood and garlands

or

decoration he
it is

may

plaster

it

with

mud from

the

Ganges.

Then
;

covered with

new vestments and placed

burning-

on the

litter

a rice-ball (Pinda) being offered to the guardian

soil,

deities of the

who

protect the road to the

evil spirits.

At the same time the name and family of the deceased man are pronounced by his son, while his son's wife and the other women of the
ground from the attacks of
household reverently circumambulate the corpse and utter
lamentations.

The body

is

now ready
if

to be borne to the

place of cremation, which ought;

river
^.

possible, to

be near a

And

here a great difficulty has sometimes to be

overcome
If the

in finding

proper persons to carry the dead body.

deceased happens to be a Brahman, four

men

of his

own

caste

and,

if

possible, chosen from his own relations

this office,

ought to perform

walking behind the son, who

leads the funeral procession, holding in his

vessel containing
fire.

hand an earthen

Or, according to the Garuda-purana

(X. 12), the son himself should help to carry the corpse on
his shoulder,
in the rear.
It

the

other relatives with bare heads following

may be

noted here that the rule which prevents Brahinferior caste

is

mans from touching the bodies of persons of

often a cause of great trouble

and

difficulty.

Not long ago a very respectable man of the Kayastha caste died in Khandesh at a place where no male members of his own caste lived. The body had to be burnt immediately,
but no one of superior caste could be induced to touch
it,

and

had any one of a lower caste done

suffered

so,

the family would have

difficulty

irretrievable degradation.

The

was only
fifteen

If

a place near a river

is

to

be found anywhere within ten or

is

miles of the dead man's residence the corpse

unless, as

generally carried there,

we have

seen, this

is

done before the breath leaves the body.

Death, Funeral Rites and Ancestor-worship.

^

299

surmounted by the payment of an exorbitant sum to some

Brahmans who

at length consented to bear the

body

to the

burning-ground.

This explains the unwillingness of the Hindus to leave

their

own country and caste. The burning of the corpse

It

is

the next act in the drama.

proper spot for the erection of the funeral pile must be

chosen.
water.

must be well purified by the sprinkling of holy

kind of altar
is

is

then

made with
Then

earth,

and the

Homa ceremony
fire

performed by casting grain into the sacred

the pile ought,

with repetition of certain Mantras.

strictly, to

be constructed with Tulasi and Palasa and sandal-

wood.

Five Pindas or balls of rice are placed on the body,

is

which
ghee.

the

made to face the north, and its orifices filled with The eldest son or his representative applies the fire to wood, reciting Rig-veda X. 17. 3 'May the guardian
:

deity Piishan convey thee hence on thy distant road

may

he deliver thee

to the Fathers etc'

Not long ago (and even under our

p. 481), if

rule

till

the Act of 1829,

(sati)

the dead

man had

a faithful wife

she often

gave proof of her devotion by allowing her living body to be

burnt with her husband's corpse
eulogizes the devoted
herself and
;

and the Garuda-purana

thereby secures
bliss for

woman who

her husband.

Sometimes a widowed mother

burnt herself with the body of an only son.

When
the soul

the

body

is

half-burnt the skull ought to be cracked

with a blow from a piece of sacred wood.

The

idea

is

that

may

not have been able to escape through the

aperture at the top of the head, and that the cracking of

the skull

may open

a crevice and facilitate

its exit.
is

In the case of the death of a holy

man whose body

is

buried and not burnt, the necessary blow

given with a

cocoa-nut (sri-phala) or with a sacred conch-shell (saiikha).

story was told

me

with great seriousness of a sorcerer at

life

Lahore who made

it

the business of his

to

make

a collec-

'

oo

Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-woi^ship.

dead men, which had not been properly
at death

tion of the skulls of

cracked

in this

manner

and so retained the

in

spirits of

the deceased inside.

fully believed that

The peasantry

the

neighbourhood
spirits

he was able to make use of these

for magical purposes,

and force them to obey him.

clarified

During the process of cremation an oblation of

butter ought to be offered in the
entreating the god of
fire fire

and a Mantra repeated,

present at

to

convey the deceased man to

all

heaven.

When

the

body has been consumed,

offered, while the

the funeral bathe or purify themselves with ablutions.

Sesafamily

mum

and water are then

name and

of the deceased are again repeated.

Finally, a few leaves of the Nimba-tree

(Nim) are chewed

by

all

and the funeral procession returns home, the women

first

walking

and the men behind. Meanwhile the pyre and the

left

products of combustion are

undisturbed to a future day.

if

The Garuda-purana
place, or
is

directs that

man

dies in a

remote

found, his

by robbers in a forest and his body is not son should make an ^^gy of the deceased with
killed

Kusa grass and then burn it on a pile with The Brahmans who repeat Mantras and
ceremonies are not held
after cremation
in

similar rites.
officiate at funeral

high repute.

On
'

the fourth day

the relatives return to the burying-ground,

at the

and assembling
(asthi-saii(^aya)

pyre perform the

bone-gathering

ceremony.

Three circumambulations are made

repeated.

around the ashes and a Mantra from the Yajur-veda (beginning

Yamaya
dug

tva^

XXXVIII.

9)

is

The

calcined bones
;

are then placed in a kind of urn or earthen vessel

in the
is

a cavity

is

ground and the vessel deposited

in

it.

Next

Pinda

offered over the ashes for the removal of the suffering

supposed to have been caused by the act of cremation.

after a

Then

few days the vessel

is

order that the ashes and bones

removed from the cavity in may be carried away and

thrown into some sacred

'

river

if

possible

the
'

Ganges.

Whatever

sins,'

says the Garuda-purana (X. 84),

man may

Deaths Ftmeral Rites, and Ancestor-iuorsliip.

have committed during
life,
if

301

his

bones are cast into the

Ganges he must certainly go

to heaven.'
is

In illustration of this a story

related in the

same Purana
killed

of a certain hunter, notorious for his crimes,

who was

by a tiger in an inaccessible corner of a forest. There his body lay for many years and his disembodied spirit became
a

troublesome

devil

(compare

p.

239).

till

fortunately the

bleached skeleton was spied

after

by

a crow,

who

picking up bone

bone dropped

it

into

the

Ganges.

Whereupon the
This

demon was suddenly converted

in

into a saint, and transported

a celestial chariot to the mansions of the blessed.

is

story

narrated with
if

all

seriousness

by the author of the

fact.
I

Purana as
In

he were recording an historical

the

connexion with

same subject

may

repeat

an

anecdote told
Service
India.
district

me by

a late

member

of the Indian Civil

once

a Magistrate and Collector in North-western

He was

once on a tour of inspection through his

old

when he overtook a poor

'

woman

trudging along

the road with evident difficulty.

voice where she was going.

He

inquired in a kindly

To

the Ganges with

my husband,'
when

was the prompt reply.

back, expecting to see

Involuntarily the Magistrate looked

some

old

man

following her,

she calmly opened a handkerchief which she had been carrying

slung over her shoulder, and showed him
of her defunct lord and master
in
all

that remained

the shape of a few halflittle

calcined bones, an old tooth or two, and a

ashes.

dust and

These she was transporting to the

river with the pious

object of scattering
I

them on the sacred

waters.
I

may

also put

on record how greatly struck

was with
of bones,'

the

peaceful aspect of a spot of ground called the Asthi'

vilaya-tlrtham,
at

sacred place for the dissolution

Nasik

the

Benares of Western India.

There surrounded
a consecrated pool,

by

trees, temples,

and lovely scenery

is

formed by the waters of the Godavarl, which are here partially diverted

from their course and made to flow into a

02

Death, Ftmeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship.

receptacle lined with stone in a secluded bend of the river.

This

is

the cemetery or

'

sleeping-place

'

of myriads of

human

beings whose ashes are brought at particular holy seasons

and scattered on the

I

tranquil waters.

was

also

much impressed by another 'bone-gathering'

I

ceremony which

witnessed

on

the

burning-ground

at

Bombay
a

(see p. 284).

On

the morning of one of

my

visits to

that place twenty- four

men were

gathered round the ashes of

man whose body had been burnt two or three days before. The ceremony commenced by one of their number examining
had not been calcined by the flames on the previous These he collected in his hands and carried outside the
I

the ashes, and carefully separating any portions of the bones

that

day.

burning-ground, with the intention,

was

told, of

throwing

them

into the sea near at hand.

This being done, the whole

party gathered round the ashes of the pyre in a semicircle,

and one of the twenty-four men sprinkled them with water. Then some cow-dung was carefully spread in the centre of
the ashes so as to form a
flat circular

cake of rather more

than a foot

in diameter,

around which a stream of cow's urine

vessel.
laid
it

was poured from a metal

brought a plantain-leaf, and

Next, one of the men

on the

circle of

cow-dung

so as to form a kind of dish or plate.

Around

the edge of

the leaf were placed five round balls (Pindas), probably of

rice-flour, rather

smaller than cricket-balls, mixed with some

Sprigs of the Tulsi plant and fresh leaves

brown substance.

of the betel, with a few flowers, were inserted in each ball,

and a coloured cotton cord loosely suspended between them.

Next, one of the relations covered the
red powder called gulal.
five

Pindas with the

Then

five flat

wheaten cakes were

placed on the plantain-leaf inside the circle of the five Pindas,

and boiled

rice

was

piled

up on the cakes, surmounted by a

far

small piece of ghl mixed with brown sugar.

The ceremony being

nearest relative took an

so

completed, the son or next

vase, filled
it

empty earthenware

with

$raddha Ceremonies Proper.

water, and held
it

30

on

his right shoulder.

Starting from the

north side he

commenced circumambulating

the five Pindas

and the

five

wheaten cakes, keeping

his left shoulder

towards

them, while one of the relatives with a sharp stone

made

hole in the jar, whence the water spouted out in a stream as

he walked round.

On

completing the

first circuit

and coming

back to the north, a second incision was made with the same
stone,

whence a second stream poured out simultaneously

first.

with the

At

the end

of the fifth round,

when

five

streams of water had been

made

to spout out from five holes

round the

five Pindas,

the earthenware vase was dashed to

the ground on the north side, and the remaining water spilt

over the ashes.

Next, one of the relatives took a small

metal vessel containing milk, and, with a betel-leaf for a

ladle,

sprinkled

some drops over the

rice

piled

on

the

wheaten cakes.
lota

After which, taking some water from a small

it

or rather making another relative pour into hand he sprinkled a round the Pindas, and then
his
first
it

in

circle

over the cakes.

Finally, bending

down and

raising his

hands
other
turn.

to his head, he performed a sort of puja to the Pindas, which

were supposed to represent the deceased

relations.

This was repeated by

all

twenty-four

man and four men in

After the completion of the ceremony, the balls and cakes

were

left to

be eaten by animals.

The men who performed

it

probably belonged to a low caste or to some aboriginal

tribe.

An
and
is

account of the late Maharani of Nuddea's cremation and

is

of the subsequent ceremonies

well

given further on (Chap.

XXII)

worthy of

attention.

Of course
at

the Sraddha ceremonies proper (as already shown

pp. 278-285)

have

many

points

in

common

with
in

the
the

antecedent funeral obsequies (antyeshti), especially

nature of the oblations offered and texts repeated, but the

balls of rice, etc. (Pindas) are said to represent

the deified

bodies of the

Pitris.
is

According to the Nirnaya-sindhu a Sraddha

a gift given

o 04

Sraddha Ceremonies P^'oper

faith

to the Pitris, offered with

(Sraddha) and with some

^),

auspicious exclamation (such as svadhd

gifts to

and followed by

the

Brahmans (compare
is

p. 287).

A
tors.

Sraddha^, then,

a reverential offering to deceased ances-

But Sraddhas are not only acts of homage, they are

the previous funeral
Until
its

believed to minister to the welfare of those deceased relatives

who through
spirit is

rites

have obtained ethereal

is

bodies (divya-deha).

the

Sraddha

performed the
spirit

a Preta, after
place

performance (pp. 307-312) the

takes

its

among

the Pitris or divine Fathers in their

blissful

abodes called

Pitri-loka.

And

the Sraddhas do

this,

not so
rice,

much by supplying them with nutriment

^,

in the balls of

by accumuthem and so accelerating their progress through the heavens to future births and final union with the Supreme. And this accumulation of merit is mainly accomplished by feasting and feeing the Brahmans, who are held for
cakes of meal, and daily water offered
as

lating merit (punya) for

the time to represent the

Pitris.

But a Sraddha

is

also

performed on one's own account.

Propitiation and gratification of the

Manes

are acts fraught

properly,

with reflex benefits to any one

who performs them

his family.

and

may become

a means of storing up merit or procuring

some advantage

for himself

and

Probably

this is

the main idea in the minds of those the ceremonies so earnestly.

who go through some

of

Nor
various

is

a Sraddha by any means necessarily connected with

It

funerals.

may be
:

performed every day, and especially on

occasions of rejoicing.
(III. 13)

According

to

the VishnuPitris at

purana
^

'A

householder should worship the

offered.

Requiring the dative case cf the object to which the oblation is Other similar exclamations are svaha, sraushat, vaushat.
is

Svadha
^

also a

name

for the oblation or for

its

personification.

Yet

it is

true, as before seen, that

Manu and

others

make

the Pitris
it is

actually feed

on the essence of the

in ancient times

offerings.

In the

same way

said

that in

Europe

supply the

Manes

asphodels were planted near groves to of the dead with nourishment.


Sraddha Ceremonies Proper,
the marriage of a son
or

305
a

daughter, on

entering

new

dweUing, on naming a
the face of a son.'
It is

child,

on performing tonsure, on seeing

on

this

account that the Nirnaya-sindhu distinguishes

:

Sraddhas under twelve heads, as follows

1.

Nitya, 'daily,' 'constant,' consisting of offerings of water

to ancestors generally at the daily

part of the
riously^
2.

Tarpana ceremony forming Sandhya (p. 410). This cannot be performed vicabut only by every man in his own person.
and having reference to one person (ekoddish-

Naimittika, 'special,' performed on special occasions as

at funerals,

tam) recently deceased.

An

odd number

of

Brahmans

(for

instance, one, three, five, etc.) are to be feasted at the close

of the

rite.

In contradistinction to Nitya, Naimittika cere-

monies admit of being performed through a deputy or representative.

3.

Kamya,

'

voluntary,' performed for the accomplishment of

;

some
4.
5.

desired object

as, for instance,

'

the obtaining of a son.

Vriddhi-Sraddha,
Sapindana,
'

for the increase of prosperity.'

for

the benefit

of

all

kinsmen who are

Sapindas,' that

is,

connected by

the offering of the Pinda.

This
6.

may be

performed by women.
'

Parvana,
is,

performed at
at

the conjunction of sun

at

and

moon,' that

new moon and

other periods of the

moon's changes.
7.

Goshthl-Sraddha, 'performed at any large assembly or

family gathering.'
8.

Suddhy-artha, 'for the sake of

purification,'

and con-

sisting

mainly

in

the feeding of a certain

number of Brahmans,
rites.'

as representatives of the Pitris.

9.

Karmanga,
'

'

performed at certain Sanskara

10.

Daivika, 'on behalf of the gods,' especially the Visve

deities collectively.'
'

devah, or
11.

Yatrartha,

for success'
'

on undertaking a journey.

IS. Pushty-artha,

for health

and well-being of body.'

3o6

Srdddha Ce7^emonies Proper.

in

Other forms of Sraddha were described to me while I was India for example, the one called Hiranya-Sraddha, gold
' ;

Sraddha/
fed with

is

said

to be performed

by giving money

to a
to be

Brahman, when no Brahman can be found who wishes

cooked food.
Again,

Darbha-Sraddha

is

where,

in

the

absence

of

Brahmans as representatives of the Pitris, an ^^^y of a Brahman is made with Kusa grass and worship offered to it. Of all these Sraddhas, that performed for a parent recently
deceased (and therefore falling under the class Naimittika

and called Ekoddishta, directed towards one person ') is the most interesting, as it is the only one accompanied with
'

elaborate ceremonial, costly

gifts,

and

festivities.

It

must

not be deferred too long after the termination of the funeral

proper, and must in
all

cases take place before the end of

It

the

first

month

after death.
in

ought to be performed by a

son and repeated

for a

a simple form every succeeding

month

year ^, and again at every anniversary.

In Bengal, according to Mr. S.

Bose^, a son from the

hour of his

father's

death to the conclusion of the funeral

ceremony
or

is

religiously forbidden to shave,

wear shoes,

shirts,

any garment other than the piece of white cloth, his food being confined to a single meal consisting of rice, pulse, milk, A Brahman must continue this ghee, sugar, and a few fruits.
course of fasting for ten days
",

a Kshatriya longer.

(See the

Maharaja of Nuddea's description. Chap. XXII.)

Then
About

fifteen or sixteen

days

after the

demise of his father

the son makes

preparation for the approaching Sraddha.

the twentieth day he walks barefoot to the house of

is

each of his relations to announce that the Sraddha

^

to take

So in Ireland a mass for the dead is celebrated one month after death. See 'The Hindoos as they are,' pp. 254-257. ^ According to the Vishnu-purana, the time of mourning and impurity for a Vaisya, is, for a Brahman, ten days for a Kshatriya, twelve fourteen for a Sudra, a whole month or thirty-one days. The higher the caste the less the inconvenience imposed.
^
; ;
;

Srdddha Ceremonies Proper.

place on the thirty-first

307

day

after death.

On

the thirtieth day,

the son and other near relatives shave, cut their nails, and put

on new clothes, giving the old to the barber.

are sent round to the

Invitations
their

Brahmans and Pandits requesting

presence at the

feast.

On

the thirty-first day, early in the

priest,

morning, the son, accompanied by the officiating

to the
rites.

goes

river-side,

bathes, and performs certain preliminary

quantity of silver and brass utensils, besides shawls,

silver in cash are required for the
gifts for

cloth,

and hard

ceremony

and to serve as
guests.

the Brahmans, Pandits, and other

the

From eight in the morning to two in the afternoon house is crammed to suffocation. The guests arrive early,
to take their seats according to their caste.
;

and are asked

About

ten o'clock the son begins the rite

the officiating priest

Pitri-siaktas

reciting the formularies (which

ought to include

from the Sama-veda), and the son repeating them.

Meanwhile

female singers of questionable character entertain the guests

with their songs, while garlands and sandal-paste are distributed.

About one in the afternoon the ceremony is brought to a by the Brahmans and Pandits receiving their customary The first in the list gets, in ordinary cases, about five gifts.
close

rupees in cash, and one brass vessel valued at four or five rupees
;

the second, third, and others in proportion.

religious

The

Guru or

teacher and the

Purohita or officiating

priest carry off the lion's share.

On

the following day, according to Mr. Bose, an entertainto the

ment is given Hindu can be

to

Brahmans, and

until

this

is

done no

released from

the restrictions of mourning,

nor regain his former purity.

assemble, and

hundred, seats of

when the Kusa grass

About twelve, the guests begin number reaches two or three

in

long rows are arranged for

'

them, and each

man

receives a plantain leaf on which are

placed fruits and sweetmeats, such as 'ghee-fried loochees

and other

delicacies, besides various kinds of confectionery in

308 J
earthen plates.

Srdddha Ceremonies Proper.

Every Brahman before leaving the house
is

presented with a

money

gift

(dakshina) of one or two annas.

is

The next

day, a similar entertainment with similar gifts

given to Kayasthas and

members

of inferior classes.

And

here

it

may

be noted that time and place are im-

portant factors in the due performance of Sraddhas.

time, the month Bhadra

As

to

from

the middle of August to the

middle of September
fortnight) in that

and

especially the Pitri-paksha (Pitri

month

or in the beginning of Asvina, are

believed to

be the most auspicious seasons for Sraddhas.

As
as the
in

to locality, the

banks of sacred streams or pools, and

footsteps of Vishnu, are sought for
spots.

places consecrated

by the

most favourable

Sraddhas are also performed

can
surpass
in

cow-houses.

No

place

suitability

the

neighbourhood of some of the holy tanks

it

at Benares,

except

be the temple built over the footstep of Vishnu at Gaya,

is

which

more frequented than any other spot

in

India for

the performance of particular Sraddhas.

At Benares on
the day
I visited

the Ghat near the pool of Mani-karnika, on

it,

man was performing

a Sraddha (perhaps

Kamya, p. 305) for his mother. The officiating Brahman began by forming a slightly elevated piece of ground with some sand. This was supposed to constitute a small altar
the

was of an oblong form, but not more than ten inches long by four or five broad. Across this raised sand he
(vedi).
It

laid three stalks of

little

Kusa
or

grass.

Then taking a number

of

earthenware platters or saucers, he arranged them round

tila

the sand, putting

sesamum seed

in one, rice in another,

honey

in a third, areca or betel-nut in

fifth.

a fourth, candana or

sandal in a

Next, he took flour of wheat or barley and

kneaded

it

into

one

largre

Pinda.

rather

smaller than

cricket-ball,

which he carefully deposited

it

in the centre of the

sand-altar, scattering over

jasmine flowers, khaskhas grass,

it

and wool, and placing on one side of

areca-nut and a single

a betel-leaf with

copper

coin.

Then having poured

Sraddha Ceremonies Proper,

water from a lota into his hand, he sprinkled
offerings,
it

309
over
all

the

arranged

in
:

the

manner
for

described.
instance,

Other similar
an
earthenware
near
the

operations
platter,

followed

thus,
platters

containing
;

lighted wick,

was
filled

placed

offerings

ten

other

were
;

with water, which

was

all

poured over the Pinda

another small platter with

first
;

a lighted wick was added to the

then some milk was

placed in another platter and poured over the Pinda, which

was once more sprinkled with water.

joined his hands together and did
ritual lasted
ing, the

Finally, the

homage
it

to the Pinda.
it

Brahman The

about
for

fifteen

minutes, and while

man

whose mother

was proceedwas performed repeated

loud talking going on
'

prayers under the direction of the officiating Brahman, quite

regardless of

my

presence and of

much

around him.

The ceremony ended by the feeding of a Brahman,' who was made to sit on the ground near the
oblations,

and fed with

flat

cakes, ghee, sweetmeats, vegetables,

and curds placed

in a plate

of palasa-leaves.

The Brahmans who

With regard
the
river

assist at

Sraddhas are not considered

visited
in

particularly respectable.
to Gaya,
city
is

which

1876,

may
on

mention that the

most picturesquely

situated

Phalgu, about sixty miles

hills

south-west

of Patna,
of the

near some short ranges of

plain.

rising abruptly out

The Vishnu-pada
is

temple, where the principal Sraddhas

are performed,

built of black stone, with a lofty

It

dome and

golden pinnacle.
in

contains the alleged footprint of Vishnu

a large silver basin, under a silver canopy, inside an

octagonal shrine.

Pindas and various kinds of offerings are

placed by the pilgrims inside the basin round the footprint,

and near
Sraddhas.

it

are open colonnades for the performance of the

Let

no

one

suppose
is

that

the

process

of

performing
secure the

Sraddhas at Gaya

either simple or rapid.

rites,

To

complete efficacy of such

a whole round of

them must

'lo o

Sraddha Ceremonies Proper.

at

be performed

about a hundred distinct places

in
all

and

around Gaya, as well as at the most holy spot of

Vishnu-pada temple
least eight days,

the
are

the time occupied in the process being at

to fifteen, while the

and sometimes protracted

sums spent

in fees to the officiating priests

(who

at

Gaya

called Gayawals, abbreviated into

Gaywals

Gaya-palas, re-

garded as an

inferior order of

Brahmans) are often enormous.

is

The

efficacy of
in

Sraddhas performed at Gaya

onwards departed

this^

that

wherever

their progress

relatives

may

have arrived, the Sraddhas take them without further im-

pediment or delay to Vishnu's heaven (Vaikuntha,

p. 70).

One

or

two examples witnessed by me

will suffice.

party consisting of six

men and one Gaywal

entered one of

the colonnades of the temple and seated themselves on their

heels in

line,

with the officiating priest at their head.

balls of rice

Twelve Pindas or

and milk, not much larger

'

than the large marbles used by boys (called

alleys

'),

were
in

formed and placed with sprigs of the sacred TulasI plant

small earthenware platters.

Then on the top

flowers.
I

of the Pindas
told that the

were scattered Kusa grass and

Pindas
in

was

the present case were typical of the bodies of the

twelve ancestors for

whom

the Sraddha was celebrated.

The
purify

men had Kusa

their

grass twisted round their fingers, to

hands

for the

due performance of the

rite.

Next, water

was poured

into the palms, part of

which they sprinked on

the ground, and part on the Pindas.

One

or

two of the men

then took threads off their clothes and laid them on the
Pindas.

This act

is

alleged to be emblematical of presenting

the bodies of their departed ancestors with garments.

Meanwhile texts and prayers were repeated, under the

direction of the Gaywal,

and the hands were sometimes exif

tended over the Pindas as

rite

to invoke blessino^s.
their

The whole
heads to the

was concluded by the men putting

officiating

ground before the

The number

of Pindas varies with the

Brahman and touching his feet. number of ancestors

Sraddha Ceremonies,
for

Pilgrimages,

whom

the Sraddhas are celebrated, and the size of the

differ

balls

and the materials of which they are composed

rite.

according to the caste and the country of those

the
or
size
I

who perform
much
larger

saw one party

in

the

act of forming fourteen

fifteen

Pindas with meal, which were of a

than large marbles.

This party was said to have come

from the Dekhan.

Sometimes the Pindas were placed on betel-leaves with pieces of money, which were afterwards appropriated by the priests and sometimes the water used was taken out of little pots by dipping stalks of Kusa grass
;

into the fluid

all

and sprinkling

it

over the

balls.

At

the end of

the ceremonies a prayer was said for pardon lest any

minute part of the

omitted.

ceremonial
all

had
in

been unintentionally
platters

Then

finally

the earthen

employed
allowed to

were carried to a particular stone

temple and dashed to pieces there.
be used a second time.
birds

the precincts of the

platter
left
is

No
are

The Pindas

to be eaten

by

and other animals, or reverently deposited

in the river.

It is

remarkable that some of the most enlightened men of

both

India are unable to resist the impulse which takes every

Hindi! on a pilgrimage once in his
life, if

possible, to

Benares and Gaya, though they are perfectly aware that from
the

moment

of their arrival within ten miles of these sacred

to

localities

they are certain

become the prey

priests.

of a well-

organized

army

of rapacious

Mr.
in

Deshmukh gave
1876 ^

me

a brief account of his visit to

Gaya

He

went

there, like others of his fellow-countrymen, with the object of

performing some of the Sraddha ceremonies.

He
rally

is

a Cit-pavan
all

Brahman

(see note

i,

p. 271),

and geneit

opposed to
to

superstitious practices, yet he thinks

as
far

right

maintain his influence by conforming,

as

practicable, to old customs.

Starting from Patna, he had

^ I mean Mr. G. H. Deshmukh, who was then judge at Nasik and has been quoted before. The Government, in recognition of his services, has conferred on him the personal title of Rao Bahadur.

312 o
to

Sraddha Ceremonies,

Pilgrimages.

go through the ceremony of shaving (Kshaura) at a river called Punah-punah, about ten miles distant on the

road.

On

reaching

Gaya he was surrounded on

all

sides

by

thousands of persons offering Pindas, some of

persons of high rank
great imperial assemblage at Delhi.
entire

whom

were

Rajas and Maharajas, on their way to the

Many went
through the
perform-

round of

ritual observances, necessitating the

ance of at least a hundred Sraddhas at different shrines.

Mr.

Deshmukh had
in

to tell the

Gaywal

priests that
little

he was

expected
for

a few days at Delhi, and had

time to spare

Gaya.

He was

therefore allowed to dispense with all but

three ceremonies.

These were

i.

the Phalgu-Sraddha, perthe Vishnu-pada-Sraddha,

;

formed on the banks of the

river

2.

at the temple containing Vishnu's footprint

and

3.

Vata-

Sraddha, performed under a Banian

tree.

Two

whole days

were occupied

in

going through the necessary

ritual of these

Sraddhas, which was most elaborate and tedious, and the

fees

were of course proportionately

visited

Kashmir, who
rather

large. The Maharaja of Gaya in the same year and stayed longer than Mr. Deshmukh, is said to have expended

at least 15,000 rupees

on the Gaywal

priests

before their

demands were
I

satisfied.
I

must confess that

myself came away from the Vishnu-

pada temple profoundly impressed by the solemnity and

earnestness of

manner displayed by some

of the worshippers,

their unfaltering faith In the efficacy of the acts in

which they

were engaged, and their Intense anxiety to carry out every

tittle

and

iota of the ceremonial In obedience to the directions

of their priestly guides.

It waS;,

however, a melancholy spectacle

for

it

seemed

to

make

clear that, while the acquirement of

European know-

ledge has acted like a solvent on the faith of the Hindus,

a long period must elapse before the Influence of Christianity

can prevail to uproot the time-honoured and Inveterate superstitions of ages.

CHAPTER
Wo7^ship of

XII.

1117J la Is,

Trees,

and Inanimate
'

Objects,

Sir John Lubbock

tion
'

in his

work on the Origin

of Civiliza-

has some interesting remarks on the subject of animal-

worship, and shows that zoolatry has always prevailed

uncivilized

among

and

half-civilized races in every part of the globe.

in the

Mr. E. B. Tylor
Culture,'
ship,'

second volume of his

in his
'

'

Primitive

and Mr. Fergusson

into the

Tree and Serpent Wor-

go ably
is

same

subject.

It

found, for example, that serpents either have been

are objects of worship in

or

still

Egypt

-^5

Persia,

Kashmir,

India,

China, Tibet,

Ceylon, Babylonia, Phoenicia, Greece,

'

Italy, Lithuania,

and among the Kalmucks and other unI notice, too,

cultured tribes.

that in the St. James's Gazette

'

for June i, 1891, there is a curious account of a 'holy trout,' which is to be seen in a tank near Westport in Ireland, and
is

held sacred

by the
in

peasantry.

My
limited

remarks
to

the

present

chapter must of course be

India, but a difficult question meets us at the

:

very threshold

Can

any

satisfactory account be given of

the origin of zoolatry in that country?

I
is

need scarcely point out

that,

because animal-worship
in

common among numerous

it

races
it

other parts

of the

world,

does not follow that

the

may

not have originated

The Egyptians, who were

first

educators of the world, adored,

cat
is

as every one knows, the bull Apis, the bird Ibis, the hawk, the crocodile,

and many other animals.

British

The mummified

a familiar object in the

Museum.

14

Worship of Animals.
The human mind,
like the

independently in India.

body,

goes through similar phases everywhere, develops similar proclivities,

and

is

liable to similar diseases.

It is

certain that

every form of Fetishism and Totemism, of stone-worship,

tree-worship, and animal-worship, as well as every variety

of polytheistic and pantheistic superstition, have sprung up

spontaneously and flourished vigorously on Indian

soil.

The

motives, too, which have prompted

men

to worship

animals in India, are probably similar to those which have

actuated them elsewhere.
It
is

thought by some that an

animal
I.

may

receive adoration for

any one of three reasons.

it

Because, like an elephant or

lion,
;

happens to possess
it is

superhuman strength and courage

to be

2.

because
because

believed

an incarnation of the deity;

3.

it is

regarded

as a totem or representative of a tribe or family, the

word
For

totem being derived from an American Indian word dodaim^

which
it

signifies the

patron or typical animal of a

in

tribe.

is

remarkable that

America every member

of a tribe
as, for

or clan

may

be called by the name of some animal,

;

example, a bear, or a tortoise

pictures of these animals

standing for the whole clan, very

typically in the armorial bearings of

in

England, and just as

fish,
ii.

in

much as animals are used some English families South Africa we hear of men of
(Tylor's
'

the

men
235.)

of the crocodile, etc.

Primitive Cul-

ture,'

One

writer

is

inclined to lay great stress

on Totemism as
an individual or

a motive for zoolatry.

He

thinks

that

family called after a bear would be inclined to worship the

bear.
I

cannot believe that such a motive had

It is true

much weight
Amara-sinha,

in India.
is

that the

word

sinJi (for

Sanskrit sinha)

often

appended to the names of men

;

(as in

Ran-jit-sinh)
'

and

in

other parts of India the expressions

'

man-lion,'

'

man-tiger,'

man-bull,' etc.
;

denote a

man

re-

markable

for

courage or strength

but as a matter of fact

the names of the animals most worshipped in India

with

Worship of Animals.
the exception, perhaps, of

315

Naga

are not generally applied to

probable that Indian
for

human

beings.

It
is

seems to

me more

animal-worship

to be accounted

by

the working of

one or other of the motives, gratitude,

separately, in separate cases.

fear,

or awe, operating

Hindu worships a cow because he is proit renders him he worships a serpent because he dreads its power of destroying him by
instance, a

For

foundly sensible of the services

the slightest puncture

and he worships a monkey because

instinct
it

he stands

in

awe of the marvellous

is

displays.

In

short, his zoolatry

simply the expression of an exaggerated

qualities,

or intensified feeling of admiration for the three

utility,

brute strength, and instinct, manifesting themselves in

It

animal nature.
all

must not be forgotten,

too, that with a

Hindu

organic

life is

sacred.

Even

plant-life is to

be respected,

and must not wantonly be destroyed. Without doubt this feeling is strengthened by the intense hold which the doctrine of metempsychosis has on the

Hindu mind.
any believer
so also
in

It

is

difficult,

as

we have
If

already seen, for

of demarcation

Hinduism

to

draw a

line

between gods, men, and animals.

men depend on

animals,

do the gods

also are the gods.

men Brahma
if

are associated with animals, so

is

carried on a goose (haosa);

is

Vishnu on an eagle (Garuda), which

Siva on a bull (Nandi).

also half a

man
Nor

Other

deities are

associated

with other animals

first

^.

must we forget that Vishnu's

zoomorphic.
toise,

three

incarnations are

He

infuses his essence into the fish, the tor(see pp.

and the boar

107-109), with the object of

it

delivering the world, or aiding

in certain special exigencies.

This seems absurd to our ideas, but not to a Hindu who

^ The association of great heroes and saints with animals confined to India, for we find three of the Evangelists (St.

is

not

Mark,

St.

Luke, and

St.

John) associated with a Hon, ox, and eagle, respec-

tively.

316

Worship of Animals.

firmly believes that the supreme soul of the universe, like

the soul of man,

It is said of

may
is

pass into any kind of animal form.

Dr. Duff
so

to

whose labours

in

the cause of

education India

deeply indebted

that
'
:

he was once

examining an Indian school, and wishing to

of animal incarnations, said to the

ridicule this idea

boys

Can any boy

at last

tell

me

w^hether

it is
?
'

likely that God's spirit

would associate
;

itself

with a snail

No
:

one answered
'

for

some time

an
so,

intelligent lad said

if

think

He

might condescend to do

any

useful purpose were to be served thereby for the

good
and
little

of His creatures.'
fool.'

'Then/

said Dr. Duff, 'you think as a

But did the boy

really think so very foolishly?

in

had he altogether the worst of the encounter

brush with the Scotch giant
?

his

Again,

it

is

owing to a

belief in this

same doctrine of

metempsychosis that a Hindu has no

that a beast, bird, or reptile

difficulty in believing

may

at

any moment develop

belief

human

faculties

and

functions.

According to popular

there are eighty-four lakhs of different species of animals

through which a
therefore,

man

is

liable to pass.

may

enclose the soul of

Even a noxious insect, some person who was once

on
this

a sage, a
excellent

saint, or

an orator.

It is

account that the

stories

about talking animals and their sayings

in India, are to

and doings, everywhere current

of unthinking

the generality

Hindus not mere

fables,

but true narratives.

A beast
voice,

or bird
in

may on

special occasions speak with a

human

engage

long arguments, acquire profound learning,

right

and be troubled with a sense of

violating

and wrong, without

any law of organized

life,

or outraging

any of the

usual ideas of probability.

It is

on this account, too, that no true religiously minded

delights in killing animals, and certainly not for sport.
life,

Hindu

India teems with animal

and animals of every description

appear to
beings.

live

on terms of the greatest confidence with human

Everywhere they dispute possession of the earth

Worship of
with man.
fields,

the

Cow.

317

Birds build their nests and lay their eggs in the

untroubled by fears or misgivings, before the very eyes

of every passer-by, and within the reach of every village

school-boy.

Animals of

all

kinds rove over the

soil as if

they were the landlords.

drives

It is true that
;

every thrifty farmer

them from

his crops

yet he would scarcely dare to

question their claim to a portion of the food he eats and the

house he occupies
admitted,
so to

while everywhere in the towns they are

speak, to the privileges of fellow-citizens.

Bulls walk about independently in

the streets,

and

jostle

you on the pavements

jauntily on the roof of

monkeys domesticate themselves

;

your house

parrots peer inquisitively

from the eaves of your bedroom into the mysteries of your

toilet
;

crows make themselves at

off

home on your
article of
;

window-sill,

and carry

impudently any portable

jewelry that

takes their fancy on your dressing-table

sparrows hop about

;

impertinently, and take the bread off your table-cloth

solitary

your verandah, and expects a share

of

mongoose emerges every morning from a hole in in your breakfast; swarms insects claim a portion of your midday meal, and levy
bats

a tax on the choicest delicacies at your dinner table;

career triumphantly about your head as

you

light yourself to

your bed-room

and

at certain seasons snakes domicile

them-

selves unpleasantly in the folds of

It

your cast-off garments.

in

should be added, however, that although

is

the eyes
sacred,

of orthodox Hindils every animal

more or

less
is

ill-treatment of such useful animals as draught-oxen

by no

means uncommon
I

in India.

next proceed to note some of the more interesting exfirst

amples of actual animal-worship, turning

operation of the three motives

to three classes

of animals, the adoration of which probably results from the

I

have already suggested.

a source of nourishfor food,

In the forefront must be placed the worship of the cow

and the

bull.

ment

to a

The utility of the cow as people who never kill animals

and of the

^iS o

Worship of
bull to agriculturalists
is

the

Cow,

ox and
draught,
sacred.
other.

manifest.

who have no cart-horses for The cow is of all animals the most

Every part of its body is inhabited by some deity or Every hair on its body is inviolable. All its excreta Not a particle ought to be thrown away as are hallowed.
impure.

On

the contrary,
all

tjie

water

it

ejects

ought to be pre-

served as the best of

holy waters
it

a sin-destroying liquid
is

which
like

sanctifies everything

touches, while nothing purifies

cow-dung.

Any

spot which a cow has condescended to

for ever

honour with the sacred deposit of her excrement

with
at once cleansed

afterwards consecrated ground, and the filthiest place plastered

it

is

and freed from

this

pollution, while

the ashes produced

by burning

hallowed substance are

of such a holy nature, that they not only

make

clean

all

material things, however previously unclean, but have only

to be sprinkled over a sinner to convert

him

into a saint.

In an underground passage of the

image of a man named Mukunda.

Agra fort there is an The Brahman who was

my
that

guide when
it

visited

this

place gravely informed

me

represented a celebrated saint

who

felt

himself com-

pelled to
river

commit
a

suicide

by jumping

into the neighbouring

as

penalty for having accidentally swallowed

the

cow by drinking milk without straining it. But even this was not deemed sufficient punishment, for he was condemned to become a Muhammadan in his next birth, though the sentence was mitigated by his being born again We cannot wonder, therefore, that as the Emperor Akbar.
hair of a

the heaven of Krishna

It is

is

called Go-loka, 'cow-world^ (p. ii8).

in the exist-

worthy of note that the Hindus believe

ence of a typical divine cow called Surabhi or Kama-dhenu,

'

the

cow

of plenty,' yielding all desired objects, representa-

tions

of which are to be seen in temples, or are kept in

houses for purposes of domestic worship.

This typical animal

was produced from the ocean when it was churned by the gods and demons (see p. io8). Yet I nowhere saw any temple

 9
Worship of Serpents,
dedicated exclusively to Surabhi or to any other cow.
is

It

rather the living animal which

is
is

a perpetual object of dedicated to Siva, and

adoration.

As

to

the bull, he

constantly associated with the god as typical of generative

power.

Images of him are to be found near

loose
of a
bull

all

Lihga

shrines.

The

letting

(vrishotsarga,
in cities like

brishotsarga)

stamped with
and Gaya
(p.

Siva's trident

Benares

(p.

436)

309)

is

fraught with the highest merit.

This

setting free of a bull to

at Sraddhas.

roam about

at will often takes place

Passing on to the second class of animals, or those wor-

shipped out of motives of

fear,

we must,

of course, place the

serpent at the head of the

ophiolatry, and

list.

Much Some

has been written on

its

on the vexed question of

origin.

The

subject seems inexhaustible.

writers

maintain that

snake-worship was the earliest form of religion prevalent

among men

in

all

parts of the globe,

its

general diffusion

being partially accounted for by the fact that serpents are

indigenous almost everywhere,

and

not, like

monkeys and

elephants, in certain localities only.

All writers, however,

are agreed that the chief factor in the universality of this

phase of superstition

is

the dread inspired

its

by a mysterious
movements, ap-

creeping creature, silent and stealthy in

parently quite unprovided with the most ordinary means of

offence

and defence, yet found to have

all

at its

command

the

most deadly of
skin of

known

destructive weapons, and able to

cause almost instantaneous death by merely pricking the

its

adversary.
is

In India, as

well known, the habit of walking barefoot

exposes the half-clad natives to constant peril from this

source, so that, according to

some

authorities, at least 25,000

perish

annually from snake-bites (many deaths being unNevertheless, the feeling of antipathy that leads

registered).

man

to recoil from contact with a snake of

its

any kind does

doing harm.

not seem to depend entirely on

power

of

"^20

Worship of Serpents,
majority of these animals are quite innocuous.
persons their sinuous

A large
to
holes,

Yet
in

many

movements,

their habit of

shunning observation, their concealment of themselves

the cold fixity of their gaze, and the constant pro-

trusion of their forked tongues, are in themselves typical of

subtlety and malevolence

while to others these operations

are not merely types of evil qualities, but evidences of actual

demoniacal possession.

On

the other hand,

it

is

certain that to
spiral

some Indian minds

and generally
of divine
in

the beautiful

markings,

movements,

striking aspect of

many

species of harmless snakes, are sug-

gestive

of

reverential

ideas.

They

are

typical

beauty and beneficence, while the coiling of their bodies

rings

and

circles,

and

their

annual rejuvenescence by the

renewal of their skins, symbolize immortality and the never-

ending cycles of eternal time.

killed

When

they are accidentally

they even sometimes receive funeral honours like

human

beings.

Hence
day.

serpents are either worshipped or propitiated in

India under the most opposite characters even to the present

Nor does

Hindu appear

to see

any inconsistency

in

regarding snakes as embodiments of the contradictory ideas

of destruction and regeneration, malevolence and benevolence,

demonism and

divinity,

death and immortality.

No

authority, however, for

is
;

any such
there

diversified concep-

tions of serpent-nature

to be found in

sacred writings of India

early
pers.

nor

is

the more ancient any proof that the

Aryan immigrants were

in

any sense serpent-worshipin the

On
2)

the contrary, their only feeling towards the serpent

dislike.

was one of dread and

VI. 20.
is

Hence

Rig-veda (see

the

demon

of cloud and darkness, called Vritra,

either identified or associated with the serpent

Ahi

("0(/)iy)

and the god Soma is described as delivering over all speakers and slanderers into the power of this serpent
VII. 104.
9,

evil

(see

and compare Vajasaneyi-sanihita VI.

12).

We

W
know,
early
too, that

07^ship

of Serpents.
day the sight of a snake

321
in the

even to
is

this

morning
it

seeing

he

will
in

of any

work

Brahman so bad an omen, that after desist for the moment from the prosecution which he may be engaged ^. Yet so elastic
to a
that,

was the creed and practice of Brahmanism,

serpent-worship, like

finding

other aboriginal cults, established on

difficulty in

Indian

soil, it

had no

adopting

it,

and ended by

incorporating every superstitious idea connected with ophiolatry into the

complex

fabric of

Hinduism.
Jainism, but

In fact the gradual intertwining of serpent-worship with

Saivism, Vaishnavism, and even

Buddhism and
105,
this

more

especially with Saivism (see pp. 80,

and

113),

is

one of the most interesting features of

complex

subject.

Siva has five heads, and a great majority of serpent images

are

five-headed
coiled

also.

Then
it.

have often seen images of

serpents

round the Lihga, and five-headed snakes

forming a canopy over

similar
;

canopy

is

also found
is

over idols of Krishna and

Buddha

Vishnu, too,

repre-

sented as sleeping on the thousand-headed serpent Sesha, the

symbol of
(P-

Infinity,

which also forms a canopy over him

323)-

On

the other hand, Garuda, the mythical bird of Vishnu,

half eagle, half man, destroys serpents in their character of

representatives

of

evil.

Krishna does the same

all

and the

Maha-bharata
belief

that

greatest of

repositories

of

Hindu

opens with a long account of Janamejaya's sacrifice for

the annihilation of the serpent or

Naga race (I. 1547-2197). Buddhism and Jainism, no doubt, became connected with serpent-worship not from any affinity with it, but because, like
Hindiiism, they adapted themselves to pre-existing cults.

And
rather,
^

here
is

it

in India
is

must be observed that the worship of serpents or closely connected with that of the Nagas
;

generally mixed

up and

confounded with that

born.'

Yet a snake (as oviparous) is, like a Brahman, called Dvi-ja, 'twiceBirds for the same reason are twice-born.'
'

o22

WorsJiip of Serpents.
Indeed the Avord
it

worship.

Naga
^,

frequently denotes
signifies

an

ordinary serpent, though

properly

a being half

human, half serpentine

often
a
beautiful, wise,

in

form

not

necessarily evil, but

and good, and, although armed with

elixir

deadly venom, possessing also the

of

life

and imI.

mortality,

and able to bestow

it

upon others (Maha-bh.

1500-1505, 5018-5035).

The

race of

Nagas

is

fabled to have sprung from Kadru,

one of the wives of the old patriarch Kasyapa (her sister

Vinata being also a wife of Kasyapa, and mother of Garuda).

Kadru gave

birth to icoo Nagas,

who became

the progenitors

of the serpent-race.

Some

of their females married

human

heroes (as Ulupl married Arjuna, after carrying him off to

the bottom of the Ganges, p. 233), and to this
are tribes called

day there

Nagas

^,

and ancient families who claim to

race of mythical
at the

be of Naga descent.
is

The whole

Nagas

sometimes represented as dwelling

in

bottom of the
but also as

ocean, or

the depths of rivers and

lakes,

inhabiting the regions under the earth (see p. 233, and

'

my

Buddhism,'
it

p. 220),

and more especially

told

Patala, or that poris

tion of

called Naga-loka, of

which the capital

is

Bhogavati.

The
(I.

following curious story

in the

Maha-bharata

50C6)

:
princes in their boyish sports excelled the sons

The Pandu

of Dhrita-rashtra.

This excited

much

ill-feeling

and Dur-

}'odhana, spiteful even

^

when a boy,

tried to destroy

Bhima

to Dr. K. M. Banerjea, the theory of a race of Nagas, half men, confinns the Biblical account of the serpent, which was originally perhaps of a species corresponding to the Nagas, till the sentence was pronounced by which it became a creeping reptile. I noticed, when at Rome, that Michael Angelo's fresco of Adam and Eve in the roof of the Sistine chapel, represents the serpent as shaped h"ke an Indian Naga that is the lower part of the body is coiled round the stem of the tree in serpent fashion, while the upper part in human

According

serpents, half

form
-

offers the fruit to

Eve.
to

For example, the Nagas of Manipur, but they are not found

be

snake-worshippers.

Worship of Serpents.

323

by mixing poison in his food, and then throwing him into water when stupefied by its effects. Bhlma, however, was not drowned, but descended to the abode of the Nagas, who freed him from the poison (I. 5052), and gave him an
the
elixir to

drink which endued him with the strength of ten

thousand Nagas, and made him a kind of Hercules.

The kings of the Nagas are Of these, the most conspicuous

also called An-anta,
'

Sesha, Vasuki, and Takshaka.

is

the thousand-headed Sesha,

the Infinite,' sometimes represented as

forming the couch and canopy of Vishnu, while sleeping

during the intervals of creation
;

sometimes as bearing the

in the

world on his thousand heads

sometimes as supporting Patala

form of Bala-

and sometimes as having become man

rama, Ramanuja,
etc. (pp. 112, 119).

According to popular

belief all earthquakes are

caused by his shaking one of his

tliousand heads.

particular

day
is

called Naga-paficamT, about the end of

July (Sravana).
districts

held sacred to the Nagas, and

serpent-worship
is

in

the
rife,

of India where

especially
I

numbers

flock to Naga-shrines

on that day.

should

state,

however, that temples dedicated to serpents are by no means

common

in

Northern India.

The only one

it

visited

was that
This
is

sacred to Vasuki at Dara-ganj, near Allahabad.

noted shrine, and pilgrims resort to

the Naga-paiicami festival.
I

In large

numbers on
priest of this
^.

found that the

temple was not a Brahman, but a

man

of low caste

On

my

expressing a wish for some memorial of the place, he

tore off a rude drawing of a

many-headed serpent which was

It

fastened to the door of the shrine, and presented

to me.
cer-

Other shrines
tain
districts of
etc.)

in the

neighbourhood of Nagpur and

frequented at certain seasons.

the central provinces (such as Chanda-pur,

are

Bhandhak,

much

In

^ This serpent-temples, and it is one is, I believe, the case in all evidence that Brahmanism had originally no connexion with ophiolatry.

324

Worship of Serpents.

Southern India the whole of Kanara

steeped
in

may

be regarded as

serpent-worship.

Mr. Walhoiise informs us that one of the highest mountains

of the South

very celebrated serpent-temple.

*

Kanara Ghats, named Su-brahmanya, has a There great numbers of the

and crevices made
for

coiling folk

'

reside in holes

them.

To
roll

propitiate these creatures, persons

who have made vows

hill,

and wriggle round the temple serpent-fashion, and some

even
roll their

will

bodies up to

it

from the foot of the

a mile distant.

They

also take

home

with them portions

is

of earth from the sacred serpent-holes.

This earth
if

believed

to cleanse from leprosy (compare 2 Kings v. 17),

rubbed on
in

the parts affected

if

it

will

moreover cure barrenness

mouth.

women,

little
is

be daily put

in the

Serpentine body -wrig-

gling

also practised further south,

in

where small snake-temples

{Ndga-kovil
far

Tamil) are common.

few rupees

Near one of
river,

these, not

from Madura on the bank of the Vaiga

for a
will

there are

men who

perform any number of wrig-

glings and rollings round the shrine, as proxies for persons

who have vowed them

Indeed
it

^.

seems to be a fixed
all

article of belief

throughout

Southern India, that

who have
in

wilfully or accidentally

killed a snake, especially a cobra, will certainly

be punished
:

either in this

life

or the next

one of three ways

either
behoves

by
all

childlessness, or

by

leprosy, or

by ophthalmia.

It

persons, therefore,

who

are afflicted with such diseases,

to

or feel that they

may have

undergo the inevitable penalty

hereafter, to visit serpent-shrines

and

conciliate the serpent-

gods by the most abject homage.

ideas, I

In connexion with these

may mention

that on the banks of the river

Tamra-

parnl, near a bridge connecting Tinnevelly with Palamcottah,

I

noticed two or three Pipal trees, under which were depo-

sited

hundreds of stone images of Krishna, and of the Liiiga

of Siva, each
^

image having a five-headed Naga so carved

'

See

Indian Antiquary,' for February 1878.

Worship of Serpents.
as to form a

325

canopy over

it.

It is
is

the custom in the South

of India for any

woman who

childless,

and beHeves her

in a

barrenness to be caused by having killed a cobra

life,

former
;

to perform the ceremony called Naga-pratishtha

that

is

to say, she sets

up a stone Naga under a

tree,

taking care

to

have

it

duly consecrated by the repetition of texts and

prayers.
several
largest
lation

On the occasion of my visit to the Tamra-parnI, women were assembled in the neighbourhood of the Pipal tree. Some performed reverential circumambuin their hands.

round the images, and some sprinkled them with water

from vessels which they held

In the same

way

childless

women

are in the habit of going

to holes in the earth where snakes are supposed to dwell, and

depositing offerings of milk with invocations and prayers.

I

may

note here another curious superstition

connected
of all ser-

with this subject.

pents

The heads
cobras

of

all

Nagas and
to

especially
gems

are

believed

contain
if

precious

stones and

of magical properties.

These,

extracted

and carried about on the person, are capable of working as

astounding miracles for their owners, as the wonderful lamp
did for Aladdin.
I

met with no one who could show me a

specimen of these so-called miraculous snake-stones, but they

are described as dark and shining, and shaped like a horse-

bean.
in

A similar superstition exists

in the

in

some

parts of England

regard to supposed stones

heads of toads.

As an example
it

of other superstitious ideas about snakes,

is

related that a certain village in Northern India

all its

was not

long ago suddenly deserted by

inhabitants.

No

per-

suasions would induce the people to return, and on inquiry

was found that the panic among the villagers was caused by an unexpected visitation of snakes, who had established
it

themselves comfortably

in

the precincts of the village, and

that these harmless immigrants were believed to be a colony

of malevolent demons.

Again,

it is

said that a

man once bought a

piece of ground

^26 o
and
the
sat

Worship of Monkeys.
down
to contemplate his purchase

under a tree

in

centre

of his newly-acquired

property.
in

Suddenly he

heard the hissing of a snake coiled

his head.

the branches above

Panic-struck, he ran off and escaped unharmed,

to

but never dared

show

his

face

on the ground again, he had imprudently

of serpent-

being firmly convinced that the serpent was the indignant

spirit

of the former proprietor,

whom

neglected to propitiate before taking possession.

So much
worship

for the

complex and

difficult subject

in India.

Probably the best representative of the third

the monkey.

class

of

animals whose worship originally arose from a deep reverence for instinct
is

And

here a

difficult
'

question
instinct.'

presents itself as to the precise meaning of the term

Is
it

possible to define

its

exact nature and to give any reason

for its claim to adoration.?

Without pretending

to

mathe-

matical accuracy in attempting to solve insoluble problems,

we may perhaps
and body
conscious
in

describe instinct, in a general way, as the

mysterious exercise of certain powers and faculties of mind

obedience to the laws of organized

life

without

will.

The working

of these powers in the lower

animals
worship.

may well excite amazement and admiration, if not What can be more wonderful than the sight of a
suddenly transformed by instinct

feeble timid mother-bird

into a very tigress, and ready to fight hopelessly in defence of

her young against an opponent immeasurably her superior?

To
as

a Hindii such a sight would be an intense confirmation

of his belief that the divine soul

may occupy

animals as well
fills

men.

And

if

instinct in the lower animals

is

him with

so deep an awe, he

the more inclined to attach sacredness

to a higher order of animals in

whom

instinct

almost impinges

upon the domain of reason. With regard to the actual worship of monkeys
be added to what has already been stated
in

little

need
to

relation

Hanuman

(see p.

22o).

In

Hindu mythology apes and

Worship of Various Animals.

monkeys are
for these

327

as intimately connected with the worship of

is

Vishnu, as the bull

with that of Siva

though the reverence

full

animals probably preceded the

development of
222).

both Vaishnavism and Saivism (see note,

the idea of a
close interconnexion

p.

Indeed

between gods, demons,

;

men, and animals dates from the

illustrated in a

earliest times

and the hold

is

which such ideas have gained on the Hindu mind

In Ward's

often

remarkable manner by present customs.

"*

'

Hindoos

an account

is

given of what to Euro-

peans would appear an incredible occurrence:

certain

Bengal Raja spent

00,000 rupees
all

in

marrying a male and

pageant,

female monkey, with

the paraphernalia,

and had
Pro-

expense usual

at the

weddings of high-caste human beings.

in a costly vehicle,

The male monkey was borne along

to wait

a crown fastened on his head, and a whole array of servants

on him.
all,

The
this

festivities lasted for

twelve days.

bably, after

remarkable proceeding was merely a

to

mode
I

of offering

homage

Hanuman, whose
is

worship, as

already explained at p. 220,

prevalent everywhere.
is

may

note here as a curious circumstance that there

at

Benares a well-known temple, commonly called the 'monkeytemple,' which

is

not really dedicated to

Hanuman, but
in

to

Durga.

witnessed the sacrifice of a goat

honour of the
intelli-

goddess outside the door of the shrine, while several

gent monkeys, with true simian and

mock-human

curiosity,

leaped from the neighbouring

trees,

took up a position on

the vantage-ground of the roof, and seemed to be quite as

interested
in

the ceremony as

was.

These animals are

the temple.

daily fed
feed one

by pious persons who frequent

is

To
would

a highly meritorious act

to injure one

be the most heinous of crimes.

I

can only advert briefly to other animals usually held

sacred in India.

large

number

are, as

we have

seen

(p.

104,

note

3),

associated with gods, as their vehicles, servants, or

companions, and worshipped accordingly.

^28 J

Worship of Various Animals.

is

Vishnu's attendant, the divine Garuda (see p. 104),

presented by a species of eagle or similar bird,
parts of India, and held in great honour.
districts,

re-

common

in

some

In some country

villagers are

in

the

habit of

invoking Garuda's protection against snakes every night before

going to

sleep.

Again^

in the

North Koiikan,

heard of a

tribe called Warall,

who worship Vagho-ba,

(hansa)
is,

the ^tiger-lord'

(Sanskrit Vydghra, 'a tiger'), from similar motives.

Then the goose

to

as

we have
tiger to

seen, sacred to

Brahma, the elephant to Indra, the

Durga, the buffalo

Yama, the

rat to Ganesa, the

to Skanda, the parrot to

ram to Agni, the peacock Kama-deva (god of love).

it is

With regard
that the earth
also

to the sacredness of the elephant,

is

notable

not only supported on Sesha

(p. 323),

but

on the vast heads and backs of eight male and eight

female elephants,
alities.

who

all

have names and

distinct

person-

They

are called the elephants of the eight quarters.

When any

one of these shakes

I.

quakes (see Ramayana

41).

body the whole earth Sometimes they are described

its

as roaming about in the neighbourhood of their stations.

The

fish,

the

tortoise,

and the boar are worshipped as

Fish are often fed as
I

incarnations of Vishnu (pp. 107-109).

a religious duty.

At Mathura
pilgrims.

(Muttra)

noticed a

number

of sacred tortoises and turtles.

are daily fed

by the

They swarm in the river and The crocodile or alligator

Children
sacrifice to

(makara)

is

sometimes held sacred to Kama-deva.

were at one time thrown into the Ganges as a

these animals.

The

wag-tail (Khaiijana)
its

is

regarded as a

form of Vishnu, the mark on

blance to a Sala-grama stone.

throat having

some resemto the

it

The
is

cat

is

sacred

goddess ShashthI
vehicle.

(p.
is

229),

who

supposed to use

as her

The dog

connected with Siva

(p. 266, note) in

his character of a Kirata or

mountaineer

(p.

64), or rather

perhaps with Rudra,

in the

Satarudriya

who hymn

also presides over horses.

Hence

of the Yajur-veda

(p.

j6)

we have

Worship of Various Animals.

'

329
'

Reverence to dogs and to the lords of dogs,'

Reverence

to horses

and to the lords of

horses.'
is

Hence, too, the name

Krita-jna, 'the grateful one,'

to dogs.

applied equally to Siva and

In Western India dogs are sometimes fed as a

In the Bali-harana (or Kaka-

sacred duty once a month.

bali)

ceremony

(see p. 289), offerings of food are placed

etc.

on

the ground for Yama's two dogs, crows,

422).

(see pp.

289,

Again, crows are fed

(p.

at the

end of the Sraddha cere-

monies

311).

On
'

the other hand, dogs are sometimes

described as unclean animals, and crows as birds of ill-omen.

So

also Sva-paca,

dog-cooker,' and Tirtha-kaka,

'

crow

at a

place of pilgrimage,'

Kupa-manduka,

'frog in a well,' or

Kupa-

kacchapa,
II. I. 42).

'

tortoise in a well,' are terms of reproach (Panini

There

is

a natural enmity between cat and mouse,

dog and

jackal, serpent

and mongoose, crow and owl.

parts of

As

to horses, in
festival,

some

India at the Dasa-hara

(Dasara)

they are decorated with garlands.

(p. 108),

The

mythical horse, U(^caih-sravas, 'high-eared'

to

supposed

be the prototype of
'

all

horses,

is

assigned to the god Indra.

The Asva-medha,

horse-sacrifice,'
in

was a very ancient

I.

cereit).

mony (hymns
It

162 and 163

Rig-veda

being used at

was the chief animal

sacrifice,

and a hundred horse-sacrifices

from heaven.
Indra,

entitled the sacrificer to displace Indra

therefore, always tried to capture the horse

which was allowed

I.

to

roam about before immolation

(see

Ramayana
^.

13,

and

Maha-bharata XIV, Asvamedhika-parvan)

who aimed at supremacy and was Those who disputed his claim tried to capture the roving horse and to hold it against the original owner and all comers. If no one succeeded the horse was brought back and sacrificed with long ceremonies, and the prince who held it was acknowledged as paramount sovereign. Yudhishthira in the Maha-bharata let loose a horse in this way, which wandered through many countries, having Arjuna for its champion. Among the places to which it came in its rovings was Manipur, whose king is described as virtuous, and who
^

horse was selected by a prince

let

loose to

roam

at large for a year.

gave

his daughter, Citraiigada, to

Arjuna

in marriage.

33^

Wo7^ship of Trees

and

Plants.

Worship of Trees and Plants.

We

learn from the

numerous examples adduced by

Sir

John Lubbock, Mr. Tylor, and Mr. Fergusson, that the adoration of trees, shrubs and plants, in virtue of the
supernatural qualities or divine essence supposed to be in-

herent in them,

is

almost as universallv diffused over the

globe as the worship of animals, and that both forms of

religion are of the greatest antiquity.

Every one

is

familiar

with such instances as the prophetic oak of Dodona, the

myrtle of Venus, the poplar sacred to Hercules, the oaks

of the British Druids, and the sacred groves of

mentioned by Tacitus
there
island of

but every one does not

Germany know that

existed quite recently a particular oak-copse in the

Skye which the inhabitants held

in

inviolably sacred,

and that here and there

remote parts of Europe simple-

minded peasants
certain trees,
still

are to be found

who

still

hang

offerings

on their

pay homage to branches, and still

believe in willows that bleed, and in trees that speak

when

about to be cut down.

Tree-worship,

we

are told,

was once common

in

Greece,
It

France, Poland, Assyria, and

continually prevailed

many

other countries.
tribes
in

has

among

uncultivated

Africa,

America, and Polynesia.

In Persia travellers occasionally

offerings of rags

come

across trees

hung with

and garments,

and throughout the greater part of Asia a

cognized element of the popular creed.
In India, as already observed,
all life is

belief in a kind

of divinity inherent in certain trees has always been a re-

sacred.
first

It

might

even be affirmed that the Hindus were the

the law of continuity;
is

believers in

for in

their creed the

life

life

of gods

connected with that of demons, the

of

demons with

'

Pliny asserts that the earliest form of temple or church was a tree,
is

and some think that the word kirk

cognate with quercus.

Worship of Trees and Plants,

that of men, the hfe of

33

men

with that of animals, the hfe

life

of animals with that of plants, the

of plants with a supis

posed

life in

rocks and stones, and the divine soul

all.

thought

to permeate

In obedience to this law there

is

no break

of

any kind anywhere, and plant-worship

follows, as a neces,

sary consequence, on animal-worship.

the

In fact, according to

Hindu theory

of metempsychosis all trees and plants are

conscious beings, having as distinct personalities and souls of

their

own
it

as gods, demons, men,

in

and animals

(see

But

must be borne

mind that although

trees

Manu I. 49). may in

their turn

become the receptacle

of the spirits of gods, men,

and animals \ they are peculiarly liable to be occupied by demons. That is to say, these beings may not only occupy
a tree as
its

spirit or soul

they
in
its

may
it

often resort to

it
it

as
is

guests, or take

up

their

abode

as tenants,

when

already furnished with a soul of

that

own. The idea seems to be

beings,

demons require protection from the weather like human and occasionally betake themselves to trees as con-

venient and agreeable places of shelter.

This explains the close connexion between tree-worship,

serpent-worships, demon-worship, and Siva-worship.
are

Demons

believed

to

be fond of occupying both serpents and

is

trees,

and Siva

lord of

demons, of serpents, and of plants

(see p. 77).

In relation to this subject,

a
tree
is

it

may be
and

noted that
confided

in

India
the

sometimes

planted

then
that

to

guardianship of a demon,

who from
it

moment

considers
if

himself responsible for the safe-keeping of the tree, and

any one

is

rash enough to cut

down

or even steal

its fruit,

punishes him
^

by

afflicting
is

him with

sickness^.

the course of his transmigrations (see

have occupied trees forty-three times in my Buddhism,' p. 112). ^ The connexion of serpent-worship with tree-worship may have originally arisen from the fact that many snakes like to establish themselves in the roots of trees, especially in those of the sandal-wood tree. ^ This is mentioned by Colonel Sleeman.
great
said to
'

The

Buddha

nio ojIn

Wo7'ship of Tixes

and

Plmits.

Birbhum the

entire population does

homage once
Madura

a year

to a cluster of three trees in the jungle, which are supposed to

be the abodes of as many demons

there
is

^.

In the

district

a solitary

Mimosa

tree,

growing near a tank.

This

tree always has

numerous pieces of rag and cloth

tied to its
is

branches.
traveller

The explanation

given by the peasantry

that a

was once found dead near the tank and that

his spirit

has become a malignant demon which resides in the tree and

requires to be propitiated

by

offerings

^.

Of
trees

course, however, adoration paid to the

demons

in

such

must not be confounded with the worship of plants and

which are themselves
deities, or are in
deities.

trees

themselves per-

meated by the essence of certain

For

instance,

need scarcely repeat that

in

the Vedic
object

period the

Soma

plant was personified, and

It

made an

of adoration (see pp. 12, 13, 368).

was not merely the

all desires)

abode of

divinity, but itself a god.

Then
and

just as the divine

cow Surabhi (granting

the typical horse Uccaih-sravas arose out of the ocean,

for the production of certain valuable objects,

when churned
afterwards
transferred

so arose also a divine tree called Parijata (see p. 108), which

became the property of the god Indra^, and was to his heaven. This tree was called Kalpaall

druma, as granting
divinity.

desires to those

who

did

homage

to its

So

in the Sakuntala the trees of the sacred grove

are described as yielding beautiful robes and costly ornaments

for the

adornment of the heroine

(see

my

translation, p. 99).

Moreover, just as a portion of the godhead or essence of

Vishnu descended
certain plants are

in the fish, the tortoise,

and the boar, so embodiments of portions of the essence

of particular deities.

See Hunter's * Annals of Rural Bengal,' p. 131. Mr. Walhouse states that he saw this tree. So also the tombs of Musalman saints are often encircled by upright poles, to which are fastened streamers of many-coloured rags.
^

Worship of

the

Tit last Shrub.

333
TulsT,

For example, the TulasT, or holy Basil (popularly

botanically Ocymnin Sanctum),
or to his wife
is

not merely sacred to Vishnu

LakshmT
itself

it

is

pervaded by the essence of

these deities, and

accordingly.

worshipped as a deity and prayed to

Many
plant
to

regard the Tulasi as a metamorphosis

incarnation

of Sita, wife of Vishnu's

identify this

Rama-candra
all

others

with Rukmini, wife

of Krishna^, while

others hold
It is

it

be an embodiment of

the deities together.

is

certain that in whatever light regarded, the Tulasi

the

more adoration than any other plant at present worshipped in India, and the following prayer is often adobject of

dressed to

it

'

adore that Tulasi

in

whose roots are

all
^.'

all

the

sacred places of pilgrimage, in whose centre are

the deities,

and

in

whose upper branches are

its

all

the Vedas

Possibly
cause of the

sanitary properties
it

may have been

the original

homage

receives.

Its leaves are believed to heal

the sick, and to be a

remedy against the poison

in

of serpents
is

^.

But the great estimation

indicated

which the Tulasi

held

is

best

by the fact that it is to be found in almost every respectable Hindu household throughout India. It is a small
shrub, not too big to be cultivated in a good-sized flower-pot,

and often placed

in

rooms.

Generally, however,

it is

planted

in

the court-yard of a well-to-do man's house, with a space round

it

for reverential

circumambulation.

In real fact the Tulasi

is

par excellence a domestic divinity, or rather, perhaps, a

divinity.
still

woman's

The

generality

of

Indian

women

are,

unhappily,

shut out from the chief avenues leading to

enlightenment.

The

great majority are unable to read and

In Kalidasa's celebrated drama Vikramorvasi, the nymph UrvasI metamorphosed into a creeping plant, just as Daphne was into a laurel and the sisters of Phaethon into poplars. ^ Yan-mule sarva-tlrthani yan-madhye sarva-devatah yad-agre sarvavedas-ca Tulasim tarn namamy aham. ^ Sir H. Yule (who sojourned some time in Sicily) informed me that
^

is

the Basil

is

venerated in Sicily for

it

its

sanitary properties.

The

in-

habitants keep

in the

windows of

their houses.


334
write their

Worship of

the

Tulasi Shrub.
yet, like the

own mother-tongue

women

in other

countries, they are far

great

influence.

more reHgious than the men, and have Their ignorance and narrow-mindedness

make their religion take the form of unmitigated superstition. The ancient law-giver Manu affirms that women were created to be mothers and men to be fathers, and that religious rites ought to be performed by husbands with their wives (IX. 96). But in the present day women perform their religious services
apart from their husbands,
religious rite consists in

and as a

rule, their

one daily

walking round the Tulasi plant

considered as a form of either Vishnu's wife

Rama's
in

faithful wife Sita,

it,

or of Krishna's wife

Lakshml or of Rukmini

saying prayers to
it.

or in placing offerings of flowers and

rice before

In a central space in most of the villages

I

visited in India,

noticed a small raised platform of rough

tree

masonry on which
not

grew a Pipal
occasions
rich
I

and a Tulasi shrub, and on particular

observed poor women,

who were probably

enough to possess the Tulasi plant in their own houses, performing circumambulation round the village shrub. In
one
village, especially, I

watched a

woman who was

it^.

in the

act of walking 108 times

right shoulder

round the sacred plant with her

always turned towards

Her simple

object,

no doubt, was to propitiate the

securing long
life

goddess with a view to

for her

husband and gaining a large family

of sons for herself.

I

should note that as animals are

made

to go through

the ceremonial of marriage (see p. 327), so also are plants.

The ceremony
family in the

of marrying the Tulasi shrub to the idol of

the youthful Krishna

takes place annually in every Hindii

Karttika.

month
is

In Western India an idol of

in procession

the young Krishna

often brought

from the

house of one of the Vallabhacarya Maharajas (see

p. 136), to
It

^ Hence this reverential circumambulation is called pradakshina. must follow the course of the sun, or a 1 its efficacy is destroyed.

Woi^ship of the Pippala or A'svattlia Tree.

335
placed

some residence where the TulasT

in

is

kept.

The

idol

is

gorgeous palanquin and followed by a long train of

attendants.

Then the marriage

festivities are

celebrated at

the cost

of,

perhaps, several thousand rupees.

is

Similarly in other parts of India the TulasI

married to

the black Sala-grama pebble (see p. 69), which even

more
is

than the idol represents the god

Krishna, for the god

present in the stone, even without consecration.

Sleeman describes a marriage of

this kind.

There was a

procession of eight elephants, 200 camels, and 400 horses.

The

pebble-bridegroom was placed on the leading elephant sumptuously decorated, and about 100,000 persons were present at
the nuptials.
It is

usual to maintain the supposed matrimonial

union between the Tulasi and Krishna by keeping a Tulasi

leaf always resting

on the Sala-grama stone.

The marriage of other trees as of a mango with a Nimba (or Nim) or of a mango with a jasmine (compare my translation of Sakuntala, p. 17)
rejoicings.
I

is

frequently celebrated with similar

In

my

journey from Mirzapore to V^indhyacal

passed a

Nim

tree (p. 339)

and a Plpal growing together by

the road-side.

This was the result of a marriage celebrated

many years before. The next most noteworthy example

India
is

of sacred plant-life in

certainly the

Pippala or Asvattha tree (popularly

Pipal, botanically the Ficus Religiosa, or holy fig-tree).

This

also

is

held to be a most holy

tree.

It has a divine personality

of

its

own.
^,

It
is

is

occupied

by the
the

essence of the god

Brahma
as
if it

and

sometimes invested with the sacred thread,

all

were a Brahman,
being

ceremonies of investiture
over
it.

(Upanayana)

performed

The mysterious

^ Others say that the Pipal is pervaded by the three gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, but especially by the latter in his Krishna manifestation. In the Bhagavad-glta Krishna says : I am Asvattha among the trees.' It is believed that spirits delight to sit in the branches of this
'

tree

and

listen to the rustling of the leaves.


<?

T^6

Worship of

the Bilva

Tree.

rustling of its

tremulous leaves, which resemble those of

the poplar,

is

no doubt one cause of the superstitious awe

is

with which this tree

regarded.

Its

roots also display a

kind of miraculous power

of undermining thick walls, and

in this

houses built of the strongest masonry, causing

way

much

serious

damage

to property.
in
It

Yet no native of India

injure or interfere

would venture to cut down or

with the growth of this
native
tree.
tell

any way
is

remarkable, too, that no

would venture to

an untruth or deviate from the

while standing under a Pipal

strictest
tree.

rectitude of conduct

The
came

following amusing circumstance illustrative of this

to

point

my

knowledge when

was

in

India

certain magistrate, well

known

for his

energy and good

it

nature,

knowing that

all

Hindus regard

as a

work of
upon the
market-

immense

religious merit to plant these

trees, hit

clever idea of trying to conciliate the good-will of the inhabitants of his district

by planting some Pipal

trees in the

place of a large town where a

number

of traders were in

the habit of transacting their business.

This he accordingly

proceeded to do, fully expecting to entitle himself to their

gratitude, but imagine
his

these traders

made

its

when a deputation of appearance one day and entreated

surprise

him

to desist, urging with the

most naive candour that

their

business could not be carried on without a certain

amount

of deception, and that the neighbourhood of the Pipal trees

would paralyze

all

their negotiations
in

^.

The
apple).

third

most sacred tree

India

is

the Bilva or Vilva

or wood-

(popularly called Bel, botanically

Its leaf is of a triple

^gle Mannclos,

form

with three

leaflets

and
triple

probably on that account consecrated to Siva with his

^

In the same way, although the

is

telling-

of untruths for the good of

one's caste or village

under certain circumstances as, for example, the saving of life no native would venture to tell a falsehood with a piece of gold in his mouth. (Compare Manu VIII. 103, 104.) In all countries a loose code of morality prevails in regard to shielding castefellows and companions by untruthful statements.
justifiable

Worship of
functions.

the Bilva

and Ba7iyan

Trees.

-^^il

Offerings of these

leaves are constantly placed

last line

on the Liriga and on the Bull (see

of p. 90).
or
is

Of other holy trees and plants, the Vata (popularly Var for Vad, botanically Ficiis Indica)
Kala or Time.
plants

Banyan
sacred to

This and the Pipal tree already described are

supposed to enjoy a kind of immortality.

either of

When

man

following effect:

'May

these trees
I

he repeats a prayer to the

in

abide

heaven as
earth.'
itself

as this tree continues growing

on the

many years The method

is

by which the Banyan tree propagates known to require description. A tree

continued multiplying
itself

too

well
called

of this kind

the Kablr-Var, on the banks of the Narbada near Broach,

every year by sending

down

roots

from

its

branches

till it

became a
This
tree,

forest capable of sheltering

an army of 7000 men.

is still

though gradually decaying^,

at particular seasons a great resort of pilgrims.

in the

Again,
there
*

underground passage of the Allahabad

fort

is

the stump of a tree called the

Akshaya-vata, or
river

undecaying Banyan,' which once overhung the

said to be the

and

is

same

as that mentioned

by the Chinese

traveller

Hiouen Thsang.
is

Whether
for

this

be the real tree

or not,

it

still

an attractive rendezvous for pilgrims, and

was formerly a favourite place

overhanging stem into the
I

committing

suicide.

Hun-

dreds have at different times thrown themselves from that

river.

When

visited the place

could detect no
I

life

in

what appeared to

me a mere

decaying

stump.

was gravely informed by the

the

priest

who accompanied
twenty miles

me
to

that a further underground passage conducts from the tree

Laksha-griha (Lacha-gir),

'

lac-house,'

distant on the Ganges,

^

and again another thence to Benares.

At any rate it had lost its forest character when I visited Broach in It was not the pilgrimage season, and only one solitary devotee then occupied a hut under one of the branches. The tree is believed to have grown from a twig which the sage Kablr used as a tooth-brush and then threw away as impure. The largest Banyan trees seen by me were in the South of India.
1876.

338
With

Worship of Flowers and Plants.

reference to the long Hfe of the Pipal tree,
I

may

mention that when

city of Gaya),
in

visited
I

Bodh-Gaya

(six miles

from the

1876,

saw growing there on a terrace

behind the celebrated tower-like Buddhist monument said to be more than 2,000 years old, a very old Pipal which was
alleged to be the identical Bo-tree (Bodhi-druma) under which

Gautama Buddha
century B.C.
planting
'

attained supreme knowledge in the

fifth

No

new shoots

doubt a succession of trees was secured by inside the old decaying stem (see my

An off-shoot from the tree Buddhism,' pp. 392, 393). was conveyed in the time of Asoka (nearly three hundred
years B.C.) to Anuradha-pura in Ceylon, and
is

its

descendant

said to be

still

growing

there.

Of
is

the other trees, the

sacred to Siva, the

while the

SamI

or

Asoka (botanically Jonesia Asoka) Arka or sun-plant to the Sun (Surya), Acacia is a goddess on her own account
fire^.

and

is

supposed to contain
grass
is

The Durva
But of
stiroides) is
all

(popularly

Panic

grass,

botanically

Panictnn Daciyloii)

sacred to Ganesa.

the grasses the

It is

Kusa

or

Darbha (Poa Cynoceremonies

it

the holiest.

used at

all religious
;

and strewn on the ground before

the
it

all sacrificial rites

all seats,

sanctifies

soil,

forms the most sacred of

cleanses everything

touches, purifies the impure, and

when wound around the

most sacred
acts.
is

fingers

makes them
to
is

fit

to

engage
is

in the

The

lotus (padma),
in

which

a species of water-lily,
^.

con-

stantly alluded

Indian poetry

It

is

not directly

worshipped, but

perhaps more sacred, as a symbol, than

any other
^

flower.

The Creator
is

Brahma himselfwas born

:

The

following prayer

addressed to the Sami tree

SamI
SamI

samais

yate paparn
^

Sami

satru-vinasini, 'the

SamI removes

guilt,

the

the

destroyer of enemies.'
It
is

curious that the rose

is

scarcely ever mentioned in

Indian

literature,

though
is

it

is

the favourite flower of Persia.

In point of fact

the rose

not indigenous in India, though found in the

Himalaya

mountains.

Worship of Material and Natural

in the lotus

Objects.

339

which sprang from the navel of Vishnu, and the

in

goddess Lakshmi arose out of the ocean holding a lotus

hand.

her

She

is

connected with the lotus

in

other legends, and

appeared at the creation floating over the water on the

expanded

petals

of a

lotus-flower.

In short, the
p. 522).

lotus

is

typical of perfection (see

my

'

Buddhism/

Mango, the Nimba or Nim, the Bakula [Mimusops Elengi), and the Amalaki {Emblic Myrobalaii)
or
are also sacred trees.
is

The Amra

Some

Pandits assert that the

Amra

an incarnation of the god of love.

Of

all fruits

the cocoa-nut (narikela)

called the fruit of the

is

perhaps the most

sacred.

It

is

goddess of prosperity

(SrI-phala).

The

custard apple

is

the fruit of Sita (Sita-phala).

Objects.

Worship of Material and Natural

The worship
field of inquiry.
I

of inanimate natural objects opens out a

wide

can only direct attention to some of the

subject.

most

interesting

and important phases of the

in

We

must bear

mind that objects which are inanimate to

According to
their belief every
is

us are animate to the Hindus.

material or natural object

pervaded by a

spirit.

In fact the

same doctrine of metempsychosis, which has continually forced itself upon our notice throughout our investigations, meets
us

again here.

The

spirit

of a

man
is

in

whom

the

dark
into

quality (tamas, see p. 36) dominates

inert (jada) motionless

liable to pass

matter (see

Manu
any

XII.

9, 42),

and to

occupy a

rock, a stone, a post, or

similar material form.

Even the

divine Spirit

may infuse

itself into

images and objects

of stone, metal,

and wood, into

idols such as those of Krishna,

like the Liriga

Rama and
into
I

Durga, into symbols

and Yoni, or

pebbles like the

Sala-grama (sometimes written Sali(see

p.

grama) and Bana-linga

merely in
It is
its

69).

And

it

does this not

character of a universal Spirit pervading all matter.

all

present in a special manner in

it is

such material forms.

But

to

be observed that material objects which are thus,

Z 2

340
as
it

Worship of Matei'iaL and Nahtral

were, animated

Objects.

necessarily,

and endowed with personal souls, do not when worshipped, become mere fetishes. Fetishism

may
is

be described as the expression of the spiritual instinct of

a child and of a savage.

doll, or a ball, or
it is

made

a kind of fetish

when

and addressed as if it were alive. a lucifer match when, believing it

he stands

any plaything endowed with personality A savage makes a fetish of to be occupied by a spirit,

in awe of it or tries to control it for his own benefit. same way he may make fetishes of his tools or weapons In the of his axe, his knife, or his bow or of any particular idol.

But a

fetish, as Sir

necessarily an object of worship.

John Lubbock has pointed out, is not It is only worshipped if it

If
it

answers prayers or confers benefits.

the interests of
misfortunes occur
its

appears to neglect
neglected, and
if

possessor,

it

is

itself

it is

abused or

ill-treated.

In short,

it

is

essential to the idea of a fetish that, consisting in the first

instance of
distinct

some

peculiar form

of material object with a

individuality

and

special

character

of

its

own,

it

should be occupied by a

spirit

devoted to the interests of the

like the genius of Aladdin's

person possessing

it,

and pledged,

lamp, to execute his behestSc

in

Hence, any stone idol which,

idols, represents

common

with a number of other

is

a deity

invariably held in honour,

not a fetish in the proper sense

of the term.
It
is

difficult,

however, to draw any hard and

fast

line

between Animism and Fetishism, or to say where one ends

and the other begins.

religious ideas in
I

It is certain that

much

true Fetishism

and much of a kind of half-fetishism co-exist with higher

most of the religions of the world.
in

believe that

India

some images (such

as

those of

Khando-ba) are exposed to actual

calamity occurs which
is

ill-treatment,

when any

attributed to the neglect of the god,

but
It

have never

verified this

by personal

observation.

must be admitted that what

may

be called Animistic

and Fetish ideas run through the whole of Hinduism.

For

Worship of
instance, in

the Sun,
4. 5)

341

Atharva-vcda (XVIII.

the sacrificial ladles,

the oblation, the sacrificial grass (IV.

'^^.

3-6

XIX.

32. 9),

and even the remains of the

ticular holy days, the
his

sacrifice are described as

animated

and as possessing divine powers.

inkstand, the

We
his

know,

too, that

on par-

merchant worships

his books, the writer

husbandman

plough, the weaver his

loom, the carpenter his axe,

chisel,

and

tools,
its

and the

fisher-

man

his net.

Every object that

benefits

possessor and
for the time-

helps to provide

him with a

livelihood
I

becomes

being his
of the

fetish.

Nevertheless,

doubt whether the religion

great tendency to

Aryan Hindias has ever shown any

lapse into the worst forms of fetish-worship, such as those

which undoubtedly prevailed among the aboriginal inhabitants,

and are
in the

common everywhere among

uncultivated races.

Placed

midst of striking physical phenomena and feeling them-

selves surrounded
their arrival
in

by mighty material

forces, the

Aryans on

India were

simple nature-worshippers, and

those natural objects and natural forces which had motion

appeared

to them more especially instinct with divinity. Hence the Sun, the Moon, Fire, Wind, and the Waters were
16).

the chief deities in Vedic times (pp. 9;

Worship of

the Sun,

Without doubt the great luminary to which the world owes

light, heat,

and vegetation, has always been one of the

earliest

objects of the world's adoration.

In the Rig-veda (X. 88. 11)

the

Sun is said to be a son of Aditi, and has two chief names Surya ("HAtoj) and Savitri (p. 16) both significant Probably his more ancient title of his generative power.

was

Praja-pati,

4ord of

creatures.'
in a chariot

He
is

is

represented as a

golden deity borne along

drawn by seven ruddy

the

horses or mares, and his charioteer

wife

Dawn.
(p. 9),
is

By
who

his

Samjna he had twin

children, the

Asvins

arc

called heavenly physicians.

The Sun

himself

also described

342

Worship of

the Sun,

as a healer of diseases.

In the Epic
all.'

poems he

is

'

the eye of

the world

'

and

'

the soul of

Passing on to medieval times,

it is

clear that in the days of

Sankara there were

(see p. 59)
;

distinct sects of

Sauras or Sun-worshippers
of persons adored the
divided, as

that

is,

a large

number

Sun

as their exclusive divinity.

They were
rising

we

learn from the Sankara-vijaya (chap. 13), into six sub-sects as

follow

I.

Worshippers of the

Sun

as identified with
identified

Brahma.
with Siva.

2.

Worshippers of the meridian Sun as

3.

Worshippers of the setting Sun as identified

4.

with Vishnu.

Worshippers of the Sun

in all three of the

5.

above phases as
shippers of the

identified with the Tri-murti (p. 45).

Wor-

Sun regarded

as a material being in the form

of a

man

with a golden beard and golden hair \

Zealous

members
till

of this sect refused to eat anything in the morning

rise.
6.

they had seen the Sun

Worshippers of an image
all

of the

Sun formed

in the

mind.

These spent
in

their time in

meditating on the Sun.

They were

the habit of branding

their foreheads, arms,

circular representations of his disk

on

and

breasts.

Coming now

to

modern

times,

we

find that, although the

sect of Sun-worshippers has apparently died out

and although

the Sun-god has few temples like those of Siva or Vishnu, he

still

continues to be the object of universal adoration.

Every

Hindu

be he Saiva or Vaishnava, or to whatever sect he may

does
midday

belong

homage

to the rising

Sun every morning by

10),

repeating the Gayatri (Rig-veda III. 62.

a prayer addressed
;

to the Sun's vivifying essence (see pp. 19, 403

at the

406).

Then

service he ought to repeat the Surya-sukta or

I.

Saura-sukta (Rig-veda
It

50, partly translated at p. 16).

certainly

surprised

me

that

saw so few temples or

^ It is remarkable that the Hindus talk of the god in the Sun (called by them Surya-Narayana) rather than of the man in the Moon. The spots in the Sun are supposed to give the idea of a man's face, while those in the Moon are compared to the markings on a rabbit.

Worship of the Moon,

shrines dedicated to the

34 o

celebrated temple was at

in

Orissa.

It

is

said

Sun in any part of India. His most Konarak (for Konarka, 'corner- sun ') that a sum equal to twelve years'
Yet
it is

revenues of Orissa was spent on this temple.

deserted and in ruins.
of the
I visited a

now

well-known sacred temple

Sun

at

Gaya near

to a tank consecrated to the

same

luminary.

No

one appeared to be worshipping

in the shrine,

but rude images of the disk of the Sun

made

of red cotton

were affixed by

women

to the walls

above the door-way.

The hymn
is still

to the

Sun

called Surya-siakta (Rig-veda

(p.

X. 85)

in

common

use at marriage-ceremonies

363 note).

Woi^ship of the Moon,

Passing from the Sun to the Moon,

we

find that the latter

in India.

seems never to have had any exclusive adorers

like the Sun, the

Yet,

Moon

is

often regarded as one of the nine

planets,

and

is

treated as a male deity.

in a chariot

In the Puranas he

is

said to be borne along

with three wheels drawn

to the

by
in

ten horses.

Poets are never tired of alluding

its

Moon's beauty,

brilliancy being far greater in India than

it

Europe
is

but the only worship

receives in the present

day

in

conjunction with the Sun and the other planets.

of the
spirits

The sphere
abode of the
orb
are
is

Moon

is

sometimes regarded as the

;

of deceased ancestors (Pitris)

and

its

usually held to consist of sixteen digits (Kalas), which

to
it

composed of nectar (amrita) supplied

from the Sun

is

for the support of the gods.

In Rig-veda X.

85. 5 there

an

allusion to the

gods drinking up the nectar and so causing the

Moon

to wane.

The name Soma, which first belonged to the plant only, came to be applied to the Moon in post-vedic mythology,
traces of this application being also observable in Rig-veda

X.
the

85, in

Atharva-veda XI.

6, 7,

and
the

in several

passages of
(see

Satapatha-Brahmana.

In

later

mythology

344
Vishnu-purana
or the
I.

Worship of
22)

the Planets,
is

Brahma
'

said to have appointed

Soma

Moon

to be the

monarch of

planets, of plants, of

sacrifices,
is

and penances,' and one of the names of the Moon Oshadhi-pati or OshadhTsa, lord of plants and herbs,' which
'

he

is

supposed to nourish with his

light.

Again, at the
all

churning of the ocean, as described in the Puranas, after

sorts of medicinal plants

and healing herbs had been thrown

produced were
(sura),

into the waters, three of the precious things

the

Moon
in

(Soma), nectar (amrita), and spirituous liquor

other legends this nectar
of the
is

though
the
In

said to be preserved in
its

body

Moon, or even
is

to constitute

substance.

Manu

V. 96

Soma

called

one of the eight Loka-palas or

guardians of the world.

Worship of

the Planets.

The Sun and Moon, Mercury (Budha), Venus (Sukra), Mars (Mangala or Aiigaraka), Jupiter (Vrihaspati), Saturn (Sani), Rahu and Ketu ^ the former being fabled as a planet

with a head and no body, the latter as a planet with a body

and no head

together form the

^.

group of what

is

called the

Nava-graha, nine planets, the

first

seven giving names to the

all

days of the week

In the Puranas they are

cars.

represented
is

as deities borne in

Thus the
is

car of
is

Mars

of gold

drawn by eight red

horses, that of Jupiter

drawn by eight

pale horses, that of Saturn

a slow-going car drawn by pieare

bald horses, those of

horses.

Rahu and Ketu

his

drawn by eight dark

Rahu

is

thought to have a spite against the Sun and

Moon, and occasionally displays them for a time and so causing

birth to

enmity by swallowing

eclipses, while

Ketu

gives

an awful progeny of comets and

identified

fiery meteors.

These are sometimes

with

the

Moon's ascending and

five,

descending nodes. ^ The planets, however, are variously mentioned as nine in number.

seven,

and

Worship of
The whole
of every

the Planets,
in the

345
eyes

array of nine luminaries constitutes

Hindu a most formidable group of

living person's career

deities,
first

whose

power over every

from the

moment

of his coming into the world, and over the whole course of

mundane events, no one for an instant thinks of doubting. The influences of Saturn, Rahu and Ketu are supposed
be
sinister,

to

and these planets are therefore most propitiated.

If they are in the ascendant to shorten his life or cause

when a man is born they are sure him trouble of some kind. Their
in-

anger, therefore,
fluences

must be deprecated, and counteracting

for

must be sought

by astrologers

in

drawing up horo-

scopes.

They cause

diseases, such as influenza, fevers, etc.

On

the other hand, Jupiter, Venus, Mercury, Mars, and the

influences only,

Sun exert favourable

and the

first

three arc

thought to be special sources of knowledge and wisdom.

The
I

favour of

all

must be conciliated before marriages and

to the nine planets at

other auspicious events can be successfully accomplished.

saw a celebrated temple dedicated

Benares, and another sacred to Saturn and

to the bodiless

Rahu.
flowers

Numbers
and

of people as they passed these temples cast

ofl"erings before

the images, but did not stop to

worship.

The Nakshatras,
which the
of the

or twenty-seven

constellations through
his

Moon

passes^,

and which separate

path into

twenty-seven divisions

Sun into twelve are, like the planets, regarded in the present day as deities who exert a vast influence on the
destiny of men, not only at the
into the world, but during their

as

the signs of the Zodiac do that

moment

of their entrance
it.

whole passage through

at births,

These formidable constellations are consulted

riages,

mar-

and on

all

occasions of family rejoicing, distress, or

In the Rig-veda the word Nakshatra has the general sense of a

tinctly

In the Yajur and Atharva-veda the Nakshatras are disconnected with the path of the Moon, and in the latter (XIX. 8. i) their number is given as twenty-eight.
constellation.

46

Wors/z7/>

of Fire and Water.

calamity.

No

one undertakes a journey or any important

If
all

matter except on days which the aspect of the Nakshatras

renders lucky and auspicious.
favourable,
its

any constellation

is

una

anger must by
'

means be appeased by

ceremony

called Santi,

propitiation.'

Worship of
The worship
Fire
is
still

Fii^e.

of Fire, like that of the Sun, was, as

we have
and

already seen, one of the earliest cults of India (see

a general object of
will

p. 9),

homage

^.

Further allusions
I will

to this

homage

be made subsequently.

only here

draw attention

to the remarkable idea prevalent in India that

is

fire is produced from water. In the Veda fire Apam-napat, son of the waters/ and this name is
'

called

also once

applied to the

Sun

(I.

22. 6) 2.

Doubtless the idea arose

from the apparent production of lightning from rain-clouds.

Worship of Water and Rivers.

Passing on to the worship of Water, especially running
water,
it is

to be observed that river-water

It is

is

throughout India
it is

held to be instinct with divinity^.

not merely holy,

pervaded by the divine essence.

ful to distinguish

We

must, however, be carefire

between the mere sacredness of either

or water and their worship as personal deities.

In Rig-veda X. 30, X.

9,

VII. 47, and other passages of

In

the Veda, the Waters are personified, deified, and honoured

as

goddesses,

and called the Mothers of the

of bearing the sacrifice to

earth.

As the medium

heaven

it is

always sacred,
fire in

even when not worshipped as a personal god. Assyria, Phoenicia, Persia, etc., is well known.
generating
^

The

adoration of

No

doubt the

difficulty of

fire led to its adoration among uncivilized tribes. Some see a connexion between Apam-napat and Neptunus. ^ The worship of water is by no means confined to India, as the number of holy wells in our own country proves.

Worship of Water and Rivers,

X.
17.

347

10 their purifying power, and in VI. 50. 7 their healing

is

power,
sin

celebrated.

They
(I.

cleanse their worshippers from

;

and untruthfulness

23. 22)

and, as noted above, they

give birth to Fire (X.

2. 7,

X.

91. 6).

Of course some
Siva's

rivers are

more sacred than

others,

and as
on

the Ganges, which issues from Vishnu's foot and

falls

head

(p. 80), is

the most majestic, so

it is

the holiest of

all rivers.

No

sin

is

too heinous to be removed, no character

its

too black to

be washed clean by

waters.
its

Hence the
banks
;

countless temples with flights of steps lining

hence

the array of priests, called

'

Sons of the Ganges,'

sitting

on the

edge of

its

streams, ready to aid the ablutions of conscience-

stricken bathers, and

emerge from
carried
all

its

waters.

stamp them as white-washed when they Hence also the constant traffic

on

in transporting

Ganges water

in

small bottles to

parts of the country.

The
10

river Sarasvati
earlier

called

'

the

purifier' in

Rig-veda

I. 3.

was to the
;

Hindus what

the Ganges was to the later

she was instinct with divinity,

and her influence permeated the writers of the Vedic hymns.

Sometimes she
*

is

identified with

the Vedic goddess Vac,

science.

speech,'

and invoked as the patroness of

Indus (Sindhu)
4).
is

The

river

also celebrated very early in

the Rig-veda (see X. 75.

But the confluence of the Ganges with the Jumna (Yamuna) and Sarasvati (supposed to flow underground) at Allahabad
(Prayaga)
India.
is

perhaps one of the most hallowed spots

in all

These three sacred streams form a

sort of Tri-murti,

or triad of rivers, often personified as goddesses, and called

Then other celebrated rivers such as the Godavari (also called Goda and Vriddha-ganga, the ancient Ganges Narbada (properly Narma-da, bliss-giver/ also called Reva),
'

Mothers.'

'

'),

'

TaptI (properly TapatT, also called Tapi), SabarmatT (possibly

for

Subhramati), Gandaki, Kistna (properly Krishna), Vena,

'

Sarayu, Tunga-bhadra (called the Ganges of the South

'),

and

Kaveri

became

rivals of this original sacred triad.

34^

Worship of Water and Rivers.

its

The Narbada has

above the Ganges.
spiration

special admirers,

who

exalt

it

even

It is said to

have sprung from the per'

of the
'

they say,
of the

in the

god Rudra (p. J^^. Ganges frees from

purifies

One
The

day's ablution,'

sin,

but the mere sight

sanctity of the

Narbada
will,
it

from

guilt.'

Ganges
will

is

predicted, cease in
it

1895.

The Narbada
river of

then supersede

and become the most sacred

Moreover, all water thirty miles from the Narbada's India. bank northward and eighteen miles southward is sanctified by
it.

Furthermore, either bank

may

be used for burning the

is

dead, whereas only the northern bank of the Ganges

for that purpose.

effectual

At Mahabalesvar
a

visited

the

source of

the

Krishna

(Kistna) which flows into a sacred tank after issuing from

Go-mukha

(representation

of a cow's mouth).
I

Both are

under the cover of a temple, and while

was there a pilgrim

who had walked

his

all

the

way from

Benares, entered the build-

ing and taking off his dust-soiled garments began repeating

Mantras before performing

his ablutions.

Chapters called Mahatmyas, assigning special sacredness

to particular rivers and waters, have been at various times

introduced into the Puranas.

guilt all those

At Kumbha-konam is a sacred pool which cleanses from who are able to crowd into it at a particular moment once in twelve years. On the other hand, a river
Karma-nasa, destroyer of good works,' which
'

called

falls

into

the Ganges not

stream, and
if

far

from Benares,
touches
its

is

an unholy and accursed

all his

man

water he loses

store of

religious merit

accumulated

for years.

And
of
is is

here

we may note

that the whole length of the banks

all

the chief rivers of India, from their source to the sea,

regarded as holy ground.

To

follow their course on foot

considered a highly meritorious act.

pilgrim, for exin

its

ample, sets out from the source of the Ganges, at Gangotrl

the Himalayas, and walks

by the

left

bank

of the river to

Worship of Mountains, Rocks, and

mouth
is

Stones.

349
by

at Ganga-siigara

then, turning round, he proceeds

the right side back to Gangotri, whence he departed.

called Pradakshina, or

This

Parikrama of the
In the

six years to accomplish.

and takes same way a pilgrim starts

river,

from the source of the Narbada, at Amara-kantaka,

of the

peak

Vindhya chain

in

Gondwana,

and walks to the mouth,

near Broach, and back.

years.

This pilgrimage takes nearly three

The

rivers

Godavarl and Krishna require only two

years for the same process.

wild country, the pilgrims
to

As these rivers often pass through who perform such tasks are exposed
is

many

hardships.

Of

course, the merit accumulated

in

proportion to the length

(yatra)

and

difficulty of the

pilgrimage

and the ground traversed.

sea
is

The
is

also held sacred,

and on

special occasions proit

pitiated.

When any

one

is

compelled to take a voyage,

not

uncommon

for his nearest relatives to

throw milk into

the sea as an offering to the waves.

Worship of Mountains, Rocks, and Stones.

With regard
mountains and
to the worship of
hills are

immovable

objects,

many

holy ground.

Of course the Himaand extolled as

laya range takes the lead.

It is personified

a god.

(Compare the

first

verses

of Kalidasa's

sambhava.)
its

There are temples

(especially of Siva)

Kumaraamong
to

eternal snows,

and pilgrims often perish

in their efforts
hills

reach the loftiest heights.

Among
hills,

other

regarded as

specially sacred are Citra-kuta

in the

(commonly

called Chateerkot)

Banda
is

district,

the Pulney

Parasnath,

Mount Abu,
hill

and Girnar
India

in

Kathiawar\

In short, nearly every

shrines.

in

consecrated by temples and

in

There are some sand-hills

^

the Satpura range dedicated

Citra-kuta was the

first

residence of Rama-candra after his banish-

ment.
hills

Abu

(corrupted from Sanskrit arbuda), Parasnath, and Girnar are

more

particularly celebrated for their Jaina temples.

350

Worship of Mottntains, Rocks, a7id

Stones.

to Mahadeva, supposed, as Mahakala, to preside over destruction.

From

a rock on these

hills

many youths have

This

pre-

cipitated themselves, because their mothers, when childless,

dedicated their first-born sons to the god.

suicide
is

mode

of

called Bhrigu-pata, 'throwing

It

one's
at

self

from a

precipice.'

was once equally common

the rock of

Girnar,

and has only recently been prohibited.

Particular rocks all over India are treated as divine.

They

are not only pervaded by the divine soul of the Universe

which permeates
just as
river,

all

nature,

God

is

specially present in them,

in the

he

is

in the

Sala-grama pebble found

found
is

Gandakl

and

in the Bana-liriga

in the

Narbada

(see pp. 69,

412).
stones.

A
If

great deal of fraud

practised in selling these

they come from other rivers they enjoy no special

presence of the deity.

simple Bilva-leaf offered on a true Bana-linga brought

is

from the Narbada

offered
I

an act of enormous merit (punya), but

is

if

on a spurious pebble

inefficacious.

might continue the enumeration of sacred objects almost

but enough has been said to make
it

indefinitely,

clear that
is

there

is

not an object in heaven or earth which a Hindu

not prepared to worship

sun,

moon, and
;

stars

rocks, stocks,

and stones
his
useful, the

trees, shrubs,

and grass
;

sea, pools,

and

rivers

own implements

of trade

the animals
;

he finds most
for

noxious reptiles he fears

men remarkable

any
the

extraordinary qualities

for great
;

valour, sanctity, virtue, or

;

even vice
spirits

good and

evil

demons, ghosts and goblins

an
;

of departed ancestors

infinite

number
and

of semi-

human and
for a share

semi-divine existences

inhabitants of the seven

upper and the seven lower worlds

each

of divine honour or a tribute of

all come in more or less

adoration.

CHAPTER
The Hindu Religion
It has been well said that
in

XIII.
Ancient Family-life.
life is

common

the proper

field

for the exercise of Christianity; or, in other words, that true

religion

is

not to be separated from every-day actions.

to

Turning

India

we

find

similar
is

doctrine

taught,

although of course a different meaning

attached to the

word

'

religion.'
it

Without doubt

must be admitted that the actual

is

life

of a large number of Hindus

not so complete a falling

away

from the moral standard

pp.
^'^^1,
it

set

up

in

their sacred

books (see

time

the same modern Hindu mainly consists in domestic rites, ceremonies and usages, all of which are superintended or carried out by the Brahmans,
^'^'^^

as

some have

represented.

At

must be confessed that the

religion of a

although no central ecclesiastical government exists which has

any power to impose or enforce any particular observances.

In fairness, too,
it

must be admitted that a genuine Hindu

His
religion,

does not lead two

described as
ence.

lives.

such as

it

is,

may be

bound up
it

in the

bundle of his every-day existis

The

religion of a

Hindu

his constant

companion.

Nor does he think

religion.

necessary, as a Christian docs, to satisfy

the claims of a corporate as well as of a personal and domestic

Any

idea of congregational religious duties has no

place in his mind.

with the object of

Hindu never enters a place of worship offering up common prayer in company

with his fellow-men.

He

has no conception of performing

352

The HindiL Religion

in

Ancient Family -life.

when he and on stated days,

the kind of religious act which a Christian performs

'

goes to church/

Occasionally,

it is

true,

he

visits idol shrines.

of praying with others.

But he does not go there with any idea He goes to the temple to perform
;

what

is

called

Darsana

that

is,

to look at the idol, the sight

priest, is

of which,

when duly dressed and decorated by the

supposed to confer merit.

After viewing the image he

may

endeavour to propitiate the favour or avert the anger of the

god
of

it

represents,

by

prostrations of the body, repetitions

offerings.

its

name, or presentation of
His

But

this

is

not an
^aj^

essential duty.

real religion is

an

af^'"-^
'"r

of famiL
.nat his

domestic

ritual,
is

and private observance,

domest

worship

free

from priestly interferat

e^

Sacerdotalism;

uncontrolled by any cent/al authority,

>s

a^strong power
the stronger

over personal and family religion in Indi

^id all

from the absence of congregational

Nevertheless
astical
it

religio4.
ecclesilife.

is

immemorial usage rather than

in

law which governs every operation

Indian

home

Each man finds him.self cribbed and confined in all his movements, bound and fettered in all he does by minute traditional
regulations.

He
is

sleeps

and wakes, dresses and undresses,

in,

sits

down and
speaks and

stands up, goes out and comes

silent, acts

eats

and drinks,

and

refrains

from acting, according

to ancient rule.

And by the same

first

rule the intervention of the

priestly caste begins with his

living organism.
after death, every

unconscious existence as a
to dea^h, and even long
.,.A^ful

From
Hindu

that
is

moment

held to be th^

property of

the priests,

who
this

exact fees for innumerable

offices

performed

on

his behalf.
It is

on

account that nearly every village has

first

its

religious teacher (Guru),

who

teaches the Vedic GayatrT or

the initiatory prayer

quires

(p. 6\) to
it,

those whose caste or sect reits

them

to repeat

and secondly

ceremonial priest,
all

who

serves as a domestic chaplain (Purohita) to

the families

of the village.

Not a

single religious rite can be performed

Twelve Pttiaficatory Rites.

without this latter functionary, and though other priests

;^53

may

be asked to be present and

assist at

some

of the ceremonies

(such as marriage and initiation), the

regular village priest

must always take the lead and have

customary
fees.

his

appointed duties and

In fact in no

country of the world are

domestic religion and sacerdotalism so curiously associated

together and carried to such extremes as in India.

There a
has sup-

complicated religious code has always been as necessary to

the priest as an intricate
niied
civil

code to the lawyer.

It

him with
ust,

his meat, drink,

f,

and whole means

of livelihood,

how

be careful not to speak of Brahmanism

India as
if

.:d

Sacerdotali^

these expressions were con-

vertible terms.
priest
is

a Brf hmr

Brahman is not a priest, though every The Brahmans are simply an order of

men divided into \y and laity, and in ancient times a layman did many religious acts now performed by priests only. To begin, then, with ancient times.
Twelve
in the

purificatory rites, called Sanskaras, were prescribed

in the ancient collections of

domestic rules (Grihya-siatras) and

code of Manu, for the purification of the three higher

castes

Brahmans,

Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas

from
;

the taint
i
.

transmitted through the womb of the mother.

They were,
i.

Im-

pregnation (Garbhadhana or Garbha-lambhana)

duction (Purnsavana)
4.
;

Male-pro-

3.

Hair-parting
;

(Simantonnayana)
Food-giving
off

Birth-ceremony (Jata-karman)
;

5.

Name-giving (Nama;

karana)

6.

Carrying out (Nishkramana)

,

7.

(Anna-prasanaj

and

9.

Tonsure or shaving and cutting

^
;

the hair (Caula or Kshaura and Kesanta)

10.

Initiation

(Upanayana)

11.
;

Return from the house of the preceptor

Marriage (Vivaha). See

(Samavartana)

12.

Manu

II. 27, etc.

Some

account of these twelve ceremonies

purify from original or rather natal sin

ought

supposed
;

to

to precede
for

a description of the householder's daily observances

^

no

Manu

but the

first

places Caula 8th and Kesanta loth, with Upanayana between, two may be taken together as kindred ceremonies.

354 MarjHage.

Garbhadhana or
its

Inipregnatioii-rite,
in the

one whose body (tainted by

abode

womb)

has not

been purified by these

rites is

held quaHfied to perform the

life.

ordinary rehgious duties of domestic

Turning then to one of the most important of the Sanskaras

marriage we
in

find

that

it

stands

last.

It

will

be

necessary, however, to begin

by supposing the
is

recent union of

a young couple

wedlock, so that every one of the Sanskaras

beginning with that which

purification of the

beHeved to be essential to the

its earliest

human embryo from

origin in the

womb may
of

be successively described.
newly-married pair

It

must

also be taken

for granted that the

in ancient

times were
to the pre-

good

family, that they were bent on acting

up

cepts of their religion, and that they brought with

their

them to
their

own home

a portion of the sacred

fire

which witnessed
ever afterwards

their union (see p. '>^6^

and which, when once kindled on

to

own

family hearth, had

be maintained

for use in all

domestic ceremonies and

all,

sacrifices,

including

the last sacrifice of

at death.

the final burning of their

own bodies

The

first

Sanskara, which as a matter of course followed

'

immediately on every matrimonial union, was called the

pregnation-rite
'

Im-

(Garbhadhana).
the bride
till

In ancient times no bridethe fourth night after the

^.

groom approached
tion-rite

completion of the marriage ceremony

Hence the consummaDuring the

to look

was sometimes

called Caturthi-karma.

previous day the

towards the sun,

young married woman was made or in some way exposed to its rays.

In the

evening she was required to bathe.

^

Her husband
The

also per-

This interval

is

prescribed by Gobhila.

present interval of two,

is

three, or four years in the case of child-marriages

quite unsupported

by

the authority of ancient lawgivers. Dhanvantari (in the Susruta) declares that the Garbhadhana should not take place till a girl is sixteen. Dr.
Biihler has

shown (from the Vivaha-mantras) that in olden times girls were married long after they had reached the age of puberty, and infantmarriages were unknown moreover, that the human husband is the 4th husband, the three gods. Soma, Visva-vasu, and Agni, being the first three
;

at the period of

girl's

becoming marriageable.

Afale-production Ceremony.
formed
his ablutions

355

and went through other prescribed forms.

Before approaching his wife he was careful to secure the

solemn imprimatur of religion on an act which might lead to

the introduction of another
therefore repeated

human being

into the world.

He

the
ing)

first

of which

may

two Mantras or texts of Rig-veda X. 184, Let (all-pervadbe thus translated

:

'

Vishnu prepare her

let

womb

let

the Creator shape

let

its

forms;

Prajapati be the Impregnator

the Creator

give the embryo.'

The
three

Impregnation-rite was followed

called
in
'

after
'

an interval of
(Purnsavana).

months by that
is

Male-production
the
present

This

not unusual even

day.

We

Euro-

peans can scarcely understand the craving of Asiatic parents

for

the birth
is

of a male child.

(put-tra)

fancifully said to

from a
married

hell

called
in

Put.

The very word for a son mean one who delivers a parent Whether any intelligent Hindu
seriously

man

modern times

looks forward to

punishment

in a place of

torment hereafter as the penalty for

not having sons or for having only daughters

may

be doubtful.

We

have seen, however, that the well-being of the parent's

is

soul after death

believed to depend on the proper perform-

ance of the Sraddha ceremonies by a son, and that the partiis by law made dependent on Hence the craving for sons. In short, a son is to every pious Hindu the first and last of Through a son he pays his own father all necessary things. the debt he owes him for his own life, and secures similar payment for the gift of life bestowed by himself

tion of the family inheritance

that performance.

What
3.

says the Aitareya-Brahmana of the Rig-veda (VII.

13)?

'

When

a father sees the face of a living son he pays

a debt in him, and gains immortality.

father has in his son exceeds
is

The

pleasure which a

all

other enjoyments.

His wife

a friend, his daughter an object of compassion, his son

shines as his light in the highest world.'

'

What

says

Manu?

A man

is

perfect

when he

consists of three

himself, his wife,

a 2

56

Male-production Ceremony.
his son' (VII. 3).

and

What

says Yajiiavalkya?

'

Immortality

in future worlds and heavenly bliss are obtained by means of

sons, grandsons,

and great-grandsons.'

A story
ascetical

some Brahmana of a certain pious man of temperament who determined to shirk the religious
is

told in

duty of taking a
scribed period of

wife.
life,

Quietly skipping over the second preduring which he ought to have become

a householder (grihastha), he entered at once upon the third that is to say, he became an ascetic, abjured all period

Wandering about by an him a deep and He saw before extraordinary spectacle. apparently bottomless pit. Around its edge some unhappy men were hanging suspended by ropes of grass, at which here
female society, and retired to the woods.

one day, absorbed

in

meditation,

he was startled

and there a

rat

was

nibbling.

On

asking their history, he

discovered to his horror

that

they were his own ancestors

compelled to hang
eventually to
fall

in this

unpleasant manner, and

doomed

into the abyss, unless

he went back into the

world, did his duty like a man, married a suitable wife, and

had a
critical

son,

who would be

able

to release

them from

their

predicament.
not, therefore, difficult to
'

It
'

is

understand the object of the

It

Male-production
the third

ceremony (Punisavana).
of gestation

was performed

in

month

and before the period of

quickening.
a solemn

According to Asvalayana the wife was to keep

She was then fed by her husband with two beans and a grain of barley-^ mixed with a handful of curds,
fast.

and made to pray three times

offspring.

for the production of

male-

further

supplementary

rite

for the prevention of misIt

carriage was customary in

some

localities.

was performed
in

by sprinkling the

juice of a stalk of fresh

Durba grass

the

wife's right nostril, with the repetition of certain Mantras.

This ceremony was called Anavalopana (or Anavalobhana).

^

Symbolical of the Liiiga.


Hair-parting,
Birth-ceremony.

357

The next
tonnayana).

purificatory rite

was called 'Hair-parting' (Slmanin fire,

First an oblation

was made

with repetition of the

17.
i,

Vedic texts from Atharva-veda VII.

59.
I,

Rig-veda

III.

V.

25. 2, II. 32. 4-5.

Then

the

woman performed

her

ablutions in pure water; fragrant

oil

was poured on her head,

and a
grass
hritis

line or parting

(sTmanta) was drawn three times through

her hair from the forehead upwards with three stalks of

bound together

the

three sacred words called

Kusa Vya-

(Bhur, Bhuvar, Svar) and

the

hallowed syllable

Om

being uttered during each operation (pp. 402, 403). Certain medicinal substances supposed to have a purifying efficacy

were

also

given,

and a particular regimen prescribed

of gestation.

for

the remaining period

Musical performances

also took place during the

fulness in the

ceremony, the promotion of cheer-

mind

of the

mother being thought

at a
it

essential to

the proper development of the unborn child.

This

rite

was only performed

also

woman's

first

pregnancy,

and though, like the preceding,

the wife,
child.
it

purified the whole person of

had reference

to the well-being of the

unborn

The

idea

was that the body of the mother should be

consecrated and protected from evil influences at the most

critical

period of gestation, the proper time for the ceremony

it

being the fourth month, though

sixth or eighth.

might be deferred
of the
infant

until the

Immediately

after

the

birth

and

before

the severing of the umbilical cord the father performed the

next Sanskara, called the

'

Birth-ceremony

'

(Jata-karman).
stirred

Honey and
if

clarified butter

were mixed together and

possible, with a golden rod or

spoon

to

symbolize good-

fortune.
into the

Then a small portion of the mixture was introduced mouth of the new-born infant and certain texts were
II. 21.
' :

repeated (Rig-veda

6,

III.

36. 10,

Kaus.-Up.

II. 11),

with the following prayer

long-lived one,

a hundred years in this world, protected

mayst thou live Both by the gods

!
'

358

Name-giving,

Carrying

out.

Food-giving,

the ears of the infant were then touched with the golden rod,

and another prayer repeated

'

May

Savitri,

may

SarasvatI,

may

the Asvins grant thee wisdom.'

these words

Lastly, the shoulders

' :

were rubbed and

uttered
;

Become

firm

as

a rock, sharp as an axe, pure as gold

called a son, live thou a

thou art the

Veda

hundred

years.

May
'

Indra bestow-

on thee

his best treasures.'

The next Sanskara,

called

'

Name-giving

(Nama-karana),
a solemn
in
its

took place on the tenth day after the birth of the child.

The Hindus
religious

regard the giving of a

fraught

name

as

act

with

important consequences

bearing on the future prospects of the child.

The sound and

Asvalayana
laid

meaning of the name must be auspicious.

down

the rule that a boy's

name should

or of four syllables, not of an

consonant for
(for

its first

letter

either consist of two odd number, and have a soft and a semi-vowel in the middle

example, Bhadra, Deva, Bhava, Naga-deva, Bhadra-datta,

Deva-datta, Yajiia-datta).

Lawgivers prescribed that the word

form part of a Brahman's name
;

Sarman,

'

prosperity,' should
'

Varman,

armour/ of a Kshatriya's
;

Gupta,

'

protected,' of

a Vaisya's

and Dasa,
of

'slave,'

of a Sudra's (compare

Manu

IL

32).

The names

women were
called
'

required to be agreeable,
in

soft, clear, captivating, auspicious,

and ending
'

long vowels.

The next ceremony,

was of
child
less

Carrying out

(Nishkramana),
after birth the

importance.

In the fourth

month
'
:

was

carried out into the

open

air to

look at the rising

sun, while the following prayers

were said

That

eye-like

luminary, the cause of blessings to the gods (or placed in

the sky
for a

by the

gods), rises in the east

'

hundred

years.'

May we

hear,

may we behold it may we speak, may we

;
'

be

free

from poverty
66, 16
;

for

a hundred years and more

(Rig-

veda

VIL

Vaj.-Sanihita

XXXVL

24).

The

sixth Sanskara, called 'Food-giving' (Anna-prasana),

in the sixth

performed
portance.

month

after birth,
in

was of more imits

The

child

was carried

the arms of

father and

Tonsure and Shaving.

359

placed in the midst of a party of friends, including the family

priest,

who

offered prayers for

its

welfare and presented

rice)

it

with
first

gifts.

A little solid
its

food (generally

was then

for the

time put into

mouth, and various qualities were sup-

posed to be imparted, according to the nature of the food given,

whether

rice, butter,

honey, milk, or the flesh of partridges or

I.

goats (see Asvalayana Grihya-s.

17).

At the same time

was
recited.

verse from the White Yajur-veda

(II.

83)

After this sixth ceremony there was a pause, and the child

was allowed

to develop in peace for

two or three years.

'

The

next important Sanskaras were those of

Tonsure,'

'Shaving,' and 'Cutting off the hair' (Caula, Cuda-karma,

santa, Kshaura).

Ke-

These were kindred operations, and may be

^.

explained together

When

performed
effect

for the first

time they

were held to have a purificatory

In the case of a

on the whole character.

of tonsure

Brahman the ceremony

till

was per-

formed

in

the third year, but was often delayed, and sometimes the seventh or eighth year.

did not take place

to

According
its

Asvalayana the child was to be placed on the lap of

fire.

mother to the west of the sacred

The

father

was to
in his

take up his station to the south of the mother, holding

hand twenty-one

stalks of

Kusa

grass.

He was

to sprinkle the

head of the child three times with a mixture of warm water,

butter and curds.
grass seven times

He was
into

to insert three stalks

of

Kusa

the child's hair on the right side,

saying:

'

divine grass, protect him!'

it

Then he was

to cut ofT

a portion of the hair and give

to the mother, with recitation

of various texts, leaving one lock [sik/id or cudd) on the top of

the head, or occasionally three or five locks, according to the

custom of the family.

The

operation of shaving was some-

^ Manu makes Kesanta, cutting off the hair,' a later Sanskara than In the Roman CathoHc Caula or Kshaura, shaving see note, p. 353. Church the ceremony of tonsure is the first ceremony for devoting a young man to the service of God. In England this is done by cutting off a single lock actual shaving is dispensed with.
' '
;
'

"Go o

Ear-boring.

Initiation.

times regarded as a different ceremony from that of cutting.

It

had

to be continued after the age of puberty at regular

intervals

throughout

Hfe.
'
'

Another ceremony followed, called Ear-boring (KarnaThis was treated by some as a distinct religious rite, vedha).
and had
age.
to take place after tonsure at three or five years of

made it a Sanskara, but not so Asvalayana The boy was fed with honey or something sweet, and made to sit down with his face towards the east. Then two perforations were made in his right ear, and a particular
Paraskara
or Gobhila.

Mantra from the

Its first

last

hymn

of the

Sama-veda was
'
:

recited.
is

words

may be

thus translated

Let us hear what

good with the

ears, let us see

what

is

good with the

left ear,

eyes.'

A similar operation was performed

three perforations were

on the

except that

'

made and a different Mantra from the Rig-veda (VI. 75. 3) recited. The text maybe thus translated This bowstring drawn tight upon the bow and leading to suc:

cess in battle, repeatedly approaches

its

tJie

ear

^,

as

if

embracing
just as a

friend,

and wishing to say something agreeable,

woman makes a murmuring sound (in her husband's ear).' The next Sanskara was 'Initiation' (Upanayana). Brahmans
underwent
this at eight years of age,
it

Kshatriyas at eleven,
16, 21,

Vaisyas at twelve, though

24 respectively.
important of
all

might be delayed to

and

This and marriage were perhaps the most

the Sanskaras.
its

The
a

nature of initiation

could scarcely be inferred from

name, Upanayana, which

simply means

'

leading

or

bringing

boy

to his

spiritual preceptor.'

But

in real fact, until the

Guru boy was

or so

brought, he could not be invested with the sacred thread, and

until
'

he was so invested he could not be reckoned among the

twice-born,'

and

until

he was spiritually regenerated by the

act of investiture

he could not be permitted to use a single

The only apparent reason

is

for reciting this

in
it.

Mantra

at the

Karna-vedha

Sanskara

that the

word

Kama occurs

The Sac7xd Thread or Cord,

prayer, or repeat the Veda, or engage in
service or sacrificial rite.

361

any single religious Nor was any ceremonial observance

was worn.
Indeed even
in

effectual unless the thread

the

present day a
other

Brahman name than Vipra.

before initiation has no right to any

It is

only when he has been invested

title

with the sacred thread that he has a right to the

'

Dvi-ja,

twice-born.'
until the

Nor ought

the

name Brahman
heart.

to be applied to

him
If

assumption of the thread has qualified him to

closely into the nature of the sacred
effecting so vast a trans-

learn the

Veda (Brahma) by
inquire a
little

we

symbol supposed to be capable of

formation
formerly,
in a
it

human

being's condition,

we

find that

now, as
in

consists of three slender cotton threads

white

colour to typify purity, and tied together in one spot

by a

sacred knot of peculiar construction (called brahvia-grantJii)^

each of the three threads also consisting of three finer threads

tightly twisted into one.

The

construction of this cord

in

is

no

doubt simple, but

it

must be borne
Vedic
texts.

mind

that the thread

when

formed

is

of no use unless blessed

by Brahmans and consecrated

by the

recitation of

The

texts usually repeated

during the process of arranging the threads are the Gayatri

At the and certain other texts from the Black Yajur-veda. same time holy water is repeatedly sprinkled on the cord
by means
symbol
of

Kusa

grass.

So soon

as the

Hindu boy had

this

been made regenerate by the solemn putting on of

his religious

mystic

education and spiritual

life

really began.

And now

for the

first

time he was taught to repeat that

for illumination

remarkable Vedic prayer

Gayatri (from Rig-veda

called

SavitrT, or

III.

62. 10), thus translatable:

'Let

us meditate on that excellent glory of the divine Vivifier,

may
all

he illumine our understandings,'

that

most ancient of

Aryan
towards
;

prayers,

which was
ago,

first

uttered
still

thousand

years

and

which

rises

more than three day by day

millions
initiated

heaven, incessantly ejaculated

by

of

our

Indian fellow-subjects.

Then, again, every

boy was

'

362

Fottr Stages of a

Brahman

s Life.

admitted to the privilege of reading and reciting other portions of the

syllable

Veda.

He was

taught to pronounce the sacred

Om,

the names of the seven worlds (Bhur, Bhuvar,

texts.

Svar,

etc.),

and other Vedic

other
Sanskrit

He was

furthermore re-

quired to learn by heart certain moral precepts taken from

Manu
and

or

law-books,

enjoining

abstinence

from injury to others, unselfishness,

self-control (see Chap.

truth, honesty, chastity,

XXI).

The whole

process

of
re-

teaching him

these

various

formularies

was by some

garded as a separate Sanskara called Vedarambha-sanskara,

or sometimes Valdika upadesa or Gayatri upadesa.

When
of

he had been thus

to

Initiated

he was
acts,

for the first

time permitted

perform other religious

such

as

the

worship

gods, saints, spirits and ancestors, but these were generally

deferred until, as a married man, he had a house of his

own

and was able

to undertake a householder's duties.

life

According to Manu a Brahman's

unmarried religious student

was properly to be
married house-

divided into the four states or stages (called Asramas) of

'
'

(brahma-cari),
'

'

holder' (grihastha), 'anchorite' (vanaprastha),

cant' (bhikshu) or
'

religious
'

mendi-

abandoner of all worldly concerns (sannyasi).

(p.

Hence on

investiture with the sacred thread

360) he had to

leave his father and

reside with

a religious preceptor for

till

several years as an unmarried student,

he had acquired a

knowledge of the Veda, unless he took the vow of perpetual

[naishthika] celibacy or of a life-long brahma-cari.
his preceptor he

On
'

leaving

performed the Sanskara called

Return

(Samavartana).

This was formerly a solemn religious ob-

servance in which prayers were recited, ablutions performed,

and

gifts

given to his spiritual teacher.

After

its

celebration

the youthful
till

Brahman returned

to his father's house,

and not
life

then was he supposed to take a wife and

commence

as

a householder.

This proves that early marriages were not

In real fact the
till

the rule in ancient times (compare p. 379).

next Sanskara, or Marriage (VIvaha), was not performed

Ancient Fo7i7i of Marriage Ceremony.

363

man and woman were able to live in a house of their own. According to Manu (IX. 90. 91), Gautama, Bodhayana, and
others, the

postponement of marriage
not
sinful.

till

three years after of

puberty
marriage

is

The whole

detail

the ancient

rite is

given in the domestic rules (Grihya-sutras) of

Asvalayana, Gobhila, Paraskara, and others.

wife

was to

be selected after proper inquiry as to family and condition.

Before the marriage ceremony an oblation of clarified butter

was

to be offered in
3.
2).

fire,

with repetition of a Vedic text (Rig-

veda V.

The

following are

some

particulars of the
(I. 7).

wedding ceremonial taken from Asvalayana

West
holds),

of the sacred

fire

was placed a stone

is

(for

grinding

corn and condiments such as

used by

and north-east a water-jar.

women in all The bridegroom

houseoft"ered

an oblation, standing towards the west, and taking hold of

the bride's hands, while she sat
east.
if

down and looked towards

the

If

he wished only

for sons

he clasped her thumbs, and

for

daughters the fingers alone.

Then, whilst he led her

fire

towards the right three times round the

water-jar,

and round the

;

he said
us

in

a low tone
let

'
:

am

male, thou art female

offspring
;

come

let

marry,

us

possess

united
let

in

affection, illustrious, well-disposed

live for a

towards each other,

led her
' :

us

hundred

years.'

Every time he
rock.'

round he
this

made
stone,

her ascend the mill-stone, and said

Ascend thou

be thou firm as a

Then

the bride's brother,

after spreading

melted butter on the joined palms of her Then, hands, scattered parched grains of rice on them twice.
after

pouring the oblation of butter on the

(especially

fire,
^).

Vedic texts

w^ere recited
1

from Rig-veda X. 85

Then the

This

is

veda, translated by Prof. A.

the Surya-sukta, or well-known Marriage-hymn of the RigWeber in Ind. Studien, v. 177, etc., and
full

discussed in

by Dr. Haas.

In that

of the marriage of Surya daughter of the

hymn we have a description Sun to Soma (here probably

The Atharva-veda 14, and many in

personified as the Moon), whereas in Rig-veda IV. 43. 6 the two Asvins

are said to be Surya's husbands (compare p. 271).

has also many marriage-hymns and texts (see Book XIV).

I.

64

Ancient Fire-wo^^ship.
hair,

bridegroom unloosed the two braided tresses of

text
loose thee from the fetters of

one on

each side of the top of the bride's head, repeating the Vedic
'
:

Varuna with which the

'

very auspicious Savitri has

bound thee (Rig-veda X.

'
:

85. 24).

Then he caused

her to step seven steps towards the northto

;

east quarter, saying

her

Take thou one

step for the

;

acquirement of force

take thou two steps for strength

;

take

thou three steps for the increase of wealth

steps for well-being
;

take thou four

;

take thou
;

five steps for offspring

take

thou six steps for the seasons

friend
;

take thou seven steps as a

be

faithfully

devoted to

me

may we
age.'

obtain

many

sons

may

they attain to a good old

Then

bringing

both their heads into close juxtaposition, some one sprinkled

them with water from the

jar.

The
and

fire

used

in the

ceremonial was kindled by the friction

of two pieces of sacred

this

wood

called

Aran! (Rig-veda VII.

i. i),

same

fire

which witnessed the union of the young

couple was brought by them to their

own home.

There a

room on the ground-floor was consecrated

its

as a sanctuary for

reception and perpetual

to

maintenance.
kindled.
It

Great reverence

was shown
into

the

fire

so

was never blown

feet

upon with the mouth.

it,

Nothing impure was ever thrown

for

nor was

it

ever used

warming the

(Manu

IV. si)-

For what was the pious Brahman's idea of

texts of the Rig-veda assert that the

fire?

Two

Supreme Being deveAnother verse of the

fire
'

loped the whole order of existing entities [ritavi-ca satyanicd)

through the operation of heat.

:

Rig-veda says
'

'All gods are comprehended in

all

(V.

3. i)

He

surrounds them

as the circumference of a wheel does

the spokes' (V. 13.

6).

In

fact, fire

was to a Hindu a

visible

embodiment not only of heat but

nature.
It

of all the other forces of

had three forms, as

fire

on earth, as lightning
air,

associated with rain and water

in

the

as the sun in the

heavens.

And

yet these three forms were often regarded

Ancient Fire-worship.
as

365

comprehended in the one form of earthly fire (see p, 16). Hence fire was not merely a symbol of the Supreme Being's presence among men. It was an emblem of His creative,
fostering,

and disintegrating
too, as fire in
'

energies, a

type of His three

eternal attributes, Life, Thought,

The Sun,
It
its

and Joy. the Heaven, had a triune aspect.

'

was called the

attributes

three-stepped

(tri-vikrama).

It differed in

and

qualities as the morning, the mid-day,

p.

and

the evening sun (see

oft-repeated

342).

It

was adored every day

sense.

in the

GayatrT prayer, which was in three measures,

in

though

all

three measures were connected

And

yet there were not three

Suns worshipped, but only three

forms of one Sun.

The

Sun, however, was inaccessible and not always

if

visible.

Fire could always be maintained, or,

extinguished, could be

rekindled

whenever

religious rites

were performed.

As

general rule the householder was content with kindling the

sacred
fire in

a single hearth or circular clay receptacle.

'

This

was
ever

called the Grihyagni,

household

fire,'

and was engage

sufficient

for all

domestic ceremonies (smarta-karman).

pious, or

Those howin

who were more

who wished

to

Vedic

sacrificial rites

(srauta-karman) which were of a more com-

plicated character, took care to construct a

more elaborate

Homa-sala, or room for

In that sanctuary
fire

fire-sacrifices,

on the ground-floor.

was kindled

in three differently-shaped

receptacles, the fire in

each having a different

name [Ahafire

vamya, GdrJiapatya, and Dahshina).

When
'

the sacred

was thus lighted

in the house,

it

was regarded as a symbol of God present

'

as the

brilliant

guest
2),

who

lived in the midst

of the family (Rig-veda X. 91.

the divine mediator

who

bore the savour of daily offerings towards heaven, the golden

link of union

between men on earth and the

celestial

denizens

of air and sky.

Every morning and evening the head of the family, with his wife and children, went together into the room dedicated


366
to worship ^

Ancient

Fire-zuo7^ship.

There they seated themselves around the sacred

'

hearth, saying

We

approach thee,

fire,

daily both morning

in

and evening, with reverential adoration

our thoughts.'

Then they fed wood (samidh),

with offerings

the sacred

fire ^

with pieces of consecrated

the

generally taken from

of rice

Palasa tree, and

this

and butter, eating portions of

offering themselves.

The

oblation thus cast into the flame

'

was supposed

to ascend to the Sun.

From

the Sun,' says

Manu,
food
fire

'

it

falls

again in rain, from rain comes food, and from

76).

animals subsist' (III.

Then

while they fed the

they chanted hymns

they sang the glories of their

Protector, Illuminator

divine guest, calling

him Father, King,

of truth.

They spoke
all

of his subtle essence, of his universal

presence in

nature, in water, in plants, in the bodies of

men and

animals.

They prayed

for forgiveness, saying

Deliver, mighty lord, thy worshippers. Purge us from taint of sin, and when we die, Deal mercifully with us on the pyre, Burning our bodies with their load of guilt, But bearing our eternal part on high To luminous abodes and realms of bliss, For ever there to dwell with righteous men.

They prayed
if

also for prosperity in their worldly affairs, and,

in battle,

they were soldiers, for warlike sons and success

:

saying

'

Be ever present with

us,

O God

of

fire,

for our good'"^.'

And
gerated

here observe that as every religious idea was exag-

by Brahmanism, so it was not enough for a pious Even Hindu to be born twice during his earthly career. when regenerated by the sacred thread, he was held to be
^

In

Manu

IX. 96

we read

that religious rites are ordained in the

Veda

to

be performed by the husband together with the wife. ^ This was called the Homa Sacrifice. In the intervals of feeding the flame the fire was allowed to smoulder. ^ Mr. M. M. Kunte has given a good account of ancient family fireworship in his Shad-darsana-dintanika, and many of my statements in this chapter are based on his authority. For the Vedic texts used in the worship of Fire and here paraphrased, see Muir's Texts, v. 197-220, 303-305, and my Indian Wisdom, p. 18.

Ancient Sacrificial Rites.

again regenerated by his performance of the
sacrifice to fire.

367

Homa
is

or daily-

Manu

says

'
:

The

first

birth

from the

natural mother, the second from the sacred thread, the third

from due performance of the

sacrifice' (II. 169).

Of

course,

it

was most important

to keep the smouldering

If

embers of the sacred element perpetually burning.

hold
into

through

any accident the flame was extinguished, the whole housefell

confusion.

Everything went wrong

until

an

expiatory ceremony (prayascitta)

solemn

fast

observed by both husband and wife

fire

sometimes consisting of a had been

all.

performed, and the

was rekindled.
was not
for

And
was
day.

this daily service

Every fourteenth day

religious observances.

to every pious
It

and orthodox Hindu a high and holy

apart
special

was

set

Every new-moon
(paurnamasa)
or occupation

day
head

(darsa)

and

every

full-moon
his

day
rank
attire

the

of

the family

whatever
in

them both aside. and accompanied by his wife, he went

laid

Clad

humble

into the woods.

sacrificial grass,

There
placed

he collected

fuel

(samidh) and sacred

them on
for the

his head, carried

them home, and made preparation

First he consecrated

solemn fortnightly ceremonial.

the

fuel,

constructed seats and a kind of

broom out

of the

grass, spread

deer-skins, and arranged the sacrificial instru-

ments,

made

of a particular kind of
altar.

wood

(kJiadh-a or saini\
his wife,
cerin

on the domestic
he prepared the

Then, with the assistance of

nirvdpa

sacrificial cake.

tain quantity of rice

called

Having consecrated a and pounded it

mortar with a proper pestle, he kneaded the

flour

with his

own hands
in a circle

into a ball.

This was laid on eight fragments

of brick {kapdla), taken up in a particular order, and placed

on the

fire.

The

ball of flour

was then shaped

into a

rounded

sacrificial

cake (pitro-ddsa) resembling the

back of a
times

tortoise,

Clarified butter
five

when baked, taken off the fire. was next poured by means of wooden ladles
and,

into

the

fire

such

oblations

being

called

the


368
paiica-praydga

Ancient Somas acrifices,

and other

oblations of butter

called

Ajya

were made to various gods.

The

consecrated cake was then

cut up, and the pieces {avaddna) were sprinkled with butter

and thrown
reverently

into the flames in the

fire

name

of various deities,
also

including the god of

himself.

Other portions were

family,
confessed,

eaten

by the assembled
of the past

hymns were
repentcere-

chanted, the sins

fortnight

ance expressed, and forgiveness asked.

The whole

monial was not always performed by husband and wife alone.

If

they were rich they sent for regularly ordained priests

generally four in
of

number who kindled fire from two pieces sacred wood (arani) by friction, and carried out the detail of
all

the ritual with great elaboration and with

the sacrificial imoff

plements

including a sacred sword

four
sacrifice,

for

keeping

demons

and, of course, with greater merit to the householder.

Then every
turmasya
three seasons.

months another ceremony,

was performed
this

called the Ca-

at the beginning of the

like a harvest-

Probably

was solemnized,

thanksgiving, in gratitude for the fruits of the earth, gathered

in at the

end of the three seasons of summer, autumn, and

It

winter.

was conducted with as much solemnity as the

rite,

fortnightly
special

and

in

much

the same

manner.
scale,

Another
with
the
usually
solstice

sacrificial

ceremony on a grander

addition of animal sacrifice

performed half-yearly at
[tcttardyaiia,

(Manu IV. 26, VI. 10), was the summer and winter

dakshindy an a).

Finally, every householder instituted once a year a

Soma-

sacrifice(Jyotishtoma),

when the

first

hymns, called Pavamana,

from Mandala IX. of the Rig-veda (beginning Svadishthaya

Madlshthaya) were
recited.

This was a ceremony requiring

at least sixteen different priests,

effective

who were

well paid for

its

celebration.

The

simplest annual

Soma-sacrifice,

called
for

Agnishtoma, lasted

for five days.

Others were protracted

sacrificial sessions

weeks and months, and there were even

which lasted
for years.

[sattra)

And

In these public rites


Soma-sacrijices.
usually
called

Funeral

Ceremo7iies.

369

Sratita-karman, to

distinguish

Smdrta-karinaiiy or domestic rites

two entirely
all

them from new elements

were introduced

first

the flesh of slaughtered animals, and

secondly the juice of the

12; 13; 22;
'^'^1).

Soma

plant mentioned before (pp.

At one time

kinds of animals were

p. 329),

sacrificed, as, for

example, horses (see

but

in

the end

a goat w^as usually selected. as offerings to the gods,

Parts of the flesh were burned

priests.

and parts were eaten by the

But the great

of

central act of the

whole ceremony was the

presentation of the exhilarating Soma-juice to the gods,

it

some

being poured out for the deities and some being drunk
institutors of the sacrifice.

by the performers and done on the fifth day

libations

This was

at the morning,
fact the

midday, and evening

sacrifice,

(savana).

In

animal

though

it
it.

preceded the Soma-libation, was really subordinate to

The

idea seems to

have been that the

sacrificer killed the

animal instead of sacrificing himself; and as the body of the animal when
sacrificed
in

the

fire

was borne upwards

to

the gods, so did the sacrificer

represented
after
in

by the animal

ascend to the

skies.

It

was only

he had been thus

heaven that he be-

admitted to the society of the gods

came

fit

to quaff the divine beverage,

and to become one

juice,

with the heavenly king

Soma

himself.

Indeed

this

purifying and

invigorating

supposed

to confer physical strength and to

make

the heart of

men

and gods glad, came to be regarded as the water of life the nectar which purified body and soul and conferred
immortality.
It

was then

itself

personified and deified.

The

juice of the

Soma was the Bacchus of India, and the fermented Soma plant was in ancient times to the Indian very much what the juice of the grape was to community Happily for the Greeks and Romans (compare p. 12).
eod
Indian households, the drinking of stimulating liquor has
never been permitted except at special religious ceremonials.

Bb

CHAPTER
The Hindu Religion

XIV.

in Modeini Family-life

Turn we now to the And what I shall have

daily

life

of the

modern householder.
mainly to the castes
^

to say will refer

corresponding to Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas

alone have a right to the
title
'

who

twice-born,'

and to go through

the Sanskaras supposed to purify the child from the taint contracted in the

womb.

It will

be seen that Hinduism

is

still

an

affair of

minute ceremonial and elaborate purificatory

rites,

yet without any central ecclesiastical authority having power

to enforce or regulate their application.

Of the twelve Sanskaras only

over the
first

a few remain in force.

Passing

four,

which have now

fallen into desuetude,

we come
It is

to the

Name-giving ceremony (Nama-karana), perafter birth.

formed about the tenth or twelfth day

worth while to take note here of a superstitious idea

after birth the
its

which prevails very generally throughout India, that on the

sixth

day

Creator writes the child's future

special

destiny on

instituted to

deity on so

I know of no mark this particular day, or momentous an occasion.

forehead.

Yet

ceremony

to propitiate the

With regard
ceremony
is

to the present
in

custom of Name-giving, the

parts of India on the

performed
is

some
is
;

day

when the
favourite
^

'child

first

fed with

little

rice.

secure good

fortune

boy
^

usually

called

Then to after some

god (ishta-devata)

for

example, Krishna, Gopala,

only pure one

These are Manu's three chief castes. The Brahmans claim to be the left. See pp. 53, 452 of this volume. ^ But not so usually in former days. Witness such names as Panini, Patanjali, Saunaka, Asvalayana, etc.

Modern Name-giving.
(Gopal),

371

Ganesa
servant,

Rama, Rama-candra, Narayana, Siva, Sankara^, name may indicate that he is to be the god's as, for instance, Rama-dasa (Ram-das), Krishna-dasa,
or the

Narayana-dasa (Narayan-das), Lakshmi-dasa.

norific affix Jl

Often the ho-

(probably thought to be auspicious as derived

jiv,

from either the root

to the

'to Hve,' or

ji,

'to conquer')

is

added

name, as

in

Rama-ji (Ram-ji),
into

Siva-jT, Deva-jl.

Candra,

the

moon

corrupted

Candar and Cand

in a

is

believed to
etc.).

bring good luck

when used
day

name (Moti-cand,

Again,
girls, like

in the present

as in ancient times, the

names of

those of boys, are often taken from those of god-

desses, such as

Lakshml, Durga,

Sita,

Radha

or from cele;

brated women, such as Savitrl, Yasoda, Subhadra, Sumangala

or from rivers, such as Gaiiga,

Yamuna,

Bhagirathi, Godavari,

Narmada, Krishna
skrit

or from jewels, such as

;

Manak
Mani, a

(for

San;

Manikya), a ruby

Moti (Sanskrit Mukta), a pearl

;

Rattan (Sanskrit

ratna), a precious stone

gem

or

from

flowers, such as

Padma, a

lily
;

Phulli, a

blossom

or

from words

like Sundarl, beautiful

Prema.

love, etc.

It is often

considered unlucky, and not unlikely to bring

if
it

down
birth.

a judgment on a child,

the

name

it

receives

is

in-

dicative of

any good quality

it

Therefore
'

is

not

may happen to possess uncommon for a fair child to

will

at

be

called

Black

'

(Krishna).

Moreover, a parent

sometimes
a super-

give an infant an ugly or inauspicious

stitious fear that the child's

name from
for
it is

beauty

may
;

excite the envious

glances or
that

'

evil

eye' of malicious persons

remarkable

when a family has

suffered early bereavements

by death

these are attributed to evil influences exerted through the

instrumentality of the

As
that

a general rule, the

by which the

human eye (see p. 253). name given on the tenth day is only child is commonly known and addressed

Narmada-sankar

is

the

name

of

celebrated

living

GujaratI

poet.

B b 2

372

Birth-reco7^d

and Horoscope,

in conversation.

But the
is

infant often receives a second or

its

private name, which

considered to be
its

real

name, and

is

whispered inaudibly
(guru),

by

parent or the family preceptor

others.

and not revealed to

in

The

idea

is

that a man's
his per-

name

is

some mysterious manner connected with

it

sonality, and the object of concealing

is

to protect

from the power of sorcerers, who are unable to injure

their

him him by

enchantments unless they know and can pronounce his

too, that besides the
is

real name-^.
I

ought to mention,
secret

and the

name, another

generally added which

it

common name may

be called the astrological name, because

the child was born.

contains a letter

from the name of the constellation (nakshatra) under which

It is well

portance
stars.

is

done by a true

known that nothing of imHindu without consulting the

Therefore soon after the Name-giving ceremony has

been performed the family Astrologer (Jyotisha, corrupted

into Jyoshi or Joshi)
is

sent for

and commissioned

to

draw

up a horoscope of the exact time of the child's nativity, the constellation under which it was born, with a prophecy of
the duration of
its
life,

and the circumstances, good or

is

evil,

of

its

probable career. This

It is

called the birth-record

in Sanskrit, and, if the

(Janmaparents

patra).

always written

are rich, sometimes on a roll sixty yards long, takes three or

four

months

to prepare,
in

and costs a large sum of money.

is

The name
example,
if

given

the horoscope
at the

the Nakshatra name,

and not the one given

the child's

Name-giving ceremony.
is

For

common name

Yadava Candra
horoscope, but a
as Raghu-natha,

Ghosh,

this

different

name is not mentioned in the name is given, such, for example,

^ It is well known that no wife in India likes to utter her husband's name. According to Sir J. Lubbock a Sumatran scrupulously abstains from pronouncing his own name, and a similar superstition prevails among the Negroes, Abyssinians, and Australians.

Translation of Ho7'oscope,
or Harl-hara
^.

'^'j'}^

subjoin a translation of part of a genuine

Janma-patra or horoscope^:
Adoration
to the

Sun and all other planets and stars of him for whom this horoscope is prepared. Let that scries of characters which is written by the Disposer of all things on the forehead of the child, and which is another name for Astrology, be seen clearly by eyes purified by the same science. May good fortune smile on the instant which came to pass after 1784 years, 7 months, 26 days, 22 dandas, and 27 palas of the era styled the Sakabda had passed away, or after 1269 years, 7 months, 26 days, 22 dandas, and 27 palas of the era styled the Sana had passed away. First, the measure of the day of birth is 26 dandas, 35 palas, o vipala, and of the night is 33 dandas, 25 palas, o vipala; of half the day, 13 dandas, 17 palas, 30 vipalas, and of half the night 16 dandas, 42 palas,
Sun.
the

May

and

constellations prolong the

life

30 vipalas

and of a fourth part of the night

of a fourth part of the day, 6 dandas, 38 palas, 45 vipalas ; 8 dandas, 12 palas, 15 vipalas of an
;

eighth part of the day, 3 dandas, 19 palas, 22 vipalas part of the night 4 dandas, 10 palas, y] vipalas.

and of an eighth

The moment of his birth being next after the 27th pala, after the 22nd danda of the day, the child was born in that eighth part of the day which was presided over by the planet Sukra (Venus), and in that danda of the day which was presided over by Rahu, and consequently the aspect of Rahu was then not such that it could have had its position in the same degree with the constellation of the child's birth or with any of the coordinate constellations (compare p. 345). At the instant following the 27th pala, after 22 dandas of the 27th day of the solar month of Agrahayana, being a Thursday and the 5th day of the fortnight succeeding the full moon, in that lagna or period during which the constellation Aries was visible in the sky, and which was ruled over by Mars, in that half of the lagna which was guarded by the Moon, and in that 3rd part of the lagna which was governed by Jupiter, etc., the second son of * * * * * was born under the star Aslesha, and when the moon had revolved to the constellation Cancer. The child, who will live a long life and be capable of attaining to great prosperity, belongs to the Devari-gana or demon class, and to the Vipravarnaor Brahman caste, and his astrological name is Harihara Devasarma. To him doth this horoscope of happy results belong.

As

the deity presiding over his birth-lagna

is

propitious, the child will

^ The Rev. Nehemiah Goreh (a converted Brahman) told me that each Nakshatra or constellation has four divisions, and that he was born under Hence his Nakshatra name was the third, in which the letter r occurs. Raghu-natha. It might just as well have been Rama or any name in which the letter R occurs. ^ The late Mr. Woodrow, Inspector of Schools, is my authority here.

374
he

Modern Shaving.
and a favourite
of fortune,

turn out to be a person of a good disposition

shall beget

sures,

many sons, and have ample dwelling-places, and possess gems of various descriptions.

enjoy plea-

Now

are to be described the planetary periods according to the birth-

He was born under the star of Aslesha, and hence months and 18 days of the lunar period were passed, and I year 4 months and 12 days of the same remained, at the date of the child's birth. The result of this shall be the gain of clothes by the boy. The age of the boy will be i year 4 months 12 days at the expiration of the period of the Moon 9 years 4 months 12 days at the expiration of the period of Mars, which is 8 years 26 years 4 months 12 days at the expiration of the period of Mercury, which is 17 years; 36 years 4 months 12 days at the expiration of the period of Saturn, which is 10 years 55 years 4 months 12 days at the expiration of the period of Jupiter, which is 19 years 6'] years 4 months 12 days at
star of the child.

2 years 4

the expiration of the period of the Earth's shadow, which

21 years.

is 12 years 88 years 4 months 12 days at the expiration of the period of Venus, which
;

is

With regard
p. 359,
it

to the right of tonsure or shaving described at

is

to be observed that in

modern times

rich

people

are shaved every day, ordinary people once a week, poor people

once a fortnight.
or even cuts his

No
own

one, as a general rule, shaves himself,

nails.

Both these necessary

(napita),

acts are
to

performed by a caste of barbers

of hair and nail-parings are

and ought not

be

carried on in a room, for the simple reason that fragments

supposed to cause pollution.

The
in

operation

is

usually conducted under a shed or tree, or

street.

an open verandah or

Numbers

of barbers

may

be

seen plying their occupation every morning outside the houses

of a native town.

In former days, as

we have

seen, a

Brahman had

to part

with

all his

hair except a tuft at the top of his head, this

top-knot (sikha) and the sacred thread being the two chief

badges of Brahmanhood.
(see p.

Only when he became a SannyasT two badges. '>fi'l) In the present day few persons, except Brahmans of the
was he allowed
to dispense with these

strictest

orthodoxy, allow themselves to be reduced to a

single tuft

on the top of their heads

but every respectable

Hindia

who has reached puberty

gets rid of the hair on his

Modern
face
^

Tonsii7^e.

375
an ascetic ^, or has

(except his mustaches), unless he

is

taken some other reh'gious vow, or belongs to the very lowest

castes.
It

should also be noted that special religious shavings

are performed at sacred places of pilgrimage on the banks of

rivers,

and are held to be very

pollution.

efficacious in purifying soul

and body from

Persons

who have committed

great

crimes or are troubled

by uneasy

consciences, travel hun-

dreds of miles to Prayaga (Allahabad), Mathura (Muttra), or

other holy places for the sole purpose of submitting themselves to the tonsorial skill of the professional barbers

who

frequent such localities.

There they may be released from

Forthwith they emerge new crealife

every sin by

first

being relieved of every hair and then plung-

ing into the sacred stream.

tures, with all the

accumulated guilt of a long

effaced.

Women, on
weight.

the other hand, are most careful to preserve

their hair intact.

They

pride themselves on

its

length and
is

For a woman
It is

to

have to part with her hair

one
all

of the greatest of degradations, and the most terrible of

trials.

the

mark

of widowhood.

Yet

in

some sacred
vir-

places, especially at the confluence of rivers, the cutting off

and offering of a few locks of hair (Veni-danam) by a

tuous wife
is

considered a highly meritorious act.

in

A Brahman gentleman of high rank

to

India once described

me how he had

taken his wife for the performance of this

ceremonial to Prayaga, which, as the point of meeting of the

Ganges and Jumna,

pilgrimage in India.
river

is

regarded as one of the holiest places of

She was escorted

kunkuma,
offer

to the

banks of the
the conflu-

by a troop of

priests

there called Prayagwal carrying

etc.

cocoa-nuts, areca-nuts, flowers,

At

ence she was

made

to sit

down and

worship (puja) to the

^ This, in most parts of India, is one point of distinction between Hindus and Muhammadans, whose former hatred of each other made them adopt opposite practices out of mere antagonism. - Some Sannyasis allow all their hair to grow, some shave it all off, including the Sikha. These latter are the most orthodox.

376
Ganges.

Teeth-cleaning,

Ear-boring.

Then one

of the priests recited certain texts and

prayers from the Veda, and holding a pair of golden scissors

in his

hand cut

off about

two inches of her long

hair.

The

locks thus severed were deposited as a precious offering in

a costly metal vessel, but not without the addition of five

rupees to

make

the

gift

more acceptable.
the

Then

the husband,

in ratification of the

ceremony, poured water into the hand

of the priest,

who thereupon took

cast the locks of hair into the river.

money for himself and The shorn woman re-

garded

this presentation of her precious locks to the riverit

goddess as a great privilege, for

a devoted wife

can only be performed by

who

is

living virtuously with her husband,

and

only in his presence.

I

may

observe here that

if

a really orthodox Hindu

woman

ever loses her hair or becomes partially bald from sickness

or

any other cause she never

resorts to the artifice of using

false hair.

She would consider

herself eternally defiled

and

condemned to prolonged by such an act.

It

suffering in a future state of existence

may be mentioned

in

connection with the religious duty

is

of shaving that daily teeth-cleaning

also regarded as a re-

ligious act partaking of the nature of a ceremonial observance.

It is

performed, like shaving, in the open

air.

Any
in

one who

passes through a native village in the early morning

may
is

see

a large proportion of

its

population engaged

the serious a twig

duty of cleansing
or small stick.

their teeth.

The instrument used

After

its

application to the teeth the twig

serves the purpose of cleaning the tongue

another important

duty.

It

is

never used a second time, but always thrown

away.
strict

No

words can express the abhorrence with which a

practice of using a toothall

Hindu regards the European

Saliva
is

brush a second time.

polluting.

of

things the most utterly

Ear-boring

is

also a religious ceremony.

Girls

have their

ears bored about the

same age

as boys (see p. 360), but often

Betrothal.

Initiation.
in

377
one
in

have three perforations made

left

each

ear, besides

the

nostril.

Nose-rings are universal

among women

in all

parts of India.

Even boys
is

in

some

places have one nostril

bored, but this

an exceptional circumstance.
of betrothal (vag-dana) generally succeeds

The ceremony
tonsure and

ear-boring,

but

is

not
first

reckoned

among
for
its

the
child

Sanskaras.
is

In India a parent's

thought

not for

its

health

not

for its wealth

not

for its physical,

moral or mental well-being

riage.

but

for its betrothal

and mar-

To

look out for a child's future wife, to lay

by money

for the cost of the nuptial festivities, to fee

and conciliate the

priests

duties
tion.

who promote the match these are far more important than to make arrangements for a boy's proper educaWhen a boy attains the age of five his father deputes a
match-maker (Ghataka) to negotiate a promise of

professional

marriage with the daughter of a

It

man

of at least equal caste.

as

must be admitted that caste-equality in India is regarded a more important requisite than riches. Money is quite a

secondary consideration.

Nor

is

character so important.

In

some
castes

parts of Northern
is

India the
;

match-maker

for

some
is

the family barber

but for the higher castes he

more generally a Brahman, who goes about from one house

to

another

till

he discovers a baby-girl of suitable rank.

Forthwith he reports to one of the parents that the young

lady has
all

her

members complete

the

full

number
that

of eyes,

teeth, fingers

and toes

and

to the other

the

young

gentleman
brings
the

is

equally perfect in every particular.

Next, he

two parents together.

This
called

Genealogies are investithe

in

gated, and pedigrees certified.

Then

boy and

girl

are

solemnly betrothed.

is

Sanskrit

vdg-ddna,

and

in

Hindustani nisbat.

The important Sanskara of initiation (upanayana) into the Brahmanical religion by investiture with the sacred
thread
is

restricted to the castes corresponding to

(p. 360).

Brahmans,

Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas

Once

invested with this

; ;

^7^ c

hiitiation.

hallowed symbol of second birth, the twice-born

parts with
it.

man

never

In this respect he has an advantage over his

is

Christian brother.

by a

single

For the latter ceremony performed

admitted into the Church

in his infancy,

and brought
in contact

to his recollection

by one other ceremony only; whereas the

Indian twice-born

man

has a sacred symbol always

with his person, which

must always be worn and

its

position
services,

changed during the performance of his daily religious

constantly reminding

him of

his

regenerate condition, and

with

its

three white threads, united

by a sacred
religion.

knot, per-

petually setting before

him a

typical representation of

what

may

be called the triads of the Hindu

it is

For ex-

ample,

probable that the triple form of the sacred thread

is

symbolizes that the Supreme Being

Existence, Thought,

and Joy
that

(p.

34)

that

He

has been manifested in three forms as

Creator, Preserver, and Disintegrator of all material things

that

He pervades the three worlds. Earth, Air, and Heaven He has revealed His will in three principal books called
Sama Vedas,
in

the Rig, Yajur, and

the

with other similar dogmas of

Hindu system
I all

which the sacred number three conThis

true in regard to the multi-

stantly recurs.

have heard a Brahman described as the

is

greatest of

ritualists.

plicity of rites
in the present

which he ought to perform.

But

his ritualism

day

is

confined to private worship and domestic

ceremonies, and his ritualistic vestments are restricted to the

sacred coil of cotton thread, the

name

of which (yajiiopavlta)

denotes that

it is

put on (upavlta) during the performance of

devotional rites (yajiia).

And

just as a

Roman

Catholic priest
in

changes his ecclesiastical vestments according to variations

his

own

ceremonial, so the

thread.

Brahman alters the position of his For example, when he worships the gods he puts it
shoulder and under his right, being then called
his departed ancestors
left,

over his

left
;

Upaviti

when he worships

he sus-

pends

it

over his right shoulder and under his

;

being then

called Pradinavlti

and when he worships the

saints

he hangs

Marriage Ceremonies.
it

379

round

his
It

neck

like

a long necklace, being then called

NivTtT.

would be premature to pursue the subject of

domestic worship until we have given some account of

Marriage Ceremonies.

We

have seen

(p.

362) that in ancient times the

young

Brahman,
preceptor.

after his initiation, left his father's

house and resided

for several years as

an unmarried student with a religious

boy's
initiation
is

At
'

present a

followed

im-

mediately afterwards by a mere formal performance of the

rite called

Return (Samavartana,
'

p. '^62),

and generally,

after

day or two's
he
is

is,

by the ceremony of marriage. That made, while still a boy at the age of about nine or
interval,
is

ten and before he

really marriageable, to
girl of

go through the
his previous

second matrimonial act with a

about seven,

betrothal having constituted the

first,

and cohabitation
In fact, a

at the

age of

fifteen or sixteen

with his child-wife at the age of twelve

(but see note, p. 387) constituting the third.

Hindu
is

marriage

is

a kind of drama in three acts.

legal

But the second

is

the religious and

process, involving

ceremony, and

a most tedious

large fees to

the priests
in

and

festivities

prolonged for

many

days, at a cost,

the case of rich

people, of perhaps

100,000 rupees.

Often the savings of

is

a whole lifetime are so spent.

evils of

This

one of the greatest

is

Indian society.

Every well-to-do parent

idlers

compelled

to

squander large sums on mere

and pleasure-seekers,

instead of giving the

money

as a grant in aid to the newlylife.

married pair on
if

first

starting in

He

knows,

in fact, that

he were to allow the wedding to be conducted with an eye

to

economy he would
and

sink irretrievably in the estimation of

his friends

caste-fellows.

He

would never be able to

hold up his head again in his

it

be supposed that

own social circle. Nor must he spends his money unwillingly. On the
lavishly he

contrary, the

more

spends the more pride and

380

Marriage

Ceremoities,

satisfaction he afterwards feels in looking

back on what he

regards as the most meritorious act of his

life ^.

As

to the

two persons

chiefly concerned in a wedding, their

wishes are never consulted about any of the arrangements.

Yet it is thought highly important to consult the stars. A wedding ought never to take place except in a fortunate

month and during

is

fortunate days.

The most

favourable time

believed to be in spring

that

is

in the three or four

months

from February to April and May. The months generally chosen

are

Magha, Phalguna, and Vaisakha^.

any European, to

It is

out of the power

of

whom

the inner apartments of Indian

households are forbidden ground, to give a complete description of the entire marriage

ceremonial.

form has already been described at

ceremonies

p.

which

last for

many days

The more ancient The modern are marked by many

^60,.

similar acts,

and especially by the following

essential features

the night procession of the bridegroom to the house of the

bride, tying the vestments of bride

and bridegroom together

with a piece of consecrated cloth under which their hands are

joined, winding a cord round their necks,

marking

their faces
fire,

with paint, making them walk three times round the sacred

each time

in

seven steps

^,

with repetition of prayers and

Vedic
is

texts.

Noisy music during some part of the ceremony

In fact no one in India would believe
of a marriage

held to be essential.

ceremony conducted without loud and often uproarious festivities. For it is a common idea,
in the validity

which no contact with European habits of thought has yet

eradicated, that the efficacy of religious services
is

greatly

enhanced by

noise.
is

Every
^

sort of deafening musical instrument

brought into
for

In one

way
so.

the expense of marriages acts beneficially;

although

it is

lawful for a

Hindu

to

have more than one

wife, scarcely

any one can

afford to
^

do

some parts of India Caitra is avoided. ^ This part of the ceremony is called the Sapta-padT, and generally comes last (see p. 364).
In

Marriage Ceremonies.
requisition.

381

Players on trumpets, horns, pipes, and drums

for,

and every performer seems intent on overpowering the sounds produced by his fellow performers,
are eagerly sought
as
if

his

nmsical reputation
din.

depended on

his

being heard

above the general

In the higher circles of Indian society the wedding entertainments, often repeated for several days, are on a magnificent
scale,

and when Europeans are invited every kind of expensive

is

luxury

provided for them.

Soon
two

after

my

arrival at

Bombay

in

1875

was

invited to

be present at the wedding of Sir Marigaldas Nathoobhai's

sons.

The

festivities

and

religious ceremonies lasted for

eight days,

and were on a
is

scale

of unusual magnificence.

Such a wedding

rarely witnessed

even

in

India.

The

residence of Sir Marigaldas was called

Girgaum House
first

magnificent mansion in the middle of a large garden.

When
day of
illu-

we

arrived at eight o'clock in the evening of the

the ceremonies, both house and garden were brilliantly

minated

all

the trees festooned with

Chinese lanterns, all

the lines of the architecture sparkling with light, and every

bed and fountain

coloured lamps.

in

the garden encircled with thousands of

splendid drawing-room blazing with light

was thronged with native gentlemen and Rajas, most of whom

sat

round

in

a double row, intently gazing at the movements

of

and listening to the songs

girls.

two jewel-bedecked Nach

silk

These

girls

wore bright-coloured
in

trousers

and

were decorously enveloped

voluminous folds of drapery.

merely sang
trills

They

did not really dance, but

in

a mono-

tonous minor key with continuous

voice, while

and turns of the

fro,

they waved

their

arms gracefully to and

ear,

occasionally lifting one

hand to the

and frequently ad-

vancing a few steps up the room and then retiring again,

closely followed

from behind by two or three musicians who

played accompaniments on instruments called Sararigl and

Tabla (tom-toms).

The

loves, quarrels,

and reconciliations

^82 o

Marriage Ceremonies.

of Krishna and his wives, especially his wife Radha, formed

the subject of their songs, which were kept up incessantly for

hours, no native spectators appearing to find
I

them

tedious.

was

told that a fee of looo rupees

is

sometimes paid to a

first-rate

Nach

girl for

one night's performance.

The

European guests congregated in the balcony.

From-

that vantage ground

we looked down on

a sea of turbaned

heads and coloured dresses, brilliantly lighted up and set off

by

a glorious background of cocoa-nut palms, tropical plants,

trees in full foliage.
It

and

was

like a fairy scene

on enchanted

ground, and our host, with his high hat and spotless white
dress,

might have been taken

for the

magician by whose art

the marvellous spectacle had been conjured up before us.

more human exhibition of

his

power followed, when,

champagne, and pre-

after garlanding us himself with

jasmine wreaths, he beckoned

to his servants,

who

feasted us with iced

sented every European visitor with bouquets of roses sprinkled

with rose-water.

Then we were

all

formally introduced to the

two bridegrooms, whose ages were about twenty and eighteen

for our host

was too enlightened a man

children the
brides,

to allow his sons to

marry when mere

respectively

aged

fourteen and twelve, being carefully kept out of sight.

On
was a

the fourth evening,

still

when we were again

invited, there

greater assemblage of people.

On

our arrival a

vast multitude were preparing to

accompany the night-proAgain the whole garden cession to the houses of the brides. was illuminated. Again it was crowded with visitors, or
rather on this occasion literally alive and resonant with an

excited

throng

of about

5000 people, who surged

like a

roaring ocean, while four bands of music struck up difterent

tunes in different parts of the grounds, and the same

girls entertained

Nach

the guests in the drawing-room.

Then the
grooms

procession gradually formed to conduct the bride-

to the houses of the brides.

The two bridegrooms

in

superb dresses of gold

tissue, with high jewelled hats

each of


Marriage Ceremonies.
383

which was said to be worth two or three thousand pounds

and necklaces of emeralds and diamonds, were placed on

caparisoned horses covered with white flowers.
brellas

richly

Crimson um-

were held over their heads, and

silver fans

waved
packed

near them.

About 3000

native gentlemen and 1000 ladies

Hindij and Pars!

in brilliant coloured dresses, closely

and

all

talking and singing together, formed themselves into a

procession, while the bands led the way.

The men went

first,

then came the mounted bridegrooms, then two ladies carrying

lanterns,

and then the whole crowd of

ladies followed.
in

We
riages.

European guests wound up the procession

car-

a lane
ladies,

At length we alighted and threaded our way through made for us into a large tent, where we found all the
gorgeously arrayed, and squatting, in what to us ap-

peared rather unladylike positions, on the ground around the

youngest of the bridegrooms,

midst.

who was

also squatting in their

intense,

The

crushing, jostling,

and heat were

the talking, joking, and excitement quite bewildering.

and Mean-

while one of the brides was brought in and

made

to sit

down

on the ground
in the

in front of the

bridegroom.

She was carried

veiled,

arms of her uncle, her head and face closely

silk

and covered with a deep red and yellow

value.

shawl of great

Leaving

this curious scene before

it

was concluded, we were

taken through the crush of people to the top of a gallery,

whence we viewed another stage of the marriage ceremony.

This took place under another canopy equally crammed with
people.
for the

The crowd

here was in a fever of excitement waiting

appearance of the elder bridegroom, who ought to

his mother-in-law.

have been received by

impossible, as she

This however was

was a widow. Another lady, therefore, came forward on his entrance and made a red mark on his forehead. Next a number of Brahmans, after placing the
bridegroom on a
stool,

proceeded to worship the god Ganesa

(p. 216),

the god who, as we have seen

defends every under-

84

Marriage Ceremonies.
lets

taking from the

and hindrances caused by

evil

demons.

Sacred texts were also

inaudible tone.

repeated, or rather muttered in an

the bride,

placed

Then preparations were made for receiving who was brought in by her maternal uncle and on a stool opposite the bridegroom. Her face was
body kept
bent, in token,

of course completely veiled, and her

I

presume, of maidenly modesty and feminine humility.

At

the

one side

same time two officiating priests squatted down on of the pair, and the acting mother and father-in-law
side.

on the other

The

principal religious

ceremony now began.

First of

all,

one of the Brahmans took a piece of consecrated cloth and

fastened one end of
to that of the bride.
it

to the bridegroom's dress

and the other

Next the hands of the bridegroom and

red paint on their faces and threw

bride were joined together and crossed under this cloth, and

two

ladies

made marks with

garlands of flowers round their shoulders.

the priests took a sacred cord and

After

this,

one of

wound it round the necks bridegroom, joining them thus together while mutbride and of note). Then the tering prayers and Vedic texts (see p.
'^(i'>^^

bridegroom's hands were placed in milk.

Sundry sprinklings
and water followed.

pf red powder, rice grains, cocoa-nut milk,

The remainder of the ceremony was very complicated and and we were not allowed to witness it all. The bridegroom and bride were, I believe, taken to another room, where more red marks were applied and money presented by the bridegroom. Then they were brought back to
tedious,

the tent, where earthen pots were placed at the four corners

and a consecrated

fire

lighted.

Afterwards the bride and

in

bridegroom walked four times round the tent hand

hand.

Then
fire,

the bridegroom put his

arm

round the bride's neck, and

in ghee, while

threw barley, betel-nuts, and oil-seeds into the consecrated

the

Brahmans

at the

same time throwing

the pair walked three times round the sacred flames, each

time in seven steps as in the ancient ceremony (see p. 364).

Marriage Ceremonies,
It is

385
portions of the

easy from

all this to

see that

some

ceremonial are
(see p. '^^'^,

little

changed since the time of Asvalayana

rules (sutras)

whose collection of composed about 2500 years ago.

was probably

About midnight, when

to a close, the bride

the whole day's ritual was brought

at a

and bridegroom played together

kind of
even,

game like that known among schoolboys as odd and money being used instead of marbles. More ceretill

monies followed on the succeeding days,

on the eighth

day the bride and bridegroom went together to the temple

of

Lakshmi (Maha-lakshmi), near Bombay, and worshipped

This was the grand
finale.

the goddess of Prosperity there.

The two
their

brides then followed their husbands, and took up

in

abode

the house of their father-in-law.

The sums

spent on the

festivities

must have been enormous.

and 20 was quite an exceptional
is

This remarkable marriage of two young men of high rank

at the respective ages of 18

occurrence.

The
is

legal
It

ceremony
must

generally performed eight

or ten years earlier.

not, however,

be supposed
His

that,

when a boy
life

thus married in childhood, he therefore begins

early as a householder on his

own

account.

first

lessons in reading

and writing probably commenced

at the

time of his betrothal.

of 9 or 10, or a
little

When
later,

he has been made

to

at the

age

undergo the ceremony of

marriage, he

is

old enough to understand that he must comin earnest.

till

mence learning
fore carried

His boyish education

his wife

is

there-

on

he and

have attained puberty

(generally at the age of 15 or 16 in the case of the

1 1

or

2 in the case of the girl).

act,

boy and Then comes the third and

lives

concluding matrimonial

when he
'^"^l)-

with his wife as her

actual husband (see note, p.

Even then
parents,

his education

is

by no means ended.

He

is still

a mere schoolboy or collegian residing at

home

with his

and continuing to do so long

I

after

he has children

of his own.

have not unfrequently examined the senior

c c

386
classes at Indian

Choice of a Profession,

High Schools and Colleges

in

which most

of the boys have been fathers.

Brahman families of the present day a boy's parents may choose for him either Brahmans, we know, are not a religious or secular career. of men divided, like oursimply but a class necessarily priests,

And

here

it

should be mentioned that in

selves, into

two great

divisions of clergy (sometimes designated

laity (Grihasthas
^).

by the general term Bhikshukas) and

The

clergy

may

be family priests (purohita)

(Gurus)

who perform

the

Sanskara ceremonies, but are often very ignorant, or they

may be

spiritual teachers

who

teach the mantras

and prayers, or they

may be men

trained in sacred learning.

These become

either Vaidik priests

and are sent to special

schools where they are trained in Vedic lore and ritual

by

Vaidik and Yajfiika

schools

priests, or

they

may be

sent to native

of another sort, where they learn

either

grammar
(kavyas).

(vyakarana) or philosophy, and become Sastris or Pandits.

Those who are taught grammar

also read the

poems

Those who are trained in philosophy usually confine themThese and the selves to the Vedanta and Nyaya systems.
Vaidik Brahmans ^ generally become bigoted members of the
clerical order.

As

to the laity, or Grihasthas,

they either go to native

institutions for secular education, or to

some

of the

numerous
us.

schools, high schools,

and colleges established by

Here
etc.

they learn English, study Shakspeare, Milton, Tennyson,

instead of their

own

literatures,

and aspire to become them-

selves writers of English,

and even of English poetry.

'

man and
who do

The term Grihastha ought properly to be restricted to a married householder,' but is now applied generally to those Brahmans
not live by priestly work, but by

some worldly

business, such as

that of a clerk, etc.

^ With regard to the Vaidik Brahmans, it should be noted that they have really little to do with Vedic sacrificial rites (yajna, srauta-karman), which are now out of fashion. Their chief work is connected with smarta-

karma

or domestic ritual.

Stattis

of Women.
feeling
is

387
that they are the

In regard to

women, the general

necessary machines for producing children

(Manu IX.

96);

and without children there could be no due performance of the

funeral rites essential to the peace of a man's soul after death.

This

is

secured by early marriages.

girls
it.

If

the law required the

consent of boys and

before the marriage ceremony^ they

might decline to give

at seven to

Hence
they

girls are

betrothed at three

or four years of age, and go through the ceremony of marriage

boys of

whom

know

nothing, and
all

if

these

boy-husbands die they remain virgin-widows

their lives.

They may be taken

of 10 and

to their boy-husbands'

homes

at the age
^.

may

even become mothers before 11

Be

it

observed, however, that the wives of India, unless they belong

to the

upper

classes,

have complete freedom and are allowed

noteworthy, too, that wives do not
It is
his.

to go anywhere.

It is

adopt their husband's name, as European wives do.

only theoretically that they merge their individuality in

Note, too, that they are generally loved, and that cruel treat-

ment by brutal husbands

one old grandmother
with a rod of iron.
will
It is

is

unknown.

Nay, Indian wives

often possess greater influence than the wives of Europe, and

sometimes rule a w^hole household

true that, theoretically, they are
It is

ignored as separate units in society.

true that they

abstain from pronouncing their husband's name, calling

him

simply

'lord,' or 'master,' or *the

chosen' (vara); and they

themselves are never directly alluded to by their husbands

in conversation.
It is

true that for a

male

friend to

mention
spent

their

names or even enquire

It
is

after their health

would be a
is

breach of etiquette.
in

true, too, that their life

petty household duties, in superintending the family cuisine,

When
19,

the previous edition of this work was published the earliest age

for cohabitation

was
It

lo,

March
widows

1891.

almost a dead letter

but the raising of the age to 12 became law on remains to be seen whether this law will become like the Act of 1856 for legalizing the marriage of

(but see p. 500).

C C 2

88
in a

Status of

Women.

Hottse holders duties.

It is

wearisome round of

trivial acts.

even true that

in re-

ligion they are theoretically placed on the

same

level as Sudras.

They

are allowed no formal initiation into the

Hindu

faith,

no

investiture with the sacred thread,

no

spiritual
life,

second

birth.

Marriage

is

to

them the end and aim of

and the only

rite is per-

medium

of regeneration.

No

other purificatory

mitted to them.

They never
the
its

read, repeat, nor listen to the

Veda. Yet, for

of Hinduism.

all that,

women

of India are the main-stay

They

are

principal stronghold

and

fortress.

Without

their support

both Brahmanism and Hinduism would

rapidly collapse.

Of
in

course

those

women

of the
in

upper classes who are

cooped up behind Pardahs

secluded apartments vegetate

profound ignorance of the world around them, while the

their children
is,

duty of training and forming the character of

I fear,

neglected
the

by

all.

Still

women
it

of India are generally satisfied with their

position

and desire no change.

must be noted that the seclusion and ignorance
to

Moreover
of

women, which was once mainly due

the fear of the

Muhammadan
Nor

conquerors, do not exist to the

same degree

in

provinces unaffected by the influence of those conquerors.

are child-widows, though generally
life

condemned

to per-

petual mourning and to a

of domestic drudgery, treated

with equal harshness in

all

parts of India.
I

And

before

concluding

may
in

direct attention

of the rules laid

down by

the ancient
^)

to some Hindu sage Vatsyayana

life.

(author of the Kama-sutra

In the
first

regard to Indian domestic

place he

recommends parents
five to

to allow their

children complete freedom and indulgence

till

they are

five

years of age.

Then from

sixteen they are to learn

some of the
^

fourteen sciences and the sixty-four arts.

Among

An

era.

A book

ancient but impure work quite as old as the first century of our called Early Ideas,' by Anaryan, gives a summary of
'

Vatsyayana's

rules,

which

have found useful here.

The Model Wife,

389

the sciences are comprised the Vedas, Puranas, law, medicine,

astronomy, arithmetic, grammar,

singing,

etc.

Among

the arts are

instrumental

music,

dancing, painting,

composing
etc.

poems, chemistry, mineralogy, architecture, gymnastics,

After education a
to

man
for

win a suitable wife

become a householder. He is himself by his own efforts, and not to

is

to

allow others to choose for him.

the most approved methods of

The

sage then expatiates on

love,

making

and declares that

should

no
be

fair

maiden can ever be won without a good deal of talking.

in

The house
in

which the husband and

wife' are to live

the neighbourhood of good men.

wife
is

The
the

to

keep her husband's

secrets, never to reveal

amount

of his wealth, to excel other

women

in attention

to her husband, in cookery, in ruling her servants wisely, in

hospitality, in thrift, in adapting expenditure to income,
in

and

superintending every minute circumstance of her family's

life.

daily
in

Finally, she

is

to co-operate with her

life

husband
merit,
is

pursuing the three great objects of

;

religious

wealth, and enjoyment (kama)

and to neglect the third

as sinful as to neglect the other two.

This kind of perfect

like

woman

is

called a Padmini, or lotusspecified

:

woman.

Three other kinds are

the Citrini, or

woman of varied and like woman

;

accomplishments; the Saiikhinl, or conchthe HastinI, or elephant-like woman.

In ancient and

medieval times

women were

not unfre-

quently Sanskrit scholars.

Here

is

a nearly literal version of the definition of a wife

I.

given in Maha-bharata

302cS, etc.

A A
Of

wife

is

half the
is

man,

his truest friend

loving wife

a perpetual spring
;

virtue, pleasure, wealth

a faithful wife a companion

Is his best aid in seeking heavenly bliss

A A

sweetly-speaking wife

is

In solitude, a father in advice, A mother in all seasons of distress,

rest in passing

through

life's

wilderness.

CHAPTER
Religious Life of the 0i4hodox

XV.

incite

Householder.

Let me

next direct attention to the daily religious duties

of the orthodox married

man who

has attained to the position

of possessing a separate house of his own.

I

pass over the home-life of the anglicized

ideas,

Brahman

of

advanced

who

has been educated under the auspices

of the British Government, but has not on that account been

able to avert the calamity of marriage with an uneducated

and bigoted wife of

troublesome

his

own

rank, or rid himself of

caste.

all

the

fetters of

custom and

Such a

life

comresult

bines social conditions which are incompatible.

is

The

unpleasing.

combination

is

produced which

is

not

unlike the

unwholesome product of a forced chemical union

between elements which naturally repel each other.

I

What
life

desire rather to describe in this chapter

is

the religious

of the husband and wife

duties

who

strive to

perform their daily

according

to

the

orthodox

Brahmanical usage of

more modern

times.

And

here

it

may be

well to introduce the subject of the

at the

householder's

life

by glancing

arrangements of the

material house which forms his abode.

Of course
native

the houses of even

of the poor in villages or in the

large
cities

quarters
are

need no description.
roofs

They

mere mud erections with bamboo

and thatch,
little

Those of the grade next above the poorest are

better.

Arrange7nent of a Modern House,

391
be one

They may be
Those of the

occasionally built of brick and

may

story high, but have seldom

richer classes,

more than two or three rooms.

on the other hand, are always
material, and, like the

constructed of brick or

some durable
street,

houses of Pompeii, usually have an interior court or quadrangle.

A door

from the

and sometimes a handsome

is

archway, opens into this quadrangle, which

all

surrounded on
or entrance
is

sides

by high

walls.

Over the archway

a large room, which serves as a meeting-place for the

of the family and their male visitors.
airy apartment

men
and

similar large

occupies the whole front of the house in

every story.
It
is

a melancholy fact that, as a general rule,

all

the

well -lighted

rooms with windows and verandahs looking

are appropriated

into the street

by the male members of

chambers scarcely worthy

the household.

On

each floor a gallery running round the

entire court-yard leads to small

of the

name

of rooms, where the female

members

of the

family are to be
entree.

found by those
is

When

there

who have the right of no court-yard the women occupy

is

the upper floor, to reach which there

usually in one corner

either

a steep wooden staircase.

The women's apartments

below

look

into

the
are

quadrangle
often the

where
is is

the

family cows

or goats

chief objects

of interest
little

or

on a

dead

wall,

never on a
in the house,

street.

There

or no furniture

anywhere
which

but

in

one room

a strong

box conalso the

taining the family jewelry.

is

The ground
and even
in

floor has a kitchen,

usually also the dining-room.

fuel,

There are

store-rooms for grain and

stalls for cattle.

In

one of the lower apartments, or

there
is

an adjacent enclosure,

usually a well or reservoir for water.

Here there

are

numerous shelves with a store of well-burnished brass watervessels in constant readiness.

Another room on the ground

worship.

floor is dedicated to daily

392

Religious Services.
is

Here there
and Penates
especially

a small

wooden temple (Mandira) or some

sacred receptacle for the household gods

the

Indian Lares

which
the

in

orthodox Brahman families

more
Hindu

among

Maratha people

are

generally five

consecrated symbols representing the

five

principal

gods

to wit, the
j

two stones (Sala-grama and Bana-linga),

a metallic stone representing the female
;

described at p. 69

energy
(Surya)

in
;

nature (Sakti)

a crystal representing the

Sun

and a red stone representing Ganesa (Gana-pati),

(p. 211).

the remover of obstacles

is

Here domestic worship

of every

commonly performed every day by each member respectable Hindu family. Here, too, or in an
court, there
is

adjacent
'^'^Z)^

generally a sacred Tulasi plant (see p.

to which the

women

of the family offer adoration.

Finally, in this part of the house the few remaining

orthodox

(Smarta) Brahmans in different parts of India sometimes

maintain a sacred
fire.

For

it

must be noted here

sacrificial ritual

that,

although the ancient fire-worship and

have

almost disappeared, yet at Benares and other strongholds of

Brahmanism a
still

certain

number

of

Brahmans
fire

of the old school

offer daily oblations in a sacred

which they main-

tain in their

own

houses, while they conform also to the

recent practices enjoined in the Puranas.

Soma-sacrifices are

more Even the old Vedic sometimes performed by such men on

great public occasions.

For example, a Soma-sacrifice was instituted not long ago at Poona, and at Wai near Mahabalesvar. Again, eight or
nine years ago a rich man, named Dhundhiraj Vinayak Sudas, had three Agnishtomas, one Vajapeya, and one Aptoryama
sacrifice (all of

performed at Alibag

them parts of the Jyotishtoma Soma-sacrifice) in the Konkan. He employed a vast

and Agnihotrls, and
In the course of the cerekilled.

number of

Pandits, Yajfiikas, Srotriyas,

spent at least 20,000 rupees.

monies forty-two goats were

the
fire

They were cooked on

priests,

called Samitragni,

and partly eaten by the


Religious Services.
partly offered in the sacrificial
fire.

393

At

the end of each cere-

mony

a supplementary sacrifice (called Avabhrita) was insti-

tuted with the sole object of atoning for mistakes, defects, or

omissions in carrying out the detail of the preceding

ritual.

The supposed aim

of

all

these elaborate and expensive ceresacrificers'

monies was to secure the

(svarga) after death.

admission into heaven

But such Vedic

sacrifices are

everywhere either obsolete

or obsolescent, and animals are

now seldom
is

killed in India,

except as offerings to the bloody goddess Kali

goddess

unknown

in

Vedic times
(p.

who

supposed, as

we have
if
;

already seen

190), to delight

in

drinking blood, and,

not satiated with the blood of animals, will take that of

this kind of sacrifice (bali) being quite distinct

men

from the old

Vedic

Yajiia,

Homa, and Soma

sacrificial rites.

But although the daily

Puranas and Tantras, yet
of Vedic texts (mantras)
to the

ritual acts of a

modern Brahman

are founded on the teaching of the later sacred works, called

it

is

remarkable that the repetition

retained and
is

is still

still

essential

due performance of every modern religious

let

service.

And
services

no one suppose that a pious Brahman's daily

the present day are less
in

in

irksome

or

tedious

than they were

is

olden times.

If

he was then

fettered,

he

now

enchained.

modern Brahman of the orthodox

Every faculty and

school will sometimes devote four or five hours a day to a

laborious
routine

of religious forms.
is

function of his nature

bound by an
2.

iron chain of traditional

observance.
1.

For example,
;

his daily duties

now comprise
at the three
(p.

Religious bathing

Worship of the Supreme Being

401);

by meditation and
3.

repetition of prayers etc.

Sandhyas, or morning, midday, and evening services

formal repetition

Brahma-yajna, or worship of the Supreme Being by a

of the
first

words of every sacred book

to all those saints
4.

(regarded also as an act of

sages to

homage

and

whom

the

Veda was

revealed);

Tarpana, or the

394

Religious Services,

threefold daily oblation of water to the secondary gods, to the

sages,

and to the

Pitris

5.

Homa,

or sacrifice to
p. '^(i6)
;

fire

by

fuel,

rice, clarified butter, etc.

(described at

6.

Deva-puja,

or the daily worship of the gods in the domestic sanctuary or

in

temples

but, as before stated (p. 352),

Hinduism enjoins
midall

no assembling together

for congregational worship.

^

There

is,

moreover, the Vaisvadeva

offerings

service before the

day meal, with

to

of food

(called

bali-harana) to
is

beings (bhuta), including animals.

There
etc. to

the daily

homage

men by
is

the offering of food,

visit to

guests and beggars.

There

the solitary

the neighbouring temple, not

necessarily for prayer or praise, but simply for

bowing before
its

the idol or for merely looking at

tion

it

(darsana) after

decora-

by the

idol-priest.

There

is

the observance of solemn

fasts twice

a month, and on other special days.

There

is

the

reading of passages from some of the Puranas^, held to be

a highly meritorious
act.

There

is

the performance,

if

circumFinally,

stances permit, of a pilgrimage to

some holy

shrine.

there

is

the last great Sanskara performed at death, called the

last sacrifice (antyeshti),

when

the body ought to be burnt

by

which was originally kindled by husband and wife on the domestic hearth. This is an outline of an
the sam.e sacred
fire

orthodox Brahman householder's

I

life in

now proceed
more
first

to

fill

in the details of

modern times. some parts

of the

picture

fully.

In the
his

place, then, the

sunrise.

orthodox Brahman must

be
it

rise

from

bed before

And

observed that his wife must

be up and
^

stirring

long before him.

She may have to

light

Parasara does not include the Vaisvadeva in his account of the daily According to him there are only shat karmani,' six acts which i. Snana, are nitya or ahnika acts, to be performed every day. These are
duties.
'

Svadhyaya, 4. Pitri-tarpana, 5. Homa, 6. Devatapujana. A Brahman's six duties as enjoined by Manu (X. 75) are different. They are i. repeating the Veda, 2. teaching it, 3. sacrificing, 4. conducting sacrifices for others, 5. giving, 6. receiving gifts. ^ Especially the Durga-mahatmya of the Markandeya-purana.
2.

Sandhya-japa,

3.

Ordinary Dress,

395

lamp, give the children a few sweetmeats, sweep out the rooms,
sprinkle

them with

water, and occasionally smear the floor

with a mixture of moist earth and the supposed purifying

excreta of a cow.
high-caste family
If

she lives in a village and

often be poor

is

poor

and a

may

she will
act

probably stick

cakes of this

last

substance on the outer walls of the house to

dry

for fuel.

Then perhaps her next

examine the

may be

to spin a

little

cotton, or to

state of the family garments.

And here a few particulars about hold may be suitably introduced.

The poorer
fluity of clothing.

the dress of the house-

classes in India are never oppressed

by a super-

A shred

of cloth round the loins satisfies a

poor working man's ideas of propriety.

Great ascetics and

pretenders to extraordinary sanctity were once in the habit of

going about perfectly nude, until British law interposed to

prevent the continuance of the nuisance.

Hindus are
cloth,

satisfied

with two garments

Even respectable made of white cotton

one called the Dhoti, or waist-cloth, tucked round the

;

waist and reaching to the feet

the other, called the Uttariya,

a shawl-like upper garment without seam from top to bottom,

which
toga.

is

thrown gracefully round the shoulders

like a

Roman

Often, however, an under-jacket, or close coat, cut into

form and called an Ahgaraksha or Arigarakha (body-protector),

is

worn under
is

this

upper garment.

Sometimes

also a piece

of cloth

carried over the

arm

to be used as a scarf in cold

weather.
It

has been said

by some writer

of

homely truths
'

in

England

that a

good wife ought never to have a soul above buttons.' Happily for a Hindu wife's peace of mind her husband's two
all

garments are gloriously independent of

parts of India she considers
to

fastenings.

need she trouble herself to learn needle-work.

it

Yet

in

Nor some

a high honour to be permitted

wash any

article of clothing

which has covered the sacred

person of her lord and master.

In regard to head-coverings, the greater

number

of people,

96

Dress and Jewelry,

including the poorer Brahmans, in Bengal, the Dekhan, and

Southern India never wear anything, though

garments.

in cold

weather

they like to muffle up their heads and faces in their upper

In other places the better classes wear turbans
(Sanskrit Ushnisha^), which in Western and Northern India

are often

made

of a piece of fine cloth from twenty to fifty

yards long, folded according to the caste, and called Phenta^.

As
who

to shoes, at least three-fourths of the inhabitants of

India never use

them

at

all,

and even the

are thoroughly Europeanized

rich except those dispense with stockings.

Those who wear

leather,

leather shoes like to get rid of

them whenfor the

ever they can, not from any idea of the inconvenience of

but from

its

supposed impurity.

It is

common

most dignified and refined gentlemen to come

sence with naked
feet,

into one's pre-

leaving their shoes outside the room.

A woman^s dress, like

a man's, also consists of two pieces,

sari (sati)
is

namely, a kind of bodice, and a long garment called a

sometimes
the head.

ten or even fifteen yards long

which

first

tucked round the waist with

many

folds in front,

and then

brought gracefully over the shoulder, and frequently over

A third garment is now occasionally worn undersome adopt the Muhammadan fashion of wearing a kind of drawers. Happily for economical husbands, no such thing as fashion in women's dress exists in the East.
neath, and

Indeed

it

may

be safely affirmed that there has been

little

change

in the character of

woman's apparel

for

3000 years.

But what the householder gains by his wife's moderation in dress he loses by her taste for expensive jewelry and ornaments. No woman would dare to hold up her head

among

her female companions unless well provided with

a sufficient assortment of ornaments of eight principal kinds

nose-rings, ear-rings, necklaces, bracelets

^

(commonly

called

In

Bombay

the Baniyahs wear high hats slanting backwards, and the

into a head-dress
it is

Parsis do the same.

^

When made up

called Pagrl.

Omens,
bangles), armlets, finger-rings, anklets

397
and
toe-rings,

and some

of these, notably the nose-rings, often contain costly gems.

As

to children's attire, the children of the rich are for the

all

most part innocent of up to

clothing

till

about the third year,

while those of the poor run about as they came into the world
six or seven years of age, without a single encumbrance,

except possibly a waistband and a few wrist-ornaments.

To
One
rice,

return to the duties of the householder's wife (grihini).

if

of her earliest acts,

she

is

poor, will be to bruise the

cleanse

it

from husk, or grind some kind of grain.

all

Then,

whether rich or poor, she must above

kitchen
;

things attend to her

and make

it

a model of absolute cleanliness

nay
whole

more, a sacred inviolable spot which nothing impure must

ever enter (see p. 128).

With regard
intendence and

to the actual culinary operations, the

comfort of the family depends of course on the

skill.

wife's super-

In this respect very few mothers of

families In India ever fall short of the highest standard.

Omens,

Then one
omens out

of a wife's duties

should be to keep

all

bad
here
in-

of her husband's way, or

in the early

manage
morning.

to
I

make him

look at something lucky

may

point out that a knowledge of

omens

(nimitta-jnana)

is

cluded

among

the sixty-four arts enumerated

by Vatsyayana,
lists

and

is

not the least important of them.

if

Different

of in-

auspicious objects are given which,

looked upon

In the early
if

morning, might cause disaster.

householder's
first

Thus some
a snake,

believe that

act should be to cast his eyes on a

crow on

his left hand, a kite

on his

right,

cat, jackal, or hare,

an empty

vessel,

smoky

fire,

a bundle of sticks, a widow, a

man

with one eye, or even with a big nose, confusion might

for the rest of the day.
;

be introduced into the household

Nay,

grievous calamities might befall the family

and

if

the good-

98

Onie7is.

Daily Religious Ceremonies,

had any intention of undertaking a journey,
sights,

man

of the house
after

he must,
project.

any such

by

all

means

desist

from the
first

On

the other hand, should the householder's

glance rest on a cow, horse, elephant, parrot, a lizard on

an east

wall, a clear fire, a virgin, or

two Brahmans,

all will
it

go

right.

Again,

if

he should happen to sneeze once,

;

would be a sure forerunner of good luck for the day but Finally, if twice, it would portend some serious mishap.
if

he should unfortunately yawn,

it

might lead to no

less a

catastrophe than the entrance of an evil

demon

into his body.

The Adbhuta-Brahmana (forming

Shadvinsa-Brahmana)
to be noted, too, that

the sixth chapter of the

treats of portents

and omens

^.

It is

both the Rig-veda and Atharva-veda

contain texts which prove that in Vedic times birds of ill-omen

were greatly dreaded and their

evil influences

deprecated

^.

Let us imagine then

sights

all

risks

arising

from inauspicious
started

well

avoided, and

the householder

on
it

his

tedious round of daily religious duties.

And

here be

ob-

served that one change has passed over every Indian household.

Manu, we know,

asserts that, according to a

Vedic

ordinance, the husband and wife ought to perform religious

rites
life in

together (IX. 96), but the wife has

now no

religious

common

with her husband.

once asked a well-educated Brahman

why he

acquiesced
*

in

a different rule of religion for himself and his wife.

replied,
'

Oh,'

we are now in the Kali-yuga, or age degeneracy. Our lawgivers have promulgated
he
code for these times
;

of universal
quite a

new

oxen cannot be

killed

for sacrifices,

and women
the

in all religious

matters are practically degraded

to the position of Sudras.

They

are not allowed to repeat

Veda, or to
services.

go

through

the

morning

and

evening

Sandhya

They never accompany

their

husbands to

^ This has been published with translation and notes, together with another text on the same subject, by Professor A. Weber of Berhn.

See Rig-veda

II. 42, 43,

X. 165

Atharva-veda VI.

29, VII. 64.


Teeth-cleaning.

399

Bathing,

any places of worship, and if they wish to visit the temples they must go alone. They cannot be regenerated by investiture with the sacred thread.

Their only sacrament

is

marriage.'

Such was

his

explanation of an Indian

Avife's

inferior religious status.

and seclusion to

Had he attributed her degradation Muhammadan influences he would probably

his wife,

have been more correct.

Alone
first

then,

and unassisted by

must the Brahman

His
his teeth.

commence

his diurnal course of ceremonial observances.

is

important act after rising

to

to

clean

A
He

Brahman ought

do

this according to strict rule,

on pain

of forfeiting the whole merit of the day's religious acts.

ought properly to use a twig of the sacred fig-tree (Vata), but

other kinds of

wood

are also allowed

is

^.

Compare

p. 376.

Teeth-cleaning, however,

only preliminary to the next im-

portant religious act of the day

bathing (snana).
own
: '

This should

be performed

in

some sacred stream, but

in default of a river,

the householder

may

use a pool or tank, or even, in case

house.
I

of dire necessity, a bath in his

Before entering

the water the bather ought to say

am

about to perform

morning ablution
other, as the case

in this sacred

stream (the Ganges or any

may

be) in the presence of the gods and

Brahmans with a view

act, speech,

to the removal of guilt resulting from

thought

from

what has been touched and uneaten and not eaten, drunk and

touched,

known and unknown,

not drunk.'

During the process of bathing, a hymn to the peropening words

sonified Ganges, consisting of eight verses (called Gangashtaka),

is

often recited.

Its

may be

thus translated

Daughter of Vishnu, thou didst issue forth Vishnu's foot, by him thou art beloved. Therefore remove from us the stain of sin

From
From

birth to death protecting us thy servants.

The most common wood employed

is

in

some

parts of India

is

that

of a thorny tree called Baval (commonly Babul).

Sometimes the Nimba

(Nim)

used.

400

Daily Religious Ceremonies.

After bathing comes the ceremony of Bhasma-dharana, or

application of ashes.

This

is

done by rubbing ashes taken from

the sacred domestic hearth on the head and other parts of the

body, with the repetition of a prayer to Siva (from the Taittiriya

jata).

Aranyaka X. 43)

'

offer

homage

to Siva (Sadyo-

May

he preserve

me

in every birth.

Homage

to the

source of

all birth.'

At

this time, also,

every pious Hindu marks his forehead

with the sacred mark (called pundra or tilaka) of his

peculiar faith or religious views.

own

When

man

is
it is
^.

a Siva-

worshipper, he does this with ashes, in which case

merely

a part of the Bhasma-dharana

rite just

described

Some-

times a curved perpendicular mark, sometimes a circular one,

sometimes three horizontal

white earth or pigment^.

lines (tri-pundra) are

made with

Of

these markings the upright

(urdhva, p. 67) denotes the impress of the god Vishnu's feet^,

and the three horizontal the three functions of Siva (p. 80). I once said to a Brahman who seemed proud of his curved
perpendicular mark
: '

What's the difference between you and

?
' '

your friend there with his three horizontal marks

replied,
'

Oh,' he

we

are as different in opinions as the horizon from

the zenith.
pendicularly.

He
act

does his religion horizontally,

do mine per-

But we are very good

is

friends notwithstanding.'

The next

Sikha-bandhana, or the tying up of the

locks on the crown of the head (p. 374), lest any hair, thought
to convey impurity, should
^

fall

on the ground or

in the water.

on Ash-Wednesday in the Roman Catholic Church up to the altar and are marked with the sign of the cross. This, I believe, is sometimes done with the ashes I am told, too, that the of palms such as are used on Palm-Sunday. 'Dust thou art, and unto dust priest as he marks each person says
I

am

told that

members

of the congregation go

thou shalt return.' ^ The worshippers of Vishnu generally use Gopl-dandana, a kind of white earth brought from Dvarika. It usually consists of two upright lines joined by a curve at the bottom. The Ramanuja Vaishnavas, as we have seen, dispute over the form of this mark (see p. 126).
"^

The Morning Sandhya

Service,

401

All preliminary acts and purifications being the pious

now completed,

Hindu proceeds

to the regular

Morning Service,

called Pratah-Sandhya, performed at the junction^ of night

and day.
river or

Every one chooses,

tank

if

possible, the side of a sacred

for this purpose,

and every one conducts the

in the early

entire service
late in the

by

himself.
I

Often

mornings or

evenings

have watched numerous worshippers

seated at the water's edge and going through the

Sandhya

ceremonial with mechanical precision

each

one separately,

and each perhaps with

of the Veda.
attention
to

slight variations, omissions, or additions

according to the usage of his

own

locality or his

own

school
all

Indeed we
the

are so accustomed to give

for

our

Veda

purely

literary

or philological

objects that
for

we

are apt to forget that directly or indirectly,

good or

for evil, these ancient

books

the
faith,

oldest in the

world, except, perhaps, portions of the Christian Bible

for

have
the
race

three thousand

years

moulded the

inspired

prayers,

animated the aspirations, influenced the conduct,

lives of a large

shaped the
to

proportion of the great

Aryan

which we ourselves belong.

And

to this very

day the

remarkable spectacle

may

be seen of millions of Indo- Aryans,

comprising countless tribes of various origin, scattered over a

vast area from the Panjab to

Assam,

living distinct
all
still

communities, yet

Cape Comorin, from Bombay to from each other in separate castes and united by the common bond of this
use as their daily prayer-book.
still

Veda, which they

detail

The
by
the

of these ceremonies, practised as they

are

millions

who acknowledge our

act of the

rule,

are

fraught with

deepest interest to every Englishman.

The
^

first

Morning Sandhya Service ^, and,

as stated

Some

derive

Sandhya from San-dhCi^

;

'to join

together' (see

my

Sanskrit-English Dictionary)
*

others, with

more reason, from San-dhyai,

to meditate in prayer.'
^ I

in

Compare the Gayatrl prayer, p. 403. manual called Brahma-karma-pustaka, printed at Alibag the Kohkan, and given to me, as the best authority for the ceremonies
follow a

Dd


402

The Mo7^ning Sandhya

Service,
religious rites,
is

before, the usual preliminary to all

Hindu
three

sipping water (acamana)

two

or

mouthfuls being
is

swallowed for internal ablution.

The water

taken up

in

the hollowed palm of the right hand or poured from a spoon

into the palm,

and

is

supposed to cleanse body and soul

in its

downward course. This is done two or commencement of the Morning Sandhya

cess of sipping, the twenty-four principal

three times at the

^.

During the pro-

names of the god

Vishnu are invoked, thus

'

Glory to Kesava, to Narayana, to

Madhava, to Govinda,

to Vishnu,' etc.

The second
I.

act

is

called the

Pranayama, exercise or regu*

:

lation of the breath.'

This includes three distinct acts

Recak;a:

pressing in the right nostril with the

left,

thumb
right.

and expelling the breath through the

in the left nostril
1.

and then pressing

and expelling the breath through the

through the

Puraka

pressing in the right nostril with the fore- finger

in the breath
left,

and drawing

and then pressing

through the
right.

in the left nostril

3.

and drawing

in the breath

Kumbhaka

pressing in both nostrils with the finger and

in the breath for as
acts,

thumb, and holding

long as possible.

These preliminary

which ought to be concluded before

the rising of the sun, are thought to be useful in fixing the

mind, concentrating the thoughts, and bringing the worshipper

into

a proper attitude of attention.

He

is

now

in a position

to begin the recitation of his prayers.

But

first

comes the
sound
of the

utterance of the monosyllable

Om

(called Pranava), the

being prolated to the length of three vowels.

This most sacred of

all

Hindu

utterances,

made up

Maratha country, by Mr. Deshmukh. mind that variations occur in different places and that the number of Brahmans who go through all these Sandhya ceremonies is constantly decreasing. At Kshetras on the banks of sacred rivers, a few continue to practise the whole, and all good Brahmans go through them in an abbreviated form. ^ One manual says dvir dca?nya, but Manu (II. 60) enjoins three sippings. It is a mistake to translate acamana by 'rinsing the mouth.'
of the Rig-vedi-Brahmans of the
It

must be borne

in


The Morning Sandhya
three letters A, U,
tation of the

Service,

403

M, and symbolical of the triple manifesSupreme Being in the Tri-murti or Triad of gods,
Siva,
is

Brahma, Vishnu, and

with note).
It is as

constantly repeated (pp. 44, 45,

sacred as the

name Jehovah

with the

Jews, but not too sacred for utterance.

Manu

describes

it

as

a monosyllable, imperishable and

Supreme Being himself. After Om comes the utterance of the names of the three worlds. Earth (Bhur), Atmosphere (Bhuvah), Heaven (Svar), to which are often
eternal as the

added the four higher heavens, Mahah, Janah,Tapah, and Satya.

The
act of

utterance

of

these
in

seven

names

called

the seven

Vyahritis

preceded
It is

each case by the syllable

Om,

is

an

homage

to all the beings inhabiting the seven worlds

(p. 102, i).

supposed to induce purity of thought and to

first

prepare the worshipper for offering up his

prayer.

Turning towards the Eastern sky he repeats the Gayatri or

Savitri (from

Rig-veda

III. 6%. 10):

'Let us meditate on that

excellent glory of the divine Vivifying Sun,

may

he enlighten

our understandings' (see

p. 19).

This prayer
utterances,
like the

is,

as

we have

seen, the

most sacred of

all

Vedic

and

like the Lord's

Prayer

among

Christians, or

Fatihah or opening chapter of the Kuran among

Muhammadans, must always among Hindus take precedence

of
all

other forms of supplication.

division
It is

The next
'sprinkling.'

of the ceremonial

is

called

Marjana,

a kind of self-baptism performed by the

worshipper himself by sprinkling water on the head while the

first

three verses of Rig-veda X. 9 are recited.

:

These may be

thus paraphrased

O Waters, give us health, bestow on us Vigour and strength, so shall I see enjoyment. Rain down your dewy treasures o'er our path. Like loving mothers, pour on us your blessing, Make us partakers of your sacred essence. We come to you for cleansing from all guilt, Cause us to be productive, make us prosper
D d
ii


404
This
IS

Service,

The Morning Sandhya

Taittirlya

followed by another remarkable prayer from the Aranyaka (X. 25)

:

Preserve

May Sun and Anger \ may the lords of me from my sins of pride and

anger
passion.

Whate'er the nightly sins of thought, word, deed. Wrought by my mind, my speech, my hands, my Wrought through my appetite and sensual organs. May the departing Night remove them all! In thy immortal light, O radiant Sun, I offer up myself and this my guilt.

feet.

Then follows a second performance of Marj ana. or 'sprinkling,'

and a repetition of
of which the
first

all

the nine verses of the Rig-veda

hymn
of the

three verses had been previously recited.

The next

act

is

the repetition of a well-known

hymn

Rig-veda (X. 190) called Agha-marshana, 'sin-annihilating,' supposed to have an all-powerful effect in removing sin.
This

hymn

contains

a curious

summary

of the
:

supposed

process of creation, which

may

be thus paraphrased
all

From glowing
Yea,
all

heat sprang

existing things,

the order of this universe (Rita).

also

Thence

Night and heaving Ocean sprang

All mortal

And

next to heaving Ocean rose the Year,

Dividing day from night.

men

Who
The

he due succession Sun, moon, and sky, earth, middle air, and heaven.
close the eyelid are his subjects,

great Disposer

made

in

Manu (XL
releases

259) affirms that this short

sins.
is

hymn

thrice repeated

from the most heinous

All the ceremonial up to this point

supposed to precede

the actual appearance of the Sun above the horizon.

The

worshipper now prepares to render homage to the rising

luminary by what
other times this
of or
is

Arghya or Arghya-dana. At name for a respectful offering water in a boat-shaped vessel, called Argha, to a Brahman guest of any kind. In the Sandhya it is an act of homage
is

called

the general

Anger

personified

= Manyu

(Say.

KrodhabhimanI devah)

the god

or gods

who

help a

man

to restrain his anger.


The Morning Sandhya
to the Sun,

Service,
it

405
into the air,

by

offering water, or throwing

vessel,

sometimes from a hollow

but oftener from the two

open hands hollowed and joined together^.

standing in the water, throws a handful of
it

The

offerer,

upwards towards
the better.

the Sun three times, each time reciting the Gayatrl prayer.

The more he scatters The next division

more modern

the water in throwing

of the service
is

it

called Kara-nyasa, or
is

'imposition of fingers.'
religious

Its peculiar ritual

taught in the

works called Tantras.

every kind of

Some orthodox Brahmans omit

majority of Hindus
it

Tantrik

ceremonial as not sanctioned by the Veda, but with the

is

all

important.

To understand
five fingers

the

Kara-nyasa we must bear

in

mind that the

and

the palm of the hand are consecrated to various forms of

Vishnu, and that different gods are supposed to reside in

different

parts of the body, the

^.

the top of the head

or
to

Supreme Being occupying Hence the act of placing the fingers

several

hand
gratify

reverentially

on the

organs

is

supposed
essences

and

do honour to the

deities

whose

pei-vade

these organs, and to be completely efiicacious in

sin.

removing

the thumb is held to be occupied by Govinda, by Mahidhara, the middle finger by Hrishikesa, the next finger (called the nameless finger) by Tri-vikrama,the little finger by Vishnu, the palm of the hand by Madhava all being different forms of the same god Vishnu. The worshipper then commences the Nyasa ceremonial
tip of

The

the forefinger

by saying
fingers, to

'

Homage

to the

two thumbs, to the two

fore-

the two middle fingers, to the two nameless fingers

ation,
at

(yajnopavTta), always worn as a type of regenerand necessary to the validity of every religious act (p. 361), is often the same time put round the two thumbs.

The sacred thread

The

right

ear

is

a peculiarly sacred spot with Tantrikas.

all

Fire,
for this

water, sun,

and moon
is

reside in the right ear.

Some

think

it is

reason that the sacred thread, which

functions of nature,

is supposed to be polluted by the hung, when they are performed, over the right ear.


4o6
(i. e.

The Morning Sandkya

Service.

the ring-fingers), to the two Httle fingers, to the two palms

and the two backs of the hands.'

Then

follows another

division

of the

Nyasa ceremonial

called Indriya-sparsa, or the act of touching different parts of

the body, such as the breast, eyes, ears, navel, throat, and
head, with the fingers.

(Compare Manu

II. 60.)

Next comes the

Before

regular Gayatri-japa, or repeated muttering

of the Gayatri-prayer to the

Sun

(see p. 19).

beginning this

repetition,

those

who
in

follow the

Tantrik system go through the process of making various

mystical figures called

Mudras, twenty-four

number, by
name, bears

twisting, interlacing, or intertwining

the fingers and hands

its

together.

Each of these

figures,

according to

some

fanciful

resemblance to animals or objects of various

kinds, as, for example, to a fish, tortoise, boar, lion (these

being forms in which the god Vishnu became incarnate),

or to a cart, noose, knot, garland
to these peculiar
;

the

efficacy

attributed

intertwinings and twistings

of the

hands

and fingers being enormous.

The
wood
is

correct

number of

repetitions

is

108,

and

to insure

accuracy of enumeration a rosary of 108 beads

a red bag (called Go-mukhi) or under a cloth.

made

of TulasI

generally used, the hand being carefully concealed in

The next

division of the service

is

called

Upasthana

(or

Mitropasthana), because the worshipper abandons his sitting

posture, stands erect with his face towards the rising Sun,

and

invokes that luminary under the

name

of Mitra.

The prayer
first

he now repeats

is

Rig-veda
:

III. 59,

of which the

verse

is

to the following effect

Mitra, raising his voice, calls

men

to activity.

Mitra sustains the earth and the sky. Mitra with unwinking eye beholds all creatures. Offer to Mitra the oblation of butter.

The
Hindia

use of this
is

hymn

in

the morning service of every

an interesting

fact in its

connection with the identifi-

Service.

The .Morning Sandhya

407
god Mithra,

cation of the Indian Mitra with the Zoroastrian

mentioned by Herodotus, and with the same Mithra of the

Avesta.

At

the end the worshipper invokes the personified

:

Dawns in the words of Rig-veda IV. 51. 11 'Hail brilliant Dawns, daughters of Heaven, I invoke you, bearing (or
having) the oblation as a sign (of

my

devotion).

May we

be

honoured among men,

that (for
us).'

may heaven and

is

the divine earth effect

The
his

last act
;

but one

a recitation of the family pedigree

(gotroccara)

man the recitation of own genealogy forms an important part of the daily
for with

every high-caste

Sandhya.
'I

For example

belong to a particular Gotra (or tribe of Brahmans);

have three ancestors

Aiigirasa, Sainya, and

p. 425.

Gargya

am

student of the Asvalayana Sutra, and follow the Sakala-sakha

of the Rig-veda.'

See also

The ceremonial
the

concludes with an acknowledgement that

is
:
'

one

Supreme Being

the

real

object

of adoration

throughout the whole service

Glory to the world of Brahma,

be pleased

to the world of Rudra, to the world of Vishnu.

Supreme Lord
morning
service.'

of the Universe

May the One with this my

The last act, like the first, is an internal body by acamana, or sipping of water.
In the

purification of the

midday Sandhya (madhyahna-sandhya, now seldom performed), a different text of the Taittiriya Aranyaka (X. 23)
is

substituted for that used before (pp. 400, 404), and at the
(p.
I.

Arghya-dana
stituted (viz.

404) two different Rig-veda texts are sub2

0^^.

and the Hansavati Rid IV.

(I.

40. 5),

and

at

the Upasthana the Surya-sukta

50, sec p. 16).

is

The evening Sandhya

to

service

(Sayam-sandhya)

like the
is

morning, except that at the Arghya-dana the offering

made
I.

Varuna and

at the

Upasthana ten verses of Rig-veda

:

25

are recited
I.

freely rendered thus

As

often as,

Varuna, we infringe thy law,

like other

men, every

4o8
day,
2.

'

Brahna-yajha

Service,

So often deliver us not over

do we
set free thy

to death, nor to the blows of the

3.

angry, nor to the wrath of the enraged.

steed, so

As a

charioteer his tethered

thoughts by our hymns, O Varuna, to turn towards us graciously. 4. My wishes fly forth towards thee, as birds to their nest, that I may receive thy blessing (vasyas may mean ' excellent wealth').
5-

When

shall

we induce

the far-seeing ruler (or leader)

Varuna, glorious in his sovereignty, to be propitious to us? 6. Partake together (O Mitra and Varuna) of the very same oblation, being both depart not from those who present offerings of you propitious to us and remain true to their vows. 7. He (Varuna) who knows the path of the birds flying through the air, he abiding in the ocean knows also the ships. 8. He the maintainer of law (and order) knows the twelve he knows also the month which is born months with their offspring
;
;

afterwards
9.

(i.

e.

the thirteenth or additional

month

of the Hindi! year).

He knows

the path of the wind, the far-reaching, lofty, mighty (wind),

and those (Maruts) who are enthroned above

it. 10. Varuna, the maintainer of law (and order), sits in his palace to exercise universal sovereignty, doing good acts, the almighty one.

We

must now advert to the supplementary ceremonial

observances which are necessary to the completion of the

morning Sandhya.

The

first

act

is

Brahma-yajna, or worship of the Supreme

in

Being as represented
knowledge.
itself

the sacred

Veda
the

or canon of inspired

Sandhya service is Every portion of for sake held to be the of pleasing the Supreme Being it is (Brahma), but the use of the term Brahma-yajiia is more
regarded as a part of Brahma-yajna.
usually restricted to the Brahma-yajna par excellence
to the special worship of
;

And

here mark that

that

is,

Brahma
in
is

as identified with the Veda.

?

How

then

is

this special

Brahma-yajna to be performed

We

must remember that

Hinduism every
exaggerated.

religious idea,

including that of revelation,

Instead of sixty-six Books to which our

tures extend, the

own Sacred

Scrip-

Hindu

so-called revelation consists of a far

larger

number

of works, all of which are accepted as either

directly revealed or inspired.

Even works on

pronunciation,

etymology, and grammar are included

parcel of the sacred canon.

in the list as part

and

How,

then,

is

this

mass of sacred inspiration to be dealt

Tarpaiia Ceremony.
with by those reh'gious Brahmans
of repeating portions of
It
it

409
to
fulfil

who wish

the duty

daily

cannot be affirmed of any Hindu, however pious, that he

own Bible, as a Christian does his, much less studies it. The Veda is not meant to be either read or studied. We have seen how portions of the first three Vedas are repeated at the daily Sandhya prayers. Portions also of the Mahareads his
(e. g. the Bhagavad-gita) and of the Puranas (e. g. the Bhagavata and Markandeya) are occasionally recited. But the duty of paying homage to Brahma by repeating the words

bharata

of divine revelation

is

held to be sufficiently
first

fulfilled
all

by the
is

daily exercise of repeating the

cipal books, except the first

few words of

the prin-

hymn

of the Rig-veda, which

first

recited throughout.

Then comes

the

verse of the second

These Vedic texts may be recited according to any one or more of the five different Pathas, or modes of recitation,

hymn.

called Sanihita,

Pada, Krama, Jata, and Ghana

wonderful
Then

devices for securing the accuracy of the Vedic text.

come the first words of the Aitareya Brahmana (Agnir vai devanam avamo) and of each of the five books of the Aitareya Aranyaka. Then the first words of the Yajur-veda of the Sama-veda of the Atharva-veda of the Nirukta of the Lhandas (Prosody) of the Nighantu of the Jyotisha of the Siksha of Panini's grammar. Then certain passages from the
;
; ; ; ;

Atharva-veda

then the

first

words of Yajiiavalkya's law-book,

followed

of the Maha-bharata, and of the philosophical Sutras, etc.

The Brahma-yajna
mony, which
and
fathers.
is

service

is

by

the Tarpana cere-

properly a triple

act, consisting in offerings of

water for refreshment (tarpana) to the gods, inspired sages,

It is

accordingly divided into three parts.

called Deva-tarpana,
is
'

In the

first part,

refreshing of the gods,'

the sacred thread

worn over the

in

left

shoulder and under the

right arm, the worshipper being then called Upavltl.

Water

is

taken up

the right hand and poured out over

the straightened fingers.

4IO

Pancayatana Ceremony.

In the second part of the Tarpana service, called Rishltarpana, 'refreshing of the inspired sages,' the sacred thread
is

worn round the neck

like

a necklace, the worshipper being

then called Niviti.

The water

is

then offered so as to flow over the side of the

fore-finger, the finger

palm between the root of the thumb and

being bent inwards
-^.

The worshipper now changes

thread,
left

the position of his sacred

and placing

it

over his right shoulder and under his

called Praclnavlti)

arm (being then

makes

offerings of

water to the Acaryas, or inspired religious teachers.

is

This

called Acarya-tarpana,

and

is

regarded as supplementary
distinct division

to the Rishi-tarpana
service.

and not as a

of the

The

third division of the

'

Tarpana ceremony

is

called Pitri-

tarpana,

refreshing of deceased fathers or departed ancestors.'

is

The thread

worn over the

is

right shoulder as in

Acarya-

tarpana, but the water

poured out over the side of the palm

opposite to the root of the thumb.

'

The words

uttered are,
tila

Let the fathers be refreshed

let this

water containing

(sesamum seeds) be intended

worlds as far as the abode of
consecrated by

for all

who inhabit the seven Brahma (the seventh world),

families.

though they exceed many millions of

Let the water

my sacred

thread be accepted by those

died without any sons.'

mem-

bers of our family

who have

This concludes the series of Sandhya, Brahma-yajfia, and

Tarpana

services.

Pancayata7ia Ceremo7ty.

At

the conclusion of the Tarpana ceremony the worshipper

his

ought to re-enter
The
pitrya,

house and perform the Homa, or offering

fore-finger
II. 51.)
is

part of the
is

and

sacred to the

hand between the thumb and Pitris. (Compare Manu

called

Pancayatana

Cere^itony,
fire,

411

of oblations to the gods through

described in a previous

chapter

(p. '^66).

In Manu's time the worship of the gods (deva or dcvata)

through the
yajiias,

Homa

was regarded
acts,

as one of the five

Maha(i)

or chief devotional
to the

the other

four

being

Supreme Spirit and to that Spirit present in the Veda, performed by the Brahma-yajiia service (2) homage
;

homage
the

to

Pitris,

or

deceased

progenitors,
;

performed by the

homage to all beings (bhuta), including animals, performed by offerings of food called ball (4) homage to men, performed by hospitality to guests and almsgiving to beggars. Of these five acts the wor(3)
;

Tarpana and Sraddha ceremonies

ship of the gods

simplest.
It

deva-yajha or deva-pujawas formerly the

sufficiently

was generally

performed by putting
fire.

oblations of rice or clarified butter in

In the present

day, as already stated, no

one, except the

most orthodox
fire,

Brahmans, thinks
the old

it

necessary to maintain a sacred

and

fire ritual is

gradually dying out.

are,

Other forms of worshipping the gods

stituted.

however, subis

In nearly every modern house there

room

containing a sanctuary, called Mandira.

service
called

Here the

religious

Deva-puja

is

generally performed

by pious

householders, or

by some member

of the family deputed to

represent the others every morning.

It
is,

we know, an
all

essential part of the theory of

BrahmanSiva,

ism

(p. 50) that

gods

like

Brahma, Vishnu, and

forms.

who

are manifestations of the invisible and formless Brahma, should

be worshipped through
therefore,

visible

In the Deva-puja,

homage

is

paid to these deities through images, or

more commonly, in Central and Southern India and the Maratha country, through the worship of five stones or symbols which are believed to be permeated by the essences
of the five chief deities.

The room

dedicated to their worship need not be on the

ground-floor, like the Homa-sala.

The

five stones (as

pointed


412

Pancayatana Ceremony,

out, pp. 69, 392) are

z.

^,

i.

the black stone

^,

representing Vishnu
3.

the white stone

representing Siva's essence;

;

the red

stone, representing

Ganesa (Gana-pati)
Sun.

4.
;

the small piece

5.

of metallic ore, representing the wife of Siva

crystal, representing the

the piece of

The

first

two stones
be

SalaSiva

grama and Bana-linga

manufactured
idols,

are regarded as
such idols

far

more sacred than

consecrated,

for

must

whereas these stones are

occupied by Vishnu

and

without any consecration whatever.

All five symbols are placed on a round open metal dish,
called Paiicayatana,

and are arranged

in five different

methods,

according to the preference given to any one of the

at the time of worship.
I.

five deities

These

five

methods are

Vishnu in the middle; Siva N. E. (i.e. towards the north-east Devi N.W. 2. Siva in the midGanesa S. E. Surya S.W. dle Vishnu N.W. Surya S.E.; Ganesa S.W Devi N.W. 3. Surya Devi N.W. Ganesa S.E. Vishnu S.W. in the middle; Siva N.E. Ganesa S.W. Siirya Siva S.E. 4. Devi in the middle; Vishnu N.E N.W. 5. Ganesa in the middle; Vishnu N.E.; Siva S.E. Surya S.W.; Devi N.W.
quarter)
;

Then, again, on one

side of the

Pancayatana
^,

is

a small
at

bell,
is

and on the other side a conch-shell

hole in the bottom of

and near

hand

water-vessel called Kalasa or Abhisheka-patra, with a small

it,

through which the water used

for

sprinkling the stones passes.

These three objects are

also

held sacred and receive their share of worship.

I

should state that near the metal receptacle containing the

sacred stones
is

five

placed another metal plate on which are

^ Near the black Sala-grama stone there is often placed a kind of fossil with circular markings, also sacred to Vishnu and symbolising his cakra. The Muhammadans also worship a kind of black stone fixed in the Ka'ba.

This stone-worship
vailed in
all

is

doubtless a remnant of fetishism which has pre-

countries.

^ It is curious that Vishnu should be represented as of a black colour and Siva as white, when the former is held to be connected with the Sattva-guna and the latter with the Tamo-guna (see p. 45). ^ The conch-shell is specially sacred to Vishnu (see p. 103).


Pancayatana Ceremony,

41
'>

arranged the TulasT leaves for Vishnu and the Bilva leaves for
Siva, besides offerings of flowers, perfumes, etc.

The worship of the formed by sixteen acts

the tenth

five

deities thus represented

is

per-

of

homage

(upacara), one for each of

the sixteen verses of the Purusha-sukta, or ninetieth

hymn
is

of

Mandala of the Rig-veda, and the ceremony

five

some-

times called Paiicayatana-puja, from the receptacle (ayatana)

in

which the

symbols are placed.

Before commencing the service the worshipper goes through

the usual sippings of water (acamana) and suppressions of the

breath before described

(p. 402).

Then

after repeating certain

preliminary prayers he invokes the god Ganesa, employing a

well-known text from the Rig-veda

invoke thee

(II.

23)

'

Om.

We

who

art lord of the hosts of hosts

(Ganapatim

gananam), the sage of sages, of most exalted fame, the most

excellent king of Vedic mantras,

Lord of prayer \ hear us

with favour, and enter our dwelling to aid us (against the

demons of

obstruction).'
is

This invocation

followed

by Nyasa,

or the reverential

touching of various parts of the body,

in

connection with

the recitation of a few words at the beginning and middle

of each of the last six verses of the Purusha-sukta (X. 90)
of the Ricr-veda.

The next
thus
'
:

act

is

adoration of the water-vessel (kalasa),

In the
is

neck

Rudra, in
of the

mouth of the water-vessel abideth Vishnu, in its its lower part is Brahma, while the whole
Mothers (matris) are congregated
in this water.'
:

company

in

its

middle part.

Ganges, Yamuna, Godavarl, Sarasvatl, Nar-

mada, Sindhu, and Kaverl, be present

Next succeeds the worship of the conch-shell, thus

^ Brahman is here used for the hymns, or rather mantras, of the Veda which in later times were used as spells to counteract the malice of demons. Ganesa in his power over the troops of demons is thus identified with the Vedic Brahmanas-pati, or lord of prayer.


414
*

Pancayatana Ceremony,
conch-shell (Pancajanya, see p. 103), thou wast produced

in the sea,

and

art held

by Vishnu
Receive

in his

hand

thou art

worshipped by

all

the gods.

my

homage.'
:

Then
'

follows adoration of the bell, thus

bell,

make
I

a sound for the approach of the gods, and

for the departure of the

demons.

Homage

to the goddess

Ghanta
in

(bell).

offer perfumes, grains of rice,

all

and

flow^ers,

token of rendering

due homage to the

his

bell.'

Then

after

intertwining

fingers

so

as

to

make

the

mystical figure called

ring the bell.

Ghanta-mudra, the worshipper must

Next, after fixing his thoughts, he says a

prayer to Vishnu, Siva, the son of Siva (Gana-pati), the

Supreme Being (Narayana)

and the goddess Devi.
the sixteen acts of

in

the centre of the Sun's orb,

The worshipper now commences homage or offerings (upacara), each ac-

companied with the uttering of one of the sixteen verses of

the Purusha
tion of
I.

hymn
I

of the Rig-veda (X. 90), a literal transla'>)'i)

'-

which

here subjoin (see also pp. 17,

Purusha has thousands of heads (thousands of arms, A.V.), thousands and thousands of feet. On every side enveloping the earth, he transcended this mere space of ten fingers ^. 2. Purusha himself is this whole (universe), whatever has been, and whatever shall be. He is also the lord of immortality, since through food he expands. 3. Such is his
of eyes, All existing things are a immortal in the sky is three quarters of him. 4. With three quarters Purusha mounted upwards. A quarter of him again was produced here below. He then became diffused everywhere among things animate and inanimate. 5. From him Viraj was born, and from Viraj, Purusha. As soon as born he extended beyond the earth, both behind and before. 6. When the gods offered up Purusha

greatness

and Purusha

is

superior to this.
is

quarter of him, and that which

as a sacrifice, the spring was its clarified butter, summer its fuel, and autumn the (accompanying) oblation. 7. This victim, Purusha born in with him as the beginning, they consecrated on the sacrificial grass 8. From that their offering, the gods, Sadhyas, and Rishis sacrificed. universal oblation were produced curds and clarified butter. He (Purusha) formed the animals which are subject to the power of the air (vayavya),
;

^ The world is called Dasangula, a mere span of ten fingers compared with God's infinite essence. I have chiefly followed Dr. John Muir's translation, but not throughout (see Texts, p. 368). A.V. is for Atharva-veda.


Pahlayatana Ceremo7ty.

415

both wild and tame. 9. From that universal sacrifice sprang the hymns lo. From it were called Ric^ and Saman, the metres, and the Yajush. produced horses, and all animals with two rows of teeth, cows, goats, and
sheep,
II.

When
?

they divided Purusha, into

his

distribute

him

What was
;

mouth

how many parts did they What were his arms ? What
; ;

were called his thighs and feet? 12. The Brahman was his mouth the Rajanya became his arms the Vaisya was his thighs the Sudra sprang from his feet. 13. The moon was produced from his soul the sun from his eye Indra and Agni from his mouth the Vayu from his breath. from his head arose the sky 14. From his navel came the atmosphere from his feet came the earth from his ear the four quarters so they formed the worlds. 15. When the gods, in performing their sacrifice, bound Purusha as a victim, there were seven pieces of wood laid for him round the fire, and thrice seven pieces of fuel employed. 16. With sacrifice the gods worshipped the Sacrifice. These were the primeval rites. These great beings attained to the heaven where the gods, the ancient Sadhyas, reside.
;

The
I.

sixteen acts of

homage
;

or offerings are

Invocation (avahana)
;

2.

a seat for sitting

;

down

(asana) formed of

TulasT leaves
rice,

3.

foot water (padya)

4. respectful
;

oblation (arghya) of
clothing

etc.

5.

water for sipping (acamanlya)

6.

ablution or lustration
;

(snana) with milk and clarified butter, honey and sugar

(vastra)
;

7.

formed of Tulasi leaves 8. upper clothing or ornaments (upavastra) formed of more TulasT leaves 9. perfumes and sandal (gandha,
;

candana)
(dipa)
;

10. flowers

(pushpa)

11.

incense (dhupa)
;

12.

illumination

13. oblation of
;

tion (pradakshina)
16. final act of

15.

circumambulaflowers with recitation of texts (mantra-pushpa)

food (naivedya)
14. reverential
;

adoration (namaskara).

With each
Purusha
adoration
is

act of

homage one
translated
:

of the sixteen verses of the

recited.

hymn above
as follows

is

The

final act of

Veneration to the infinite and eternal Male (Purusha), who has thousands of names, thousands of forms, thousands of feet, thousands of eyes, thousands of heads, thousands of thighs, thousands of arms, and who lives
for ten millions of ages.

want of knowledge of the right way of worhappiness and and poverty are removed purity are obtained by thy presence. O great god, I commit thousands forgive me, as I am thy servant. There is of faults every day and night thou only art my refuge guard me, no other protection but from thee pardon my mistakes and defects therefore, and defend me by thy mercy
great god, pardon

my

shipping thee.

Sin, misery,

According
first

the Ri(^

to Sayana's introduction to the Rig-veda, this mention of proves the priority of the Rig-veda.


4t6
in syllables, words,

Vaisvadeva Ceremony.
and measure
;

mighty

lord,

be propitiated.

offer

flowers with prayers.

Let the five gods, of whom great Vishnu is the Let all this be offered to first, be pleased with the worship I have made. the Supreme Being. I offer thee with my mouth, O Vishnu, the sacred Be pleased, O Sipivishta \ with my oblation let my salutation Vashat. protect us ever with thy blessings (Rig-veda songs of praise exalt thee
;
;

VII. 99.

7>

loo- 7):

Then
*

sipping water the worshipper says

take into

my body

the holy water which comes from

the feet of Vishnu, preventing untimely death and destroying

all diseases.'

This concludes the Pancayatana ceremony as performed by

Brahmans

in

the Maratha country.

Doubtless here and there

local variations

may
is

occur.
is

In some districts where Siva

called Siva-pQja

worshipped a form of service

substituted for the Paficayatana-puja, and

two hymns

Rudra hymns, from the Yajur-veda (Vajasaneyi-Sarnhita XVI XVIII), are recited. These two hymns are still used by strict Brahmans, and familiarly called
called the
;

Namak and Camak, because Namas in one and Ca me in the other.

te

is

constantly repeated

Vaisvadeva Ceremony.

An
is

orthodox Brahman's craving for religious ceremonial

not by any means satiated

in

by the

tedious round of forms

he has gone through

another solemn

the early morning.

A
is

pause of an
for

hour or two brings him to the time when preparations

rite

have to be made.

This

the ceremony

which ought to precede the midday meal.

It

should be stated that an Indian household

is

satisfied

with two principal daily meals

in the
sit

one

about midday, artother

will
is

evening
to

but

no pious householder of high caste

first

down

the former without

performing what

This epithet of Vishnu

is

only applicable to him as a form of the Sun

displaying his rays in

all directions.

Vaisvadeva Ceremony.
called the

417
all

Vaisvadeva ceremony, or offering to

^.

the gods

(visve devah)

Nor

is

this held to

be completed without the

is

addition of another

rite,

called Bali-harana, which

practically
^.

nothing more than the concluding act of the Vaisvadeva

The gods worshipped

ceremony
is

in the
its

Vaisvadeva are Vedic, and the

antiquity far

therefore from

more

interesting

than the Pahcayatana-puja, or any other modern form of the

Deva-puja.
III. 84-93.
It is
Tl"ie

described in

its

most ancient form

in

Manu

idea involved in the entire service seems to

be, that before a

man

begins eating he ought to consecrate and

offerings of small portions of

purify his food

rice
is

by making

cooked

and other food

to all the deities through

whose favour he
is

himself fed, and more especially to Fire, who

the bearer of

the offering to heaven.

In point of fact the whole ceremony

resolves itself into a form of

homage
fire

offered to the

gods who

give the food, and to the god of

without whose aid this food

could not be prepared for eating.

in

There

is

also a notion that,

preparing the food by cooking, animals

may have been

is

accidentally destroyed, for which expiation should be made.

It

should be observed that the Vaisvadeva

not, like the

It

Sandhya, incumbent on every individual separately.

be performed vicariously,
like

may
one

the Deva-puja, through

member
for

of the family (generally a junior member) acting

others.

the

In

performing
is

it

a small

portable

fire-

receptacle, called a

Kunda,

brought into the room where

that the

In reality only certain classes of deities are intended. It is curious number of the gods is sometimes asserted in the Rig-veda to be

33, while elsewhere (X. 6. 3) the

(III. 9. 9) 3339.

They

but any limitation

infinite evolution.

number 3306 is given, and elsewhere now popularly said to amount to 330 millions, as to number is opposed to the Brahmanical theory of Moreover it must be borne in mind that no god in
are
is

the

Hindu Pantheon

eternal, except the

all

one

Brahma the

one

self-

existent Spirit

out

of

which

the gods are evolved and into which

they will
^

all

be re-absorbed.
of the two in the dual, as Vaisvadeva-balikar'

Some manuals speak

They

manl.

are described by Colebrooke in his

Religious Ceremonies

of the Hindus/ but in a confused and imperfect manner.

E e

Vaisvadeva Cereino7ty.
Consecrated
it,

41

the eatables are collected.

secrated fuel

fire

fed

with con-

is

placed in

sacred grass

is

spread around,

and

offerings of rice, etc. are cast into the flames for all the

deities,

with repetition of Vedic texts.

Bali-harana which follows requires for
its

The

proper perin

formance an elaborate arrangement of portions of food

a circle
^,

each portion being allotted to a particular deity,

or class of

superhuman

beings, with the utterance of prescribed

formularies.

both Vaisvadeva and Bali-harana as o p"iven the most trustworthy manuals is as follows
detail of
:

The

in

The worshipper

begins

by the

usual

sippings

of water
his

(p. 402), and by declaring intention (sankalpa) of performing the ceremony, thus

(acamana) and breath exercises

'

will

to-day perform the morning and evening^ Vaisvafire,

deva with the cooked food (siddhanna) cast into the

for the purification of that food

and

for

my own

purification,

and to make expiation

for the five destructive

domestic im-

plements^ (Pailca-suna), and to obtain the reward prescribed

by the Sruti, Smriti, and Puranas.' Then after bringing in a small movable fire-receptacle, the service commences with an invocation (avahana) of the god
of
fire

from the Rig-veda (V.

:

4.

I.

72. 6),

which

may

be

thus translated
'

all-wise

friend

god Agni, come to this our sacrifice as a loved domestic and household guest. Destroy all our enemies, and procure for us,

'

Agni, the food (and other possessions) of those who bear us enmity.' Come, Agni, hither and sit down here as our priest, and be to us a

A diagram of the circle is given in most of the Directories, with the order in which the portions of food are to be arranged.
^

^ The evening Vaisvadeva is never, so far as I was able to ascertain, performed in the present day. ^ The five places, or domestic implements, through the use of which animals may be accidentally destroyed in the process of preparing food, are i. the fire-place 2. the slab for grinding grain and condiments and 5. the water-pot. 3. the pots and pans 4. the pestle and mortar See Manu III. 68.

Vaisvadeva Ceremony.
trustworthy guide.

419
!

May
to the

all-pervading heaven and earth defend thee

Bear our oblations

gods

for their

complete satisfaction.'
is

After these invocations a covered dish of uncooked rice

brought

in

and the cover removed.

with these words
called
:

Then

sacred
Bhiir

fire is

placed

in the receptacle,
'

Om

bhuvah svah,
Con-

deposit the

fire

Rukmaka ^

(bright as gold).'
fire

secrated fuel

is

next put on and the

fanned, while the

following well-known and remarkable text from Rig-veda IV.

58. 3
is

recited

'

Four are

his horns, three are his feet,

two

are his heads, seven are his hands.

roars.

He

the triply-bound bull

The mighty
fire)

deity enters mortals^.'

II.
;

Next comes a
'

text from the Svetasvatara Upanishad

16

This god (of

pervades

all
;

the quarters of the sky

he
he
his

was the

first-born of all things

is

he

is

within the
in all

womb

was born and

countenance

to be born

he dwells

men, and has

in all directions.'

The
fuel

collecting together

and spreading of the consecrated

in

and sacred Kusa grass employed

the ceremony are

circle.

then

made

and

w^ater

is

sprinkled round in a
is

Next, the

rice

about to be eaten

consecrated by the
It is

sprinkling of water and placed on the

off

fire.

then taken
fire.

and deposited between the worshipper and the

Fire
is

of various kinds
fire

and has various names, and

it

is

requisite to

name

intended to be prepared. ^ Prof. H. H. Wilson gives a note in his translation, showing that Sayana identifies Agni here with either Sacrifice or the Sun. The four
the particular

horns are the Veda or the Cardinal points, the three feet are the three the heads are either two daily Sandhyas, or morning, noon, and evening the seven hands are the seven particular ceremonies, or day and night metres or seven solar rays. The bull is sacrifice, or the Sun as the pourer down of benefits the triple bond is Mantra, Kalpa, and Brahmana, and Pataiijali in the Mahathe roaring sound is the recitation of the Veda. bhashya (I. I. i) explains the four horns to mean the four kinds of
; ; ;

words

tenses

nouns, verbs, prepositions past, present and future

bond
is
is

and
;

particles

the three feet the three

the two heads the eternal

and temthe

porary (produced) words;

triple

the seven hands the seven case affixes;

of the chest, the throat,

composed
speech.

and the head.

i.

The

mighty deity

(Compare

St.

John's Gospel,

i.)

e 2


420
The next
Rig-veda (V.
act

Vaisvadeva Ceremony.
is

called
is

Upasthana.

prayer from the

fire

4. 9)
^,

addressed to the god of

:

under his

name
'

Jata-vedas
us,

thus

Carry

omniscient god (Jata-vedas), through

as
if

all

our

troubles and

difficulties,

thou wert conveying us over

Fire, thou art glorified

a river by means of a boat.

by

us

with as great honour as (was once offered thee) by Atri, be

thou willing (be thou awake or active) to become the protector
of our persons.'

After this prayer offerings are

rential ejaculations, thus
'
:

made with

the usual reveI

Homage

to Fire (Agni).
offer

offer

fragrant sandal for unguent (vilepana), I

flowers

for

worship.

I offer

uncooked grains of

rice (akshatah) for

every

kind of offering ^.'

Next, the Avorshipper,

ing his
portions

after purifying his

all

person and wash-

hands, makes offerings to

of cooked
rice
fire,

the gods, throwing

to

each

portion about equal

:

mouthful
'

into

the

with the following words

and not

Om. Homage to the Sun (Suryaya-svaha). This is offered for the Sun, for my own use homage to Prajapati, to Agni, to Soma Vanaspati, to Agni and Soma together, to Indra and Agni together, to Heaven
;

and Earth, to Dhanvantari, to Indra alone, to all the gods (Visvebhyo devebhyah), to Brahma, to Bhur and Agni, to Bhuvar and Vayu, to Svar

and Surya ^,'

etc.

The next
from the

act

is

the taking up of ashes (vibhuti-grahana)

fire in

a deep-bowled spoon called Darvi, and the

application of a small quantity with the finger to different

parts of the body, with the following prayer to
'

Rudra

(Siva)

O
^

Rudra,

inflict

not harm on our sons and grandsons, on

'

Jata-vedas probably means

having knowledge of
of this
all

all

that

is

born or

created.'
^

The loth and nth verses

is

hymn are also recited after the 9th.

Practically neither

That

as a substitute for

other oblations.

sandal, perfumes, nor flowers are offered on ordinary occasions, but only

cooked
^

rice is put into the fire in place of other offerings.

The manuals

give a diagram of the circle,

and the names

of all the

gods to
to these

whom

portions of food are offered on the ground in the conclud-

ing Bali-harana ceremony.

The cooked
order.

food appears to be offered in

fire

same gods

in the

same


The Bali-harana
Service.

421
destroy not our

our living men; on our cows and horses

brave

men

in

thy anger

we invoke
I.

thee continually, bringing

thee oblations.'

(Rig-veda

114. 8.)
I

Then, with the prayer: 'May

enjoy the

triple life (try-

ayusham) of Jamadagni \ of Kasyapa, of Agastya, of the gods may I altogether live for a hundred years ashes are
;
'

applied to the forehead, the neck, the navel, the right shoulder,

the

left

shoulder, and the head respectively.

fire

Another prayer to the god of

portion of the service, thus
'
:

concludes the Vaisvadeva

bearer of the oblations, give

salute

me

happiness,

faith,

understanding,

fame, wisdom, learning,

health.
I

dignity, and him whose name, when remembered and mentioned, makes incomplete religious services complete Let the deity who partakes of the sacrifice and has the form of Agni-narayana be pleased with
intellect, wealth, strength,

long

life,

'^.

this

ceremony.

Let

it

be regarded as offered to the true essence of

the

Supreme Being (Brahma).'

The Bali-hm^ana
But the Vaisvadeva ceremony
including
is

Service. not complete without the

all

Bali-harana, or offering of food to

all

gods and

all creatures,
is

kinds of animals and

spirits.

This act

identical

with Manu's Bhuta-yajha, or

III. 70.

homage
are

to all creatures
is

(Manu

81-IV.

21).

The

offering to all animals

sometimes
the chief

called

Kaka-bali, because

crows

practically

devourers of the offerings.

In fact, the Vaisvadeva and Bali-

harana are complementary of each other, and are generally

regarded as one ceremony.

The worshipper
rice in

begins by placing small mouthfuls of cooked

fire-

a circle on the ground between himself and the

receptacle, allotting separate portions to all the

offerings

gods to

whom

have already been made

circle, in

in the

fire,

as well as to
:

other beings outside the

^

regular order, saying

II

According

Compare White Yajur-veda (Vajasaneyi-S.) to the manual I have followed, a

62.
if any be com-

Sruti enjoins that

to

part of the

ceremony has been carelessly omitted, it is held pleted by remembering and repeating the name of Vishnu.


42 2

The Bali-harana
Service,

Agni,

Agni and Soma, (7) to Indra with Dhanvantari (10) to Indra, (11) to all the gods, (12) to Brahma, (13) to the waters, (14) to the plants and trees, (15) to the house, (16) to the household deities, (17) to the gods of
(5) to

'Homage (i) to Surya, (2) Soma with Vanaspati,

(8) to

to Prajapati, (3) to Agni, (4) to Prajapati,

(6) to

Heaven and Earth,

(9) to

',

the foundation of the house.'

Then

portions are placed on the ground just outside the

circle for other

gods and beings

in the order of the quarters

:

of the compass, beginning with the East, saying

'

Homage

(18) to

Indra,

(19) to Indra's attendants, (23) to

to

(20) to

Yama,

(21) to

(24) to

Yama's attendants, (22) to Varuna, Soma, (25) to Soma's attendants, (26)

all

Varuna's attendants,
(27) to

Brahma,

Brahma's

attendants, (28) to
all

the Spirits

who

the Gods, (29) to all the Bhutas or Spirits, (30) to move about by day, (31) to all the Spirits who move

about by night, (32) to all Rakshasas and evil spirits, (33) to the Pitris the worshipper hanging his sacred thread over the right shoulder

and becoming Praclnaviti, (34) to the dog Syama, (35) to the (36) to Sanaka^ and the other Rishis (the worshipper hanging his thread round his neck like a necklace and becoming Nivlti, see With regard to 34 and 35, see p. 289. p. 410).'
(see p. 410)

dog Sabala,

While making
he says
'
:

offerings of food to the spirits

and animals

those spirits that

chief.
I

who am myself desirous of being fed, offer oblations of food to move about day and night and delight in doing misLet the lord of food grant about to eat.'

me

also to be nourished

by the food

am

While
'

offering portions of food outside the door of the

:

house he says

Let the crows that come from all the four quarters of the sky (presided over by Indra, Varuna, Vayu, Yama, and Nirriti) take the portions of rice placed by me on the ground. I present a portion to the two dogs, called Syama and Sabala (see p. 289), belonging to the family of Vaivasvata,
that they
next).
I

may

protect

me

always in
for
all

my

path (through this world and the

place portions on the ground for dogs, for low-born persons

(dandalas)

and

outcasts,
-^j.'

animals and for crows (Sva-candala-

patita-vayasebhyah

^ Dhanvantari is not the physician of the gods produced at the churning of the ocean, but an ancient deity.

^
^

Sanaka was one

of the four sons of

(a

Brahma.

converted Brahman) informed me that he used to repeat these words every day when he performed the Vaisvadeva and Bali-harana for his family.

The Rev. Nehemiah Goreh


The Ceremony of Dining.
The householder
watching
for

423

then waits at the door for a short interval,

some guest
to

some beggar

(atithi) who may whom he may give a portion

feet, sips

be passing, or
of food as alms

for
^.

He
'

then washes his hands and

:

water,

and re-enters

the house, saying

from fear of danger.

Let earth, atmosphere, and sky be favourable to us and make us free Let all the quarters of the sky, the waters, and the lightnings protect us from all harm Peace, peace, peace homage to Vishnu, homage to Vishnu, homage to Vishnu.'
! !

The Ceremony of Dining.

After the due performance
of the Vaisvadeva and
is

Balito

harana ceremonies the cooked food

considered

fit

be

consumed, and
religious service

it

might be thought that

after so

long a

the

members of the householder's family

to eat their
so.

would have nothing further to do but

without
dining
is

dinner

further
itself

ceremony.

But not

The

process of

regarded as a religious

rite,

and must be

conducted according to prescribed forms.

Most of the manuals in my possession give directions for what is called Bhojana-vidhi, the ceremony of dining.' In
'

practice,

what generally happens in the families of orthodox Brahmans and other high-caste natives ^ is nearly as follows
:

The males

of the family
folded

sit

down

in a in

row on the ground

the
^,

with their legs

under them

usual

manner.

They

are waited on
;

by the
the

wives, daughters
in

and widows of
will

the family

for

no

woman

any Indian household

finished.

venture to eat

till

men have

Boiled rice and

other kinds of grain or pulse cooked with condiments and

1

The

object of waiting at the door

is

that the worshipper

may

feel

he

has done his best to discharge the duty of performing the Manushyayajna or Atithi-pujana, homage to men or guests,' enjoined by Manu (in Book IIL 70). 2 Of course great variations occur even among Brahman families, especially in large cities where anti-brahmanic influences are at work. ^ Daughters, however, are often privileged to eat with their fathers.
'


424

Grace before Dinner.

sometimes various kinds of sweetmeats are served up on

plates
tain)

made
and
till

of leaves

(often of the palasa tree or the plan-

placed before

each

person

but no one begins

eating

certain religious forms

place, there
is

have been gone through.

In the

first

the usual acamana or sipping of

(p. 402).

water for internal purification

Each person pours

Next, water
is

water with a spoon into the palm of the hand, then some

one leads the others, and

sprinkled in a circle

all

sip together.
plate,

round each

and some one of the

company

repeats a grace or prayer before eating.

The most

common prayer is from two mana ^ as follows

:

passages in the Taittirlya Brah-

'

Let rivers

continue

to

flow,

let

clouds

rain,

let

plants

produce

good fruit (for the support of the world), may I be the lord of lands (grama Com.) that produce food, rice, and curds.' They extol food (saying) that which is food is certainly a great divine power, since it leads a man (him) to supreme prosperity.'
'
:

The
is

first

clause of this curious prayer seems to be a bene;

diction spoken for the benefit of the world at large

for the

the second

good of the speaker

is

the third

is

a glorification of

the food which the speaker

about to

eat.

Sometimes the

following text from the Rig-veda (X. 121. 10) precedes the

prayer
'

Lord of

all

creatures,

no one

else

but thou keepest

;

all

these living beings encircled

by thy

care

with whatever
;

desires

we

sacrifice

may we become
^

to thee, let the fruit of that be to us possessors of wealth ^'

In large towns plates of metal are generally used.

Taittirlya

The following is the II. 7. 16. 4, and I. 7. 10. 6. Yantu nadayo varshantu parjanyah supippala oshadhayo bhavantu, annavatam odanavatam amikshavatam esharn raja bhuyasam. Odanam udbruvate, parameshthi va eshah, yad odanah paramam evai^

Brahmana

Sanskrit text

sriyam gamayati. Prajapate na tvad etany anyo visva jatani pari ta babhuva, yat-kamas te juhumas tan no astu, vayam syama patayo raylnam. In Kulluka's Com^

nam

mentary

to

Manu (II.
is

54) a

much

The
it,

eater
to

told that he

is

and

pray that he

may

simpler form of grace before meat is given. always to honour his food and never despise always obtain it (nityam asmakam etad astu).


Offerings at Dinner,

425

Funeral Ceremonies.

After the recitation of this grace the actual business of

eating
five

may

begin, but each person

first

places either four or

small mouthfuls (grasa) of food on the ground on the

of his leaf-plate.

right side
'

These arc
^

called simply fduiti,

offerings^,' or

sometimes

(Jitrahuti,
in

offerings to Citra,' or to

Citra-gupta,
is

whose power

the intermediate state after death

especially dreaded (see p. 292).

While placing the mouth^,

fuls

he ought to say:
to

'

Homage
to

to Citra

to (iitra-gupta

^5

to

Yama,
by

Yama-dharma,
is

Bhur bhuvah

svar.'
left

After the dinner

cats
(if

over these mouthfuls are

to be eaten

there are any in the house), or together with the

leaf-plates

and whatever

is left

upon them, they are thrown to

the cows, or simply thrown out of the house to be eaten

by
is

dogs or animals of any kind.

a less formal ceremony.

The evening

family meal

With
of the

reference to the form of salutation used at the

(see p. 407),
I

end

morning Sandhya service

may

mention

by the Brahman, Mr. Nehemiah Goreh, that before he became a Christian his daily form of words
that I was told

addressed to his father (Guru) were

Bhargava - cyavanapnavanaurva - jamadagnyeti - panca-pravaranvita jamadagnyavatsa-gotrotpanno 'ham Rig-vedantargata-sakala-sakhadhyayl Raghunatha-sarma 'ham bho Guro tvam abhivadayami. O Father, I Raghunatha-sarma, a student of the Sakala branch of the Rig-veda, born in the family of the children of Jamadagni, possessing five lines of
'

progenitors

Bhargava, Cyavana, Apnavana,

rites

Aurva, and Jamadagnya

salute thee.'

It

might be thought that every complete account of Hindu

domestic
funeral

would require

to

end with a description of

for these see p. 274.

and Sraddha ceremonies, but

In the

same way, whenever a Roman family

sat

down

to meals, a

portion of the food was presented to the Lares, regarded as departed

spirits.
^

Citraya namah,

etc.,

or svaha,

may

be substituted for namah.

Citra-gupta

is

the recorder

who

records the sins and merits of

man-

kind in Yama's world.

CHAPTER
Hindu
Although Hinduism
(utsava),

XVI.
Holy Days.

Fasts, Festivals, a^id

has no ecclesiastical organization

it

under any central authority

has a longer

list

of festivals

and seasons of
(jagarana),

rejoicing, qualified

by

fasts (upavasa,

vrata), vigils

and seasons of mortification, than

of these take place

any other
days

religion.

Most

on certain lunar
which

(tithi),

each lunation of rather more than twenty-seven

solar days being divided into thirty lunar days, fifteen of

during the moon's increase constitute the

light half of the

month, and the other

are regulated
scribe all the
I

fifteen the

dark

half.

Some

festivals

by the supposed motions

fasts

of the sun.

To

de-

and

festivals

would require a volume.

it

can only indicate some of the most common.

And Roman

first,

with regard to the custom of fasting,

may
he

be worth while to point out that no Christian man

Catholic
or Anglican

be

not

even the most austere

stickler for the

most

strict

observance of every appointed

period of humiliation and abstinence, can for a

to

moment hope

compete with any

religious native of India

Hindu

or

Muhammadan

who may have entered

social

on a course of

fasting,

abstinence, and bodily maceration.

In point of fact, the constant action of a tropical climate,

and the peculiar

Eastern countries
condition of

habits

of the sons of the soil in

continued for centuries, have induced a

to practise the

body which enables them

abstinence with

most

severe and protracted

impunity, and even

with benefit

while European Christians, who, with a view

of increasing their influence, endeavour to set an

example
left

of self-mortification, find themselves quite outdone and

Hindii Fasts, Festivals^ and Holy Days.

hopelessly in the rear
city of India
^.

427

by a thousand devotees

in

every sacred

It must of course be borne in mind that fasting is practised by Indian devotees, not as a penitential exercise, but as a means of accumulating religious merit. Moreover, severe self-

mortification

is

always connected with the fancied attainment

of extraordinary sanctity or

superhuman powers.

Amongst

other objects aimed at

is

the acquirement of a kind of preter-

natural or ethereal lightness of body.

is

By

long fasting a
'

man
'

believed to achieve what

is

is

called

Laghima,

lightness

that

to say, his frame

becomes so buoyant and sublimated

its

by
air.

abstinence, that the force of gravitation loses

power of

binding'
It

him

to the earth,

and he

is

able to

sit

or float in the

may seem

the very height of credulity to give crein this

dence to an emaciated Hindu claiming to triumph

way

over the laws of matter

yet cool-headed and sceptical

sincerity have been invited to

Englishmen of unimpeachable

witness the achievements of these so-called Yogis, and have

come away convinced

Nevertheless,
practised
it

of their genuineness and ready to testify

to the absence of all fraud.

must be noted that the

were

rules of fasting, as

by

natives of India in the present day, are

in

by no

means

so stringent as they

ancient times.

Several

severe forms of abstinence are specified

by Manu.

For ex-

ample, the
in eating

fast called

'

very painful

'

(ati-kridchra) consisted

only a single mouthful every day for nine days, and

all

then abstaining from

food for the three following days

(Manu XI. 213). Another notable

^

fast

was that

called

'

the lunar vow^

'

(can-

any breach of the Creator's physical laws and laws by a Nemesis, and those devoted Englishmen who practise protracted abstinence from food in an exhausting Indian atmosphere cannot expect to be exempt from the operation of these laws. We have recently had examples of useful

The

truth

is

that

of adaptation

is

sure to be followed

careers arrested through neglecting to study the account of the second

or

'

pinnacle temptation

'

of Christ (St.

Matthew

iv. 6j.


428
Hindti Fasts, Festivals, and Holy Days.
It

drayana-vrata).

consisted in diminishing the consumption

for the

of food every day

by one mouthful
was reduced

waning half of the

full moon new moon, and

lunar month, beginning with fifteen mouthfuls at the

until the quantity

to nil at the

then increasing

it

in like

manner during the

20,

fortnight of the

moon's increase (Manu VI.

every lunar month

XI. 216).
in

In the present day every religious

that

is

Hindu fasts twice on the eleventh day (ekadasi)

fruit

in

each fortnight.

These

fasts

are usually kept in honour of

Vishnu, but are not very strictly observed, as

are allowed.

and milk

The

Saivas usually fast on the thirteenth or

fourteenth

day

of the dark half of every month, on the

'

day

and

night called Siva-ratri,

Siva's night,' in anticipation of

(p. 430).

the great fast on the night of Siva, kept once a year

The evening
in

before

is

called Pradosha.

Some, again,
(caturthi)

fast

honour of Ganesa on the fourth lunar day

once

a month, in anticipation of the chief Ganesa fast once a year

(P- 431)-

An

Indian friend of mine told

me
;

that,

when

little

boy,

he accidentally crushed a sparrow

whereupon

his

mother

made him keep an

Other chief

eleventh-day
spirit of

fast,

the m.erit (punya) of

which was credited to the

festivals

the dead sparrow.

and

fasts

beginning with

Magha
:

corresponding to our January-February

are as follow

Makara-sarikranti (popularly Sankrant), in celebration of

the

commencement

of the sun's northern course (uttarayana)

this,

in the heavens.
is

To mark
12).

a kind of

New

Year's festival

observed towards the end of Pausha or beginning of

Magha

(about January

The sun has then reached

ecliptic.

the most

southern point of the

It

is

a period of rejoicing
in-

everywhere, especially as marking the termination of the

auspicious
really

month Pausha (December-January) but the beginning of a new year, which varies in
;

it

is

not

different

parts of India.

In Bengal

it

may be
it

called the
is

'

Festival of

good

cheer.'

Practically, at least,

kept by free indulg-

Hindji Fasts, Festivals, a7id Holy Days.

ence
In

429

the eating of cakes, sweetmeats, and other good things.

of the most sacred places in India, Prayaga (Allahabad),
religious fair

At one

where the Jumna and Ganges meet, a celebrated

(Mela) takes place during this season.

The same
Pongal
(or

festival in

the South of India

It

Pungal).

marks the

commonly called commencement of the

is

Tamil

year,

and

is

the day for congratulatory

visits.

People

purchase new cooking-pots and boil fresh

rice in milk.

they salute each other with the question

boiled
?
'

Then
milk
boiling

'

Has
'

the

to
is

which the answer

is

given that

the

(pongal)

over.'

In reality the South Indian festival seems

Cattle are

to be dedicated to the glorification of agriculture.

decorated with garlands, their horns coloured, and

leaves

mango
if

procession,

hung round their necks. exempted from all

Then they

are led about in

labour, and virtually,

not

actually, worshipped.

Vasanta-paiicami, on the 5th of the light half of

Magha

(January-February).

This

is

a spring festival.

In Bengal

SarasvatI (also, like Lakshmi, called Sri), goddess of arts and

learning,
is

worshipped at

this season.
offices.

The day

is

a holiday

in all public

and mercantile

Reading and writing are

honoured by being suspended, but people worship an image of

the goddess, or ink-stands, pens, paper, and other writing im-

plements taken to represent the image.

ating priest
is

Sometimes an
etc.,

offici-

called in

who

reads the prescribed formulae, and

presents

rice, fruits,

sweetmeats, flowers,

while the lay-

worshippers stand before the images or symbols with flowers

in

their hands, beseeching

the goddess to grant

them the

blessings of learning, wealth, and fame.

Moreover, on this day, according to Mr. S. C. Bose, every

Pandit in Bengal

who keeps

a school sets up an image of

call

SarasvatI and invites his patrons and friends to

upon him

and do honour to the goddess.

offerings of rupees,

This they do by making

which really form an important part of

It
is

the

Pandit's

annual income.

a significant fact that

43 o

Hindti Fasts, Festivals, and Holy Days.

females are not allowed to take part in the worship of this

goddess, though she be of their

own

sex.
is

Maha-Siva-ratri, or 'great Siva-night,'

held on the 14th of

the dark half of

Magha
is

(about the middle or end of February).

vigil

fast is

observed during the day, and a

kept at night,

when

the Linga

worshipped (see

p.

go).

At

this season

many

pilgrims flock to the places dedicated to Siva.

identified with the Dola-yatra, or rocking of the image of Krishna celebrated, especially
Holi or Hutasani festival
^

is

in the

upper provinces, as a kind of Hindu Saturnalia or

Carnival,

and

is

therefore very popular.

full

It

begins about

ten days before the

moon

of Phalguna (February-March),

but

is

usually only observed for the last three or four days,

full

ending with the

moon.

Boys dance about

in the streets,

and inhabitants of houses sprinkle the passers-by with red or

yellow powder, use squirts and play practical jokes.
It is

marked by rough
orgies,

sports, loud music, merriment,

mid-night

obscene songs, excesses and abominations.

full

Towards

the close of the festival, about the night of

is

moon, a bonfire

lighted

and games

representing the

frolics of the

young

Krishna

take place around the expiring embers. Rama-navami the birthday of Rama-candra
and
is

is

observed

on the 9th of the light half of the month Caitra (MarchApril),

kept by some as a

strict

fast.

The temples

of

Rama

are illuminated, and his

image adorned with costly

ornaments.

The Ramayana
is

is

read in the temples, and dances

(Nautches) are kept up during the night.

Naga-pahcaml

held on the 5th day of the light half of

Sravana, in honour of the Nagas.

Two

days later comes the Sltala-saptami,

(p. 228),

in

honour of the
is

Small-pox goddess

when only cold food

eaten.

Krishna-janmashtami, the birthday of Krishna

kept

on

^ The meaning It may be merely an imitation of of Holl is doubtful. the sounds and cries made by the revellers. By some the festival is said

to be in

commemoration

of the killing of the

demon Madhu by

Krishna.

Hindti Fasts, Festivals, and Holy Days.

the 8th of the dark half of the month Bhadra or
(in

431

Bombay

and the South) of Sravana (July-August)

greatest of all

is

one of the
caused

Hindu holidays

(see p.

113).
festivals is

The

variation in time in this

and other

by the circumstance that the months of the Northern and Southern Brahmans differ in the dark fortnight.
Ganesa-caturthi

the

birthday of Ganesa

is

observed on

the 4th of the light half of the

month Bhadra (Augustafter

September).

Clay figures of the deity are made, and

being worshipped for a few days, thrown into the water.

Sixteen consecutive lunar days are devoted to the per-

formance of Sraddhas

in

the dark half of Bhadra, which

is

therefore called the Pitri-paksha (see p. 308).

Durga-puja, or Nava-ratra,
ist

'

nine nights,' beginning on the

light half of

and ending on the loth day of the

in

Asvina
as a

(September-October), are celebrated

many

places

great holiday, especially in Bengal, and connected with the

autumnal equinox. Nominally they commemorate the victory

of Durga, wife of Siva, over a buffalo-headed

demon (Mahiis

The form under which she image with ten arms and a weapon
shasur).

is

adored

that of an

in

each hand, her right

leg resting on a lion and her

left

on the buffalo demon.

This

image

is

worshipped

for nine

days

following on

the sixteen

Sraddhas of the Pitri-paksha

and then cast into the water.

The

tenth day
is

is

called Vijaya-dasamI, or Dasa-hara.

Kali-pijja

a kindred festival in Bengal, lasting only for

one night, and that the darkest night of the dark fortnight of
the

month

Karttika.

The image worshipped

at KfilT

is

that of Kfdl,
1

the dark and terrible form of Siva's wife described at p.

89.

The well-known temple

Ghat near Calcutta and other

in

shrines of the goddess are during this night drenched with the

blood of goats, sheep and buffaloes, sacrificed sanguinary goddess.

Rama-lila, 'Rama-play,'
is

honour of the
parts of India

celebrated in

some

on the day when the Bengalis commit

their

images of Durga

432

Hindu

Fasts, Festivals,
It is a

and Holy Days.

to the waters.

dramatic representation of the abduction

of Sita by Ravana, concluding with the death of Ravana.

DivaU (properly Dipali or Dipavali), the

'

feast of lamps,'
last

is

observed twenty days after the Nava-ratra on the

two

days of the dark half of Asvina. and on the new

moon and
marked by

four following days of Karttika, in honour of Vishnu's wife

Lakshmi
far excel

or of Siva's wife BhavanT (Parvati).

It is

beautiful illuminations, in the preparation of

which Indians

Europeans.

is

p. 429) kept at this season, on the 8th of the light half of Asvina.

In some parts of India the Sarasvatl-puja (described

The
cence

Divali should be seen at Benares.

There

its

maenifi-

is

heightened by the situation of the city on the bank of

the river and the unique grouping and

line of the buildings.

somewhat

bizarre out-

At

the approach of night small earthen

lamps, fed with

oil,

are prepared in millions, and placed close

architectural form of mansion,
in lines of fire.
city,

together so as to

mark out the

palace, temple, minaret,

and dome

All the boats

on the

river are lighted up,

is

and the

under the serene sky

of an Indian autumn,

a blaze of calm effulgence.

Viewed
fairy-

from the water

like splendour,

it

presents a dazzling spectacle

in

a scene of
any other

which cannot be matched

in

city of

the world.

Indeed similar spectacles

the great European

capitals appear absolutely paltry

by comparison.

Perhaps the

illuminations which took place on the occasion of the Prince of

Wales'* visit to India in 1876 reached the climax of perfection,

and

will

never be equalled for beauty and magnificence.

is

Karttika-purnima

a festival kept on the

full

moon

of the
Siva's

victory over the

It

month Karttika (October-November), in honour of demon called Tripurasura.

must be noted that the months are lunar and that the Every month, such calendar varies in different parts of India. ^ as Sravana, Vaisakha, and the intercalary or thirteenth month
^

in

There is an allusion to this thirteenth month Atharva-veda V. 6. 4, XIII. 3. 8.

in

Rig-veda

I.

25. 8,

and

Hindu
(Adhika-masa),

Fasts, Festivals,
has
its

and Holy Days.

or
special

433

Mahatmya

excellence.
third year,

When
its

the intercalary

month comes round every

preachers

make the most of their opportunity, and recite Mahatmya, hoping thereby to stimulate the generosity
Then, again,
full
if

of the people.
(or in

a conjunction of the
fall

moon
this
is

some

places a

moon)

on a Monday,

an astronomical coincidence that

best account.
charitable acts.
It
is

must be turned
said of eclipses.

to

the

a conjuncture peculiarly favourable to

The same may be

is

A single

rupee given at such seasons

other times.

worth a thousand rupees at

Moreover, every day of the week has

its

sacred character.

Monday

is

especially sacred

to

Siva (Maha-deva).

Pious
in

persons often fast on this day and worship the

the evening.

Lihga

Hanuman's day, and offerings are Then the eighth day especially made to him on that day. This is a day in every lunar fortnight is sacred to Durga. therefore called is allowed, and An-adhyaya. study when no
Saturday
is

Indeed holy days or non-reading days

definitely.

may

be multiplied

inif it

Thus

a pupil will stop reading

if

and go home

happens to thunder,
between himself and

any person or animal chances

to pass

his teacher, if a guest arrives,

and often
the

during the greater part of the rainy season.

No

less

than four eras are commonly current

India
:

among

Hindus

in

i.

Sarnvat (of King Vikramaditya), rec-

3. Saka (of King Salivahana), reckoned koned from 57 B.C. from 78 A.D. 3. San, current in Bengal, reckoned from 593
;

A.D.

4.
1 1

The

era of Parasu-rama, current in Malabar, reckoned

from

76 B.C.

In almanacks

it

is

usual to state

how many
(p.

years of the present age of the world or Kali-yuga

398)

have elapsed

thus at present 4984 out of 432,000 years have

three previous ages are the Krita or Satya,
follow the Saka era

gone by.

The

Treta, or Dvapara.

Almanacks which

begin the year with the light half of the month Caitra, but
the

Samvat year usually commences with Karttika.

Ff

CHAPTER
Te^nples

XVII.

and Sacred Places of Pilgrimage.

that the principal seat and great centre
is

It

is

well

known

of the cultus of Siva

Benares (Varanasi)^
it

city

whose
'

world-wide celebrity has earned for

resplendent.'

the

title

of KasI,

the
it is

In the KasT-khanda of the Skanda-purana

how the god himself chose that city for his special abode, and how after having undergone severe austerities in the neighbourhood he made it sacred to himself and to his
recorded
sons Ganesa and Skanda
(p. 211).

Elsewhere Benares
Creator,

is
it

described as a special creation of the

of pure unpolluted earth, separated
it

who formed

from the

rest of the world,

and caused

it

to rest

on one of the

points of Siva's trident.

No

doubt Benares was one of the

for

first cities

to acquire a

reputation

sanctity,
all

and

is

still

regarded as the most

sacred spot in

India.

It is

the Hindu's Jerusalem and

Mecca.

Here, temples, shrines, and idols are multiplied

all

beyond

calculation.
is

Here every inch of ground, every

air is

clod of earth

hallowed, and the very

holy.
is

No

wonder, then, that every pious Hindu

ambitious of

accomplishing at least one pilgrimage to what he regards as a

portion of heaven let

down upon

earth,

and

if

he can happily
is

manage

to die within the magic circle of

what

called the

Paficakosi

that

is

to say, within a circuit of ten miles

round

the centre

of the

holy city

nay,
is

if

the

most desperate
The name

The popular name

it

is
is

more properly written Banaras.

a corruption,
the Varana or

VaranasT, of which

said to be derived from two

small rivers outside the

city,

Varna and the

Asl.

Temples.
criminal from

Places of Pilgrimage.

Benares,

435

any part of the world

Christian,

be he
or

of any religious

denomination,
there,

Buddhist,

Muhammadan die
guilt,

no amount of the most heinous

sin of eating beef,

not even the

deadly

can prevent his immediate trans-

portation to the heaven of Siva.

exclusively dedicated to Siva
sively devoted to
(ishta-devata).
;

Yet Benares
nor are
its

is

by no means
deity

inhabitants exclu-

the worship of any one favourite

zation or

Nor is it the seat of any ecclesiastical organiof any council or central sacerdotal government,
in

which indeed exist nowhere

citadel of

India.

Still

Benares

is

the
It is

Brahmanism
in

the

stronghold of Hinduism.

the focus from which

religious

all

the lines of the most complicated

system

the world diverge, and to which they

converge.

Here

priestcraft reigns

supreme

in

all

its

pleni-

tude and power.

Nay

it

is

not too

much

to say that here

a population of about 200^000 persons and a countless

number

of pilgrims deliver themselves up to be deluded, defrauded,

and kept

in religious slavery

by 25,000 arrogant Brahmans.

all rivers,

Picturesquely situated on the Ganges and stretching for

three or four miles along this most sacred of

with

magnificent Ghats or flights of steps conducting pilgrims

by

thousands into the very midst of

is

its

hallowed waters, Benares

the

home

of every form of Hindii religious earnestness and

enthusiasm, combined with every conceivable variety of hideous

superstition and fanaticism.

No
The
its

description indeed can give the slightest idea of the

reality of the sight presented to the

eye by
its

this

unique

city.

traveller bent

on investigating

inner mysteries, and

eager to solve for himself the riddle of the grosser forms of

superstition
its

and fanaticism,

finds that his only

hope of

traversing

tortuous streets, or penetrating the living tide

in its leading thoroughfares,
is

which daily ebbs and flows

by

trusting to his personal powers as a pedestrian.

Pushing his

way through

the seething throng he beholds everywhere, as

he advances, the most striking contrasts and curious incon-

f 2

43 6
gruities

Temples.

Places of Pilgrimage.

Benares.

princely

mansions and mean tenements, handsome

edifices and fantastic freaks of architecture, crowded shrines and empty sanctuaries, bright new temples and dilapidated fanes, freshly gilded domes and mildewed pinnacles, graceful

minarets and unsightly cupolas, open streets and impassable

lanes, dirty squares

and well-kept quadrangles

everywhere
bizarre, the

and from every point of view a strange intermingling of the

beautiful

and the grotesque, the

which meet

tasteful

and the

simple and the extravagant.

The

living objects

his

eye as he proceeds are

not less interesting, odd, and incongruous.

Now
free

he

is

jostled

by sacred
trolled
;

bulls

which wander everywhere

and uncon-

now

a number of impudent monkeys bound over his

head or spring from roof to roof; now a dozen sacred pigeons

fly fearlessly

almost into his

his head.

face, or a flight of parrots circle

is

noisily
in

around

In one part of the city he

hemmed

some sacred pool or noted temple by a motley throng of pilgrims, some pressing forward to perform their ablutions, some carrying Ganges water for use at the idol-shrines, some vociferating the name of their favourite gods. In another quarter he is surrounded by groups of half-naked mendibefore
cants and dirty devotees,
austerities in a

many

of

whom

parade their bodily

manner highly

repulsive to

European

eyes.

Here he struggles with

difliculty

through streets of copperhis path

is

smiths and workers in brass.

There

obstructed

by the
and

stalls

of vendors of coarse sweetmeats, sellers of flower-

garlands, or money-changers sitting behind heaps of cowries

piles of gold

and

silver

coins.

Everywhere temples,
wells, pools,

shrines,

mosques, images and symbols, holy

and

sacred trees present themselves in bewildering confusion.

The number

of principal temples
are,

is

at least

two thousand.

Smaller shrines

of course, innumerable.

Of Muhamthree hundred.
million.

madan mosques the total is said to amount to The tale of idols is computed at about half a
chief temple called the
'

The

golden temple,' dedicated to Siva or

Temples.

Places of Pilgi'image.
is

Benares.

437
has

Maha-deva

(see p. 78),

disappointing to any one

;

who

seen the south Indian temples

for

although Siva

is

specially

worshipped and propitiated at Benares he has nowhere so

many

earnest votaries as in the South, and the Benares temple

in respect of size, external

appearance and importance

is

to

the great temples of Tanjore,

Madura and

Tinnevelly, what a

small village church

is

to St. Paul's Cathedral.

The

fact is that the

waves of

Muhammadan

invasion which

swept over the North-west and Central provinces of India,

and seemed at one time

likely to obliterate

Brahmanism
or else
is

altogether, were either arrested in their

onward course
This

spent themselves before reaching the South.

remark-

ably illustrated at Benares, where the most conspicuous build-

mosque of Aurangzib with its lofty minarets on the Ganges. Even the old original Saiva temple of Visvesvara does not exist. It was pulled down by the ruthless
ing
is

the great

Aurangzib and a mosque

built

on

its

foundations

^.

Another

temple, however, speedily arose close at hand and rivalled the

old one in picturesque beauty,
if

not in

size.

It
its

stands at a

distance of two or three hundred yards from

predecessor.

Between them

is

the Jnana-vapl, or holy well of knowledge

spot

greatly frequented
all

and held

in

high veneration

by pilgrims from
temple,
this
its

parts of the country

legend being

universally current that,

idol took refuge of

when Aurangzib destroyed the Hindii its own accord at the bottom of
them
offerings of

holy well.

Thither therefore a constant throng of wor-

shippers continually resort, bringing with

flowers, rice,

and other

grain,

which they throw

into the

water
per-

thirty or forty feet

below the ground.

Brahman

is

petually employed in drawing up the putrid liquid, the smell

or rather stench of which, from incessant admixture of de-

caying flowers and vegetable matter, makes the neighbourhood

According

to

of perusal

there was a

Mr, Sherring whose book on Benares is well worthy still earlier temple on a site not far distant.

43^

Temples.

Places of Pilgrh7iage.

Benares.

almost unbearable.
of expectant
sprinkle
it

This he pours with a ladle into the hands

crowds,

who

either

drink

it

with avidity or

reverentially over their persons.

well, called Mani-karnika, situated
its origin, in

Another sacred
belief, to

on one
popular

of the chief Ghats on the Ganges, owes

the fortunate circumstance that one of Siva's earfall

rings

happened to
is

on the spot.

This well
It

near the surface and quite exposed to view.

forms a small quadrangular pool not more than three feet

deep.

Four

flights

of steps on

the four sides lead to the

water, the disgusting foulness of which vastly enhances

in

the

estimation of countless pilgrims

of sin.

its

efficacy for the

removal

The most abandoned

criminals journey from distant

parts of India to the margin of this sacred pool.

There they

pay large fees to secure the services of the Brahman officials, and descending with them into the water are made to mutter certain texts and mystic formulae, the meaning of which they
are w^holly unable to understand.

Then while

in

the act

of repeating the words put into their

mouths they eagerly

liquid.
is

immerse

their entire

persons

beneath the offensive

The

longed-for dip over, a miraculous transformation

;

the

result

for the foul

water has cleansed the

still

fouler soul.

Few orthodox Hindus venture to doubt that the most depraved sinner in existence may thus be converted into an immaculate
saint,

worthy of being translated

at

once to the highest heaven

of the god of Benares.

But
visited

to return to the temple of Visvesvara.

it,

found,

when

a constant stream of worshippers passing in and out.

p. 78)

In
is

fact,

Siva in his character of lord of the universe (see

the supreme deity of Benares.

Not

that

the

pilgrims

are prohibited

from worshipping at the shrines of other

Siva
is

gods,
first
is

but that

here

paramount and claims

;

the

homage.
symbol
of

Yet

this

supreme god has no image

he

represented

by a
male

plain conical stone

to

wit, the

Liiiga

or

generative power.

The method

of

Te^nples.

Places of Pilgrimage,
in

Tanjore,

439

performing worship
of

this great central

and typical temple

in its contrast

Hinduism appeared to me very remarkable

all

with
All
in a

Christian ideas as to

the true nature of worship.

that

each worshipper did was to bring Ganges water

small metal vessel and pour the water over the stone

Liiiga, at the

same time ringing one of the

bells

hanging from

the roof to attract the god's attention towards himself, bowing

low

in obeisance,

and muttering a few texts with repetition of

In this

the god's name.

way

the god's symbol was kept

deluged with water (see

p. 68),

while the crowds

who

passed

in

and out lingered

for a

time close to the shrine, talking to each

other in loud tones.

Nor

did

any idea

of irreverence

seem

to

be attached to noisy vociferation

itself.

in the interior of the

sanctuary

Nor was any

I

objection

made
;

to an unbeliever like

myself approaching and looking inside

of India

whereas
all

in the

South

was

strictly

excluded from

the avenues to the

inner Linga-sanctuaries (see p. 447).

to the

In the courts adjacent

to various deities,

Lihga were other shrines dedicated

and

in a

kind of cloister or gallery which encircled the temple

were thousands of stone Lihgas crowded together carelessly

and apparently only intended as votive-offerings.

noticed

the coil of a serpent carved round one or two of the most

conspicuous symbols of male generative energy, and the combination appeared to

me

very significant.
hand.

is

The goddess Anna-piirna has a temple close at thought to be charged by the god Siva with
I

She

the duty of

keeping the inhabitants of Benares supplied with abundance

of food.

found the quadrangle which surrounds this shrine

bulls, cows, priests,

crowded with
daily fed

and mendicants, who are

by the offerings of the rich. The effluvium emitted and dirt was insufferable. It was here that I met by with an Urdhva-bahu ascetic (described at p. 88).
the
filth

Among
It is
is

Southern Saiva temples the

finest

is

at Tanjore.

contained within a vast quadrangle, the floor of which

clean.

paved with bricks and kept scrupulously

Two

lofty


440
Temples. Places of Pilgr image.
Tanjore,

Gopuras or gateways surmounted by high pyramidal towers ^

lead into this square, and a sort of double cloister or arcade

surrounds

it.

Then

in the

second or hinder part of two sides

of the arcade are arranged a hundred and eight black stone

Lihgas of different
principal

sizes,

one for each of the hundred and eight

names

of Siva, and behind these again are sixty-four

frescoes painted

on the wall

many of them highly grotesque

them the power
is

representing various exploits of the god or his attendants^.

catalogue of sixty-three saints or distinguished personages

to Siva gave

whose devotion
miracles
(see p. 85)
^.

of performing

and supernatural

feats

sometimes enumerated

On

the

left

of the quadrangle as
trees.

you enter

is
is

a pleasant grove of palms and other

In the centre

the principal temple, containing the Garbha-griham or inner-

most sanctuary of the sacred

to which
structure,
I

Liiiga, a

kind of holy of holies

was not allowed

still

access.

This
fine

is

an imposing
or open

made

more so by the
it

Mandapa

hall erected in front of

as a shrine for the stone

is

image of

Siva's bull (nandi),

which

a magnificent specimen of Indian

principal temple are four

sculpture of great size.

Near the

subordinate ones, two behind and two on one side.

Those

behind are dedicated to the two sons of Siva, one to Ganesa

and the other to Su-brahmanya

is

(p. 211).

In front of Ganesa

the image of his vehicle, the rat, looking into the shrine, as

the bull does into the shrine of Siva.

of sagacity, as the bull
is

The
power

rat

is

an emblem

of generative

(see pp. 319, 328).

These structures are of oblong form, and sometimes of immense

height.

They are only pyramidal in the sense of being broader at the base than at the summit. It is remarkable that Vaishnava carvings are found on these Tanjore Gopuras, showing that the temple may have once
belonged to the Vaishnavas.
mingled.
^ In one of these a Lihga is represented with a face inside it. Another has a serpent for a canopy. In another GanJodara, an attendant of Siva, is swallowing mountains of rice and drinking up a river. ^ The catalogue is given by Mr. Foulkes in his Saiva Catechism.

Everywhere the two systems seem

inter-

Temples.

Places of Pilginniage.
is

Tanjore,

441

The Image
and has six

of

Su-brahmanya or Skanda

seated on a peacock
p. 214.

faces.

As

to

Su-brahmanya, sec

One

of the side temples near the entrance of the quadrangle

left

contains an image of Siva, Hfting up his

leg while dancing

the Tandava dance and trampling on the

demon Apa-smara.
it

He

holds the

Damaru
rattle,

in

one hand, using

a

for a

musical

instrument or

as

dancer would castanets.

walls.

This
is

temple has some curious pictures on the

Bhriiigi,

One

of

an attendant of Siva, who became so feeble and

^

attenuated through self-mortification

that the god furnished

him with a
snake

third \^^

for

support

another represents an

attendant with the lower part of his body terminating in a

;

a third depicts one of Siva's servants with the feet of

a tiger.
carried off

In a fourth the sage Markandeya

is

about to be
Siva's

by the king of death (Yama), when he grasps

Linga and saves himself.

hasta, a pious forester

A fifth

represents the story of Kala-

with offerings of flowers.

oblation

who habitually did homage to Siva One day having forgotten his usual he without any hesitation tore out one of his own
its

eyes from

socket, and having offered

it

as a substitute was

proceeding to take out the other, when Siva prevented him.

The second
in front.

side temple

is

an oblong chamber containing an

always burning

image of ParvatT

at the further end, with lights

is

Near the entrance

a representation of Parvatfs
is

darpana or mirror.
Liriga,

On

one of the walls

portrayed a large

canopied by the serpent Sesha.

all

To
one

describe

the principal Saiva temples of India would

require volumes.
for each of the

One thousand and

eight arc said to exist,

one thousand and eight names of the god.

eight are regarded as important.
KfdT's
p.

One hundred and

temples are equally numerous; see the Krdl-puja at

431

and the description of the Vindyacal temple

^

at p. 'lyj-

He was

not only emaciated, but an actual living skeleton.

in the sculptures of the caves of

a model ascetic, and fasted so continuously that he became He is so represented

Elephanta near Bombay.

442

Temples.
the
others

Places of Pilgrimage.
which
I

Madiera.

Of

visited,

the temples at Madura,

Ramesvara, Trichinopoly, Kaiijivaram, Tinnevelly, and the

shrine of Kapalesvara at Nasik (one of the oldest), appeared
to

me most worthy
name given
to

of note.
is

At the Madura temple Siva

a

worshipped as Sundaresvara,

him

as the

husband of MinakshT (corrupted

into Minacl), the deified daughter of a

Pandya king^
open
hall of great

A
and

very extensive and imposing

series of shrines, passages,

galleries, including a thousand-pillared

beauty, constitutes the temple.

wall, inside of

These are enclosed by a high

interior building is

which and encircling the

an
for

open road or way

shrine.

for the benefit of pious persons

who

use

it

reverential circumambulation (pradakshina) round the sacred

Two

lofty

Gopuras form the entrance to the temple,

each leading by long corridors to the tw^o principal shrines.

That on the
shrine.
It is

left

leads to the shrine of Mlnakshi

(commonly
images of

called MinacT); that on the right terminates with the Liiiga

noteworthy that near the

princes
-.

latter are

the

five

Pandava

who

are generally connected with

the worship of Krishna

Various interesting carvings and

It is

sculptured figures are in the neighbouring corridors.

evident that Mlnakshi
trict,
is

the real popular deity of the dis-

and that

in the estimation of the inhabitants of

is

Madura

her consort Siva

I

quite secondary.
festival held in her

happened accidentally to witness a

oil festival.'

honour called Tailotsava, 'the

head-dress of

coarse image of

the goddess, profusely decorated with jewels and having a high

hair,

was carried

in

the centre of a long proces-

the wife's

The temple is commonly called the Mmakshl-sundaresvara pagoda, name being placed first, as it generally is in other cases also (see p. 184). The legend is that Mlnakshi was born with three breasts,
^

but one disappeared on meeting with her future husband Siva. then converted into a local goddess of great celebrity.
^

She was

Where Saivism

an evidence of the tolerant spirit which marks Hinduism. got the better of Vaishnavism in the South, the Vaishnava ornaments were respected and allowed to remain in Saiva temples.
This
is

Te77zples.

Places of Pilgrimage

Ramesvai^a.

44

->

sion on a canopied throne borne

platform in the magnificent' hall or

by eight Brahmans to a Mandapa of the Tirumell

its

Nayak
oil,

opposite the temple.

its

There the ceremony of undresshead with

ing the idol, removing

ornaments, anointing
it

bathing, redecorating and redressing

was gone through

waving of hghts

amid shouting,

singing, beating of tom-toms,

bells,

and cowries, ringing of

a

and deafening discord from

forty or fifty so-called musical instruments, each played

by
the

man who

did his best to overpower the sound of

all

others combined.

At

the head of the procession was borne

an image of Ganesa.

Then followed

three elephants, a long

line of priests, musicians,

attendants bearing cowries and

rear.

um-

brellas,

with a troop of dancing girls bringing up the

No
than

sight I witnessed in India

It

made me more

sick at heart

this.

furnished a sad example of the utterly debasing

character of the idolatry which, notwithstanding the counteracting influences of education and Christianity,
still

enslaves

the masses of the population, deadening their intellects, cor-

rupting their imaginations, warping their affections, perverting

their consciences, disfiguring the fair soil of a beautiful country

with hideous images, and encouraging practices unsanctioned

even by their own most ancient sacred works.

Probably the Ramesvara temple ranks next to those of

Tanjore and Madura in magnificence, and to those of Benares
in sanctity.
It is situated in a

small town at the further side

of the island of Ramesvara an island about eight miles long by four broad which, with the coral reef stretching for

tw^enty-one miles from

its

furthest extremity

and appearing
separating

like a broken bridge above the sea^, nearly connects India

with

Manaar and Ceylon.

to
it

The narrow channel

is

the island from the mainland

called

Pambam

(or

Pamben).

The journey
^

caused

me
of

great discomfort and

fatigue.

The

natives

still

believe this to be the remains of the bridge formed

by
for

Hanuman and Rama's army

monkeys, when he invaded Ceylon

the recovery of his wife Sita (see Indian

Wisdom,

p.

35S).

444

Temples,

Places of Pilgrimage.

Ramesvara.

Starting from
traversed before

Ramnad
this

a vast

sandy waste has to be

can be reached.

sacred

island
to

Yet

thousands of pilgrims walk

first

Benares and thence to

Ramesvara.
is

And

perhaps such a double pilgrimage (yatra)

the most meritorious act a

Hindu can perform.

It is

true

that enormous merit (punya)

visiting

may
is

be accumulated by simply

Ramesvara, but

this

as nothing to Benares.

compared

to

what

may
In

be obtained by going

first

my own

case

had

visited both

Benares and Ramesvara,

foot, and I was rewarded at the latter place by being met on my arrival by a number of Pandits, who brought a band of musicians and conducted me in state, amid a deafening din, through the streets of the town. The

though not on

musicians, though they preceded me,

all

walked backwards.
bliss hereafter,
first

In

fact, if

man

wish for the perfection of

he has only one course open to him.

to Benares, there
at a

He must

journey

go through
in

at least a

hundred ceremonies

hundred shrines

the sacred circle surrounding the

fees to the

centre of the city,

pay large

Brahmans

at innu-

merable temples, and especially pour plenty of Ganges water

over the symbol of Siva at the Visvesvara shrine.

must
with

fill

a jar with

Then he more holy water from the Ganges, and toil

for

it

on foot through dust and sand

about twelve hunis

dred miles to Ramesvara.

There the sacred water

to

be

poured over the symbol of Siva with the certainty of securing

complete beatitude hereafter, provided
to the
sufficient fees are paid

Brahmans, and the process

little

is

wound up by

a bath in

the sea at Dhanush-koti^ a

further on.

Shortly before

my

arrival at the

temple a father and son

after

had

just

completed their self-imposed task, and

walking succeeded
in

months
precious

of hard

transporting

their

burden of Ganges water to the other side of the channel.

The

longed-for goal was nearly reached and the temple of

in sight,

Ramesvara already
on the road, leaving

his son, a

when mere

the father died suddenly

child, utterly destitute.

Temples. Places of Pilgrimage. Jamb2tkesva7'a.

445

The
water.

boy. however, had one treasure

This,
if

left

his jar

of Ganges

only

it

could be poured upon the sacred

all his

symbol, would prove a complete panacea for

troubles.

earthly

Eagerly therefore he grasped his burden once

to

more and hurried on

outburst of grief

the shrine.

Imagine the

child's

when

the door was closed against him.

He

had no

fee for the presiding priest.

The temple
shrines,

of

Ramcsvara

itself I

found to be a vast ob-

long structure containing an immense collection of Liiiga

open

halls

and tanks surrounded by long beautiful

is

galleries

and corridors, one entrance to which

from the

small town of Ramesvara and the other from the sea-shore.

The

principal sanctuary or

Garbha

is

well secluded and carein

fully protected

from

all

unhallowed eyes

the centre of the

structure.

It

contains the celebrated Liiiga set up

by Rama

after his return

from Ceylon (Lanka).

is

The
tracted
in the

legend

that,

anxious to expiate the impurity conin the battle

by the slaughter of Ravana

demon's death
(p. iii),

which ended

Rama

despatched

Hanuman

to bring a Liiiga

from Benares that he might erect a shrine

over

it

and so propitiate Siva.

But the monkey-god was so

long in executing the commission that Sita prepared a Liiiga

of sand with her

own

hands, and

Rama

having then and there

performed the ceremony of setting

consecrating
it,

it
it.

up (pratishtha) and

proceeded to worship

He

then bathed

in

the sea from the neighbouring promontory at a spot which

was afterwards

called

Thanush-kodi (Dhanush-koti), because

marked by
is

the corner of his bow.

Hence

a visit to this spot

essential to a completely meritorious performance of the

Ramesvara pilgrimage.

The Saiva temple

his character of
is
^

at Trichinopoly

is

dedicated to Siva in
It

Jambukesvara, lord of the Jambu tree^

one of

the

most important and

interesting

shrines

in

The connexion

to

me

of Siva worship with tree and serpent worship seemed traceable everywhere in Southern India (compare p. 331).

44^
India.

Temples.

Places of Pilgrimage.
fail

Kanjivara7n.
its

No
I

one could

to be impressed with

beautiful

colonnades, cloisters, and thousand-pillared Mandapa, though

when
dition.

visited

it

in

1877

it

was

In the central court of the temple

(stambha) supporting a flag

somewhat decaying conis a metal column (dhvaja)^, and near it is the

in

Jambu The

tree over

which Siva

is

supposed to preside.
is

chief object of worship

a stone Lihga, always kept

under water and thence called the Ap-Iihga.

informed

The
air,

Pandits

me
of

that four other celebrated Lihga-shrines in India

represent the remaining four elements

ether
^,

fire,

earth,

and

all

which are believed to be manifestations of Siva

(the ancient Kaficl), one of the

(compare

p. 85).

At KafijTvaram
places in India
^,

most sacred

not far distant from Madras, there are two

principal temples at opposite ends of the town, one dedicated

to Vishnu (as Varada-raja), the other to Siva.

visited

Both were

by me, and both

found to be striking examples of

South Indian architecture, containing a very considerable

collection of imposing buildings within their exterior walls.

According to a

local legend

the goddess ParvatI once perthe spot

formed penance under a mango-tree (amra) on

where the Saiva temple now stands.

Siva appeared to her, and there he
natha,
'

There her husband

is

worshipped as Ekamra-

the peerless lord of the

mango *.'
is

The Tinnevelly Saiva temple

instructive.

also highly interesting

in

and

Siva

is

here again worshipped

or Banian
;'

connexion with
his

a sacred tree, the Vata

tree,

whence

name

Vatesvara, 'lord of the Vata-tree^

^

but here, as at Madura, his

similar

column

is

in other

South Indian shrines.

They
It is

are called the Tejo-lihga, Vayu-lihga, Prithivl-lihga,

and Akasa-

lihga respectively.

enumerated among the seven most sacred places. So he was described to me by a Pandit in the temple. Otherwise his name might literally be lord of the one mango.' ^ Here is another instance of Siva's association with trees (compare The Pandits who took me round the temple described the god as p. 331).
" *
'

Temples,
wife ParvatI,

Places of Pilg7'unage.

Sri-rahgam.

447

who has a shrine on the left side of under the name of Kantimatl, the lovely one,' popular object of adoration ^ The Liriga of
'

the temple,
is

the most
in

Siva,

kind of holy of holies

in this

temple,
;

is

very sacred.

The
itself

approach to
is

it is

by a long

corridor

but the sanctuary

It is

not visible at the end of the vista.

protected by three

other approaches or vestibules, each increasing in sanctity

(called

the

Ghanta-mandapa, the Maha-mandapa, and the

into

Arddha-mandapa),

none of which was

permitted to enter.
its

The

Liriga

is,

of course, never

moved from

place in the
called the

penetralia of the temple, but an

Utsava-miirti,
is

image of Siva,

carried about in procession on certain festival

days, especially

when

the annual ceremony of marrying the

is

god and the goddess

this

performed every October.

The god

of love (Kama-deva) and his wife (Rati) have also images in

temple, and a festival

is

held

in

their

honour every

spring.

Two

magnificent open halls

one

with a thousand

columns, the other with a hundred and eight

a tank, garden,
I
it

and grove of palms are

I

all

within the enclosure of the temple.

will not

advert to the ruins of the marvellous Kailasa

visited
is

temple cut out of the solid rock at EUora, which

in

1877 (pp. 70, IT 8, 291), further than to say that

one

of the wonders of India and indeed of the world.

As

to the
its

celebrated Vishnu-temple of Jagan-nath at Purl in Orissa,

sanctity
is

such that 100,000 pilgrims annually eat the sacred

its

food (prasdda) distributed in

courts to priest, prince and

in

peasant alike; for no distinctions of caste are recognized

presence of Krishna (Vishnu)
car- festival
is
'

the

the lord of the world.'

India,' p. 68.)

(The

described in
of Vishnu at

my Modern
'

The temple

Gaya has been

described at p. 309,
at p. 152.

and temples of Krishna

Sallvatlsvara (or in Tamil,

at p. 144,

and again

Nel

velll-natha).
is

sacred shrine south of the Vindhya, Siva

svara,
^
'

I was informed that, at a worshipped as Draksharame-

lord of the vineyard.'

Live parrots and cockatoos are hung before her shrine as offerings.

; ;

44^

Temples.

Places of Pilgrimage.
at

Sri-rangam.

We pass

on to the Srl-rangam temple

its

contains in one of

courts a shrine of
119),

Trichinopoly which Ramanuja, the great

Vaishnava teacher

(p.

who

is

supposed to have lived

Sri-rangam
is.

here for a considerable time before his death.

indeed, rather a sacred city than a temple.

Hundreds of

Brahmans dwell within

throng
its streets,
its

its

precincts,

thousands of pilgrims

and on great anniversaries myriads of worcorridors,

in

shippers crowd
sight
is

and press towards

its

sanctuary.

any part of India that can at ail No compare with the unique effect produced by its series of seven quadrangular enclosures formed by seven squares of massive
to

be seen

walls,

one within the other

lofty gateways,

every square pierced by four and each gateway surmounted by pyramidal

towers rivalling in altitude the adjacent rock of Trichinopoly.

The

construction of this marvellous congeries of sacred

its first

buildings must have cost millions of rupees, and since

construction

fabulous sums have been spent on

It is said

its

main-

tenance and enlargement.

that kings and princes

their revenues for

have emptied their

the
rich
for

coffers

and given up
its

completion and extension of

many-storied towers
their
its

men

of every rank have

parted with

treasures

the adding of column

courts
;

after

column

to

thousand-

pillared

misers
its

have yielded up their hoards for

;

the decoration of

jewelled images
for

capitalists
its

have bepriests

queathed vast benefactions

architects

the support of
all

and

artists

have exhausted

their resources for

the production of a perfect shrine, the worthy receptacle of

an idol of transcendent glory.

The
shipper

idea

is

that each investing square of walls shall form

courts of increasing sanctity which shall conduct the wor-

by

regular gradations to a

central
fact,
is

holy of holies

of unique shape and proportions.

shrines, edifices, towers,
terrestrial

In

the entire fabric of

and enclosures
of Vishnu's

supposed to be a

counterpart

heaven (Vaikuntha), to

which

his votaries are destined to

be transported.

Temples.

Places of Pilgrhnage.
is

Sri-rahgavi.

449
is

The
curious.

idol itself

recumbent, and
dismissed

its

legendary history
ally

When Rama

his

Vibhlshana

the
down
on

brother of the conquered

Sita to Ceylon

demon Ravana who had

carried off

he gave him, out of gratitude

for his services,

it

a golden idol of Vishnu, with instructions not to lay

till

he had reached home.

Vibhlshana accordingly

set out

his return to

Ceylon, taking the precious image with him.

Passing near Sri-rahgam, and wishing to bathe in the sacred

tank, he gave the
to hold
it

image to one of

his followers, charging

let
it

him

upright,

and on no account to

pass out of his

hands.

But Vibhlshana was so long over

its

his ablutions, that

the holder of the image, finding

weight insupportable,
it

deposited

it

on the ground, intending to take

up again

before Vibhishana's return.

The dismay

of all parties con-

cerned was great

nately declined to
It

when they discovered that the idol obstibe removed from its comfortable position.
left in

had, therefore, to be

a recumbent attitude, and a

like the sacred

shrine

was

built

over
to

it,

shaped

monosyllable
letters

Om, supposed

be a

combination of the three

A, U, M, mystically significant of the Supreme Being's three

principal manifestations,

Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva

(pp.

44

402

403).
to

On

the summit of the shrine were placed four

it

pinnacles

denote the four Vedas, and around

were

constructed seven walls built in squares, one within the other,

and forming seven quadrangular

courts, figuring the seven

divisions or degrees of bliss in Vishnu's heaven.

Of course the
immovable
;

original idol of

Vishnu

is

supposed to be

still

but another image has been consecrated (called

is

the utsava-vigraha), which

certain anniversaries

carried about in processions

on

such, for example, as the

car-festival,

when
in

the enormous car, attached to every Vaishnava temple

is

Southern India,

dragged through the

streets of the

town

by thousands of men.

The

dress, decorations,
all

and jewelry belonging

I

to this port-

able idol were

exhibited to me.

saw the idol-crown

450

.T.emples.

Places of Pilgrimage.

Sri-rangam.

covered with diamonds, pearls, and rubies

eighty thousand
the
feet,

worth

at least

rupees with

a breastplate, ornaments for

and necklace, worth a similar sum.

on the north
I

In the centre of the inner wall of the temple, near the

interior shrine
side,
is

a narrow door called Sri-raiigam at the time

heaven's gate.

happened to

visit

of the annual festival celebrated on the 27th of December.

This

is

the one day in the year on which the gate

is

opened,

and on the occasion of

bejewelled to the
followed

my

visit

the opening took place at

four o'clock in the morning.

First the idol

full was borne through the narrow portal, by eighteen images of Vaishnava saints and devotees then came innumerable priests chanting Vedic hymns and repeating the thousand names of Vishnu then dancing girls and bands of musicians the invariable attendants upon idol;

bedecked

and

shrines in the

South of

India.

Finally, a vast throng

for hours

bably

fifty

thousand persons

crowded

pro-

through the

contracted passage, amid deafening shouts and vociferations,

beating of drums, and discordant sounds of

music.

all

kinds of

Not a
gifts

single

human being
Many,

passed through that

strait
idol,

and and

narrow portal without presenting offerings to the

to the
priests.

doubtless, joined the

surging

throng from a vague sense of duty, or because their fathers

and grandfathers had joined

it

from time immemorial

but

the motive which actuated the majority was a firm conviction

that the passage of the earthly heaven's gate, kept
priests,

by the

and unlocked
in

at their bidding,

would be a sure pass-

port to Vishnu's heaven after death.

I

may mention

conclusion that most of the South Indian

temples are sufficiently well endowed to maintain a band of

musicians.

That of Tanjore has

fifty.

The number and

variety of their

musical instruments struck

me
is

as

extra-

ordinary, though the resulting sounds at the time of morning

and evening

service,

when

a noisy orchestra

thought to

Temples.

Sri-rahgam.

Srft

^red

Symhnh r

451

contribute largely to the merit of religious worship, are productive; at least to

European

ears, of excruciating discord.

All the temples also

maintain troops

of dancing

girls.

The Tanjore temple

before

possesses fifteen, ten of

whom

danced

me

in

the court of the temple with far livelier movegirls of

ments than are customary among the Nach

Western

and Northern
in

India.

There can be no doubt that dancinjj

the East was

once exclusively connected with religious

devotion, especially with

homage

paid to Siva in his character

it is

of lord of dancing (see p. 85).

in ancient

Further,

well-known that

times

women were

dedicated to the service of the

temples, like the Vestal virgins of Europe.

to be married to the god,

They were

held

and had no other duty but to dance

called the god's slaves

before his shrine.

(deva-dasi),
priety.

Hence they were

and were generally patterns of piety and prostill

In the present day they are

called

by the same

name, but are rather slaves to the licentious passions of the

profligate

Brahmans of the temples

to

which they belong.

What

surprised

me most was

the

number and weight

of

their ornaments, especially in the case of those attached to

the temples in Southern India.

finger-rings
glittering with
all

Some wore
and

nose-rings and

rubies
filled

pearls.

Their cars
Their

were pierced

round and

with costly ear-rings.

limbs were encumbered with bangles, anklets, armlets, toerings,

like.

necklaces, chain-ornaments, head-ornaments, and the

One

of the Tanjore girls informed

me

that she had

been recently robbed of jewels to the value of Rs. 25,000.

No

religion,

doubt they drive a profitable trade under the sanction of and some courtezans have been known to amass
fortunes.

enormous
their

it in works of piety. method of Here and there Indian bridges and other useful public works

Nor do they think making money to spend

it

inconsistent with

owe

their existence to the liberality of the frail sisterhood.

Gg

CHAPTER

XVIII.

Caste, especially in relation to Occupations.

The

Portuguese,
'

who were
'

the

first

to trade with India,

used the word

classes into

casta,'

race,' to

denote the infinite

is

number

of

which Indian society

into
'

divided.

This word was

changed by us

word unrecognized by the natives, but now universally adopted by all writers on Hinduism. Caste in India is closely bound up with religion.
caste
'

Indeed
as
it

it

might

fairly

be asserted that Hinduism, allowing

does the most perfect freedom in regard to religious

is

opinions,

rather a religion of caste-rules and caste-usages^

of forms

and ceremonies, than of doctrines and dogmas.

His word
for caste

The

four original castes of Manu's time have been already

(p. ^'^.

described

was varna,

'

colour,'

which implied some ethnological distinction of complexion

as separating the

dominant from the

'birth,'
is

inferior

classes.

The

modern word
bound.

is jati (jat),

indicating that in whatever

is

station or profession a

man

born to that he

indissolubly
its

Of

these four castes not one remains in

purity,

not even that of the Brahmans,

divided into countless sub-castes.
are
still

who

are divided and sub-

Nevertheless the Brahmans

the purest caste of the four, though the Rajputs

call

claim to be pure Kshatriyas, and the Baniyahs or traders

themselves pure Vaisyas, and in some parts of India there are

so-called pure Sudras.

All these four castes consider them-

selves superior to the countless

mixed

castes,

each one of
these

which

is

generally confined to

its

own employment, and


Caste, especially
again look
i7i

relation to Ocnipations.

45:;
in

down upon

the outcastes or sweepers

It

who

the

South are called Pariahs.

has recently been asserted that

certain sections of the Pariah class are so

down-trodden as to

be kept in practical slavery.

castes are not oppressed

As

a rule, however, the lower

by

the higher or even held in con-

tempt by them.
caste the

It is

remarkable, too, that the lower the

more tenacious are its members of their own casterules and the more pride do they take in observing them, and the more strict are they in enforcing them.
Doubtless railroads by necessitating personal contact and
facilitating

communication have relaxed the rigour of caste

particulars.

in

some few
almost

Yet

its

power

is

still

exerted with

irresistible force in

imposing certain

social restrictions
:

which
1.

may
to

be classed under four heads as follow

Restrictions as to the kind of food allowed to be eaten

its

and as

preparation

by cooks who must not be

of a caste

inferior to that of the eaters.

2.

Restrictions as to commensality,
^,

that

is,

as to persons

of different castes eating together

outcastes being excluded

from
3.

all

commensality, except

among

themselves.

Restrictions as to marriage, including the enforcement of

child-marriages, the prohibition of widow-remarriage, and the

prevention
castes.
4.

of intermarriage between

persons

of

different

Restriction of particular occupations to particular castes.

It is to

the last of these four heads that the present chapter

will

mainly be confined.
remarkable that notwithstanding India's vast potenher ancient superiority
in arts, sciences,

It is

tiality of wealth, all

and

The and dry food may be eaten by all castes together. Nothing is cooked caste comes in with strict prohibitions. cooked in water can be eaten by people of different castes together, nor can water be accepted by high caste from low caste persons.
*

Fruits

moment

food

454

Caste, especially in relation to Occupations.

industries, carried
least

back through countless generations

for at

3500 years, it is advanced beyond a certain point, and that she

scientifically

impossible to deny that she has never

is

at present

both

nations.

and commercially left far behind by European Let us go back to the beginning. Let us try to
first

trace the causes which

promoted and then impeded the

industries.
first

development of her trades and

It is

generally supposed that the

soil

Aryan
fertile

settlers

on

Indian

were

all tillers

of the land.

Parties of immigrants

from Central Asia gained

*

possession

of

tracts

in

Northern India and formed themselves into separate

cultural communities.

agri-

Soon the

richness of the soil on the

plains of the Indus

and the Ganges enabled them to support

a considerable

surplus population.

New

wants arose with

the gradual growth of the community.

to fight their battles, to

Soldiers were needed

watchmen

to protect their cropSj priests

perform their religious duties, weavers to weave their

garments, artisans to supply them with

common
To

articles of

every-day use, servants to do menial work.

Hence arose
every

complete system of division of labour.

place, work^ rank,
too,

man

his

and remuneration were assigned.

the

Hence,
acquired

every
skill

great
in

member of in his own

body so
This
his

constituted

particular craft,
it.

and took a pride

continually improving

skill

and these
In this

feelings

of pride he transmitted to

children,

they were

developed and

intensified.

by whom again manner a

associations

strong esprit de corps was generated, and

of

persons engaged

in

the same occupations were ultimately

itself

formed, each of which fenced

regulations necessary for the

round with rules and

of
its

protection

own

rights

and

privileges.

It is

easy to see, therefore, that caste and occupation were

terms.

formerly convertible
castes
is

The number

of these

trade-

at

present

quite incalculable.

There seems to

be no limit to their formation.

New

ones are continually

Caste, especially in relation to Occttpations.

forming.
to

455

Old ones are continually passing away. Even their names would be impossible. In all probability they have all grown out of the primitive conenumerate
stitution of village communities.

And

here

may
is

observe that no

circumstance

in

the

more worthy of investigation than the antiquity and permanence of her village and municipal instituhistory of India
tions.

The importance

of the study

lies in

the light thereby

thrown on the parcelling out of

rural society into

autonomous

divisions, like those of our own English parishes, wherever Aryan races have occupied the soil in Asia 'or in Europe. The Indian village or township, meaning thereby not merely

a collection of houses forming a village or town, but a division

of territory, perhaps three or four square miles or more in

extent, with
its

careful distribution of fixed occupations for

its

the

common

good, with

intertwining and inter-dependence

interests,

of individual, family, and

provision for
original type
political

communal
germ

with

its

perfect
is

independence and autonomy,

of all the

the

the

first

divisions of rural
It
its

and

civic society in

medieval and modern Europe.

since

has
or-

existed

almost

unaltered

the description

of

ganization in Manu's code, two or three centuries before the

Christian era.
It

has survived

all

the religious, political, and

physical convulsions from which India has suffered from time

immemorial.
with
fire

Invader after invader has ravaged the country

;

and sword

internal wars have carried devastation

into every corner of the

land

tyrannical oppressors have

its

desolated

its

homesteads

famine has decimated

districts
;

peasantry

pestilence has depopulated entire

floods

and earth-

quakes have changed the face of nature

folly, superstition,

and delusion have made havoc of

all

religion

and morality

but the simple, self-contained Indian township has preserved

its

constitution intact,

its

customs, precedents, and peculiar

institutions

unchanged

and

unchangeable amid

all

other

changes.

45 6

Caste, especially in relation to Occupations.

to
in

Let us endeavour
communities.
it

And
body

draw a picture of one of these Indian the first place let us bear in mind that
of the
soil.

consists

mainly of

tillers

At

least three-fourths

of the whole
tills

are

common

field-labourers.

Each man

a small plot of ground of his own, which

may

vary
In

in

extent according to his position and capabilities.

some
of the

parts of India the cultivators form a separate caste, but as

a rule almost any low-caste

ground.

man may become

tiller

The implements
is

are of the rudest kind.

An

Indian

plough

exactly what

it

was two or three thousand years

held

ago, not unlike a thin anchor, one claw of which pierces the

ground while the other

scratch the

is

by the ploughman.

It

may

be carried on a man's back^ and scarcely does more than

soil.

How, then, does this body of agriculturists provide for the management of its own affairs and the maintenance of order and organization ? Each community forms itself into a little republic bound, however, to the central Government by the regular payment of an assessment or tax on the produce. The first step is to elect their Headman or President, who is paid by a fixed proportion of the land, and is a kind of mayor or civic magistrate. He is the chairman of the village
;

or

town council

called
its

a panchayat

kind of local board,

tree.

which often holds

each labourer
for the

sittings

under a large

He
is

decides

disputes, apportions the labour

is

and the amount of produce

and
responsible
It will

to receive as remuneration,

annual proportion due to the Government.

astonish an English

workman

to learn that the

amount
in

of

grain required for the support of an adult

is

man

Bengal

only valued at three shillings a month, and for a

pence.

woman

at eighteen

large family

may be

supported for

fourteen shillings a month.

The next important personage

in the

community

is

the

accountant or notary, a kind of local attorney,

who

transacts

the village business and keeps an account of the land, the

Caste

especially in relation to Ocntpations,

457

produce, the rents, and assessment.

In some respects a far

more important functionary than

is

either

headman

or notary

the priest (purohita), the spiritual head of the society,

all

who

performs
at births,

religious ceremonies for

its
is

members, whether
supported by fixed

marriages, or deaths, and

allotments of grain, or special offerings on solemn occasions.

As a Brahman he may be of higher caste than either the headman or notary (who are not generally Brahmans), and
his spiritual

power

is

unbounded.

His anger

is

as terrible as

that of the gods.

His blessing makes

is

rich, his

curse withers.

Nay, more, he

himself actually worshipped as a god.

is

No

marvel, no prodigy in nature

believed to be beyond
If the priest

the limits of his power to accomplish.

to threaten to bring
it

were

down

the sun from the sky or arrest

in its daily

course in the heavens, no villager would for a

his ability to

moment doubt
a few notable
occasions.
in

do

so.

And

indeed the priests

of India, in their character of Brahmans, claim to have

worked

miracles
of their

at

different times

and on various
the ocean
created

One
sips,

number once swallowed

fire,

three

another manufactured

another

animals, and another turned the

priest confers incalculable benefits

moon

into a cinder.

The

on the community of which

he

is

member by merely

receiving their presents.

cow

given to him secures heaven of a certainty to the lucky donor.

The consequences

of injuring

him are

terrific.

The man who

his

does him the smallest

harm must make up

wdll suffice to

mind
in

to be

whirled about after death, for at least a century,

of total darkness.

a hell

This

account for the respect

paid to the Brahman-priest by the peasants, w^ho sometimes

drink the water in which his feet have been washed,

by way
It

of getting rid of their sins with the least possible difficulty.

by no means follows, however, that every Brfdiman Sometimes the priest combines the functions
astrologer

is

a priest.

of village

a very necessary

official,

since a chief part of the re-

ligion of all Indian peasants consists in a fear of the evil influence

45 8

Caste^ especially in relation to Occupations.

(p.

of stars and planets

'>f']i)'

The

astrologer determines the

lucky days for sowing and reaping,

scopes,

tells fortunes,

prepares horo-

and knows how

consequences

to counteract

bad omens
look,
of

to

avert

the

evil

of

an

envious

a sudden
If the

sneeze, of the yell of a jackal or chirping of a lizard.

astrologer also practises magic

ciliate

it

becomes necessary

to con-

him

for

he has power over demons and

evil spirits.
life

He can
by the
sician.

cause diseases as well as cure them, and can destroy

repetition of magical texts.

He

is, I

fear,

the only phy-

The true art of healing and of sanitation is unknown. Then nearly every Indian village possesses a schoolmaster,
his functions also are

and

sometimes united

in

those of the
I

priest.

In passing through a large village in Bengal,

at least fifty

came

upon a group of
letters of the

naked children squatting under

in

a tree near a homestead,

some engaged

scratching the

alphabet on leaves, and some learning to write

on the dust of the ground.

approach,

This was the national school,

presided over by a nearly naked

pedagogue who, on
off

my

made

his

pupils

show
It

their

knowledge of

arithmetic before

me, by shouting out their multiplication

table with deafening screams.

able, that

may be

noted as remarkIndia

no religious teacher
for teaching.
It
is,

in the native schools of

receives

money

Divine knowledge

is

too sacred
gratis,

a thing to be sold.

therefore,

nominally imparted

though the teacher has no objection to receive presents from

the parents on festive occasions.

Some

of the national punish-

ments are certainly curious from our point of view.

instance, a

For
one

boy

one

foot.

condemned Another is made

is

to stand for half-an-hour on

to
sit

on the
is

floor with

leg turned
for

up behind

his

neck.

Another

made
to

to

hang

a few minutes with his head downwards from the branch

of a

neighbouring

tree.

Another

is

made
to

bend down
for a

and grasp his own toes and remain

fixed period of time.
cubits on the

in that position

Another

is

made
it

measure so many

ground by marking

with the tip of his nose.

Caste, especially in relation to Occitpations.

459
to

Another

is

made

to pull his

own
arc

ears,

and

dilate

them

a given point on pain of worse chastisement.

Two

boys,

when both have done wrong,

made

to

knock

their heads

several times against each other.

Amongst
munity
I

the

most important functionaries of the comhis

ought to mention the barber, who with the roughest

appointed work admirably.
shave without soap.
all

implements does
barber can,
w^e
if

An

Indian
is,

he

likes,

Shaving

as

have seen, a religious duty with

Hindiis, but no one

ever thinks of shaving himself.

as he

He

sends for the barber,

would

for the priest or the doctor.

Nor

are this func-

tionary's

duties restricted to

shaving.

He
The

cuts

the

nails,

cleans the ears, kneads the body, cracks the joints, and often

does the work of a homely surgeon.

natives of India

are particularly fond of having their joints cracked.

rich

man's barber performs

day, and
is

all

these operations

for

him every

content with two shillings a month wages.

Next we have the village carpenter. If you enter a village dawn you will probably find him engaged in making handles for ploughs. You will see him saw as much by the
at early

help of his feet as his hands

for a

Hindu's toes are never

early begin
onl)-

cramped or made
to assist his

useless

by

tight shoes, but

is

fingers.

The ground

our carpenter's

bench, while the tools he uses are of the rudest kind, per-

haps nothing beyond a coarse saw, hammer, plane,

chisel,

and wedge.

Next look
file,

at the village blacksmith,

he has only a hammer,

is

pair of tongs,

and bellows.

His forge

hollowed out of

the ground or constructed of a few broken bricks, and his

only anvil

is

a stone.

Sitting on his
nails,

hams he

fashions old

hoop-iron into bill-hooks,

and

ferrules for ploughs.

Then

there

is

the cowman,

who

furnishes the milk, curds,

;

and a kind of butter, but not cheese

of manufacture quite

for cheese

is

an

article

unknown
is

to the Hindus.

No

such trade

as that of a cheesemonger

to be found throughout India.

460

Caste, especially in relation to Occupations.

Again, in some parts of India, behind the low huts of the

irregular village street
is

sure to be seen the weaver's loom.

is

For
the
art

India, as Sir
first
is

George Birdwood has well shown,

probably
weaver's

of all countries that perfected weaving.

The

alluded to in the Rig-veda, 1500 years before Christ,

original
its

and as the
indicated

source

of

any

textile

fabric

is

often

by

name, so we

find that calico takes its

;

name

from

Calicut,

on the western coast of India

chintz from the

Sanskrit citra, 'variegated;' shawl from said, 'a hall;' just

as

damask

is

from Damascus, dimity from Damietta, muslin

spun by

from Mosul, nankeen from Nankin, drugget from Drogheda.

The

cotton thread used in India

is

women

of

all

castes.

They

spin

it

on a thin rod of iron with a

is

ball of

clay at the end, but the coarser thread

spun by means of

a wheel similar to that of an English spinster.

Another useful functionary is the village shoemaker. If you wish him to make you a pair of shoes you must pay him
in

advance^ that he

may

first

purchase a prepared hide from

the tanner, or prepare one himself, for he has no stock of

leather.

Then with a rough

last,

a knife and an awl, he will

if

turn you out a very respectable pair of shoes,

you only give

him plenty of time. Then on the outskirts of the

another indispensable and
hereditary potter.

village

is

sure to be established

much
sits

respected functionary, the

There he

on a slightly elevated piece

achieved perfect mastery
is

of ground outside the door of his hut with his apparatus ready
for use

the ideal of a man who has

over the mechanism of his fingers, and

conscious of the

power of the human hand, as the instrument of bringing

beautiful shapes within the reach of the humblest cottager.

The apparatus with which he

effects this object is a

simple

circular horizontal well-balanced fly-wheel, generally

two or

three feet in diameter, which can be

or three minutes
clay,

made

to rotate for

two

by a

slight impulse.

This he loads with

his

and then with a few easy sweeps and turns of

hands

461

Caste
he moulds
shapes,

especially in relation to Occupations.

his material into beautiful curves

and symmetrical

and leaves the products of

In
fact,

his skill to
is

bake by them-

selves in the sun.

the sun

the Indian workman's

head assistant

nay, rather, his

coals,

ever-present benefactor, from

clothing,

whom

he gets
life,

candles,

and almost every

to his

necessary of

free of all cost

This relieves him from a

deadweight of
which
in

care,
is

and enables him to give

and pleasure
all

work

India

always regarded as a religious function

in
it

that
own

placidity of mind, that pride

sake,

for its

which are essential to

artistic

excellence and per-

fection.
in his

And

no man takes a greater pride and pleasure

work, no

man

displays a greater air of dignity,

village

self-

respect,

and contentment than the

potter (kumbhafurnishes a better

kara, corrupted into kumbhar).

No man
would be

illustration of that excellent doggerel of ours,

If I

were a cobbler,
best of
all

it

my

pride

The
If

cobblers to be

I were a tinker, no tinker beside Should mend a tin-kettle like me.

It

never enters into his head to work for merely mercenary

motives or with any idea of making money.

He

simply
for

works because

it

is

his appointed

which God created him

pots, pans, bowls,

duty the sacred duty to supply the villagers with as many

they need, and to make them
in

and

jars as

the best and most workmanlike manner possible.

his

Nor docs
Such a
has no

ambition ever soar above simple earthenware.

man

never dreams of aspiring to the manufacture of valuable

china dishes or vessels and plates of porcelain.

He

idea of rising above the art received from his fathers.

One
for

reason for this

chinaware.

may be

that in India there is

no demand

No

orthodox Hindu

likes to eat off

anything but

plates of leaves freshly prepared for every meal and never

used again.

Even earthenware

dishes ought to be thrown

to

^ All this, too, has been shown by Sir George Birdwood, K.C.I.E., whose able works on Indian art my descriptions are greatly indebted.

462

Caste

especially in relation to Occupations.

after use.

away immediately
ware vessels
contracted

The

great

demand

for earthen-

in India arises

from the impurity supposed to be

articles a

by using any such

second time.

It is

noteworthy that during an eclipse the very poorest people

fling
I

them away.
could go on to speak of the dyer, the washerman, the

druggist, the oilman, the water-carrier, the

last

watchman, and
size

but not the least useful functionary

to the towns, they are often of

the sweeper.
and have
are larger cities
course,

As

immense

teeming populations.
than any

Calcutta and

Bombay

in the British

Empire except, of

London.
in

They have
chester,
their streets.
B.C.,

larger population than Liverpool

is

and Man-

and every conceivable kind of trade

represented

Even

in the

days of Rama, several centuries

the procession

that

went out to meet him from the

glass-makers,
inlayers,

capital of

Oudh

included metal-workers, copper-smiths, ivory-

workers,

crystal-cutters,

umbrella-

makers, perfumers, hair-dressers, fishmongers, musical instru-

ment-makers, painters,
dealers,

distillers,

seedsmen, gardeners, partridge

basket-makers, brick-makers, plasterers, architects,

clothiers, exorcists,

with the headmen of guilds bringing up

the rear.

In an ancient

work (already alluded

arts are
;

to)

by a sage

named Vatsyayana sixty-four

them
are the following
;
:

enumerated.
;

Among
;

singing
;

dancing playing on musical

filled
;

instruments
tattooing
;

playing on musical glasses

with water

colouring the teeth, hair, and nails

writing and drawing

dyeing and

painting

scenic representations, stage;

playing

fixing stained glass into floors

;

magic or sorcery

culinary art

making lemonades,

sherbets,

and acidulated

drinks

practice with sword, single-stick, quarter-staff, and

bow and arrow;

and
gardening
;

carpentry; architecture; knowledge about gold

silver coins, jewels

and gems; chemistry and mineralogy;

trees
;

knowledge of treating the diseases of

and

plants, of nourishing

them and determining

and
ram-fighting
;

their ages

cock-

fighting, quail-fighting,

teaching parrots

Caste, especially in relation to Ocnipations.

46

')

and Maina birds to speak

nacular dialects
;

knowledge of languages and

ver-

obtaining possession of the property of others

;

by means of incantations skill in youthful sports and gymnastics knowledge of the art of war, arms, armies, etc. knowledge of the rules of society and how to pay respects and
;

compliments to others
from his features.
It is curious to

art of

knowing the character of a man

compare

this ancient list with a

modern one

published by the Indian Census Office, in which,

among

other
are

remarkable varieties of modern

trades,

the

following

enumerated

professional

makers of speeches, professional

promote
digestion, profes-

ear-cleaners, vendors of drugs to

sional givers of evidence,

and professional devil-extractors.

practise the

Now,
gregated
scarcely

in
in

India, all

who

same trade

are conare

one quarter of the town. whole

Some

artisans

numerous enough
find

to form a street of their

own

but

you might
braziers,

streets of ironmongers, copper-smiths,

weavers and confectioners, and these streets of shops

are called bazaars.

Let us wander

for a few minutes

through

one of these native bazaars.

We

see nowhere

any closed

shops resembling those of Europe.

On

both sides of us are

open recesses with dark

windows, but protected

interiors,

wholly destitute of glass

towards the street by projecting

wooden eaves,

often covered with cocoa-nut leaves or bamboos,

pillars.

and sometimes supported by well-carved wooden

In

these recesses, or under the open projections, are exposed for

sale all kinds of commodities, their scantily clothed

owners

squatting
parently
in

in

an apathetic manner on the ground, and ap-

by no means eager to serve their customers. Here, one quarter, we find vendors of coarse confectionery
saff'ron,

strange concoctions of ghee, sugar, almonds, pistachio nuts,

and

or sellers of vegetables prepared with turmeric

assafetida.

and flavoured with

workshops

There,

in

another

street, are

the workers in metal or wood.

filled

Everywhere we see open

with artisans patiently and persistently plying

464
their

Caste, especially in relation to Occupations.

occupation after the fashion of their fathers.

Even by the
at all

artificers of

a higher grade carry on their work almost in the

open

street before

your eyes, not at

all

disturbed

jostling throng of passengers around them,

and not

objecting to their operations being watched or the secrets of

their craft studied.

The

patience, perseverance,

and power of
are well

physical endurance displayed

by an Indian workman
Europe.

worthy of imitation by us

in

He

seems to be pro-

foundly conscious of the truth that nothing of any kind can

be well done, and no success of any kind achieved

in this

workday world of ours, without the application common-place patient drudgery.

It is curious that

of the most

in

some

trades even strict holidays are

made
in

a source of revenue to the general body.

is

each market

then allowed to be kept open.

is

One shop The right

the general

to

open

this

shop

put up to auction and given to the

to

highest bidder, the

amount being devoted

purposes of the caste.

In a few trades children help the men.
lithe

The

aid of their
all delicate

and supple fingers

It
;

is

of great importance in

manipulations.
is

must, however, be admitted that the Hindu

a slow worker

he

will

take a whole day about a thing

finish

which an active European would

hours.

off in a couple of

Yet

for all that,

men

for

a sufficient

we watch a party of Hindu worklength of time we shall see the crudest

if

raw material
articles

transformed
use
;

before our

eyes

into

excellent

of every-day

not very rapidly

not

by any
feet,

striking processes of inventive art

but by simple dexterity

of manipulation, by skilful movements of hands and

aided

by a few rough implements according

to the

most

primitive methods.

Often these humble artisans have no workshops of their own.

They

bring their implements and their whole stock-in-

trade to the houses of those

who need
is

their

services,

and
their

when the work required of them

finished,

pack up

Caste, especially in relation to Occitpations.

tools

465

and seek another employer.

the heads of even the better class of

availing
If the

Nor does it ever enter into workmen to think of themselves of any modern scientific improvements.
offered for

most wonderful labour-saving machine were

their use, they

would

still

prefer the

machinery of

their fingers,

and the old traditionary practices received from

their fathers.

And, perhaps, the great

lies in

secret of the beauty of Indian art

the suppleness and flexibility of Indian fingers, and the

consequent delicacy of Indian manipulation.

the

The hand
is

of

commonest menial servant

in

an Indian household

often

as delicately

formed as that of the most refined

Yes,

aristocratic
for

beauty at a European court.

the best illustration of the truth

we must go to India that the human hand is

its

the
is

most wonderful of
no longer, as
work.
it

all

machines.

In Europe, manufacture

ought to be according to
the hand
is
still

etymology, hand-

But
;

in India

the chief implement

employed

and a fervent hope

may

be expressed that no
its

European machinery may soon take

its

place.
it

No

greater

calamity could befall Indian art than that

should abandon

own

traditions

and principles
If

for meretricious ideas derived

this, let

from European sources.

the Indian

any one doubts

him

visit

Museum

at

South Kensington and examine the

specimens there collected.

No

one could

fail

to admire the

exquisite carvings, the delicate silver filigree work, the artistic

feeling displayed in the fashioning

of ornaments
its

the gor-

geous richness of the Kincob work, with

silken
tasteful

gold, silver,
;

and
the

threads,

woven

into

the texture of the fabric

designs and matchless colouring of Cashmere and

;

Delhi scarfs and shawls

the marvellous

skill

and taste
;

displayed in the sandal wood-carving and inlaid wood-work

the sumptuous gold and silver plate-work and highly-tem-

pered steel weapons of Kutch

the admirable embroidery and

needlework of Amritsar and

muslin produced at Dacca.
In this last

Delhi

the

exquisitely

fine

kind

of manufacture

the

Hindu

artisan

is

Hh


466
Caste, especially in relation to Occttpations.

absolutely unrivalled.
struction,

With

a loom of the simplest

sticks

con-

formed of a few rough

and

reeds,

he pro;

duces something which no European machinery can equal

for

the mysteries of his craft have been transmitted from

father to son for thousands of years.

different

The names

given to
air,'

kinds of these muslins, such as 'woven

'web
whole

of the

wind/

'

evening dew,'

'

running water,' indicate the

their texture.

extreme fineness and subtlety of

dress of the finest quality

may

easily

be passed through a

small finger ring,

be packed

in

a case not

yet such a piece

to fabricate,
It is

feet in length may much bigger than an ^g^ shell may take a workman at least four months

and a piece thirty

and be worth forty pounds.

recorded that a cow-keeper was once prosecuted by

a weaver because one of his cows had eaten up three dresses

of this muslin accidentally
left

on the

grass.

The cow-keeper
fine to

pleaded before the Judge that the muslin was too

distinguished

be

by a hungry cow, and his plea was accepted. Again, a story is told of a young lady who appeared at the court of a Muhammadan Emperor in much too transparent

garments to be thought respectable.

hibiting rather too

When

accused of ex-

much

of the surface of her

body

in a

questionable manner, she indignantly repudiated the charge,

on the ground that she had carefully enveloped her entire

person in seven folds of Dacca muslin.
It

would be easy to

dilate

on other examples of the higher

are astonished at the Indian
materials.
Is

artistic

genius of India.

We
his

workman^s mastery over

Even

in

the more

common work
right

great regard

paid to beauty of form and

proportion, and

great taste in the arrangement

and

distribution of the ornament.

As

to jewelry. Sir Sourindro

Mohun Tagore

has written

two thick volumes on the virtues and supernatural properties

of Indian gems.
in

The Puranas

regard diamonds as differing

gender and as divided into castes.

Krishna or Vishnu has


Caste, especially
271

relation to Ocntpations.

467

two marvellous jewels

have been written.
the most ancient
;

(see p. 104) about

which long
is

histories

And
for

doubtless jewelry

of all Indian arts

lowest to the highest,

what would Indian women, from the be without their jewels ? In most large
a jeweller will be

Indian houses belonging to rich natives

found
or

some ante-room manufacturing jewelry for the family, repairing that in daily use (p. 396). Here is a description
in
:

of a typical Indian bride of high rank in ancient times

'

She has no other clothing but one

in graceful folds
;

light

garment, ten yards

in length, of

a rosy red colour, embroidered with gold,

;

wound
and

round her body

in

she has jewelled butterflies

in

her

raven hair

her ears are bored

;

six places,

loaded wath resplendent gems

a magnificent

nose-ring of

emeralds and pearls sparkles

bracelets encircle her wrists,

in

one

nostril

bright golden
;

and shining armlets her arms

;

a golden zone binds her slender waist

she has jewelled rings

toes,

on her
ankles,

fingers,

and golden rings on her

and golden

anklets, with musical bells attached, are fastened round her

which make a tinkling sound as she walks.'

in

Those who were

visit,

India

during the Prince of Wales'

chiefs, will
in

and saw the jewelled dresses of the Indian

I

not easily forget the sight.

was myself present

Sir

Richard Temple's house, when the Maharaja of Patiala hap-

pened to make a morning

call.

His coat was of blue

;

satin,

beautifully embroidered wdth rows of pearls

ear-rings,

he had costly

and a necklace of diamonds worth ;^6o,ooo was suspended carelessly about his neck. Strings of immense
uncut jewels ornamented his white turban.

Even the humblest

Children are

woman would

lose

her self-respect

if

she appeared before

her family without a nose-ring and bangles.

often left without a shred of clothing,
of age,
till

they are six years

or jewelled

but

are

rarely

without

wrist-bands,

ornaments of some kind.

When

the sister of the late Bishop of Calcutta once visited

ladies in a Zenana, she

some native

made some remark about

H h 2


4-68

Caste

especially in relation to Occupations.

'

the simplicity of their attire.

Look,' she said, at the number

'

and weight of
at the

my

garments/

'Yes,' they repHed, 'but look

number and weight

of our jewelry/
is

especially diamonds, as

amulets,

The use very common.

of jewels,

Certain

gems

are believed to possess magical properties.

in

A celebrated
all-

amulet once existed

ancient India, supposed to be

evil.

potent in protecting from

It consisted of

nine

gems

pearl, ruby, sapphire, topaz, diamond, emerald, lapis lazuli, coral,

and Gomeda.

(We may compare

the

breastplate containing twelve gems.)

Hebrew High Priest's Even the commonest

tradition

Indian jewelry presents examples of every variety of beautiful

design.

The forms have come down by unbroken

earliest times.
is,

from the

The

fact

that in India, artisans are not obliged to be

ever pandering to the mania for novelty^ ever racking their

brains to invent

some new
;

fashion.

They plod on

in the

old beaten paths

they are able to devote their energies

to the beautifying, improving,

exists.

and perfecting of what already

Perhaps the most beautiful ornaments are the work

of artificers,
line of

who have

continued in the service of a particular

Rajas

for centuries.

other employers.
giously in their
their masters.

These men dare not work for The secret of their skill is preserved reliown families, and held to be the property of

Sometimes the work of such men

manner.

is

made

subservient to

the spiritual interests of their masters in rather a remarkable

For example,

it

is

recorded of a certain king of

spilt in his

Travancore, that feeling the blood he had

many

wars

lie

heavily on his conscience, he sought counsel of his

priests,

who

told

him that

if

he wished to be cleansed from

to pass through the
all
it

his guilt his only course

was

body of
This

cow

that

being the most sacred of

difficult

animals.

seemed rather a

task to perform, but

was eventually

accomplished by help of the court jeweller and goldsmith, who

manufactured a jewelled cow of the purest gold of immense

Caste, especially in relation to Occupations.

value.

469

Into the

interior

of this
for

golden

image the king

in

solemnly crept, and there lay

abject contrition,
till

many days

a state of

at

length the process

of purification
all

being completed, he was permitted to emerge with

blood-guiltiness removed,
all

his
his

his sins

atoned

for,

and

all

cheerfulness of

mind

restored.

Then
to

as to sculpture

and painting, would

at Krishnagar?

it

be possible

see

anywhere more admirable specimens of modelling

than the clay figures

made

Such exquisite
arts

modelling, and the beauty of Indian miniature paintings on

wood,

talc,

and

ivory, prove that

had the

of sculpture

and painting been cultivated

attained great perfection.
painting, nor beautiful statue

by the Hindus, they might have

As
is

it

is,

not a single fine large

to be seen throughout India.

Even the images of gods

hideousness
;

are only remarkable for their utter see

in

nor do

we

anywhere good specimens of

household furniture, for

natives
are,

India the houses of the richest

eyes, almost furnitureless.

to

European

Even
and

in princely palaces

we may

pass through beautifully decorated

rooms,

we may
;

see

elaborate carved

wood

in

niches

verandahs

yet the rooms appear to us

is
;

bare and empty.

Not a

chair or table

to be seen except in apartments set

will

apart for Europeans

and the owner of the mansion

pro-

bably be found seated on a rug with a pillow behind his back.

And

here

let

me

say, that

if

the excellence of the articles

which the Indian

artificer

produces, with no other appliances

tools,

than his hands, and the rudest

ditions of form, design,
tions, excite

and the admirable

in his

tra-

and colour preserved

produc-

our surprise,

we

are no less astonished at the

I

low cost of his workmanship.

Benares, where a

visited a turner's

shop

In

man was making

and
fitting

a set of twenty toy boxes, neatly constructed and

some lacquered, some coloured,

furnished with
lids,

all

one inside the other so that

all

the smallest

box

in

the Interior of

was not bigger than

whole nest

the head of a knitting-needle.

The

price of the


470 Caste,
especially in relation to Occupations.

was not more than fourpence or sixpence, although twenty-three different manipulations were needed
of twenty boxes
to complete each box.
Ao-ain, I

quarter
facturing

at

went into a brass-worker's shop in the braziers' Benares, where men were engaged in manucups,
salvers,

drinking

vases,

and other

vessels.

These workmen were seen

chiselling out the

most

intricate

and beautiful patterns with no other

implements

than

hammer and

nail.

purchaser of any such articles re-

them weighed before buying them, and only or two beyond the actual value of the brass. pays a shilling Frequently, indeed, it strikes a European as strange, that if
quests to have

he desires to purchase any of the beautiful

before
to be

articles

he sees
is

him
had
;

in

native workshops, scarcely a single thing

all

they have

been made to order.

There

is little

stock kept, and whatever a customer wants must be

made

specially to order, and not without an advance in money.

There
will
left

is little

capital to

be found

in

India; and this perhaps

that Indian industries are

account for the undoubted

fact,

behind

in the race of

competition by those of Europe.

During the American war, vast quantities of Indian cotton

to the annual value of

twenty-two million pounds sterling

found

its

way

to England, to be returned in the form of

India.

printed calico to
far inferior to that

The Manchester
in India,

cotton cloth was

spun and woven, and decorated with ornabut

it

mental patterns, by men's hands

was much

cheaper, because even the most active hand workers, working

with imperfect implements and tools, according to antiquated

methods

for the lowest possible wages,

cannot compete with

machine-made goods, or make head against the combination

of European science, capital, and enterprise.
It is

on

this

account that cotton mills have recently been established at

Bombay, and
fifty-three

in

spinning

some other parts and weaving

of India.
mills

No

less

than

had been erected

Is
it

ten years ago, while others were in process of erection.

Caste, especially
likely, then, that

iii

relation to Occttpatioits,

471

Indian trades and industries will be inju-

by the introduction of English ideas, English machinery, and English education? Time will show. But
riously affected

Caste

is

a strong conservative force^ and as long as

its

strength
religion

continues,

and the present intimate connexion between

is

and caste

maintained, so long

may

Indian artisans be ex-

pected to work on

in their old grooves,

Indian agriculturalists
to hold

to plod on in their old ruts,

their

and primitive customs

modern inventions. And be it borne in mind that an Indian caste is more than a mere union for trading and industrial objects. It is certainly much more than a mere social division into classes of
against
all

own

men.

It is

part of a man's religious creed.

Its prohibitions

extend, as

we have

seen

(p. 453),

to food,

commensality and intermarriage as well as to occupations.

And,
and of

in truth, the idea of a

man's birth

in

a particular circle,

his

being unalterably prohibited by the laws of his

religion from eating, marrying, or engaging in

any occupation

except within the boundaries of that

idea of caste.
in

circle is essential to the

This applies even to certain criminal castes

business,

India,

whose fixed

inherited from their fathers

and grandfathers, is that of plund ering or even murdering others. Even in England caste feeling operates strongly, although
Christianity proclaims
all

men

equal before God.

In India

any individual who might try to break down the barriers of caste, would find it impossible to withstand the opposition of the Brahmans and his own caste-fellows.

Of course
some

there are

some exceptions

to caste-rules.

In

instances castes have changed their occupations without

changing their names, just as the members of our great city

Companies are no longer goldsmiths, drapers, merchant

or fishmongers.

tailors,

The higher

castes, too, are allowed consider-

able liberty of employment.

to almost

Brahman may devote himself

any pursuit not absolutely degrading.

Occasionally, too,

He may

be

a cook, or even a soldier.

men

of the lower

472
castes castes
is

Caste, especially in relatio7t to Occupations.

may
;

rise to

higher professions, though not to higher

rule.

but these exceptions only prove the

his religious

Hindu

taught by

books to believe that God created

orders of men, with fixed employments, as

of animals and plants (see p.
Sd>)'

He created varieties

In Europe, the laws of society are supposed to be of inferior

oblicration to the laws of the nation

and the laws of

is

religion.

An

educated Englishman, for instance,

ready to submit to

the unwritten laws of his

own

social circle, but never allows

any rule of caste to supersede the higher laws of the nation and of Christianity. In India, on the contrary, the laws of caste, and the laws of religion, are part and parcel of one
Divine law, of which the
of the laws imposed

Brahman

is

the interpreter, and

the laws of caste are stronger and more effectual than any

by Government.
is

Perhaps the nearest parallel to the action of Indian caste

to be found in
late

Europe

in

such a social confederation as the

Land-League of bound together by an

liberty of action,

Ireland, the

members

of which were

iron bond, were allowed no individual

lives to the will

were forced to submit their

of the League,
to the laws

and made

to subordinate the laws of the state

their

and mandates of
If a

own

leaders.

India has furnished examples of Boycotters, and Boycottees,

for

many

centuries.

man
is

offend against the rules of

is

caste, a

meeting of his caste-fellows

instantly called,

and

the offence being proved, he

thereupon condemned to a
is

form of persecution of which Boycotting

a bad imitation.

a cloth merchant of

a man named Lallu-bhal, Ahmedabad, was proved to have comHe had married a widow of mitted a heinous caste crime. his own caste, and to marry a widow is, in the eyes of a
I

When

was

in Gujarat, in 1875,

Hindu, a most awful offence.

to one husband, for time

A woman once married, belongs

eternity.

and

Forthwith, he was

sentenced to complete excommunication.

his

No

one, either of to associate

own

or

any other

caste,

was to be allowed

Caste, especially in relation to Occupations.

with him

47

no one was to eat with him

;

no one was to
to

have any trade-dealings with him

no one was

many
to the

any of
shipper

his children
;

no temple was

to receive

him
his

as a wor-

and,

if

he died, no one was to carry

body

burning ground.

On

the morning after the sentence was

passed, he went into the bazaar as usual, but not a person

would buy from him or

sell

to

him

he could get no

home
It

to live in

and none of
to

his debtors

would pay him.

one

was impossible

sue

them, as

no

would
in

give

evidence.

He was

ruined

man, and had to leave the

a distant

country, and obtain

city.

Government employment
case,

This

may seem
in

an extreme

but

it

would be easy to
of

multiply similar instances of the tyranny and terrorism

caste-leagues

our

Indian

Empire.
fact,

Yet,

it

cannot

be

doubted, that as a matter of

really resulted from a natural

the caste system of India

and

beneficial process of division

of labour.

Nor can

there be

a greater

mistake than to

conclude that the lower castes are in a condition of unhappiness.

In the present day, moreover, caste

relaxed, and

is

certainly

becoming
its

re-admission, after violating

any of

rules

(especially that against a sea-voyage to Europe), can generally

be accomplished by a money-indemnity, and by the religious

ceremony of swallowing the Paficagavya

a cow,
viz.

(or five products of

milk, curds, butter,

is,

and the two excreta).

is

The
kind

truth

that of

all

masters, caste
It is

the worst

when

allowed to become a despot.

;

then a league of the worst

and we have not

if

far to look,

even

in

our

own favoured

country,

we wish

to see the tyranny

Its action

and terrorism such

to

a league

may

establish.

tends to arrest progress,

stifle

to paralyse energy, to crush

manly Independence,

healthy public opinion, to

true
liberty

make

nationality, patriotism,

and

almost impossible.

At

the

same time

caste-

leagues have their good as well as their bad side, and at

474 Caste

especially in relatio7i to Occupations,

life

a particular stage of a nation's

India, caste has

may do good
promoting

service.

In

been useful

in

self-sacrifice, in

securing subordination of the individual to an organized body,

in

restraining

from

vice,

in

preventing pauperism.

And

certainly the antagonism of these caste associations

and trade

leagues
political

has helped

us to

govern the country by making

combinations impracticable^.

Our

wisest policy will

;

be to convert caste from a master into a servant

its evil

to defeat

action, not indeed

by

forcible suppression but

;

by

the
its

gradual application of corrective influences

false

to counteract

teaching by imparting true ideas of liberty

true principles
;

of political economy, social science,

its

and moraHty

to supplant

tyrannical enactments

by considerate

legislation,
;

based on

the ancient laws and customs of the country

to

make
them

its

hard support and iron grasp needless by helping the masses to

ameliorate their

improve their

own social own national

condition, and stimulating

arts, trades,

to

and industries
fulfil

in their

own way. By doing

this will

England best
;

her mission

best discharge her sacred trust

best advance the cause of

true religion and justice; best promote the well-being

ciliate

and con-

the affections of the countless millions of her Eastern

Empire.

The great diversity of languages and 200 not to mention religious and sectarian
'^

dialects,

differences which

numbering at least accompany

is doubtless another great element of safety. It may be well, however, to point out that education, scepticism in regard to religious dogma, and the increasing employment of English as a common medium of communication among an increasing number of intelligent natives in every separate district and province of India, are contributing in no small degree towards making national union possible, and towards weakening

caste

the walls of partition.

CHAPTER
Modeim
It
is

XIX.
Rdmmohttn Roy.
first

Hincifi

Theism^.

a mistake to suppose that the

into India

introduction of

Theism
Samaj

was due

to the founders of the

Brahma-

(in

Bengal written Brahmo-Somaj), or modern Theistic

Churches of Bengal.

Some

of the oldest

hymns

of the Rig-

veda are monotheistic, and

all

the most pronounced forms of

Indian pantheism rest on the fundamental doctrine of God's

unity.
'

There

is

one Being without a second,'

'

Nothing

really

exists but the one eternal omnipresent Spirit,'

was the dogma

enunciated

by ancient Hindu

thinkers.

It

was a dogma
all
its

accepted by the philosophical

Brahman with

con-

sequences and corollaries.

He

firmly believed himself and

the Universe to be parts of the

one eternal Essence, and

a kind of serene indiffer-

wrapped himself up accordingly

ence
to
all

in

the illusions

of external

phenomena.
the

Again

even the ordinary Hindu

who

practises

most corrupt

forms of polytheism

is

never found to deny the doctrine of

God's unity.

On

the contrary, he will always maintain that

God

is

essentially one,

though he holds that the one God

exhibits Himself variously,

and that

He

is

to be worshipped

The two

following chapters, which are principally the result of

India,

my own

have had the advantage of being revised and corrected by the venerable Debendra Nath Tagore himself, so that their accuracy can be depended upon. Miss Collet's Brahma Year-book, once published at the end of every year, gave a lucid and impartial account of the progress of the Indian theistical movement, and to her labours we
researches
in

are

all

indebted.

47^

Modern Hindu

Tkeisin.

Rainmohun Roy.

through an endless diversity of manifestations, incarnations,

and material forms.

It is to

be observed, too, that as often as pantheistic and

has always taken place towards simple
of the i2th, 13th,

polytheistic ideas have been pushed to preposterous extremes

in India, a reaction

monotheism.
15th,

The Vaishnava Reformers

and

6th centuries inculcated a doctrine which was an

approximation towards the Christian idea of God's Unity and

Personality, as set forth in the

England.
as

first article of the Church of Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha, and Caitanya, all,

we have

seen, taught the existence of

one supreme personal

God

of infinite power, wisdom, and goodness, the

all

Maker and
soul

Preserver of

things

God whom

they called Vishnu, and

whom

they believed to be distinct from the

human

and the material world. But none of these great Reformers succeeded
acting
in counter-

the

corrupt

tendencies

inherent

in

the Vaishnava
of
It

system.

That system contains within itself the seeds constant morbid growth and unhealthy development.
cannot get
rid of its

dogma

of repeated incarnations, or, to

speak more correctly, repeated descents (avatara).

is

Vishnu,

it

believed, has ever been accustomed to descend in the shape

of great warriors, great teachers, and even animals, to deliver

the world in seasons
of special

exigence

and

peril.

Of

course such a theory opens the door to every kind of extra-

vagant superstition.

Notwithstanding, therefore, the partial

reformation accomplished by Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha,

and Caitanya, the tide of degrading idolatrous practices

set in

more strongly than

ever.

Then
the
1

followed the monotheistic reaction led

by Kabir

in

6th century and improved upon afterwards by Nanak,

(p. 161).

the founder of the Sikh religion

These movements
influences.

were

in

a great measure due to

Muhammadan

Both Kabir and Nanak did

stable of corrupt

their best to purify the

Augean
partial

Hindu

doctrine, but

met with only

Modern HindjL Theism.

success.

Raimnohun Roy.

477

They taught
or

devotion to one personal God, whether

or

called

Vishnu

Krishna,

designated

by any

of

his

established epithets or synonyms.

to unite

They even endeavoured Hindus and Muhammadans on the common ground

But
in this

of belief in the Unity of the Godhead.

they were

wholly unsuccessful, and the tenth Sikh Guru, Govind, made

religious fusion impossible

by converting Sikhs and Muslims

follow^ers

into bitter mutual opponents.

It

became, indeed, a question whether the

of

Kabir and Nanak were not destined to become exterminated

under the persecutions to which they were exposed
reign
of Aurangzib.
in

the

Under

that

Emperor
its

India

suffered

everywhere from an outburst of

Muhammadan

fanaticism.

Nor was

the stability of Islam shaken or

hold over the

people of India weakened, when the political power of the

Muhammadans

declined.

On

the contrary, the

number of

Muslims increased, and

and the
profit

their bigotry

and intolerance gathered

strength in opposition to the advance of British domination,

diffusion of

European knowledge.
the other hand, were not too proud to

The Hindus, on
by

contact with European ideas.

Everywhere
stir

at the

great centres of British authority a mighty

of thought
us,

began to be

set in motion,

and able men, educated by

made

no secret of their dissatisfaction with the national religion, and

their desire for a purer faith than
fathers.

that received from their

At

the

moment when

thoughtful Hindiis were thus

asking for light and leading, the right leader appeared.

The

Hindu reformation inaugurated by Rammohun Roy

first

w^as tlie

reformation

due to

Christian

influences,

and to the

European ideas through English education. He was the first great modern theistical reformer of what may
diffusion of

be called British India.

Unhappily no biographies of India's eminent men have Neither Hindus nor Muhammadans have ever been written.
ever

shown any appreciation

of the value of such writings.

47^

Modern Hindu Theism.

life

Ram^noktm Roy,
in

good

of

Rammohun Roy, composed

Sanskrit or

Bengali, and translated into Hindustani and other principal

vernaculars, together with a collection of his writings, were
for a long time greatly

needed
extent

but these wants have been

recently

to

great

supplied

by Nagendra-nath

Chatterjea and Raj Narain Bose. a

life

of the

Raja and the

little is

latter a

The former has published new edition of his Bengali

is

writings.
told.

What
a

known

of his early history

soon

According to Nagendra-nath he was born

at

in

May,
of

1774,

village

called
father,

Radhanagar,

in

the

district

Murshidabad.

His

Ram Kant

Roy, was a Brahman

of high caste, and his grandfather had held offices under the

Mogul Emperor.
itself,

At an

early age

Rammohun Roy was

Patna.
lore

sent

to study Persian and Arabic

at the great seat of

literature, including the

Kuran
It

was thought that

nesflected

his proficiency in

Muhammadan learning, Muhammadan

Mogul
court.

might

lead to his advancement at the

Not

that he

Sanskrit or his Brahmanical studies.

His father

was a worshipper of Vishnu.

Bhagavata Purana.
tissue of fable

Every morning the son was

accustomed to read a chapter of the Vaishnava bible

the

Naturally thoughtful and intelligent, he

soon began to think for himself, and to see through the absurd

by which
in its

its

authority

is

supported.

Wholly

unable to acquiesce

extravagant mythology, he betook

system, and the Vedanta as

himself to the simple Vedic

expressed in the Upanishads attracted his special attention.

At

the age of sixteen he composed a spirited tract against

idolatry.

This for a mere boy was a sufficiently remarkable

achievement, and not likely to pass unnoticed.

of course
^

As

a matter

it

roused the anger not only of his

S.

own immediate
summary
of

The Rev. K.
life

Macdonald gave a short and

'

interesting

his

a paper read at Darjeeling (June, 1879), and Miss Mary Carpenter pubhshed an interesting account of his Last Days in 1866. Mr. Macdonald's anecdotes were chiefly taken from a speech delivered by
in
'

Raj Narain Bose at one of the annual meetings for commemorating the

memory

of the Raja.

Modern Hindu Theism,

family, but of
all

RavtnioJuin Roy.
superiors.

479

his relatives

and

In consequence
it

of the

enmity thus excited against

him,

was thought
for a time.

advisable that he should leave his father's

home

He

resided

first

at Benares, the stronghold of

in Tibet,

Brahmanism.

and afterwards

where he gave himself with much

Probably

zeal to the study of

Buddhism, and had many controversies

with Buddhist priests.

first

Rammohun Roy was

From

the

earnest-minded investigator of the science of comparative

religion that the

world has produced.

his earliest years

he displayed an eagerness to become an unbiased student of

all

the religions of the globe.

His sole aim

in

such studies

was to seek out

religious truth for himself with perfect fairness

and impartiality.

Hence he spared himself no

trouble in

endeavouring to master the several languages of the world's

sacred books, each of which claimed to be the sole depositaries
of such truth.

As he

studied the Hindi!

Veda

in Sanskrit, so

he

is

believed to have given his attention to the Buddhist

Tripitaka in the original Pali.

He

is

known,

too, to

have
in

mastered Arabic that he might read the Kuran, and later

life

he learnt Hebrew that he might form a just estimate of

the authority of the Old Testament, and even began Greek

that

he

might gain a
return

complete

knowledge of the
year

New

Testament.

On
to

his

home about
in

the

1796,

he appears
family and

have been reinstated

the favour of his

relations.

This led him to apply himself with more zeal than

ever to the study of Sanskrit literature and an examination of

the doctrines of his ancestral religion.
a

He had

too logical

mind to be deceived by Brahmanical sophistries. Yet he was accustomed to assert that he had found nothing in the works of any other country, Asiatic or European, equal to
the scholastic philosophy of the Hindus.
this period
It

was

at

about

that he gave himself seriously to the study of

English.

At

the

same time he began

to

shake off the

prejudices he had imbibed against social intercourse with his

480

Modern Hindic Theism,

rulers,

Rammohim
benefit

Roy.
mixing
1,

country's

and

to

derive

from

in

European
Brahmans.
treatises

society.

After his father's death in 1803

bolder in
his

Ram-

mohun Roy became

controversies with the

Soon he began to publish various pamphlets and

This he did at His father
;

against the errors of Hinduism.

considerable risk to his

own worldly
by

prospects.

had
but

left
it

his property to

be divided among his three sons

their death,

was not long

before,

Rammohun Roy

became possessed of considerable patrimony, which would have been forfeited had he formally abjured his family religion, and legally lost caste. With an increase of wealth came an
increased desire for extension of usefulness.
Notwithstandinsj;

an inheritance

sufficiently

ample

for his

own

personal wants,

Rammohun Roy

found himself cramped

in the carrying out

of the vast objects he had in view.

This led him to seek

years

Government employment, and we find him acting for ten as Dlwan or managing officer to the judges and
Rangpur, Bhagalpur and Ramgarh, especially

collectors of

title

Mr. Digby. Hence he was often called Dlwan-ji, by which He continued to be known until he received that of Raja from the ex-Emperor of Delhi, on the occasion One object he had in underof his embassy to England.
to a

taking revenue work was to gain a practical knowledge of

the working
of

the

British

administration.
his

Some have
legitimate
It is far

spitefully accused

him of augmenting
his

own

earnings

by doubtful and underhand

that

transactions.

more

likely

prosperous

career

was due

to

his

righteous

dealings,

which

made him popular among

skill

the
the

landed proprietors, and to the

he displayed

in

settlement of Zamindarl accounts, which

indispensable to his masters.

made

his services

Notwithstanding his assiduous attention to business, he

^ Some give 1804 as the date of his death. His mother, who n-as at first very bitter against him, Hved to acknowledge that he was right, though she could not give up her old faith, which was a comfort to her.'
'

Modern Hindu Theism.

Ranivwhun Roy.

481

found umple time for study and for the prosecution of his

schemes of reform.

Every year

his attitude of

antagonism

to the idolatry of his fellow-countrymen

became more and

to

more marked and decided. The his own statement, was not
idolatry of the

crround he took, accordincf

that
it.

of opposition to the

national faith, but to a perversion of

He

endeavoured to

show that the

books and Very soon
Persian
'
:

Hindus was contrary to the

and obey.
in

practice of their ancestors, and to the doctrine of the ancient

authorities which they profess to revere
after his father's death

he had written a book

all

Against the idolatry of

religions.'

This was

followed at intervals by various treatises, and especially translations of

some of the Upanishads.

In the preface to the

Mundaka Upanishad
'An

of the Atharva-veda, he says

attentive perusal of this, as well as of the remaining books of the

will, I trust,

Vedanta,

convince every unprejudiced mind that they, with

great consistency, inculcate the unity of

God

instructing
It will

men,

at the

same

time, in the pure

mode

of adoring

him

in spirit.

also appear

evident, that the Vedas, although they tolerate idolatry as the last provision for those

who

are totally incapable of raising their minds to the con-

God of Nature, yet repeatedly urge the rehnquishment of the rites of idol-worship, and the adoption of a purer system of religion, on the express grounds that the observance of These are idolatrous rites can never be productive of eternal beatitude. left to be practised by such persons only as, notwithstanding the constant teaching of spiritual guides, cannot be brought to see perspicuously the Majesty of God through the works of Nature. ' The pubhc will, I hope, be assured that nothing but the natural inclination of the ignorant towards the worship of objects resembling their own nature, and to the external form of rites palpable to their grosser senses, joined to the self-interested motives of their pretended guides, has
templation of the invisible

rendered the generality of the Hindii community (in defiance of their the source of prejudice and sacred books) devoted to idol-worship superstition, and the total destruction of moral principle, as countenancing criminal intercourse, suicide, female murder, and human sacrifice.'
:

Perhaps the most important point to which he awakened

attention was the absence of
all

Vedic sanction
Sati).

for the selfIt

immplation of widows (Suttee^ Sanskrit

cipally his

was prinand the

vehement denunciation of
I
i

this practice,

482

Modern Hindu Theism.

it

Ram7nohun Roy.
led to
1

agitation against

set

on

foot

by him, which ultimately

the abolition of SatI

by statute throughout British India in

his

829.

Long
lications

before that period, however, the effect of his pub-

and addresses was to make

opponents, and ostracised
to

position

one of

increasing isolation, until, in 18 14, finding himself surrounded

by

religious

by

his

own

social

circle, he retired

Calcutta.

His property by that time

had so
there.
It

far increased that

he could reckon on an income of

;^iooo per annum, and he was able to purchase a residence

was only to be expected that among the inhabitants of

the metropolis would be

many

thoughtful persons capable

of sympathizing with his lofty aspirations.

attracted a

Accordingly he

number
and

of adherents from Hindus and Jains of

rank, wealth,

influence.

They gathered round him

in

small but united band, and agreed to co-operate with him

for the purification of their religion.

may well be imagined Rammohun Roy laboured to

It

that opinions like those which

propagate could not have been

adopted by any body of Hindus without, so to speak, loosening the anchorage

of their ancient

by which they held on to the foundations Yet in seeking their co-operation, he faith.

never swerved from his original position.

He

continued to

declare that his only object was to bring back his countrymen
to

underlying the Vedic

in

what he believed to be the true monotheistic doctrine hymns and brought out more clearly
first

the Upanishad portion of the Veda.

The

step taken

was

to establish a private society for

spiritual

improvement.

The

association
first

was

called

Atmlya-

Sabha, spiritual society, and was

1

formed about the year

81 6.

friends,
It

Roy's own personal among whom was Dvaraka-nath (Dwarkanath) Tagore.

It consisted chiefly of

Rammohun

met

in

Rammohun

Roy's house
;

at Manictolah, for discussion

at periodical intervals

but the hostility of the Brahmans and

present, and

Pandits

who were sometimes

who were

offended


Modern Hindu Theism.
and alarmed
existence.

Raninwhun Roy,
483

at the crushinf^ demolition of their

arguments
continued
b\'

by the reforming

party, proved too strong for

its

its

One by one

degrees the society ceased to

members dropped off. till exist. The great leader of

the

movement, however, was not to be so easily suppressed. On the contrary, he braced himself up with greater energy than
ever, to continue the
conflict single-handed.

His zeal and

addresses, only

industry in writing books, pamphlets, and

increased in vehemence.
It is clear that

even at that time his study of the sayings

of Christ in the
fied

New

Testament had brought him to a

in
'

qualiin

acceptance of Christianity; for

1820 he published

Bengali and English a book called

the

The Precepts

of Jesus,

Guide to Peace and Happiness.'

:

In the preface

he

wrote
'

This simple code of religion and morality is so admirably calculated men's ideas to high and liberal notions of one God, and is so well fitted to regulate the conduct of the human race in the discharge of their various duties to God, to themselves, and to society, that I cannot but hope the best effects from its promulgation in its present form.'
to elevate
. . .

In a letter prefixed to one of his later works (an edition of

the

Kena Upanishad) he makes

my
I

the following admission

'The consequence of

long and uninterrupted researches into

reli-

gious truth has been that

have found the doctrines of Christ more conducive to moral principles, and better adapted for the use of rational beings, than any other which have come to my knowledge.'
It is said that

on being one day shown a picture of Christ,

he remarked that the painter had represented

Him

falsely,

for he had given Him a European countenance, forgetting that Jesus Christ was an Oriental, and that, in keeping with

the Eastern origin of Christianity, the Christian scriptures

glow throughout with

rich Oriental colouring.

Some indeed, have not hesitated to affirm that Rammohun Roy, though he never abjured caste, was in real it}- a true Christian. But that he ever had the slightest leaning towards
Trinitarian Christianity
is

altogether unlikely.
I
i


484

Modem Hindu
'

Theism.
'

Rautmohtm Roy.

In his
'

Final Appeal

he says

After I have long relinquished every idea of a plurality of Gods, or of the persons of the Godhead, taught under different systems of modern Hindooism, I cannot conscientiously and consistently embrace one of

a similar nature, though greatly refined by the religious reformations of modem times. Since whatever arguments can be a.dduced against a plurality of Gods strike with equal force against the doctrine of a plurality of persons of the Godhead; and on the other hand, whatever excuse may be pleaded in favour of a plurality of persons of the Deity, can be offered
with equal propriety in defence of polytheism.'

In fact his sympathies with the Unitarian sect were always

strongly marked, and
it

is

certain that,

whenever

his

mind

could
it

free itself

from the influence of Vedantic

the dominant feeling in
for

proclivities,

gravitated towards a form of Unitarian Christianity.

But

in truth

Rammohun
eclectic

Roy's

mind was a craving

Throughout
life

kind

of

catholicity.

he shrank from

connecting himself with

any particular school of thought.

as a Theist

He

seems to have

felt

a satisfaction in being claimed as a Vedantist

by

Hindijs,

by Unitarians, as a Christian by Christians, and Muslim by Muhammadans. His idea of inspiration was that it was not confined to any age or any nation, but a gift
as a

co-extensive with the

human

race.

He

believed

it

to be a

kind of divine illumination, or intuitive perception of truth,

granted in a greater or less degree to every good
every country.

man

in

Whatever was good

in

the V^edas, in the

Christian Scriptures, in the Kuran, in the

Zand Avasta,

or in

any book of any nation anywhere, was to be accepted and God of truth,' and to be assimilated as coming from the
'

regarded as a revelation.

The only

test of the validity of

any doctrine was its conformity to the natural and healthy working of man's reason, and the intuitions and cravings of My view of Christianity,' he says in a the human heart.
'

letter to a friend,

'

is,

that in representing

all

mankind

as the

He

unfair construction
'

published three 'Appeals to the Christian public' against the which Dr. Marsham and others had put on his

Precepts of Jesus.'

Modern Hindit Theism.

children of one eternal Father,
another, without
colour, or creed.'
liberal a spirit to
is
it

RannuoJmn Roy.
enjoins

48

them

to love one

making any It was easy

distinction
for a

of country, caste,

man

of so catholic and

become

all

things to

all

men.

Hence,

it

not surprising that he cultivated friendship with Christian

all

Missionaries of

denominations.

He

assisted

them

in their

translation of the Scriptures, and occasionally joined in their

worship.

It

is

well
his
its

known
daily

that he aided Dr. Duff in the

estabhshment of

educational institution in Calcutta, re-

commending

that

work should be commenced

witli

the Lord's Prayer, and declaring that he had studied

the

Brahman's Veda, the Muslim's Kuran, and the Buddhist's

Tripitaka, without
brief,

finding

anywhere any other prayer so

comprehensive, and suitable to man's wants.

In 1828 occurred an event which

may

be regarded as an

important turning-point

in

the history of the Theistic move-

ment.

Mr.

W. Adam,

a Protestant Missionary, had entered

into friendly

communications with

Rammohun

Roy, and had

been led through his influence to adopt a decidedly Unitarian

form of Christianity.
fallen

This led to his being called the second

'

Adam

'

changing his
opinions

by own

his

opponents.

But not
to

content

with
the

creed,

he

sought

disseminate

he had adopted by holding meetings and giving

lectures in a

paper

Office.

room attached to the Bengal Hurkaru NewsFor some time Rammohun Roy, with a few
was accustomed
to be present,
till

of his friends,

at last the

thought struck them

that, instead of

being dependent upon

a foreigner for religious edification, they might establish a

meeting-house of their own.

Tagore, Prosonno
with pecuniary
aid.

Dvaraka-nath (Dwarkanath)
the Chitpore

Kumar

Tagore, and others, came forward

in

Temporary rooms

Road
into

were hired by
four

Rammohun

Roy, and ^:)rayer-meetings held

there every Saturday evening.

The

service
;

was divided

reading from the parts recitation of Vedic texts hymns. singing and Upanishads delivery of a sermon
;
;


486
It

Modern Hindu Theism.

was thus that the germ of the
at

Ranimohtm Roy,
first

Theistic church was

of
its

planted

Calcutta

in

1828.

The commencement

existence as a living growing organization did not take place

till

The beginning of 1830, now more than sixty years ago, inaugurated a new era in the history of It ushered in the dawn of the Indian religious thought. greatest change that has ever passed over the Hindu mind. A new phase of the Hindu religion then took definite shape
two years
later.

a phase which differed essentially from every other that

had

preceded

it.

For no other reformation has resulted

influence of

in the

same way from the

Christian ideas.

European education and

The
it

increase of contributions had enabled

Rammohun Roy

to purchase a large

house

in the

Chitpore Road, and endow

with a maintenance fund.

first

Trustees were appointed, and

or,

the

Hindu Theistic Church,

as

it

was sometimes
Unitarian

called

by English-speaking

natives,

the

Hindu

Church \ was then opened in Calcutta on the nth Magha, The name given to it 1 751, equivalent to January 23, 1830.

by Rammohun Roy
yet connected
it

indicated

its

Unitarian character, and

faith.
is

with

the

national

It

was called
say,

Brahma-Sabha, or Brahmlya-Samaj, that

society
of believers
in

to

'the

God,' the word

Brahma being an
case

adjective

formed from Brahman (nom.

Brahma), the

name The

of the one self-existent

God

of orthodox Hinduism.

trust-deed of the building laid

down

that

it

was

to be

used as a place of meeting for the worship of the

Eternal,

One
piety,

Unsearchable, and

Immutable Being, the Author

and Preserver of the Universe, to the promotion of

of union between

morality, and charity, and the strengthening of the bonds

men

of

all

religious classes

and creeds^.

^ So the Press at which Rammohun Roy's publications were printed was called the Unitarian Press. ^ It is said that in accordance with this principle, Eurasian boys used to sing the Psalms of David in Enghsh, and Hindu musicians religious

songs in Bengali.

Modern Hindii Theism,

Moreover, that no image,
should be admitted

Raininohitn Roy,

487

print, picture, portrait, or likeness,

within the building, that no sacrifice

should be offered there, and that nothing recognized as an

object of worship

temptuously there.

by other men should be spoken Yet Rammohun Roy still held

of confast to

his original position.

He was

careful to

make

the

members
in the

of the

ing

new a new

society understand that he

sect or

had no idea of found-

new system,

or even a

new church
first

ordinary sense of the word.

He

simply claimed to have

time
in

established a pure monotheistic worship for the

a building where
Hindus^,

men of all castes, all classes, and all creeds, Muhammadans, and Christians, were invited to
Unity of God.
This
first

worship together, the only unity of faith demanded being

belief in the

introduction of congre-

gational worship and united prayer

the Hindus (pp. 351, '^^i)
effected

before unknown among

to be special

was

not the least of the benefits

by Rammohun Roy.

Yet he never quite abandoned

that the meeting-house

the idea of an order of

teachers of divine truth.
of the

men ordained by God

It is said

Samaj had a
in

private

where

special readings of
truth,

room open only to Brahmans, the Veda were conducted by them.

Roy's attitude
towards his

And,

Rammohun

national religion continued that of a friendly reformer, even

to the end of his
life

a reformer
false.

who aimed

at retaining all

that was
all
is

good and

true in

Brahmanism, while sweeping away

that was corrupt and

manifest.

The weak

point in his plan

The form

of theology he propounded was too

vague, undogmatic, and comprehensive.

He

was, in

fact,

by

natural character too intensely patriotic not to be swayed,

even to the

last,

by an ardent love

of old national ideas.

institution
^
;

He

had denounced caste as a demorahzing

^

he had

says

Thus, in the introduction to his translation of the Isopanishad, he The chief part of the theory and practice of Hindooism, I am sony
'
:

to say, is

made

to consist in the

least aberration

from which

is

adoption of a peculiar mode of diet, the punished by exclusion from both family and

488

Modern Hindti Theism.

Raimnohun Roy.

adopted a nearly true theory of the unity and personaHty of

God
final

he had abandoned the doctrines of transmigration and

absorption of the soul
; ;

he had professed

his belief in

a day of judgment

he had accepted the Christian miracles,

'

and had even declared Jesus Christ to be the Founder of truth and true religion,' and had admitted that the Son of

God was empowered by God

the alleged purity of his

to forgive sins

but he never

entirely delivered himself from his old prepossessions,

and
be

monotheism was ever

liable to

adulterated with pantheistic ideas.

In the eyes of the law

he always remained a Brahman.

of

He

never abandoned the

Brahmanical thread, and had too lively a sense of the value

money

to risk the forfeiture of his property,

and the con-

sequent diminution of his usefulness and influence, by formally

giving up his caste.

In

fact,

though

far in

advance of his age

as a thinker, he laid no claim to perfection, or to perfect dis-

interestedness of motive as a man.

Unfortunately for the interests of India,

career

Rammohun

Roy's

was cut short prematurely.

felt

In 1830 the ex-Emperor

of Delhi, having long

himself ill-treated

by the Indian

Government, deputed

Rammohun Roy to
title

lay a representation

of his grievances before the Court of Great Britain, at the

same time conferring on him the great wish had always been to
oppose
in

of Raja.

The

Raja's
inter-

visit

England and

change ideas with the Western thinkers.

He

also wished to

person a threatened appeal against the law for the

abolition of Suttee (Sati), the passing of which

just effected

had been

through his exertions, and which only required

the royal assent.

He was

aware, too, that the granting of a

new

charter to the East

in

India

Company was about

he
felt

to be

discussed

Parliament, and

the

importance

of

friends.

Murder,

theft, or perjury,

though brought home

is

to the party

a judicial sentence, so far from inducing loss of caste,

visited with

by no

pecuHar mark of infamy.'

Modern Hindu Theism.

Rannnohun Roy.

4S9

watching the proceedings on behalf of the natives of India,

and

for the furtherance of their interests.

No
of his

better time for carrying these objects into execution

seemed possible than the period which followed the opening

new Church.

He

therefore sailed

for

Liverpool

in

November, 1830, and arrived there on the Hth of April, I'S^i, being the first native of rank and influence who had ventured
to break through the inveterate prejudices of centuries

by

crossing
views,

'

the black

water.'

In

Eno-land

his

enlisjhtencd

courteous
attention.

manners, and dignified bearing attracted

much

During

his

residence in

London he took

great interest in the exciting political conflicts then raging,

and the passing of the Reform

satisfaction.

Bill

caused him unmixed

He was

presented to the King, and was pre-

sent at the coronation.

affairs before

The evidence he gave on Indian

a Committee of the House of

Commons was
reprinted.

of
In

course

highly valuable, and ought to

replies

be

one of his
find

to the questions

addressed to him

we

him

asserting that the only course of policy likely to

insure the attachment of the intelligent part of the native

community
and merits,
State.'
sical

to English rule

was

'

the making them eligible

abilities

to gradual promotion, according to their respective

to situations of trust

and respectability

in

the

Unhappily

Rammohun Roy had

not sufficient phy-

strength to contend with the severity of a European

climate.

After visiting Paris and other parts of Erance

in

1833, he began to

show symptoms of

declining health.

He
the

had been invited

at the

to visit Bristol,

and to take up

his residence
in

house of Miss Castle

a ward of Dr. Carpenter

was taken
ill

vicinity of that city.

He

arrived there early in September,

1833, and shortly afterwards

attention
called in
;

with fever.

Every
skill

was lavished on him, and the best medical

but
all in vain.

His death took place at Bristol

on September 27th, 1833.

external observances
;

He

died a

Hindu

in

respect of

his

Brahman

servant performed the

490

Modern Hindu Theism.

by

Rammohtm
and
his

Roy.

usual rites required

his master's caste,

Brahmanical
his spirit

thread was found coiled round

his person

when

passed away.

In

all his

Anti-Brahmanism he continued a
was thought advisable to keep up
His body was not
in the

Brahman to the end. Even after his death

it

the fiction of a due maintenance of caste.

interred in a Christian burial-ground, but

shrubbery at

Stapleton Grove, and without a religious service of any kind.

It

was not

till

about ten years afterwards that Dwarkanath

in 1843,

Tagore, on the occasion of his visiting England

had

the coffin removed to Arno's Vale Cemetery, and a suitable

monument erected over the remains of one of the greatest men that India has ever produced. Yet his grave is rarely now visited, even by Indians, and few care to make themselves acquainted with the particulars of his last days.

For

India

is

not alive to the magnitude of the debt she owes to

her greatest modern

received
writers.

Reformer.

Nor have

his

merits yet

adequate recognition at the hands of

European

of the present
all

Nor indeed has summary

it

been possible within the compass

to his country

to give even a brief description of

the services rendered

by Rammohun Roy

as a social as well as rehgious Reformer, of his labours for

the elevation of

women and
out

for the education of the people

generally, of his invaluable suggestions

made from time

to

time for

the

carrying

of

political reforms,

and of

his efforts for the

Lord William Bentinck's improvement of

the Bengali language, and the formation of a native literature.

Assuredly the memory of such a

man

is

a precious

possession to be cherished not

by India

alone, but

by the

whole human race.

CHAPTER XX.
Mode^m

Hmdu

Theism.

Rdinmohun Roy s

successors.

It was not to be expected that the void caused by the

death of so great a patriot as

filled

Rammohun Roy

could be
in

up immediately.

The church he had founded

his learned coadjutor

Cal-

cutta languished for a time, notwithstanding that his friend

Dwarkanath Tagore and

Vidyabaglsh made

Ramachandra

efforts to

maintain

its

vitality, the latter

acting very regularly as minister of the Samaj.

after the interval of a

At

length,

few years, a not unworthy successor

to

Rammohun Roy was

found

in

Dwarkanath's son, Dcbcnin 1818,

dra-nath Tagore.

This remarkable man, who was born

if

and

is

now,

alive,

seventy-three years of age, received a good English

education at the old

to

Hindu College^, and was the

to
his

first

give real

organization

Rammohun
great

Roy's Thcistic
in

Church.
as
his
little

But he imitated

predecessor

doing

violence as possible to the creed and practice of

forefathers.

He aimed

at being a purifier

rather than

a destroyer.

He had
for

the advantage and disadvantage of

a rich and liberal father.

his
aid.

youth was
It

The luxury in which he passed some time a drawback rather than an was not till he was twenty years of age that he
spiritual aspirations.

began to be conscious of
satisfied

Utterly dis-

with the religious condition of his own people, and

with the ideas of

God

presented by Brahmanical teaching, he

^ Under the teaching of a indebted as to David Hare.

man

to

whom

Bengal

is

perhaps as much

492

Modern Theism. Ramniohun Roys

It

successors
credit-

set himself to discover a purer system.

was highly

able to his earnestness and sincerity that he took time for

consideration before joining
or, as
it

came

to be called,

Rammohun Roy's Brahma-Sabha, Brahma-Samaj (Brahmo-Somaj).

Truth-teaching Society
'

In
'

1839, he established a society of his own, called the

'

Truth-investigating

or

'

(Tattvafounder,

bodhinl Sabha), the object of which, according to

its

was

to sustain

and carry on the labours of Raja

Rammohun

Roy, and to

assist in

restoring the monotheistic system of

divine worship in the original Hindii scriptures.

This Society lasted for twenty years, and was not

finally

met every week for discussion at Debendra-nath's house, and had also monthly meetings for worship and prayer, and the exposition of the Upanishad portion of the Veda. It had its organ in a monthly
in

merged

the

Brahma-Samaj

till

1859.

It

periodical, called the Tattva-bodhini patrika.

This journal

was

started in

August, 1843,

"^"^^ ^^'^^

well edited

by Akhay
Its

Kumar
first

Datta, an earnest
to
its

member
had no

of the theistic party.

aim seems
though

have been the dissemination of Vedantic

editor
belief in the infallibility of

doctrine,

the Veda, and was himself in favour of the widest catholicity^.

He

afterwards converted Debendra-nath to his

own

views.

It was not till 1841 that Debendra-nath, without giving up occasional meetings at his own house, formally joined the

church founded by

Rammohun Roy.
if

He

soon saw that

if

Indian Theists were to maintain their ground in India, they

needed organization, and that

a permanent church,
it

the Samaj was to exist as

presi-

wanted a properly appointed

dent, a regularly ordained minister, a settled form of worship,

and a fixed standard

of faith

and

practice.
is

He himself under-

took the task of preparing what

sometimes called the

Brahma

covenant, consisting of seven solemn declarations,

The Tattva-bodhini patrika is, I believe, still known as the organ of the Adi Brahma-Samaj.

in existence

and

is

now

Modern Theism.
or

Raiimiohuii
all

Roy s

successois.

493

vows

to be taken

by

candidates for admission into the

Theistic Society.

By

the most important of these declarations every

member
;

of the Society

bound himself

to abstain from idolatry

to

worship no created object, but to worship through the love

of God,

and through doing the works dear

to

God

(Para-

brahmani pritya tat-priya-karya-sadhanena), the One God,

the Creator, Preserver, Dissolver (srishti-sthiti-pralaya-kartri),
the Causer of emancipation (mukti-karana), the Partless (nir-

avayava), the

One only without

a second (ekamatradvitlya)

to lead holy lives,

and to seek forgiveness through abandon-

ment of
cations,

sin.

worshipping

At the same time a few short formulae for God (Brahmopasana), consisting of prayers, invofor use in

hymns, and meditations, were promulgated

the daily services.

This took place at the end of 1843.

Pandit
of

Ram

Chandra Vidya-bag-Ish was appointed minister

the

newly-organized church, and not long afterwards

Debendra-nath, with twenty friends, solemnly took the oaths

of the

new
first

Theistic covenant

in

his

presence.

1844

may be

given as the date of the real

The year commencement

of the

organized Theistic Church of India, hence after-

wards called the Adi Brahma-Samaj, though at that time

and

until the first secession

it

was simply denominated the

the

Calcutta Brahma-Samaj.

Three years

later,

in

1847,

number

of covenanted

Brahmans had increased to seven hundred and sixty-seven. But, as usual, with the accession of new members, the
growing church began
It was afTfirmed examined with a view of arriving

be agitated by contending opinions. that the Vedas had never been thoroughly
to at a just estimate of their

value as an authoritative guide to truth.

P'our >-oung Brah-

mans were
to

therefore sent to Benares.

Each was commissioned

a careful examination of the sacred

copy out and study one of the four Vedas. The result of books was, that some members of the Samaj maintained their authority, and even

494

Modern Theism. Rammohtm Roys

them

successors.

their infallibility, while others rejected

error.

as abounding in

serious conflict of opinion continued for

it

In the end

was decided by the majority, that

ideas in

some time. neither Vedas

nor Upanishads were to be accepted as an

infallible guide.

Only such precepts and

them were

to

be admitted as

harmonized with pure Theistic

the two chief foundations of
intuition.

truth, such truth resting

on

external nature

and internal

Moreover, the religion of Indian Theists was held

to

be one of equilibrium

that

is,

a system balanced

by

intuition, reason, authority, personal experience, observation,

and

faith.

This took place about the year 1850, by which time other

Samajes had begun to be established

as those at Midnapur, Krishnagar,

in

the provinces, such

and Dacca.
for

Raj Narain
years.

Bose was minister of the Midnapur Samaj

many

A new Theistic Directory was then put

nath, called

forth

by DebendraIt

Brahma-Dharma,

or

'

the Theistic Religion.'

contained a statement in Sanskrit of the four fundamental

principles of Indian

Theism, together with the seven declara-

tions revised,

and approved extracts from the Veda, UpaniSatapatha-Brahmana, and Manu.

vSelections

shads, and later Hindii scriptures, as, for example, from the

Isopanishad,

from these works were thought to

national predilections.

commend

themselves to

Otherwise they were not regarded

as possessing any special inspiration, or inherent superiority

It is over other good books. word Brahma is used for God

to

be noted that the natter

word which seems inconand Fatherhood.

sistent with the idea of personality

And any
impartiality

one who examines the whole compendium with

must come
it

to the conclusion that, although the

quotations

gives

are

pervaded throughout by a strong

ideas^
it

aroma
in

of Vedantic

and Pantheistic

marks an advance
time

the Theistic movement.

It presents us for the first

with a definite exposition of Indian Theistic doctrine, which

may

be held by those

who

reject

Vedantism.

Its four

funda-


Modeim Theism. Raimuohiin Roy s
successors.

495

mental principles (called Brahma-dharma-vija) translated from

the Sanskrit are
:

I. In the beginning before this Universe was, the One Supreme Being was (Brahma va ekam idam-agra asTt) nothing else whate\er was
;

(nanyat kiiicanaslt)
asrijat).

He

has created

all this

universe (tad idam sarvam

II. He is eternal (tadeva nityam), intelligent (jnanam), infinite (anantam), blissful (sivam), self-dependent (sva-tantram), formless (nir-avayavam), one only without a second (ekam evadvitlyam), all-pervading

(sarva-vyapi), all-governing (sarva-niyantri), all-sheltering fsarvasraya), all-knowing (sarva-vid), all-powerful (sarva-saktimat), unmovable (dhruvam), perfect (purnam), and without a parallel (apratimam).
III. By Worship of Him alone can happiness be secured in this world and the next (Ekasya tasyaivopasanaya paratrikam aihikam ca subham

bhavati).

IV. Love towards Him (Tasmin pritis), and performing the works He loves (priya-karya-sadhanarn ca), constitute His worship (tad-upasanam eva). Note that, although the word He' is used, Bnlhma is neuter.
'

Any
more

one who subscribed to these four principles was ad-

mitted a

member

of the Calcutta Brahma-Samaj.

The

seven

stringent declarations

were only required of those who

desired a

more formal

initiation into the system.

The substance
thus summarized
Intuition
:

of this improved Theistic teaching

may

be

and the book of Nature form the

is

original basis

of the Brahman's creed, but divine truth

to be thankfully

accepted from any portion of the ancient Hindu scriptures

as from any other

good books

in

which

it

may
is

be contained.
led to regard

According to the truth thus received, man

God
ality,

as his

Heavenly Father, endowed with a

distinct person-

and with moral attributes

Prayer to

befitting His nature.

God
is

has never become incarnate, but

He
is

takes providential care of

His creatures.
the only

Him
is

efficacious.

Repentance

way

to atonement, forgiveness, and salvation.

The

religious condition of

man

progressive.

Good

works, charity,

attainment of knowledge, contemplation, and devotion, arc

the only religious
rites.

Penances and pilgrimages are

useless.

The only

sacrifice is the sacrifice of self, the only place of

49 6

Modern Theism. Ramniohun Roys

is

stLccesso7^s.

pilgrimage
is

the

company
There

of the good, the only true

Temple

the pure heart.

is

no distinction of

castes.

The Hindu
up.

doctrine of transmigration of souls was given

latitude in regard to the maintenance of old
still

Yet great

national customs was

allowed, and a friendly

demeanour

towards the national religion encouraged.

In
fact,
its

the Mission of the Calcutta Brahma-Samaj, accordpresident and most able literary representative Raj
fulfil

ing to

Narain Bose\ was to

not to destroy
it.

or at least to purify the old religion,

Such a compromise appeared wholly unsatisfactory to the more thoughtful members of the Samaj, especially to those

who were beginning

clever eloquent
it

in 1858.

to be influenced by the opinions of a young man, Keshab Chandar Sen, who joined They felt that a more complete Reform was
itself

needed before the Samaj could deliver

with degrading social customs.

from

all

complicity

The

youthful

radical reform with the ardour of a

Keshab addressed himself to the task of young man full of spirit

his knightly spurs to win.

and energy, who had

It

must be borne

in

mind

that

we

in

Europe are wholly

unable to realize the

difficulties

which beset the career of a

There, religious and social

radical religious reformer in India.

life

are so intimately interwoven

there, the ordinary creed of

life,

the people, their debasing idolatry and demoralizing superstitions,

are so intertwined with the texture of their daily

with their domestic manners and institutions, and even with

the

common

law of the land, that to strike at the root of the

is

national faith
social fabric.

to subvert the very foundations of the

whole

Let a

man

enter on the path of progress, let

him abandon the

ideas inherited from his parents, let

him

set

^ Raj Narain Bose has rendered good service to the Adi BrahmaSamaj by his able writings, just as Mr. P. C. Mozoomdar (see p. 521) has done to the later development of Theism about to be described the

Brahma-Samaj of

India.

Modern Theism.
his face against the

Rainnwhun Roy s

successors.

497
let

time-honoured usages of his country,

as the

him stand up boldly

champion of

truth, the eradicator

of error, the regenerator of a degenerate age, the purifier of a

corrupt condition of society, and what are the consequences

He

has to fight his

way through
if

a host of antagonisms and

obstructions, sufficient to appal,

not to overpower, a

man

of

ordinary courage and determination.

The

inveterate

pre-

judices of centuries, deeply-seated antipathies, national pride,

popular passion,

a thousand vested

interests

of tradition,

ignorance, bigotry, superstition, indolence, priestcraft, conspire

to crush his efforts

and impede

his advance.

Every inch of
antagonists.

the ground

is

disputed

by

host of bitter

Humiliation, insult, threat, invective, vituperation are heaped

upon

his head.

Father, mother, wife, children, relatives and

fast in their

friends hold

him

embraces or unite
one
stirs

their efforts

to drag

him backwards.

No
and

a finger to help him

of
his

onwards.
character,

At

length,

by the

force

gentleness,

by by persuasion and
patience
will,

conciliation,

own resolute by firmness and

earnestness,

with him against their

by making
so

his
;

by carrying people work theirs as

for

well as his own, he gains a few adherents

qualities such as these

nowhere do
as in
his attitude

command
becomes

much admiration
But
if

India.

Then

his progress

easier.

towards ancient creeds and social abuses continues that of an uncompromising enemy, he will still have to do battle at the

head of a

little

band of followers against countless

in

adversaries,
find

and
it

will only

triumph over opposition

one quarter, to
in

renewed with increased acrimony and vehemence

This

other

directions.

may

be taken as a description of the

carl\'

career of

the third ereat Theistic Reformer of British India, Kcshab Chandar Sen, who was born in i(S3(S and died in TSS4.

A few particulars
He was
caste,

of Mr. Sen's

life

ought to be given here.

a erandson of a well-known

Ram Comul

Sen,

who was

member of the Vaid}-a man of great worth, talent

Kk

49 S
and
of

Modern Theism.
literary culture
'^,

Rammohun Roys

successors.

but a bigoted Hindu of the Vaishnava

in

school.

The young Keshab was brought up

superstition

an atmosphere

Hindu

and

idolatry.

As might have been

expected, the Vishnu-worship in which he was trained pre-

disposed him to emotional religion and to a belief in one

supreme personal God.

Subsequently he received a thorough

English education at the Presidency College, Calcutta. There,

of course, the foundations of his family faith crumbled to
pieces.
It

could not bear collision with scientific truth as

imparted by European teachers.

built

Nor was any new

faith

up immediately on the
all

ruins of the old.

His attitude
indifference.

towards

religion

became one of absolute

Happily, in a character like that of Keshab, the void caused

long

by the over-development of one part of his nature was not With a greater advance in intellectual left unfilled. culture came a greater consciousness of spiritual aspirations, and a greater sense of dependence upon the Almighty Ruler
of the Universe.

He began
day,

to crave for a

knowledge of the
of age,

true God.

One

when he was twenty years

fell

some

sermons by Raj Narain Bose

already founded in Calcutta.

into his hands,

and he found

to his astonishment that a pure Theistic

Church had been

of the

Without a moment's hesitation

he

decided to

enroll

himself a

member

Calcutta

Brahma-Samaj.

This happened towards the end of 1858,

his twentieth year.

when he was in The English

culture and freedom of thought, not

unmixed

with Christian ideas, which Keshab imported into the Calcutta

(Adi) Samaj, could not
fail

to leaven

its

whole constitution.
similar
fear

Not

that Debendra-nath

had been uninfluenced by

Brahma-Samaj.
his

culture in his reorganization of the

The
him

however was that Keshab's enthusiasm might lead

himself forward prematurely.

to put

Happily

extreme youth-

^ He was held in great esteem by Prof H. H. Wilson, and was the author of a useful English and Bengali dictionary, to which my own lexicography is under some obligations.

| '

Modern Theism.
fulness

Rammohitn Roy s

successors.
veil

499
own
the

and inexperience

compelled him to
first

his
all

individuality.

He

longed from the

to

bring

impetuosity of his fervid nature to bear on the accomplishment

of vast changes.

He

was ambitious of penetrating

life

to the

very springs of social

and altering their whole course. But he was sensible enough to perceive that he could not
enter

upon such a Herculean task without

feeling his

way and

testing his powers.

He, therefore, commenced

his mission as

a fellow-worker with Debendra-nath, and in due subordination

to

him

as his recognized leader.

for

Their fellowship and coyears.

operation lasted

about

five

Nothing, however,
in

could keep the enthusiastic Keshab long

It w^as

the background.

not sufficient for him that idolatry had been eliminated

from Hindu usages.

They remained HindQ

usages

still.

He

soon began to urge a complete abolition of all

caste-restrictions.

The

first

change he advocated was that

all

who conducted

the services in the Mandir should abandon the sacred thread

(upavita, p. 378)

which distinguished the Brahmans and higher

castes from the lower.

to give

But Debendra-nath, though he consented

up

this

sacred badge in his

own

case, declined to
this

force a similar renunciation

upon

others.

Unhappily

was

the

commencement

of a difference of opinion between the

progressive and conservative Reformers, which afterwards led

to a

more complete rupture. Next to the abandonment

ideas

of the thread

came the

alteration

of the

Sraddha, or worship of deceased ancestors

incompatible with the

rite

involving

Brahma

doctrine of

a future state.
ritual at the

This was followed by a remodelling of the

p. '^Si)^

ceremonies of birth (jata-karma,

p.
'^^'^),

name-

giving

(nama-karana,

and cremation

of the dead

Then a solemn and impressive form of faith was substituted for the UpaBrahma initiation into the Of course, nayana, or initiatory rite of Brahmanism (p. 377).
(antyeshti, p. 354).

were made for the education and elevation of women. They were encouraged to join the Brahma-Samaj, which K k z
efforts


500

Modem
first

Theism.

Raimnohim Roys
name

successors.

many

eventually did under the

of Brahmikas, worship-

ping at

either behind screens, or in a separate room.

customs.

more important matter was the reform of marriage Vast difficulties beset any reform in this direction. the most ancient, sacred, and inviolable of all is Marriage Hindu institutions, and its due performance the most comstill

plicated of all religious acts.

It involves intricate

questions

of caste, creed, property, family usage, consanguinity, and

age.

To remodel

the institution of marriage

is

to reorganize

the whole constitution of Indian society, and to create, so to

speak, an entirely

new

social atmosphere.

The

first

change

advocated by the Reformers had reference to the abolition of

child-marriages.

Nothing has tended

in

to the physical

and

moral deterioration of the people so much as child-marriage.

It

has not only resulted

till

excessive population, rapidly

multiplying

reduced to so low a standard of moral and

physical stamina that every failure of crops adds demoralization to starvation.

It is

an ever-present source of weakall

ness

and impoverishment, destructive of

fatal to the

national vigour,

and

development of national

thrift

and economy.

The progressive Reformers felt that until this evil was removed there could be no hope of India's regeneration. Of course, no man was to be allowed more than one wife. The idea that child-widowhood was the result of crimes committed in former births was scouted, and widows were to be
released from enforced celibacy.
first

Raj Narain Bose was the

to introduce the remarriage of

widows

into his family

a reform for which the inhabitants of the village in which

he was born threatened to stone him to death (compare As to the marriage ceremony itself, all semblance of p. 473).
idolatrous worship,
all

foolish ritual, all noisy music, needless

display and unnecessary expense, caused

festivities

over

many days, were

own

to be eliminated.

by spreading the Debendra-

nath himself was induced to set the example of celebrating

a nuptial ceremony in his

family according to this simple

Modern Theism, Raimnohttn Roy s

Brahmic form.

successo7^s.

501

His second daughter was engaged to be

married to Babu H. N. Mukerjea.

The

rite

was performed

on the 26th of July, 1861, quietly, solemnly, simply, and

without protracted
festivities,

in the

presence of nearly two

first

hundred

co-religionists.

This was the

Brahmic marriage.

A
An

still

more momentous reform was attempted by Keshab

Sen when he performed a
different

Chandar

marriage
in

ceremony

between two persons of

Debendra-nath.
In

castes

August, 1864.

innovation so revolutionary gave great dissatisfaction to

fact,

Mr. Sen, notwithstanding the real

his influence,

good he had
efforts,

effected

by

example, and personal

found himself hampered by his connexion with the

too conservative Calcutta Adi-Samaj.

He was

like a

man

working

in chains.

He

felt

himself powerless to penetrate

fabric.

beneath the outer crust of the social

customs, the old superstitious
rites,

The

old caste-

by a large number of Theists, while others who professed sympathy with the advanced Reformer, and adopted his opinions
still

were

practised

in public, secretly reverted to their old

ways.

It

was not

to

be expected that a
long acquiesce in

man

of Mr.

Sen's temperament would

merely superficial

changes and patchy

willing
to

incomplete

reformations.

He was

accept half

measures as an instalment.

But nothing short of a thorough

reconstruction of the whole religious and social fabric could

afford

him permanent

satisfaction.

the axe to the very root of the tree.

He was He felt

bent on laying
his

own

mission

to be very different from that of Debendra-nath.

He

was

to
all

destroy rather than to renovate the old Vedic system with

its

train of ceremonial rites

and observances.
all

Of

course, he

no sooner gave up

idea of compromise
in

than instantly he found himself

obstruction.
turn.
Difficulties

plunged

a slough of
at every
crisis

and opposition met him

large

At

length,

in

February,

1865, the inevitable

arrived.

Keshab Chandar Sen with a

number

of the

younger members of the Samaj formed themselves into a

502

Modern Theism.
body

Rammohtm

Roy's successors.
reformers, and
all
its

separate

of advanced

or progressive

seceded from the old Society, leaving behind them

accumulated property.

It

was

not, however,

till

November,

1866, that they were able to organize themselves into a

Theistic Church called the

new

Brahma-Samaj of India (Bharaa church which gloried in having

tavarshlya

Brahma-Samaj
it

^),

broken

entirely with

Brahmanism, and severed every link

which connected

with the national religion.

At

a meeting held on

the incorporation of the

the aim of the

into

November nth, 1866, the day of new society, Mr. Sen announced that new Church would be to unite all Brahmas

one body, to reduce their labours to a well-organized

system of co-operation, and to establish a central metropolitan

Brahma-Samaj

of

all

India, to

which

all

other Samajes
or with which

throughout the country might be

affiliated,

they might establish friendly relations.

This idea was not a

in

new
a

one.

An

effort

had been made

1864 to establish
all

General Representative Assembly or Council of

the

existing

Brahma Samajes.
little

meeting was then convened,

fifty

and twenty-eight out of the existing

sentatives, but

Samajes sent repre-

further
his

was done.

Nor

did Mr. Sen

ever succeed in

making

own Samaj

a centre of union and

talents as

authority, though for a long time his

an orator

secured him a position as chief leader of the

Brahma com-

munity.

The
the

first

stone of the

new Mandir
was
laid

or place of worship of

Brahma-Samaj

of India

on the 23rd of January,

1868, but the building was not opened until

1869.

As might have been

its
first

expected, the

August (Bhadra), new Samaj exits

hibited from

foundation a decided reflection of

founder's individuality.

He had

imbibed Vaishnava ideas

the
peculiar vein
of

with

his

earliest

impressions.

Yet

^ This Samaj.

new Church has been sometimes

called the progressive

Brahma-


Modern
Theisiit.

Ra^nmohim Roys
his

successors.

50 J

Hindu theology which permeated

beneficially.
religion,

mind only operated

The

introduction of faith (bhakti), emotional

into the Brahma system was warmth and light into a cold

and devotional fervour

It infused

a real advantage.

inanimate Theology, and brought the latest development of

Indian Theism into closer
It

harmony with

Christian ideas.

remains to describe more fully the nature of that de-

No sooner was Brahmanism finally discarded than became necessary to formulate more definite articles of faith. Briefly the new creed might have been described as the Fatherhood of God and the Brotherhood of Man.' Its most essential points are as follow
velopment.
it
'
:

God
matter.

is

the

first

cause of the Universe.

objects out of nothing

By His will He created all and continually upholds them. He is spirit, not

He

is

perfect, infinite, all-powerful, all-merciful, all-holy.

He

is

our Father, Preserver, Master, King, and Saviour. The soul is immortal. Death is only the dissolution of the body. There is no new birth on earth after death the future life is a continuation and development of the present life. The men that now live are the embryos of the men that are to be.
;

The

true scriptures are two,

the

volume of nature, and the natural

of the
All ideas about immortality

intuitions

implanted

in the

mind.

The wisdom, power, and mercy

Creator are written on the Universe.

and

morality are primary convictions rooted in the constitution of man.

God Himself never becomes man by

divinity dwells in every

man, and

is

putting on a human body. His displayed more vividly in some

;

as in Moses, Jesus Christ,

Muhammad, Nanak,

Caitanya, and other great

Teachers, who appeared at special times, and conferred vast benefits on the world. They are entitled to universal gratitude and love. The Brahma religion is distinct from all other systems of religion yet
;

it is

the essence of
it

all.

It is

not hostile to other creeds.

What

is

true

based on the constitution of man, and is, thereIt is not confined to age or country. fore, eternal and universal. The Brahma religion recognizes All mankind are of one brotherhood. no distinction between high and low caste. It is the aim of this religion to bind all mankind into one family. Duties are of four kinds (i) Duties towaj'ds God such as belief in Him, love, worship, and service (2) Duties towards self snch. as preservation of bodily health, acquisition of knowledge, sanctification of such as veracity, justice, gratitude, the soul (3) Duties towards others promotion of the welfare of all mankind (4) Duties towards animals and inferior creatures such as kind treatment.
in

them

accepts.

It is


504

Modemi Theism.
suffer the

Rammohttn Roy s

successors.

Every sinner must

consequences of his own sins sooner

Man must labour after holiness by the worship of God, by subjugation of the passions, by repentance, by the study of nature and of good books, by good company and by These wall lead through the action of God's soUtary contemplation.
or later, in this world or the next.

grace to salvation. Salvation is deliverance of the soul from the root of corruption and

moral disease, and its perpetual growth in purity. Such growth continues through all eternity, and the soul becomes more and more godly and happy The companionin Him who is the fountain of infinite holiness and joy. ship of God is the Indian Theists' heaven.

With regard
*

to the worship of God,

act.'

it

was declared to be

a wholly spiritual

The form
another

of divine service was as follows

First a hymn
followed

then an invocation of

God by

the
of

minister,

by

hymn

then adoration

God, chanted by the

whole congregation together, and continued by the minister

alone
;

then silent communion for some minutes.

^j

Then

the

following united prayer

chanted by the whole congregation

standing
'

death to immortality.

from untruth to truth, from darkness to light, from O thou Father of truth, reveal thyself before us. Thou art merciful, do thou protect us always in thy unbounded goodness. Peace Peace Peace
us,
!
!

Lead

O God

by the minister alone standing, succeeded by another hymn, and by a recitation of texts from Hindu and other scriptures. Finally, a sermon, followed by a prayer, a benediction, and
a prayer for the well-being of the whole world a

Then

hymn

(see pp. 527, 528).

still

Services of this kind

take place

generally on Sundays,
There are
also

and often on a week-day

Church.

in addition.

grand

anniversary festivals to celebrate the foundation of the

Brahma

The

chief festival, called

on the 23rd of January (nth of Samajes in commemoration of the founding of monotheistic

worship by
^

Maghotsab (Maghotsava), Magha), is kept by all the

Rammohun Roy.

Another, called Bhadrotsab

This was taken from the form used by the Adi Brahma-Samaj.


Modeim Theism. Ranunohim Roys
(Bhadrotsava),
is

sticcessor^s.

505

by the Brahma-Samaj of India in celebration of the opening of the Mandir in August, 1869. Solemn initiation services for the admission of new members
held
are
also

performed.

They correspond

in

an

interesting

manner

to our Confirmation services.

it

Clearly

would be easy to prove that the advanced

us,

Indian Reformers, trained and educated by

L

and imbued

unconsciously with Western theological ideas, have borrowed

largely from our Christian system in formulating their
creed.

own

The
is

points

of agreement are too obvious to need

indicating.
tianity

One noteworthy

point

of

contact with

Chris-

by progresBrahmas, which indeed was originated by the members Isive of the Adi-Samaj. Such a spirit is, of course, essential to the growth and vitality of all new systems. Keshab Chandar
the active missionary spirit displayed

Sen has made several Missionary tours

excite

in

India,
his

and

in

1870

he came to England, giving out that

the
interest

mission was to

of

Englishmen

in

the religious, social,

and

political

progress of his fellow-countrymen.

Here he

visited fourteen of the chief

towns of England and Scotland,

in

and conducted religious services

Congregational,

the pulpits of Baptist,

and Unitarian

chapels.

He

preached to

large congregations in East London, and addressed seventy

meetings in different places in behalf of such objects as

Temperance, Peace, Reformatories,

general
education.

Ragged
with

Schools,

and

He had

interviews

Her Majesty

several eminent Statesmen.

rand And
harm

religious life

what were the impressions he formed of Christian and doctrine in England ? It may do us no

to Hsten once
left

more to the Hindu

:

Theist's utterances

before he
'

our shores
he
said,
'

liar feelings of delight

in England I have looked upon with pecuhappy English home, in which the utmost warmth and cordiality of affection, and sympathy, are mingled with the highest moral and religious restraint and discipline. The spirit of prayer and worship seems mixed up with daily household duties, and the
institution,'

One

the

'

stcccessors.

5o6

Modern Theism. Rammohun Roy s

is

influence of the spirit of Christ

'

manifest in domestic concerns.'

'Yet,'

he added, it grieves me to find that the once crucified Jesus is crucified hundreds of times every day in the midst of Christendom. The Christian world has not imbibed Christ's spirit.'

At Birmingham he
'

said

Since my arrival in England I have found myself incessantly surrounded by various religious denominations, professing to be Christians. Methinks I have come into a vast market. Every sect is like a small shop where a peculiar kind of Christianity is offered for sale. As I go from door to door, from shop to shop each sect steps forward and offers for my acceptance its own interpretations of the Bible, and its own peculiar Christian beliefs. I cannot but feel perplexed and even amused amidst countless and quarrelling sects. It appears to me, and has always appeared to me, that no Christian nation on earth represents fully and thoroughly Christ's idea of the kingdom of God. I do believe, and I must candidly say, that no Christian sect puts forth the genuine and full Christ as He was and as He is, but, in some cases, a mutilated, disfigured Christ, and, what is more shameful, in many cases, a counterNow, I wish to say that I have not come to England as one feit Christ. who has yet to find Christ. When the Roman Catholic, the Protestant, the Unitarian, the Trinitarian, the Broad Church, the Low Church, the High Church, all come round me, and offer me their respective Christs, I " Think you that I have no Christ within desire to say to one and all me? Though an Indian, I can still humbly say, thank God that I have

my

Christ."

This remarkable statement has become invested with

far

deeper significance and interest since the pubhcation of Mr.

Sen's striking lecture, on

the subject

'

India asks,
his

Who

is

Christ

?
'

It

might have been expected that

his

Enghsh
afifinity

visit

would have brought

Christian
state,

Theism

into

closer

with

dogma.

But such was not

fact,

really the case.

may

however, as an interesting

that two of his Hindii

travelling

companions were afterwards baptized.

Mr. Sen applied himself zealously to
for female

On
'

his return to India

the work of social reform, and at once started what was called

The Indian Reform

Association

'

improvement,
for

for

the promotion of education among men and women,

the suppression of intemperance, and generally for the social

and moral reformation of the people of

open to
all

India.

This society,

classes

and

creeds,

was founded November 2nd,

Modemi Theism. Rammohun Roy s

w

sttccessors.

507

1870, and a female

in 1871.

Normal and Adult School was opened

of
all

The most important Reform

riage

that relating

to mar-

to

which Mr. Sen's

efforts had already been directed,

* had not made much progress.

The example

so well set

by

the marriage of Debendra-nath Tagore's daughter in 1861 had

created hopes of a better state of things, but

little real

advance

had been achieved.

It is true

that similar marriages had fol-

lowed, but the legality of such marriages was disputed, though

a form of ritual had been adopted which was thought to be

sufficiently
lidity.
It

conformable to Hindu usage to insure their va-

was not encouraging that between 1864 and 1867

I only seven or eight Adi Samaj Brahma marriages and four or (five Progressive Brahma intermarriages between persons of different castes had been solemnized. Nor had much success
attended the attempt to prevent early marriages.

Mr. Sen

and his followers now threw themselves more vigorously than

ever into the marriage-reform movement.

The

best medical

opinions were sought, and the proper marriageable age fixed.

But the most important step was to memorialize the Govern-

ment
forms.

for a

new Marriage Act,

ac^itation

to relieve

Brahmas from
native

their

I disability to contract legal marriages according to their

own

Much

ensued.

The

mind became
its

greatly excited, and Indian society was stirred to

depths

by a conflict of opinion on a matter which affected the very framework of its whole structure and composition. At length a Bill was drawn up by Sir Henry Maine the
p" legal
Sir

Member

of Council

and improved upon by his successor

This
pleased

Fitzjames

Stephen.

no

one.

It

was

violently opposed not only

by the more conservative

tracted with
years.

Theists.

by the orthodox Brahmans, but The struggle was pro-

much

bitterness on the part of the natives for four

Finally, after

many

ineffectual attempts at obtaining

Bill

(a general

agreement of opinion, a third

was elaborated,

and under the able management of Sir Fitzjames Stephen


5o8

Modern Theism.

Rammohim Roy s

successors,

the Native Marriage Act became law on the 22nd of March,

1872.
'

It

commences thus

Whereas it is expedient to provide a form of marriage for persons who do not profess the Christian, Jewish, Hindu, Muhammadan, ParsI, Buddhist, Sikh or Jaina religion, and to legalize certain marriages the validity of which is doubtful it is hereby enacted,' etc.
;

The

Act, in

fact,

introduced for the

first

time the

insti-

Hindu society. It sanctioned matrimonial union without any necessary religious ceremotution of civil marriage into
nial.

It

legalized

marriages between different castes.

for

It

fixed

the

minimum age
when
either

a bridegroom at 18 and of a

bride at 14, but required the written consent of parents or

guardians

party was under 21.

It

prevented
It

marriage within certain degrees of consanguinity.

hibited bigamy,

pro-

and permitted the remarriage of widows, which

had been before legalized generally by the Act of 1856.

After the passing of the Act of 1872 fifty-eight marriages

took place

in the eight

and a half years ending August, 1879,

its

against fifty-one in the ten and a half years preceding

ratification.

The average

of

yet been greatly increased by the passing of the Act.

widow marriages has not as The

same may be
ferent castes,

said of intermarriages between persons of dif-

though these are said to have become more numerous during the Prince of Wales's visit. All the marriages which took place before the Act might have been
registered retrospectively,

and

in this

manner

legalized, but

only twenty-one were so registered.

Singularly enough, too,

even to this day, some Hindu Theists continue to prefer being

married according to Brahmic
selves of the Act.
rites,

without availing themdislike

to

There appears to be a

the

Registrar, as

if

he were required to take the place of the

minister of religion, whereas he simply witnesses the contract

between the bride and bridegroom, and

listens to the

words

by which they bind themselves

to matrimonial union.

Some
Hindu

Theists also object to the categorical repudiation of the

Modern Theism.
religion

Ravimohttn Roys

successors.

509
civil

which must precede the performance of the

marriage, considering that because they are

are not, therefore, un-Hinduized.

Brahmas they

Yet,

it

cannot be doubted that Mr. Sen and his followers

of their fellow-countrymen
for their

deserve the gratitude

labours in agitating for and obtaining the ratification of so

useful

an Act.

At any

rate the ^events of the year 1872

in the history of the

must always constitute an epoch

ing

reform-

movement.

For some time afterwards the Adi Brahma-Samaj led by Debendra-nath, and the Brahma-Samaj of India under Keshab

Chandar Sen, achieved good work

and
in

in their respective spheres,

not unfriendly co-operation with each other.

leaders,

though very

different in character,

The two were both men of

too,

unusual ability, and both penetrated by a sincere desire for

the regeneration of India.

Each Samaj,
in

had

its

able

Secretary and Writer

the Adi-Samaj in Raj Narain Bose,

and the more Progressive Samaj

Mr. Sen's cousin Pratap

Chandar Mozoomdar^
had
its

Moreover, the Conservative Samaj

the Tattva-bodhini patrika, and the

literary

organ

in

Progressive in a daily newspaper called 'The Indian Mirror.'

No

better proof of the activity of the

two

societies could

be

given than the success of their missionary operations.

By the

end of 1877 the number of Brahma Samajes scattered throughout

India,

including Assam, had

increased

to

a hundred

and seven, some following the Conservative pattern, and isome the Progressive. In 1875 fresh attempts were made to
establish a general representative Council of all the Samajes,

and one or two meetings were held, but no

has yet been matured.

definite

scheme

Meanwhile, lamentable dissensions, leading to a serious

^

This gentleman was

in

England

for three

or four

months

in

the

year 1883. He kindly called to see me at Oxford and much impressed me by his conversation. I have given an account of my conversation with He has lately published a very interesting summary him at p. 522.
of the doctrines of his Samaj.

TO

Modern Theism.

Ranimohun Roy

s successors.

schism, have taken place in the Progressive Brahma-Samaj.

Without doubt the career of this Samaj continued

years to be one of real progress.
It

for several

did sterling work in

It
It

propagating

its

own reforming
its

principles.

sent

forth

earnest missionaries to all parts of India.

put forth an
'

ably written Sunday edition of

daily newspaper the

Indian

Mirror

^'

It

encouraged fervour of faith and devotion (bhakti)

it

to such an extent that

affair

was accused of making religion an of mere emotion and excitement. One direction in
itself

which the devotional side of the movement developed

was

in

the rapturous singing of

in

hymns

in

chorus (samklrtana),
the
streets.

sometimes performed

procession

through
the

Another form of development was

Brahmotsavas, or periodical religious
special prayer, faith,

establishment

of

festivals as seasons of

and

rejoicing.

Besides

all

this,

many

members of the Society were remarkable for austerity of life, and the Samaj had a niche for those who gave themselves up
to severe self-discipline and asceticism (Vairagya).

The rock on which it split was its too unquestioning submission to the commanding ability of its leader. Keshab Chandar Sen had fought his way through difficulties, hardships and perils, with indomitable energy, but
for

was not prepared

an unsuspected danger

the danger of success the danger

;

that too

much

praise

would be lavished on the work he had

accomplished.
not led

For many years his daily path had certainly him through clover nor had his nightly rest been taken on a bed of roses. Nowhere is eminent ability worshipped with more fervour than in India. So conspicuous were Mr. Sen's talents that he soon became the object of a kind of adoration. He was even accused of accepting divine
Besides die 'Indian Mirror' the Sulabh SainCichar ('Cheap News') and DhaiDia-tattva^ Religious Truth,' have long been exponents of Mr. Sen's teaching. Mr. Mozoomdar's Theistic Annual,' and his 'Theistic Quarterly Review which has lately taken its place, are more recent advocates on the same side.
'

'

'

'

Modeim Theism. Ranwiolmn Roy s

honours.

sttccessors.

This, of course, he denied, and his followers have

ahvays indignantly repelled the charge, but his old Vaishnava

training of his

was not without

its

influence on his

own

estimate

to be in

own mission and office. some special manner

He

certainly supposed himself

gifts.

a partaker of divine

It is

noticeable that in his address, delivered January, 1879, though

he answered the question^

'

Am

an inspired prophet

?
'

in

the

negative, he laid claim to a kind of direct inspiration.

He

declared that he had had visions

Christ,

of John the Baptist, Jesus

and

St.

Paul,

who

all

favoured

him with personal

communications^ that the Lord said he was to have perennial

inspiration

from heaven, that

(adesa),

all his

actions were regulated

by

and that men should remember that to protest against the cause which he upheld was to protest
divine

command

against the dispensations of

God Almighty.
in

Then, again, Keshab Chandar Sen was not merely an

autocrat
doctrine.

among

his

own people
it

matters of faith and

of

He

was the

sole administrator of the affairs

the Society, and ruled

dictator.

with the rod of an irresponsible

People began to complain that the Progressive

constitutional government.
in the
It

Brahma-Samaj was without a

had no freedom of discussion
affairs.

management

of

its

own

and Deacon
decision

Keshab Chandar Sen was not only its Bishop, Priest, all in one he was a kind of Pope^, from whose there was no appeal.
;

great part of the matter in this chapter was written by

travels in India, about the year 1879.

me

soon

after

my second

Not long afterwards

Brahma Missionary Conference

In that letter the
'

the brother of Mr. Sen to write

me

held on Dec. 22, 1880, commissioned a letter calHng in question some of

of the Conference objected to

my statements.
the expression
to

members

visions,'

and declared that on the occasion here alluded

Mr. Sen only meant to use metaphorical expressions. Further, they Mr. Sen was not regarded by them as a Pope, but only as an inspired apostle commissioned by God. ^ Raj Narain Bose considered that Mr. Sen was justly amenable to this charge, as he (Mr. Sen) brought the same charge against Debendra-nath at the time of the schism.
assert that

Modern Theism.
all

RanimoJmn Roys

successors.
at work, a

While

these elements of discontent were

most unexpected revelation took

out, in fact, that

place, the effect of

It

which
turned

was to precipitate the disruption of the Samaj.

Keshab Chandar Sen, with

ability,

all his

almost
after

superhuman eloquence,
all

and genius, was nothing

but a plain

human

being, with very

human
it

infirmities.

It

appears that as early as August, 1877,

the
great
social

began to be

anxiously whispered that

likely to sacrifice his

Reformer was

own

cherished principles at the altar of

ambition.

He, who had denounced early marriages as the

curse of India,

was

said to be inclined to accept an offer of

marriage for his own daughter not yet fourteen, from the

young Maharaja of Kuch Behar not yet sixteen years of age. The rumour proved to be too true, and the Indian Mirror of
' '

February
poured

6,

1878, formally announced that the marriage had

Protests

been arranged.
in

from

every conceivable quarter

upon the great

social

Reformer, but they were not

only unheeded, they were absolutely ignored.

The marriage

ceremony^ took place on March

performed
in

6,

1878. and not without

idolatrous rites on the bride's side, though these were not

the presence of Mr. Sen himself^.

In point
as the

of fact, the performance of certain ceremonies

such

Homa,

or fire-oblation

was

necessary to secure the validity

of the marriage in a Native State protected

by our Governset out

ment, but not subject to the operation of the Marriage Act.

Immediately

after the

wedding the young Maharaja

of Dec. 22, 1880, commissioned Mr. Sen ceremony was only a betrothal and that the parties did not live together as man and wife till a final ceremony had been performed in the Brahma Mandir on Oct. 20, 1880. But the ceremony of March 6 was surely the legal ceremony. ^ The 'Indian Mirror' of March 17, 1878, informed its readers that
^

The Missionary Conference

to inform

me that

this

though the Raja's Purohits, who were orthodox Brahmins, were allowed ceremony, the Homa was not performed during the marriage but after the bride and her party left the place. The principles of Brahma marriage were barely preserved.'
'

to officiate at the
;

Brahma- Samaj and Keshab Chandar

for

Sen.

51

England, and the bridegroom and bride did not

live

together as

man and

wife

till

a final ceremony had

been

performed on Oct.

20, 1880.

Subsequently the Dharma-tattva and the 'Indian Mirror'

published an
elaborate justification
of Mr. Sen's

conduct.
in

The

defence set up was that Mr. Sen had no choice

the

matter.
of old

He had acted, it was

divine

said

as was said of Muhammad

and
in

under
will.

command
it

(adesa),

obedience to

God's
his

was contended that the marriage of daughter with a Maharaja had dealt a blow at casteMoreover,

marriages, while the propagation of Theistic opinions in

Kuch

Behar and other Native States was

promoted.

likely to

be materially

Another

line of defence

taken was that Keshab

religious

Chandar Sen's mission had always been that of a

and not secular Reformer.

As might
to

have been expected, the Protestors, who objected

in

Mr. Sen's proceedings

regard to the marriage, met

together, soon after he left for

line of action.

Kuch

Behar, to decide on their

An

unsuccessful attempt

was then made

to

depose Mr. Sen from his

office as Minister,

and an unseemly
In the a con-

struggle took place for the possession of the Mandir.

end

it

was determined
and catholic

to establish a
basis.

new church on

stitutional

All the provincial Samajes

were consulted, and with the approval of the majority, a

meeting was held
Mr. Ananda
in the

Town
:

Hall, Calcutta,

May

15, 1878,

Mohan Bose
was passed

being in the chair, when the follow-

ing resolution
'

meeting deeply deplores the want of a constitutional orBrahma- Samaj, and does hereby establish a Samaj to be called "The Sadharana [or general] Brahma-Samaj," with a view to remove the serious and manifold evils resulting from this state of things, and to secure the representation of the views and the harmonious co-operation of the general Brahma community, in all that affects the

That

this

ganization in the

progress
India.'

and well-being of the Theistic cause and Theistic work

in

At

first

the Prayer Meetings of this

new Brahma-Samaj,

of

Ll

Sadharana-Brahma-Samaj
first

which Mr. Ananda Bose was the

President

^,

were held

in

temporary rooms, but the foundation stone of a new Prayer

Hall (211, Cornwallis Street) was laid on January
23, 1879,

and the building

1881.

finished

and consecrated on January

Public Opinion^

22,

Moreover, the

Brahma
'

newspaper,

and the Tattva-kaumudI, Moonlight of Truth,' a fortnightly

paper, were started as religious and literary organs of the
protesting party.
It is

not possible for

me

to speak with certainty as to the

success of this fourth development of the

Brahma

Theistic

movement although
ajia,

I visited its

Mandir.

Its

name, Sddhdrand a more

Sastrl

implied that

it

aimed at more
its

catholicity,

democratic government, but

ing well under Mr. A.
(a

organization, though promis-

M. Bose and Pandit Sivanath

ability),

man

of eloquence and
in

did not appear to

be

complete

relation to the rest of India.

at that time, to

be no one

man among

the religious genius of either

There appeared, members who had Keshab Chandar Sen, or of

its

Debendra-nath Tagore, or the

Narain Bose.
practical
ness,

literary culture

which charac-

terized the best productions of Mr. P. C.

Yet there seemed

of

to

Mozoomdar and Raj be a large number of

likely to accomplish a

men men

good sound

sense, religious earnest-

and

sufficient ability,

who were

great deal of useful work together, and to

make

their society

one of the leading Samajes of India.

After the unhappy breach of harmony, caused by Mr.
Sen's conduct in regard to the marriage of his daughter, he

appears to have

own

made extraordinary efforts to restore his by the elaboration of novel ideas. The year 1879 was signalized by the institution|,of an order of professed
prestige

^ He was succeeded by Babu Shib Chandar Deb, the Secretary being Babu Dvarka Nath GaTVuH. Whether these still continue I know not. ^ This has now become a purely secular paper and has changed its name to Bengal Public Opinion,' while the Indian Messenger,' well edited by Sivanath Sastri, M. A., was started on September 9, 1883, and
'

'

has taken

its

place as the religious organ.


Keshab Chandar Seiis Annual Sermon.
teachers of religion, called Adhyapakas.

515

Four teachers were

ordained by Mr. Sen on September

7,

1879,

among whom was

Mr. Mozoomdar.

curious practice was also introduced of

holding supposed conversations and passing days and nights as

imaginary pilgrims with the great prophets, apostles, and saints

of the world

as, for

example, with Moses, Socrates, Caitanya,

the Rishis,

Muhammad, Buddha
fire

who were
nature.

supposed to be

present and to take part in the dialogues and to inspire the

pilgrims with the

of their

own
'

Furthermore, a remarkable
the 'Sunday Mirror' of

Proclamation
14,

'

was issued

in

December
It is

1879, purporting to
:

come from
'

'

India's Mother.'
soldiers in India

here abridged
in the

To

all

my

my

affectionate greeting.

Believe that

this

Proclamation goeth forth from Heaven

is

name and

with the love

Carry out its behests like loyal soldiers. The British Government. The Brahma-Samaj is my Church. My daughter Queen Victoria have I ordained. Come direct to me, without a mediator, as your Mother. The influence of the earthly Mother at home, of the Queen Mother at the head of the Government, will raise the head of my Indian children to their Supreme Mother. I will give them peace and salvation. Soldiers, fight bravely and establish my dominion.'
of your Mother.

Government

my

This idea of God's Motherhood as a correlative to God's

Fatherhood

is,

as

have already pointed out, an essential

(see

characteristic of

Chapter VII. pp. 180-208). Mr. Sen's lecture delivered on the 24th of January, 1880,
'

Hinduism
was
;

called

God-vision,'

full

of rhapsody
in

mixed up with
the

many

fine

thoughts

but that delivered

Town

Hall,

Calcutta, on the 9th of April, 1879, before at least a thousand

persons, on the
subject, 'India
asks,
it

Who

is

Christ?' was

pronounced by those who heard

oratory ^

to

be a masterpiece of

He

not only entranced his hearers

;

by an
to

extra-

ordinary effort of eloquence

he surprised them by calling

upon
^

India

to

accept

Christ.

According
authority.

Mr.

Sen,

The Rev. Luke Rivington was my

He was

present with

Indeed the subject chosen was due to a previous conversation with Mr. Rivington at a dinnerparty given by Mr. Sen to him and a large number of thoughtful natives.

the Bishop of Calcutta

and a few other Europeans.


5i6

Keshab Chandar Sens Annttal Sermon.

is

Christianity

the true national religion of his fellow-countryis

men.

India

destined
'

to

become

Christian,

and cannot
'

escape her destiny.

You,

my

countrymen,' he says,

cannot

help accepting Christ in the

In another part

spirit

of your national scriptures.'

of the lecture
:

we

find

him using

these

remarkable words

^Gentlemen, you cannot deny that your hearts have been touched, conquered, and subjugated by a superior power. That power, need I
is Christ. ? It is Christ who rules British India, and not the Government. England has sent out a tremendous moral force in the life and character of that mighty prophet to conquer and hold this vast empire. None but Jesus, none but Jesus, none but Jesus, ever deserved this bright, this precious diadem, India, and Jesus shall have it.'

tell

you

British

It is evident,

however, that Mr. Sen intends Christ to be

all

accepted by his fellow-countrymen as the greatest of

Asiatic saints and not in the character ascribed to

Him by
'

the Church of England.

'

Christ comes to

us,'

he says,

as

an Asiatic
brother.
realize
.

in race, as a Hindii in faith, as a

.
.

kinsman and as a

Christ

is

a true Yogi, and will surely help us to

our national ideal of a Yogi. ... In accepting Him,

therefore,

you accept the

This
is

fulfilment of
all

your national scriptures

|

and prophets.'

very striking, but seems rather

like presenting Christianity to the

Hindus

in the light of

an

advanced phase of Hindiaism.

sermon delivered by Mr. Sen at announced the advent of a New Dispensation, which any one perusing the discourse will be
still

more

recent annual

Calcutta, in January, 1881,

surprised to find,

is

a kind of amalgamation of Hinduism,

Christianity.
called

Muhammadanism, and
Church.'

Thenceforth the Brahmathe

'

Samaj of India was to be

New

Dispensation

The

present Bishop of Exeter (the Right Rev. Dr.

his

Bickersteth)

was present on the occasion and recorded

:

impression of the address in a letter written from Bishop's

Palace, Calcutta
'

Brahma-Samaj

This afternoon Keshab Chandar Sen gave his annual address to the in the Town Hall. The huge hall was crammed I should

'

The CJmrch of
say 3500

the

New
;

Dispensatioii.

men and some

six ladies

earnest-looking men.
rent of eloquence.

He

almost all were Hindus, thoughtful, spoke for one hour and forty minutes a tor-

He denies the Godhead of Christ, though, with this grave and grievous lack, nothing in parts could be more impassioned than his language of devotion to Christ. He thinks himself the prophet of a " New Dispensation," as he calls it, which is to affirm the Unity Hindu, Moslem, and of the Godhead, and the unity of all earnest creeds Christian who worship God. Of course it is a great advance upon the multiform idolatry of this land and again and again I said to myself, " Ouoniam talis es, utinam noster esses."

This

New Dispensation was proclaimed

i
,

on January

26, 1881.

Then, on January

883, Mr. Sen, as chief apostle of the Church

I

of this Dispensation, put forth another manifesto.

here give

the greater portion as

it

appeared

in the
'

Indian newspapers of
:

about that date (see

'

'

Times of India

for Jan. 12, 1883)

Keshab Chandar Sen, a servant of God, Church of the New Dispensation, which is
the metropolis of Aryavarta,
'

called to be an apostle of the

in the holy city of Calcutta,

To

all

the great nations in the world,

and

to the chief religious sects in

the East and the West,

Zoroaster, of

'To the followers of Moses, of Jesus, of Buddha, of Confucius, of Mahomet, of Nanak, and the various branches of the Hindu
'

Church, Grace be to you, and peace everlasting. Whereas sectarian discord and strife, schisms and enmities prevail in our Father's family, causing much bitterness and unhappiness, impurity and unrighteousness, and even war, carnage, and bloodshed,
'

'Whereas
sister in the
itself
'

this setting of brother against brother

and

sister against

name

of religion has proved a fruitful source of evils,

and

is

a sin against

It has pleased to send unto the world a message of peace and love, of harmony and reconciliation. This New Dispensation hath He in boundless mercy vouchsafed to us in the East, and we have been commanded to bear witness unto it among
'

God and man the Holy God

the nations of the earth.

'

Thus
I

saith the
I

Lord

Sectarianism
and

is

an abomination unto Me, and

shall

unbrotherliness
'

will not tolerate.

desire love

and

unity,

My children

be of one heart, even as

am
'

one.

My many
'

At sundry times have I spoken through My prophets, and through and various dispensations there is unity in them. Hear ye men, there is one music but many instruments, one body but
;

many

limbs, one spirit but diverse gifts, one blood yet

many

nations, one

church yet

many

churches.

5i8 Death and Cremation of Keshab Cha^idar Sen.

'

Blessed are the peace-makers,

who

reconcile differences

and

establish

peace, good-will, and brotherhood in the

'These words hath the Gospel He hath revealed unto us

'

name of the Father. Lord our God spoken unto us, and His new

a gospel of exceeding joy.

And

these blessed tidings the Loving Father hath charged

me and my

brother apostles to declare unto all the nations of the world, that being of one blood they may also be of one faith and rejoice in one Lord.
'

Gather ye the wisdom of the East and the West, and accept and
all

assimilate the examples of the saints of

ages.
all

'Above

all,

love one another

and merge

differences in universal

brotherhood. ' Let Asia, Europe, Africa, and America, with diverse instruments, praise the New Dispensation, and sing the Fatherhood of God and the Brother-

hood of Man.'

Soon

after this proclamation the health of the apostle of the

*New

Dispensation,' which

had been

for

a long time subject

to severe disturbances,

began to decline very rapidly, and,

a year afterwards, on the 8th of January, 1884, he died.

On
I

the evening of that day his

body was burnt

at the

Nim

Tollah burning-Ghat on the Ganges, and, being at Calcutta,

went to the cremation.

The Ghat had no

flight of steps

down

to the river, but

walls,
river.

was simply a long brick building, with three enclosing open upwards to the sky, and on one side towards the
All cremations took place on
its

stone floor.

Nothing was to

be seen inside

this utterly

bare and dreary structure, except

bodies in the process of burning, surrounded here and there

by attendants and relations. The sun was setting as I

afterglow

entered the building, and a lurid

all

like that

observed

over Europe during the winter

the river, the

of 1883, 1884

lingered
Just

in the sky, suffusing

shipping, and the whole surroundings of the Ghat with a weird

unearthly

light.

inside

the

entrance were two pyres

still

nearly burnt out, but with embers

farther end a

smouldering.

At

the

collected
^

^.

crowd of perhaps three hundred people were These constituted the principal members and
surprised me.
I

The

small

number present

looked in vain for the

Maharaja of Kuch Behar.

Death and Cixination of Keshab Chandar Sen. 519

b

friends

of the

Brahma community

of which

Keshab was

head.
In their midst was an enormous pyre of sandal-wood which
quite concealed the dead
I

body

of their leader.

was allowed

to stand on a raised parapet,

and from that vantage-ground

witnessed the

first

application of the lighted torch

by some

near relative.

Then

other relatives and friends brought con-

tributions of sandal-wood and combustible substances, while

others

cast

flowers, garlands,

and fragrant powder on the

in

burning pyre, amid the solemn chanting of hymns

rian tones.
'

Grego-

The mercy

of

God

alone availeth

'

(Brahma-kripa
grief uttered

hi keva-

1am),

was the burden of the cry of

lurid twilight
in

by the

mourners.

Meanwhile, the

gave place to gathering gloom.

The mourners ranged

and
fro as the faces,

a circle round the pyre swayed to

flames darted forth from the blazing wood.

lighted

Their

now

up by a

fitful glare,

now enveloped
It was, in
I

in clouds of

smoke, had a ghastly unearthly look.

truth,

an extraordinary scene, the like of which

had never

seen before, and shall probably never witness again.

detail will

Every

remain indelibly imprinted upon

my memory.
this

A greater

contrast to a Christian funeral could scarcely be

imagined \ and the contrast was the more remarkable, as

^ It was equally, however, a contrast to the form of cremation now in vogue among orthodox Hindus, as may be proved by referring to pp. 295-303 of this volume, as well as by perusing the following account of the cremation of the Hon. Kristo-das Pal, which appeared in the The remains of Times of India Overland Summary for July 29, 1884 Kristo-das Pal were cremated at Nim Tollah burning-Ghat in accordance with the orthodox Hindu custom. A few moments before he expired, his son poured a few drops of Ganges water into his mouth and anointed his forehead with mud from the river; placing a few leaves of tulsl on the forehead. The mourners then chanted the names of Hindu gods and goddesses whilst anointing the corpse. The family priest also chanted prayers. After the deceased had breathed his last, his eyelids and lips were closed by his son, who was chief mourner. The remains were then
'
' :

'


520 Death and Cre7natio7i of Keshab Chandar Sen.
was the Keshab who
noticed,
in the

impassioned address ah'eady

I

had

called

on India to accept Christ.

believe that

a further religious

ceremony (corresponding to the Sraddha)

was performed
few days
later,

at the private residence of the deceased

man

but to this

was not

invited.

Such ceremonies

make
the

it

abundantly clear

how wide

a chasm separates the

followers of Keshab, the enthusiastic admirer of Christ, from

community
it

of Christians at Calcutta.

But

is

equally clear that Keshab was

one of India's

greatest social
his errors of

and

religious reformers, and, notwithstanding

judgment, a worthy successor of

Rammohun Roy.
large

Before

left

Calcutta a meeting was held to organize some

suitable plan for perpetuating his

memory, and a
But
I

sum

had been collected

character,

in subscriptions.

doubt whether

the time has yet arrived for an adequate appreciation of his

and

it is

to be feared that jealousies

and disputes

among some
effect of

of his former followers

may

impair the good

what he has done

for the cause of progress.

put into a cot and brought down into the court-yard. The chief mourner appHed nine bits of gold to the mouth, nostrils, eyes, and head of the deceased, and anointed the body with otto of spikenard and otto of sandal-wood. The corpse was then dressed in clean clothes, after which

garlands of flowers were placed on it. A small plant the sacred tulsl with its root and flowers was placed on the head during this period.

Large crowds flocked

in to see the last of the

well-known

patriot.

At

three o'clock the cortege proceeded to the Ghat.

by the friends and

relatives of the deceased.

The corpse was borne On the way it was deposited

It

opposite the temple near the Ghat, where prayers were offered.

was

then taken to the side of the river, where the son anointed it with Ganges water. The funeral pyre was composed partly of sandal-wood. A clean piece of cloth was then put on the pyre, and the body was uncovered up
to the waist. After this the son was summoned to the side of the remains, when ghee was placed on his hand, with which he anointed the head of the corpse. Ganges water was again sprinkled on the body, after which the priest gave the son two rings composed apparently of tulsl leaves, which he placed round the forefinger of the deceased. The priest then chanted some invocations in a low tone, which the son repeated. The

body was then placed on the funeral pyre and cremated. During the cremation rice, dal, and pice were distributed to the poor. The deceased wished that the cremation should not be attended with any pomp.'

Pratap Chandar Mozoonidar.

It

521

might indeed have been thought that the return of Mr.

after

Pratap Chandar

Mozoomdar very soon Keshab Chandar Sen would have made

successor,
certain.

the death of

his election as Mr.

Sen's

and as

leader of

the

New

Dispensation

Church,

He

had been travelling round the world,

illness.

but hurried back on hearing of Mr. Sen's

could deny that he was the one
to succeed the great Reformer,

No

one

man

intellectually qualified

and he himself was bent on

becoming a
this

religious guide,

if

not a ruler.

Nothing short of
to lack

was

likely to satisfy his aspirations.

But he seemed

the tact needed for keeping the great Keshab's Samaj together,

and he

failed at first to

bring about any settlement

of the unseemly disputes which

had arisen
I

in

regard to the

ownership of the place of worship.

On

inquiry in

August,

1884,

was told that he conhouse, and that he had

ducted religious services

in his

own

started a Bengal! paper (called the Alok) as an organ for

disseminating his

own views and

still

the doctrines of the

'

New

Dispensation,' of which he

believed himself to be the ex-

ponent.
minister

He

maintained that the public utterances of the late

it

showed that

was never

his desire to appropriate

for the use of his

own

family and most intimate friends any

of the property of the Samaj, such as the prayer hall (Mandir)

which was erected by public subscription.

In opposition to this view, the near relatives and adherents
of the late

Keshab Chandar Sen

to

called themselves the true

members
leader.

of the Apostolic Darbar,

and claimed the Mandir as

their own, declining

recognize Mr.

Mozoomdar

as their

They were

for

some time

like a flock

without a shep-

herd, and appeared likely to lapse

latterly inclined to

as their leader also seemed

superstitious practices, or

do

into

many

even into a form of Theism nearly approaching Vaishnavism.

I

dar's exact position

have at present (1891) no information as to Mr. Mozoombut his great energy and ability, com;

bined with his oratorical powers, must have secured for him a


522
large

Pratap Chandar Mozoomdar.

number of adherents, and perhaps have led to his organizing a Samaj of a purer character than that of his predecessor Mr. Sen.
It

may be

interesting, therefore,
I

if I

here
the

put on record a conversation

following words
:

had with him, nearly

in

What is your name for God ? Brahma is our chief name, though this (being neuter) is rather our philosophical one. Our house of God is called Brahma-mandira. But our common name for God is Hari (also one of the common names of Vishnu),
which means the Taker away of sin and evil.' We also use the names Paramesvara, Supreme Lord,' and Paramatma, Supreme Spirit,' and Supreme Supreme Father,' and even Parama-mata, Parama-pita, Mother.' Perhaps one reason for these last names may be that we cannot get rid of the idea of Purusha and Prakriti, which is ingrained in the
' '

'

'

'

Hindu mind

(see p. 223 of this volume).

you hold that God created the world out of nothing, or that He developed it out of His own essence? We consider this inquiry too recondite and too much beyond the reach We do not attempt to go into it. But we hold that of our intellects. God did not create the world all at once, but by gradual evolution. Everything in creation proceeds progressively by fixed law, and not

Do

per saltum.
late leader, Keshab Chandar Sen, called on India to accept what did he mean by this ? We do accept Christ in our own way. We regard Him as our supreme Exemplar, our ideal Man. He was the Spirit of God incarnate the ideal Moses of the Hfe of God in man. We do not believe this of any one else. was a good man, and David a devoted man full of faith and trust in God. But these were only partially good. Paul conforms most nearly to the Christ-hke pattern Christ is the concentration and combination of all. Do you claim anything similar for your late leader, Keshab Chandar Sen? No. True, he was a good and holy man and had the Spirit of God he was inspired, but not perpetually the Spirit was not always present in him, and certainly he was not inspired in the sense Christ is thought to have been by Christians. He was only inspired when he placed himself Then in a devotional frame of mind and gave himself to earnest prayer. great spiritual impulses were imparted to him, in response to such

Your

Christ

prayers.

And

similar responses are given to other

men

also.

Inspiration

was not confined to Mr. Keshab Chandar Sen, He had his allotted place and work as our chief leader, and we yielded him allegiance. He was not a guide to any except to those brought into association with him not to all the world. There is a common inspiration given to each member of

our church in his own special sphere of work. What are your views on the subject of Christ's death ? We accept Christ's death as an atonement spiritually.

But there

is

no


Pi^atap

Chandar Alozoomdar.

523

mere mechanical and material application of Christ's merits. If we are by Christ's death we must go through the same processes. Christ's death was the victory of pain and suffering over pleasure and carnality. It was also a self-sacrifice. It was God living and dying for the good of the world. It effected a reconciliation between sinful man and God. In this sense we recognise the atonement. Any one who adopts the same principle of self-sacrifice helps to effect reconciliation between man and God. Christ has taught us to die. Do you believe in the resurrection of Christ ? Not in His bodily, but in His spiritual resurrection.
to profit

What
sarily

are your ideas about

is

Heaven
It is

Our heaven

called Svarga.

an eternal condition, and not neceslocality.

connected with any particular

do not believe in the transmigration of souls (metempsychosis). Do you believe in a Hell } Yes, our Hell is called Naraka, but it is a temporary condition, like the
Purgatory of the
a locality.

We

Roman

Catholics.

It is

not necessarily connected with

hold in regard to a personal Spirit of evil ? in a personal Devil, nor in the Bhijtas and Prctas of the Hindiis (see p. 241 of this volume). Evil is negative, and sin is a positive act proceeding from weakness or disease of the will.

What do you

We

do not believe

Do you keep up any of the Hindu domestic ceremonies, or have you ceremonies of your own ? We have some domestic ceremonies, of course, which we call Anushthana. They are performed without idolatry, and according to forms of our own and with our own prayers. Thus we have Birth, Marriage, and Funeral ceremonies. We have also Baptism and a rite called Homa (using fire as a symbol). Moreover, we have a ceremony corresponding to the Christian Communion, performed with rice and milk, which are supposed to have the same symbolical significance as bread and wine, that is, they typify union and assimilation as food is assimilated. But w^e do not consider our ceremonies (anushthana) binding on all. Any member of our church may retain the Hindu domestic ceremonies, going through them as a matter of routine. Still, we do not consider any one a strict Brahma unless he adopts the Brahma (sometimes called Brahmic) ceremonies, and these strict Brahmas we call Anushthanikas.

With regard

to the question of

Brahma

ceremonies,

it

should

be carefully noted that, after

all,

the Brahma-Samaj Thcist

rites

who has

not given up Hindu domestic

and caste-customs
has nothing in
I

can scarcely be said to have severed himself from Hinduism.

The mere holding

a Brahman
if

of Theistic

opinions

it

opposed to Hinduism, nor even to Brahmanism.

once asked

he had any short creed which he could write

524
down
for

AnushtJiana
me.

07^

Brahma

Ceremonies.
in Sanskrit a

He

immediately wrote
'
:

few words

bow down before the One God, who is the only existing Being, who is eternal, who is all joy, and the giver of all joy; who is all knowledge; who is
which may
be thus translated
I

unchangeable and present as a witness

Indeed the foregoing pages of
written in vain
if

in all consciences.'

this

volume
it

will

have been

they have not made

evident that Vaish-

navism and Saivism

Theists

especially

the former

are

in

reality

forms of Theism (pp. 54,

Vishnu.

"]% 96, 475).

who worship one personal They maintain that the idolatry connected
is

The Vaishnavas are God under the name of

with that
essence.

worship

not a necessary part of

its

Adoration of

images (murti-piija) is allowed as a help to weak-minded people,

but the mental and spiritual form of devotion (manasi puja)
is

repeatedly declared to be the highest (see

p.

23),

and that

to

which

all

lower forms lead up.

If,

therefore, a

Vaishnava
as

abstains from idolatry in his daily worship, and confines himself to spiritual adoration,
it

may

be contended that he

is

good a Theist as any member of a Brahma-Samaj, bearing in mind that some of these latter also worship God under
one of the names of Vishnu (Hari).

may be

a sympathizer with the

Every such Vaislinava members of modern Theistic

societies so far as

mere monotheistic doctrines are concerned.

in

There remains, however, the doctrine of metempsychosis. The crucial test of pure Theism among the Hindus lies

""^

the rejection of that doctrine and of the old domestic cere-

monies and caste-customs.

to the old superstitious

If

man

adheres to caste, and

and idolatrous methods of performing

family

rites,

and to the Hindu doctrine of metempsychosis,

he cannot be said to have joined the ranks of true Theistic

Reformers.

no one ought to be allowed to register his name as a member of any Brahma-Samaj unless he has the courage of his opinions, and is prepared to become an
in real fact

And

Anushthanika

that

is

to say, unless he engages to shake off

Sp7^ead of
all

Brahma C/mrckes
all

in India.

525
and
ac-

the fetters of caste, and perform

initiation,

domestic

rites
etc.,

ceremonies at births,
cording to

marriages, deaths,

Brahma (Brahmic)
I

rules

and forms
little

and of these

Anushthanikas hundred
pure Theism

believe

there

are

more than eieht

all told.

So much,
is

then, for the actual advance of

in India.
it

Nevertheless

matter of congratulation
to be found who,

that

many

thousands are

now

though they do not

of the

adopt pure Theistic forms, or renounce caste-customs, nevertheless sympathize with the

members

Brahma-Samaj

to the extent of renouncing idolatry.

And

it

is

much

to

be hoped that the bitterness of feeling

produced by constant disputes and schisms

operation of our educational system
existence,

may

in the

end

pass away, and that the various bodies of Theists which the
is

rapidly calling into

may

ere long

forget their petty differences,

and

agree upon some course of combined and systematic action

for the

promotion of

social reform.

Surely the present

little

band of Reformers, however courageous, is not strong enough A compact and to bear weakening by internal divisions.
serried front
foes,
is

urgently needed in the presence of countless

who

neglect no opportunity of marshalling their forces,

in active

and uniting

co-operation for the destruction of the

scattered ranks of their opponents.

Ten years ago

out India.

the Census showed that there were 178

Theistic Churches established in different localities throueh-

The

present Census will no doubt prove

;

them

to

be now more numerous

but

it

must be borne

in

mind that

many

of

them have few

registered Anushthanika members,

though they have numerous sympathizers.

The Madras Samaj, founded

in 1871,

a previous Veda-Samaj, was well led

and developed out of by Sridharalu Naidu

(under the Adi Brahma-Samaj), but at his death languished.

It

revived in 1879, but soon split into two parties,

some

siding

with Keshab Chandar Sen and some with the Sadharana

526

spread of Brahnia Churches,

Theosophy.

Church.
strongest,

When

was

last in India

the latter party was the

and had formed a new Samaj.

'

At Bombay,
first

the

Prarthana-Samaj, or

Prayer Society,' was the

It

Theistic

Church of Western

India.

was founded

in 1867,

and owed

much

of

its

continued vitality to the support of an enlightened

native. Dr.

Atmaram Pandurang.

first laid down by Keshab Chandar Sen, and are liberal and progressive. Many are more conservative, and conform to the pattern of the Adi Brahma-Samaj at Calcutta^. Some, again, take an in-

Some

of the Samajes follow on the lines

dependent

line,

and

call their

creed

'

Theosophy.'
'

'

Such Theosophical societies define Theosophy to mean spiritual philosophy.' divine wisdom or science,' They
' '

hold that

all

religions

have elements of truth which spring

is

from the one Fountain of Truth, and that Theosophy

synthesis
of
all

the

religions.

Hence pure Brahmanism, pure

true that
little

Buddhism, pure Islam, pure Christianity may be equivalent

to

Theosophy.
it

It

may be

but in India
for the

seems to be

Theosophy is spreading, more than another name

I

Vedanta philosophy.

Let
(1)

me
at
(3)

now^ describe the meetings which

myself attended

of Keshab's

Progressive
;

Church
cutta
;

Calcutta

(2) of

Samaj or New Dispensation the Adi Brahma-Samaj at Cal-

Bombay. Brahma-Samaj at which I was present, took place on the Sunday previous to Keshab Chandar Sen's death, when he was lying dangerously ill. The religious service was conducted by some relative who acted as his deputy. His Secretary, Mr. Pratap Chandar Mozoomdar,
of the Prarthana-Samaj at of the Progressive

The meeting

who, as already mentioned, had been on a tour round the world,

^

ge7ierally conservative, contains

According to Raj Narain Bose, the Adi Brahma-Samaj, though individual members who have taken

in very progressive reforms, such as discarding the thread, the remarriage of widows, emancipation of females, etc. The Adi-Samaj in

part

is conservative in religious reform, basing it on Vedas and Vedanta, but leaves social reform to the judgment and taste of individual members.

fact

Form of Service
had not
services
at that
is

at

Bi^ahma-Samaj Meetings.

527

time returned.

situated in a

The building used for these handsome street in the native quarter
its

of Calcutta, and has a spire and an exterior elevation copied

from our Christian churches; while

interior arrangements,
it

though Oriental

in points of detail, give

an appearance not

unlike that of a plain unadorned dissenting chapel.

This

is

the

building which since the death of

Keshab Chandar Sen has

up
to the

caused a dispute as to

its

ownership, terminating in a serious

disruption (see p. 520).

On

driving

entrance

noticed two temporary screens stretching from the road to a

side-door.
called

This was to enable the female Brahmas (usually

a most unusual circumstance in India for

Brahmikas) to enter without being seen.

No
the

doubt

it

is

women
I

of a family to meet in the same place of worship

in the
I

and to join
but,

same devotions with

their

male

relatives

confess,

did not expect to find the female

of the congregation of the great social

members Reformer immured in

it.

a gallery with a

wooden screen
I

in front of

On

entering the Church

found the interior nearly

full

of

men, almost every one of

closely around him.

whom

wore the shawl which con-

stitutes the favourite winter

costume of a Bengali Babii drawn

They began by
and
I

repeating a litany in a standing attitude,

observed that the responses of the congregation were

uttered with

much apparent

devotion.

The

preacher,

who

was

also

wrapped

in a shawl, sat in the

middle of a slightly

raised platform surrounded

by a

railing.

When

the litany

was concluded he repeated a prayer

a

in Bengali.

Then came

hymn sung

to an organ

accompaniment, apparently played

with one finger in single notes and in a minor key, a kind of

drum-beating time.

After the

hymn

the preacher sat

down
in a

and

in that attitude

gave us an exhortation or sermon

very unimpassioned manner, interweaving

many

quotations

from the sacred scriptures of India and other nations, the

congregation listening with great attention.


528

Form of Sei^ice
was very

at

Brahma-Samaj Meeti7igs.
all

The
to the

simple character of the service and the absence of

refreshing after a recent visit I

idolatry

had made

temple of the goddess Kali.

services at the

The

by a son of Debendra-nath.

Adi Brahma-Samaj were conducted The sermon was preached

;

from a raised platform or altar (Vedi)

loud tones, and with
gesticulation.

and three singers,

the

seated in front of a kind of organ, chanted

hymns

in

much warmth

of

manner and energetic

At Bombay

the Manual used

by the Prarthana-Samaj conwere sung with much

tained selections from the Veda, Upanishads, Christian Bible,

Kuran, and Zand-Avasta.

fervour in a thoroughly

Hymns
lute,

Hindu

fashion to an

accompaniment
said,

played on the Vina or Indian

and prayers were

consisting chiefly of invocations of the

praise

Supreme Being, with

and adoration of His

in

attributes, but without confession

of guilt, while the congregation remained seated, though their

hands were joined

of Sanskrit at

reverence.

After the prayer an able

sermon was preached by Professor Bhandarkar (Professor

Deccan College, Poona) who took

till all

for his text a

:

passage from the Kathopanishad (VI. 15), thus translatable

'

Man

cannot obtain immortality

the knots in his heart

caused by ignorance and unbelief are cut (yada sarve prabhi-

dyante hridayasya granthayah).'

He then

illustrated his text

by quotations from other books. For example a passage There is from Tukaram the most popular Maratha poet

'

no happiness other than peace.

Therefore preserve peace,

and you

will cross

over to yonder shore.'

What

chiefly struck

me

at the

Bombay meeting was

the

apparent absence of sympathy or rapport between the

official

performers of the services and the general congregation.

The

hymns were
prayers
livered

energetically sung

by the appointed
the address

singers, the

earnestly repeated, and

solemnly de-

by the

minister, but the congregation neither stood

nor knelt, and seemed to take no really cordial part in the

Vedic Theism,
proceedings.
It is true

Dayana^ida Sarasvaii.

529
is
;

that a sitting posture at prayer

customary, and by no means intended to imply irreverence

yet
I

came away persuaded that the Prarthana-Samaj of Bombay, in spite of honest strivings after a pure soul-stirring Theism, is still chilled and numbed by the lingering influence
it is

of Vedantic Pantheism, which

unable wholly to shake

of

off.

And

this, I believe, is

true of

many of the Churches

Western

India which

among

their

number many learned and philosophical men members men who have little sympathy with

the Vaishnava tendencies of the Bengali Brahmas.

Before concluding this sketch of modern Hindu Theism,

I

should note that

efforts to

occasional

Reformers

still

arise

who

make
trines

found a purely Indian Theism on the docin

supposed to be contained

the

hymns

of the Veda.

movement

for the diffusion of this

kind of Vedic Theism

was not long ago inaugurated by a remarkable Gujarat!

Brahman, named Dayananda SarasvatT, who

church the Arya-Samaj.
in 1876,
figure.
I

called his

new

made

his acquaintance at

Bombay

and was much struck by

There
I

his fine

countenance and

heard him preach an eloquent discourse on

the religious development of the

Aryan

race.

He

began by

repeating a
ble

hymn
I

to

Varuna

(see p. 15)

preceded by the sylla-

Om

(p. 10),

prolating the vowel in deep sonorous tones.

Just before

reached India in the autumn of 1883 he died

suddenly (some say by poison) at Ajmere during the Divali

festival.

In the spring of 1884

I

visited

Ajmere, and saw

although after

the place of his cremation.

his death vast
their

found
their

that,

numbers declared

sympathy with him,

admiration of his character and their willingness to

large

subscribe

sums

to

perpetuate his
alive,

memory and
bitter

his

teaching, yet that, while

he had many

enemies

among

the

Brahmans
all

for

he was a strong opponent of

idolatry as well as of

forms of Polytheism.

The

peculiarity

of his teaching was

of Vedic

that he contended that the four collections

hymns

(Mantras), as distinct from the

Brahmanas

530

Vedic Theism.
(pp.
8,

Dayananda

Sarasvati.

and Upanishads and Surya are

his

21, 26), are the

only true non-human

(a-paurusheya) revelation, and that the

to

hymns

to Agni, Indra,

One God under

different

names.

In

printed

creed

he declared that he was not an inde-

pendent thinker (naharn svatantrah), but a follower of the

Veda

that the four Sarnhita texts of the

Vedas

including
;

the Isa Upanishad

are

to

be received as a primary autho-

rity in all matters relating to

human conduct

that the other

Upanishads, the Brahmanas, beginning with the Satapatha

the six Aiigas or limbs of the Veda, beginning with Siksha the four Upa-vedas
;

the six Darsanas or Schools of Philo-

sophy, and the 11 30 schools or branches^ (sakhas) of Vedic

teaching are to be accepted as secondary authority in ex-

pounding the meaning of the Vedic

prayer, and devotion

texts,

and that adoration,

are to be offered to

One God

only,

abstracted from

all

idea of shape and form, and without

any

second, as set forth in the Vedas.

In one of

my interviews with

him,

asked him
:

tion of religion, he replied in Sanskrit

is

Religion (Dharmah)
'

for his defini-

a true and just view (nyayah), and the abandonment of

all

prejudice
say,
it is

and

partiality (pakshapata-rahityam)

that

is

to

an impartial inquiry into the truth by means of the

senses and the two other instruments of knowledge (pramana),

reason,

and

revelation.'

Dayananda's teaching, however, included the doctrine of

metempsychosis (punar-janma), which
found on Vedic authority.
it

would be

dif^cult to

Of

course, both this

and

all his

more peculiar doctrines are repudiated by the various Brahma Samajes, and even by the Adi Samaj of Calcutta. Nor would Dayananda himself have admitted an identity of teachNevertheless he ing with the Brahma Thelstic movement. has done undoubted good by his uncompromising opposition
^

Of

these there are one thousand for the Sama-veda, one

hundred

for

the Yajur-veda, twenty-one for the Rig-veda, and nine for the Atharvaveda. See Patanjali's Mahabhashya I. i. i.


Vedic Theism.
to idolatry

Dayananda

Sarasvati.

531
in-

and

to the later

developments of Hinduism,

cluding the whole circle of Puranic mythology.

a
Social

He was

also

Reformer and often preached against child-marleft

riages.

He

a will (svTkara-patra), written in Hindi, and

by

that constituted what he called a Paropakarini

is

that

to say, a Society, or

Sabha more properly a Committee, con-

members who are bound to assist each other (the Maharana of Udaypur being President). The duty of this Committee is (i) to publish and disseminate the Veda and Vedangas (2) to send missionaries to different countries and by their means persuade every one to accept truth and abandon
sisting of twenty-three
;

error

(3) to

educate poor people in India (Aryavarta)

in the

principles of the
also left

Arya-Samaj, as founded by himself.

be spent
in

He

money
let

to

promoting these objects.

Indian religious

And
thought

us not be slow to acknowledge the good results

likely to

flow from
all this

all

this

agitation

in

upheaval of old ideas,

life.

all this activity

and

movement
as
if

in

Indian religious

Still

less

let

us regard

with distrust the

efforts of these

modern Theistic Reformers,

they were unfavourable to the progress of Christian

truth.

We may be

quite sure that

men
work
fall

like

Debendra-nath

Tagore, and the other leaders of the chief Brahma-Samaj

or Theistic churches, are doing good
sacrificing
spirit,

in a Christian self-

though they

may

into

many

errors.
critical

And we
in

shall

do well not to be too censorious and

us hold out the right hand
;

our animadversions on their opinions and practices.

Rather

let

of fellowship

to

these noble-minded Patriots

for,

indeed^ they need every

encouragement
country's worst
stition,

in their

almost hopeless struggle with their

Super-

enemies, Ignorance, Prejudice, and

train

in

whose

may
;

generally be found Pride,

Un-

truthfulness, Selfishness,
still

and Immorality.
let

Intense darkness

broods over the land

Christianity thankfully wel-

come and wisely make use

of every gleam and

it

glimmer of

true light, from whatever quarter

may

shine.

M m

CHAPTER
Examples of
the

XXI.

Moral Precepts of Brahmanism and Hinduism.

it

In treating of Indian morality

there
is

is

usual to affirm that

his

no connexion between a Hindu's creed and

This
is
is

moral conduct.

scarcely correct, because an essential

part of his creed

the doctrine of metempsychosis, which

dying, return to earth in higher

teaches that a

man may, on

or lower forms of existence according to the merit or de-

merit of his acts

after passing

through intermediate periods

of bliss or torment in temporary heavens or temporary hells

(see pp.

232, 291-293).

belief in such a doctrine

is

of

course likely to have a powerful effect in impelling a

to
is

man

good actions and deterring him from

likely to control his appetites,
if,

evil.

Every man

through indulging them

to excess,

he

may

be born as an unclean animal in his next

is

birth

and every man

careful not to steal, if theft

;

may

lead to his being born as a rat

if

and

to abstain from murder,

the killing of his neighbour

life

may

lead to his

dation in his next

or reptile.

to the condition of
in

own degrasome noxious brute

'

Constantly

the sacred books of the Hindus

precepts,

morality
'

is

summed up
'

in three

good thoughts,'

good words,'

good

deeds,'

and these are enjoined upon

is

every

man

but no motive
evil

put before him, except the

dread of the

consequences which bad thoughts, bad

will certainly entail,

words and bad deeds

life

not only

in this

but

in

many

subsequent states of existence.

See pp.

52, SZ'

Mo7^al Precepts of Brahmanisin and Hinduism,

For no Hindu
a moral
Hfe.
is

533

a believer in the possibility of obtaining

to lead

any supernatural external aid which may help him

He

is

no believer

in

any divine spring or

source of power, outside himself, which

ing, energizing force

may

act like a purifyhis obedience

upon

his character,

and make

to the laws of morality not only a duty,

but a delight.

With regard
it is

to the

mere
of

letter of the

Hindu moral code

often

admitted that the noble precepts scattered throughout

literature

the sacred
rise to

Brahmanism and Hinduism

the level of Christian teaching, and present a picture

it is

which, although

here and there disfigured

by dark

spots

and blemishes, cannot but produce a favourable impression

on every candid
critic (p. 52).

The

present chapter will be devoted to the exhibiting of

I

a few samples of the best of these precepts which

selected from different works, beginning with the
'

have
of

Laws

Manu.'
metrical,

As

the originals are in verse, the translations are also

as nearly literal as possible
^.

and

Precepts

from Maim.

General Precepts.

With pain the mother to her child gives birth, With pain the father rears him as he grows
;

He

heaps up cares and troubles for his parents

Incurring thus a debt he ne'er can pay.

Though he should
Think constantly,

strive

through centuries of time

(ll.

227).

son,

how thou mayest

please

Thy father, mother, teacher these obey. By deep devotion seek thy debt to pay.
This
is

thy highest duty and religion

(ll.

228).

Even though wronged,

treat not with disrespect

(ll.

Thy
^

father,

mother, teacher, elder brother

226).

These translations are

my
'

of

my

other works, especially

own, and will be found scattered Indian Wisdom,' now out of print.

in

some

534

Moral

Precepts of Brahmanisin

mid Hinduism,

From poison thou mayest take the food of life, The purest gold from lumps of impure earth,
Examples of good conduct from a
foe,

Sweet speech and gentleness from e'en a child, Something from all from men of low degree
;

Lessons of wisdom,

if

thou humble be

(ll.

238, 239).

Wound not Do no one

Say what

another, though

injury

by him provoked. by thought or deed.

(ll.

Utter no word to pain thy fellow-creatures

is

161).
(iv. 138).

true,

speak not agreeable falsehood

Treat no one with disdain^, with patience bear

Reviling language
;

with an angry

man

Be never angry

blessings give for curses (vi. 47, 48).

E'en as a driver checks his restive steeds. Do thou, if thou art wise, restrain thy passions,

Which, running

wild, will hurry thee

away

(ll.

88).

When

asked, give something, though a very

trifle.

Ungrudgingly and with a cheerful heart,

According to thy substance

only see
(iv. 227, 228).

That he

to

whom

thou givest worthy be

Pride not thyself on thy religious works.

Give to the poor^ but talk not of thy

gifts,

By
The

pride religious merit melts away,

merit of thy alms by ostentation

(iv. 236, 237).

None

sees us, say the sinful in their hearts

Yes, the gods see them, and the omniscient Spirit

Within their

breasts.

Thou

thinkest,

good

friend,

^ In IV. 135 the householder is especially warned against treating with contempt a Brahman well versed in the Veda, a Kshatriya, and a serpent, because (says Kulluka) the first has the power of destroying him by his unseen power of magical texts and spells, the other two by their seen power {drishta-saktya). Cf. the passages relative to the power of the

Brahmans

at pp. 201, 202.


Moral
'

Precepts of Brahmaiiisin

and Hmdidsm.

535

am

alone,'

but there resides within thee

act,
(vill. 85, 91).

Being who inspects thy every

all

Knows
The

thy goodness and thy wickedness

its

soul

is

own

witness
;

yea, the soul

Itself is its

own

refuge

grieve thou not,

man, thy

soul, the great internal

Witness

(vill. 84).

The Firmament, the Earth, the Sea, the Moon, The Sun, the Fire, the Wind, the Night, and both The sacred Twilights^, and the Judge of souls ^, The god of Justice, and the Heart itself All constantly survey the acts of men (vill. 86).

When
Under

thou hast sinned, think not to hide thy guilt

a cloak of penance and austerity
(IV. 198).

No No
Can

study of the Veda nor oblation.

gift

of alms, nor round of strict observance

(ll.

lead the inwardly depraved to heaven

97).

If with the great Divinity,

who

dwells

Within thy breast, thou hast no controversy.

Go

not to Ganges' water to be cleansed,

to Kuru's fields (vill. 92).

Nor make a pilgrimage

Iniquity once practised, like a seed,

Fails not to yield
its

fruit to

him who wrought

and grandsons

it,

If not to him, yet to his sons

(iv. 173J.

Contentment

is

the root of happiness,

And

discontent the root of misery.

(iv. 12).

Wouldst thou be happy, be thou moderate

Honour thy
Eat
it

food, receive

it

thankfully,

contentedly and joyfully,

it

Ne'er hold

in
is

contempt

avoid excess,

For gluttony

hateful, injures health,

See the account of the Sandhyas,

p.

401.

Yama,

see

p. 289.


536

Moral Pi^ecepts of B7^ak7nanis7n and Hmduism.

lead to death, and surely bars the road
celestial bliss (il. 54, 57).

May
To

holy merit and

Shrink thou from worldly honour as from poison,

Seek rather scorn

In peace awake;

the scorn'd

may

sleep in peace,
(ll.

the scorner perishes

162, 163).

Daily perform thy own appointed work

Unweariedly

and

to obtain a friend

sure

companion

to the future world

Collect a store of virtue like the ants

Who

garner up their treasures into heaps

father, mother, wife, will

For neither

nor son,

Nor kinsman,

remain beside thee then,

When thou Thy virtue

Single
is

art passing to that other

will

home
(iv. 238, 239).

thy only comrade be

every living creature born,

Single he passes to another world.

Single he eats the fruit of evil deeds.
Single, the fruit of

good

and when he leaves

His body

like a log or

heap of clay

Upon

the ground, his kinsmen walk

away

Virtue alone stays by him at the tomb.

And

bears him through the dreary trackless gloom.

(IV.

240-242) ^

Thou canst not gather what thou dost not sow As thou dost plant the tree so will it grow (ix.
Depend not on
another, rather lean
trust to thine

40).

Upon

thyself;

own

exertions.
;

Subjection to another's will gives pain

True happiness

consists in self-reliance (iv. 160).

^ Dr. Muir has pointed out that the expression tavias tarati dustarain^ 'he crosses the gloom difficult to be passed,' may be taken from Atharvaveda IX. 5. i, tirtva tanidrisi bahudhd mahdnti.

Moral Precepts of Brakmanism and Hinditism,

Strive to complete the task thou hast

537

commenced
;

Wearied, renew thy

efforts

once again

Again

fatigued, once

So

shalt

more the work begin, thou earn success and fortune win
to

(ix. 300).

Be courteous

thy guest who

visits

thee

Offer a seat, bed, water, food enough,

According to thy substance, hospitably

Naught taking

for thyself

till

he be served
life,

Homage

to guests brings wealth, fame,

and heaven.
106, IV. 29).

(ill.

Though thou mayst

So

suffer for

thy righteous

acts,
(iv. 171).

Ne'er give thy mind to aught but honest gain

act in thy brief passage through this world

That thy apparel, speech, and inner store Of knowledge be adapted to thy age,

Thy

occupation, means, and parentage (iv. 18).

According to a man's sincerity

In penitent confession of his crime,

And
From
If
I

detestation of the evil deed,

Shall he be pardoned and his soul released

taint of guilt, like serpent
'tis
;

from

its

skin (xi. 227, 228).

he do wrong,
will

not enough to say

release from guilt

not sin again

Depends on

true contrition, which consists

In actual abstinence from sinful deeds (xi. 230).

Revolving

in his

mind the certainty

in thought, in

Of

retribution in a future state,

Let him be pure

word,

in

deed

(xi. 231).

By By
^

free confession, penitence,

and penance,

daily repetition of the

Veda ^,
triple division of
'

Here

is

another example of Manu's

thought, word,

and
^

deed.'

The same

triple division is frequent in

Buddhistic writings.

Khydpatiena^

a7iictdpe7ia^ tapasCi^ adliyayetia ba.

538

Moral

Precepts of Brahinanis7n

and Hinduism.

By By

the five holy acts^

patience,

by giving alms,
injuries.

and by bearing

The

greatest sinner

may

obtain release (xi. 227, 245).

The man who keeps

Gains
all

his senses in control,

His speech, heart, actions pure and ever guarded,

the fruit of holy study
;

he
(ll.

Needs neither penance nor

austerity

160).

Contentment, patience under injury,

Self-subjugation, honesty, restraint

Of

all

the sensual organs, purity,

Devotion, knowledge of the Deity ^

Veracity, and abstinence from anger.

These form the tenfold summary of duty

(vi. 92).

Long not

for death,

nor hanker after

life

Calmly expect thy own appointed time.

E'en as a servant reckons on his hire
(iv. 45).

This mansion of the soul, composed of earth.

Subject to sorrow and decrepitude,

Inhabited by sicknesses and pains.

Bound by

the bonds of ignorance and darkness,

(vi. 77).

Let a wise man with cheerfulness abandon

Quitting this body, he resembles merely

A
.

bird that leaves a tree.

Thus
evil

is

he freed
^

From

the

fell

monster of an

world

(vi. 78).

Whate'er the act a man commits, whate'er

His

state of mind, of that the

recompense

Must he

receive in corresponding

body

(xil. 81).

Action of every kind, whether of mind

Or speech
^

or body, must bear

fruit,

entailing

That

is,
'

the five Maha-yajnas

see p, 411.

knowledge of the supreme Spirit.' Kulluka. Kricchrdd grUhat = samsara-kashtdd grahad iva.
Vidya,

Moral P7'ecepts of BraJimanism and Hindiiism.

Fresh births through multifarious conditions,
In highest, mean,

539

and lowest transmigrations

is

(xil. 3).

This universal Soul

Is all

all
is

the gods. the only source

the worlds, and

Of

all
is

the actions of embodied spirits (xil. 119).

their ruler, brighter than pure gold,

He

Subtler than atoms, imperceptible,

Except by minds abstracted, all-pervading,

Investing
all

with rudiments of matter,

Causing

all

beings to revolve like wheels

In regular and constant revolution

Through

birth

and growth, decay and dissolution.

(xil. 122, 124).

Duties of

Women and

Wives.

In childhood must a father guard his daughter

In youth the husband shields his wife
;

in

age

A
A

mother

is

protected by her sons

Ne'er should a
faithful wife

woman
who

lean

upon

herself (v. 148, IX.

3).

wishes to attain

The heaven

of her lord, must serve him here

As if he were a god, and ne'er do aught To pain him, whatsoever be his state, And even though devoid of every virtue (v.
Be it her duty to preserve with care Her husband's substance let her too be With its expenditure, with management Of household property and furniture. Of cooking and purveying daily food.
;

154, 156).

trusted

Let her be ever

cheerful, skilled in all

free in

Domestic work, and not too

spending

(v. 150).

Then only

is
is

man

a perfect

man

When

he

three

himself,

his wife, his son

540

Moral Precepts of Brahmanism and Hinduism,

'

For thus have learned men the law declared, A husband is one person with his wife (ix.
'

45).

Fidelity

till

death, this

is

the

sum
(ix. loi).

Of mutual duties for a married pair

And

if

the wife survives, let her remain

true,

Constant and
E'en by

nor sully her

fair

fame
(v. 157).

the utterance of another's

name

Duties of Kings.

The Lord

of

all

in pity to

our needs
;

Created kings, to rule

and guard us here

Without a king

this

world would rock with fear

(vil. 3).

A
As

king, e'en though a child,

if

must not be treated

(vil. 8).

he were a mortal

rather he

Is a divinity in

human shape

Dread of the rod alone

restrains the bad,

(vil. 15).

Controls the good, and makes a nation happy

The king must

therefore punish fearlessly

Else would the strong oppress the weak, the bad

Would wrong the good, and pierce them The crow would eat the consecrated rice, The dog the burnt oblation ownership
;

as with iron

^
;

And

rights of property

would be subverted

All ranks and classes would become confused, All barriers and bridges broken down.

And
But

all

the world turned

wrong

side uppermost.
(vil. 20, 21, 24).

let

the monarch, ere he wield his rod.

Consider place and time, the written law

Of
^

justice,

and the measure of

his strength

(vil.

16).

The

literal translation of

the text here

{siile

the weaker like fish on a spit'

is the stronger would roast matsydn ivctpakshyan dttrbaldn

'

balavattarah).

Moj^al Precepts of Brahinanisni a7id Hindfiisin.

54

When
Comes

Goodness, wounded by Iniquity,

to a court of justice,

and the judge

Extracts not tenderly the pointed dart,

That very

shaft shall pierce

full

him

to the heart (vill. 12).

Let him with

deliberation weigh

The The The

evidence, the place, the mode, the time,

facts,

the truth, and his

own frame
by a

of mind,

Firmly adhering to the rules of law

court must not be entered

(vill. 45).

witness,
;

Unless he speaks the truth without reserve

For equally does he commit a crime.

Who

tells

not

all

the

facts,

or

tells

them

falsely (vill. 13).

witness

who

gives evidence with truth

sin,

Shall be absolved from every

and gain
(vill. 81, 83).

Exalted glory here and

bliss

above

Headlong
Answers a

in utter

darkness shall the wretch

in a

Fall into hell,

who

court of justice
;

single question falsely

he

Shall be tormented through a hundred births (vill. 82, 94).

And

all

the merit of his virtuous acts

Shall be transferred to dogs.

Therefore be true,
(vill. 90, loi).

Speak the whole truth without equivocation

Let no considerate witness take an oath
Lightly, or in a trifling matter
;

he

Who
Over

does so shall incur eternal ruin (vm. in).

firmness gains the mastery

He who by

his words, his

mind, and his whole body,

10).

Is justly called

a triple-governor^ (xil.

His

title in

Sanskrit

is

Tri-damlin.

It is
2)

noticeable that the Indian

as exciting the
AcivbapLs,

ascetic,

who

is

described by Arrian (VII.

his Kaprepin,
'

wonder of
is

Alexander the Great by

the
called

is

named

probably from
others he

same root as dancia {da?n, Mandanis (root mand?).

to subdue,' in Intens.).

By

542

Moral Precepts of Brahmanism mid Hinduism.

Exerting thus a threefold self-command

Towards himself and every living creature, Subduing lust and wrath, he may aspire To that perfection which the good desire (xil.

ii).

Examples of Precepts from

tJie

Epic Poems.

To

carry out an enterprise in words

Is easy; to

accomplish

it

by

acts

Is the sole test of

man's capacity.
(ed. Gorresio) IV. Ixvii. lo.

Ramayana

Where'er we walk, Death marches at our side

Where'er we

sit,

Death

seats himself beside us

However far we journey, Death continues Our fellow-pilgrim and goes with us home.

Men And
Of
Fills

take delight in each returning dawn,

with admiring gaze, behold the glow

Every season, as it comes. them with gladness, yet they never reck That each recurring season, every day Fragment by fragment bears their life away. As drifting logs of wood may haply meet
sunset.

On Ocean's And having

waters, surging to and

fro,

met, drift once again apart

So fleeting is a man's association With wife and children^, relatives and wealth, So
surely must a time of parting come.

Ramayana
Wliate'er the

(ed.

Bombay)

II.

cv. 24-27.

work a man performs.

completion
source of true success

The most The most

Is

effective aid to its

prolific

energy without despondency.

Ramayana
Time
is

(ed.

Bombay)
are asleep,

v. xii. 11.

awake while mortals


Moral
Precepts of Brak7nanis7Jt
elude
its

and Hinduism.
its

-1

54

None can
It

grasp or curb
all

course,

passes unrestrained o'er

alike.
I.

Maha-bharata

243.

Thou

thinkest

am

single

and alone

Perceiving not the great eternal Sage

Who
Is

dwells within thy breast.

thee,

Whatever wrong
it

done by

he sees and notes

all.
I.

Maha-bharata

3015.

Heaven, Earth, and Sea, Sun, Moon, and Wind, and

Fire,

The god

Day, Night, the Twilights, and the Judge of Souls, of Justice and the Heart itself.

All see and note the conduct of a man.

Maha-bharata

I.

3017.

wife

is

half the

man,

his truest friend.

Source of his

virtue, pleasure,

wealth

the
I.

root

Whence

springs the line of his posterity.

Maha-bharata

3028.

An

evil-minded

man

is

quick to see

His neighbour's

faults,

though small as mustard-seed

eyes towards his own,
^

But when he turns

his

Though

large as Bilva

fruit,

he none

descries.
I.

Maha-bharata
If

3069.

Truth and

thousands of Horse-sacrifices
together. Truth

Were weighed
Death follows

would weigh the most

I.

-.

Maha-bharata
life

3095.

by an unerring law
is

Why

grieve for that which

inevitable

?
I.

Maha-bharata

6144.

This

is

the Aegle Marmelos {Bel) or Bengal Quince, bearing a large

fruit.
3j 4.
-

It is

esteemed sacred

to

Maha-deva.

Compare

St.

Matthew

vii.

Hitopadesa IV. 135.


544

Moral Pi^ecepts of Bralmianism and Hinduism,

Conquer a man who never gives by gifts Subdue untruthful men by truthfulness
; ;

Vanquish an angry man by gentleness

And overcome

the evil

man by

goodness^.
III.

Maha-bharata

13253.

Triple restraint of thought and word and deed,

Strict

vow

of silence, coil of matted hair,

Close shaven head, garments of skin or bark,

Keeping of

fasts,

ablutions, maintenance

Of

sacrificial fires,

a hermit's
are
all

life,

Emaciation

these

in vain. stain.
III.

Unless the inward soul be free from

Maha-bharata

13445-

To To

injure

none by thought or word or deed,

all

give to others, and be kind to

is

This

the constant duty of the good.

High-minded men delight in doing good, Without a thought of their own interest

When

they confer a benefit on others.

favours in return
^.

They reckon not on

Maha-bharata

ill.

16782, 16796,

Two

persons will hereafter be exalted

Above the heavens the man with boundless power

Who

yet forbears to use

is

it

indiscreetly,

And he who

not rich and yet can give^.

Maha-bharata
Sufficient wealth,

V. 1028.

unbroken health, a

friend,

A
^

wife of gentle speech, a docile son.

See Rom.

xii.

21.

Ten
pada
-

Jatakas, p.
223.
St.

5),

Compare the Pali Rajovada Jataka (Fausboll's Akkodhena jine kodham, Asadlmm sadJnmd jine,
See also
St.

Jine kadariyani danena, Sa^dejia alika-vddinam.

Dhamma41-44.

Compare

Luke

vi. 35.

Compare

Mark

xii.

545

Moral
And

Precepts of Brahmanisni
learning that subserves

and Hinduism.
useful end

some

These are a

living man's six greatest blessings.

Maha-bharata

v. 1057.

Good

words, good deeds, and beautiful expressions

wise

man

ever culls from every quarter,

E'en as a gleaner gathers ears of corn.

Maha-bharata

V.

1 1

26.

To

curb the tongue and moderate the speech.

Is held to

be the hardest of

all

tasks

^.

The words of him who talks too volubly Have neither substance nor variety.
Maha-bharata
V. 11 70.

Darts, barbed arrows, iron-headed spears,

However deep they penetrate the

flesh,

May
That

be extracted

but a cutting speech,

pierces, like a javelin, to the heart,

;

None can remove

it

lies

and rankles
Maha-bharata

there.
V. 11 73.

Bear

railing

words with patience, never meet

with anger, nor return

An

angry

man

Reviling for reviling, smite not him

Who
If

smites thee

let

thy speech and acts be gentle.

Maha-bharata

v. 1270, 9972.

thou art wise, seek ease and happiness

;

In deeds of virtue and of usefulness

And
That

ever act in such a

in the night

way by day thy sleep may tranquil be

when thou
art

And

so comport thyself
art

young,

That when thou

In calm serenity.

grown

old, thine

age

may

pass

So ply thy task

St.

James

iii.

8.

N n


546

Moral Pixcepts of BraJwianism and Hmditism.

Throughout thy
life,

that

when thy days

Maha-bharata

are ended,

Thou may'st enjoy

Reflect that health

eternal bliss hereafter.

V, 1248.

is

transient,

death impends,

Ne'er in thy day of youthful strength do aught

To grieve And thou

thy conscience,
art

lest

when weakness comes,

laid,

on a bed of sickness

Fear and remorse augment thy

sufferings.
V. 1474.

Maha-bharata

Do

naught to others which

cause thee pain
;

if

done to thee
is

Would

this

the

sum
V.

of duty.

Maha-bharata

15 17.

A
To

king must

first

subdue himself, and then

Vanquish

his enemies.

How

can a prince
?

Who

cannot rule himself, enthral his foes

is

curb the senses,

to conquer

self.

Maha-bharata

XII. 2599.

Who
The The The

in this

world

is

able to distincruish

virtuous from the wicked, both alike

fruitful earth supports,

on both alike

sun pours

down

his

beams, on both alike

Refreshing breezes blow, and both alike

The waters purify ? Not so hereafter Then shall the good be severed from the bad Then in a region bright with golden lustre
Centre of light and immortality

The righteous after death shall dwell in Then a terrific hell awaits the wicked
Profound abyss of utter misery
Into the depths of which bad

bliss

^.

Headlong, and mourn their

men shall fall doom for countless

years.

Maha-bharata
Compare
Matthew

Xll. 2798.

St.

xiii.

43, xxv. 46.


Moral Precepts of Bralnnanisvi and Hindrtisin.
Enjoy thou the prosperity of others, Although thyself unprosperous noble men
;

547

Take

pleasure in their neighbour's happiness.

Maha-bharata

XII.

3880.

Even

to foes

who

visit

us as guests
;

Due The

hospitality should be displayed

tree screens with
its

leaves, the

man who

fells

it

Maha-bharata

XII. 5528.

What need has he who subjugates himself To live secluded in a hermit's cell ?
Where'er resides the self-subduing sage,

That place

to

him

is

like a hermitage.

Maha-bharata

XII. 5961.

Let none

reject the

meanest suppliant
his door.

Or send him empty-handed from

A
Is

gift

bestowed on outcasts or on dogs

never thrown away or unrequited.

Maha-bharata

XITI. 3212.

Time
One The

passes,

and the man who older grows

Finds hair and teeth and eyes grow ever older.

thing alone within him ne'er grows old
thirst for riches

and the love of gold.

Maha-bharata
This
is

XIII. 3676, 368^.

the

sum

of

all

true righteousness

Treat others, as thou would'st thyself be treated.

Do

nothing to thy neighbour, which hereafter

would'st not have thy neighbour do to thee.
in giving pain,

Thou

In causing pleasure, or

In doing good, or injury to others.

^ This verse occurs in Hitopadesa I. 60. Cf. Rom. xii. 20. Professor H. H.Wilson was induced to commence the study of Sanskrit by reading somewhere that this sentiment was to be met with in Sanskrit Uterature.

n 2

548

Moral Precepts of Brahmanism and

In granting, or refusing a request,

Hindttism.

A
By

man

obtains a proper rule of action

looking on his neighbour as himself^.

Maha-bharata
Before infirmities creep o'er thy flesh
;

XIII. 5571.

Before decay impairs thy strength and mars

The beauty of thy limbs before the Ender, Whose charioteer is sickness, hastes towards thee,
;

Breaks up thy

fragile

frame and ends thy

;

life^,
;

Lay up

the only treasure

do good deeds

Practise sobriety and self-control

Amass that wealth which thieves cannot abstract. Nor tyrants seize, which follows thee at death, Which never wastes away, nor is corrupted ^.
Maha-bharata
Heaven's gate
It
is

xill.
^,

12084.

very narrow and minute

cannot be perceived by foolish men,

Blinded by vain illusions of the world.

E'en the clear-sighted

who

discern the way,

And And
Are

seek to enter, find the portal barred

hard to be unlocked.

Its

massive bolts

pride and passion, avarice and lust.

Maha-bharata XIV. 2784.

Just heaven
is

not so pleased with costly

gifts.

Offered in hope of future recompense,

As with the From honest

merest
gains,

trifle

set apart

and

sanctified

by

faith

Maha-bharata xiv. 2788.

^
^

Compare Compare Compare Compare

St.

Matthew
xii.

xxii. 39, St.

Luke

vi.

31.

Eccles.
St.
St.

i.

^Compare

St.

Matthew Matthew Matthew

vi. 19,
vii. 14.

Prov.

xxiii. 4, 5.

vi. 1-4, St.

Mark

xii.

43, 44.

Aforal Precepts of Bi^aJwianism and Hinduisin.

549

Examples of Precepts from

Bhartri-Jiari.

Blinded by self-conceit and knowing nothing,

Like elephant infatuate with passion,

I

thought within myself,

all

But when by slow degrees

things knew somewhat learnt,

conceit,

By

aid of wise preceptors,

my
off;

Like some disease, passed

and now
I

live

In the plain sense of what a fool

am

(ll. 8).

The

attribute

most noble of the hand

;

Is readiness in giving

of the head,
;

Bending before a teacher

Veracious speaking
;

of the mouth,

of a victor's arms,

Undaunted valour Pureness the most

Delight
in

of the inner heart,

unsullied
;

of the ears.

hearing and receiving truth

These are adornments of high-minded men

Better than
all

the majesty of

Empire

(ll.

^^.

Now for a little while a child, and now An amorous youth then for a season turned
;

Into the wealthy householder

then stripped

Of
Of

all his

riches,

with decrepit limbs

And

wrinkled frame,

man
;

creeps towards the end

life's

erratic course

and, like an actor,

(iTI.

Passes behind Death's curtain out of view^

51).

Examples from

the

KirdtdrjimJya of BJidravi.
their friends disdain
(l.

Those who wish well towards

To

please

them by

fair

words which are not true

2).

Better to have a great

man

for one's foe

(l.

Than
^

court association with the low

8).

The

parallel in

Shakespeare need scarcely be suggested.


550

Moral Precepts of Brahmanisvi

By doubt and

ajid Hindiiisni.

In matters difficult and dark, concealed

disagreement of opinion,

The Veda, handed down by holy men.

Explained with clearness, and well put
in practice,

Like a bright lamp throws

Guiding the prudent
lest

light

upon the way,

(ll.

they go astray
all
;

33).

Would'st thou be eminent,

passion shun.
e'en the sun

Drive wrath away by wisdom

Ascends not to display

Till

his fullest light

(ll.
'>fi\

he has chased away the mists of night

dedicate themselves

The noble-minded

To Of

the promotion of the happiness

others

e'en

of those

who

injure them.
(vil. 13, 28).

True happiness
Let not a

consists in
in

making happy

little fault

him who does

its

An

act of kindness, minish aught

value (vil. 15).

Youth's glories are as transient as the shadow

Of an autumnal cloud and sensual joys. Though pleasant at the moment, end in pain
;

(xi. 12).

Riches and pleasure are the root of evil;

Hold them not

dear, encourage not their

growth

They

are aggressors hard to be subdued,

all

Destroyers of

knowledge and of truth

(xi. 20).

The enemies which rise within the body, Hard to be overcome thy evil passions Should manfully be fought who conquers

these

Is equal to the

conqueror of worlds

(xi. 32).

The

friendship of the

bad

is

like the

shade

Of some

precipitous

Which

falling

bank with crumbling sides, buries him who sits beneath (xi. ^^.

The

natural hostility of beasts

Is laid aside

when

flying from pursuers

55

Mo7^al Precepts of Brahmanisin and Hindfiism,

So also when calamities impend The enmity of rivals has an end

(XII. 46).

Examples of Precepts from

the Sisupala-badha of MdgJia.

He who by virtue of And qualities, effects

Is like a Is useless, for

his rank, his actions,

no useful purpose,
;

chance-invented word

his birth
(47).

he merely bears a name

man

of feeble character resembles

reed that bends with every gust of wind (50).

Two
If

only sources of success are known

effort
;

Wisdom and
Science
is

make them both

thine

own
(76).

thou would'st
like a

rise

and haply gain a throne

;

couch to sapient men

feel

Reclining there, they never

fatigue (77).

monarch's weapon

is

his intellect

His minister and servants are

Close secresy of counsel
Spies are his eyes
;

his limbs

is

his

armour
(82).

ambassadors, his mouth

veils itself in
;

That energy which

Is

mildness

most

effective of its object

so
its

The lamp that burns most brightly owes To oil drawn upwards by a hidden wick
Wise men
rest not

force

(85).

on destiny alone,
effort,

Nor

yet on manly

but on both

(86).

Weak

persons gain their object

associates
;

when

allied

With strong

the rivulet
river's aid (100).

Reaches the ocean by the

good man's

intellect
;

is

piercing, yet

his actions are deliberate, Inflicts no wound Yet bold his heart is warm, but never burns
;

His speech

is

eloquent, yet ever true (109).

552

Moral Precepts of Brahmanism and Hindinsm.

Examples of Precepts from
the Pahca-tantra.

Praise not the goodness of the grateful

man

Who

acts with kindness to his benefactors.

He who

does good to those

who do him wrong

(l.

Alone deserves the epithet of good

277).

Hear thou a summary of righteousness,

And ponder well the maxim Never do To other persons what would pain thyself
:

(ill.

104).

The

little-minded ask

Belongs

this

man

To

our

own

family

The noble-hearted
as all akin (v. 38).

Regard the human race

Examples of Preeepts from

the Hitopadesa or book of

''friendly adviee.'

man

of truest

wisdom
his
in a

will resign
life,

His wealth, and e'en

Better abandon
life

for

good of others

good cause.
is

When

death
all

in

any case

sure to

happen

(l.

45).

He
The

has

wealth
foot

who has
is

mind contented.
152).

To one whose

covered with a shoe

carpeted with leather
(l.

earth appears

all

Strive not too anxiously for a subsistence.

Thy Maker will provide thee No sooner is a human being

Than milk
for his

sustenance

born

support streams from the breast

(I.

190).

He by whose hand And parrots green,

Will

the swans were painted white,

and peacocks many-hued.

^

make

provision for thy maintenance

(l.

191).

Compare

St.

Matthew

vi. 26.

Moral Precepts of Bi^ahmanisin and Hindiiisin.

553

How

can true happiness proceed from wealth,

in its acquisition causes pain
in

Which

In loss, affliction;

abundance,

folly

(l.

192)?

Whoever, quitting
Uncertain things,

certainties, pursues

may

lose his certainties

(l.

227).

By

drops of water falling one by one.

Little

by
is

little,

may

a jar be

filled

Such

the law of

all

accumulations
religious merit
(ll.

Of money, knowledge, and

That man His words
is

jo).

sapient

who knows how

to suit

to each occasion, his kind acts

(ll.

To

each man's worth, his anger to his power

48).

If glass be used to decorate a crown,

While gems are taken

'Tis not that

to

bedeck a

foot,

any

fault lies in the

gem.
setter
^

But

in the

want of knowledge of the

on
affliction's

(ll.

72).

A man may
The worth
Also of
his

touchstone learn
;

of his

own kindred, wife, and servants own mind and character (ll. 79).

A
At To

feverish display of over-zeal

the
all

first

outset,
;

is

an obstacle

success

water, however cold,

(ill.

Will penetrate the ground by slow degrees

48).

E'en as a

traveller,

meeting with the shade

Of some o'erhanging tree, awhile reposes, Then leaves its shelter to pursue his way, So men meet friends, then part with them

for ever.

'

Is

praised?

such a thing as an emerald made worse than it was, if it Marcus Aurehus. Farrar's Seekers after God,' p. 306.
' '

is

not

554

Moral Precepts of Bralnnanism and Hmduism.

Thou
art thyself a

stream whose sacred ford

is

Is self-restraint,

whose water
virtue,

veracity,
;

Whose bank
Here

is

and whose waves are love

;

practise thy ablutions

by mere water

The
It

inner

man can

ne'er be purified (iv. 90).

must

not, of course,

be inferred from a perusal of the

all

above selection of examples that

the Hindus are
all

the moral precepts of

It

equally unexceptionable.

would be
I

easy to give specimens of a very different character, and

here subjoin a prose translation of two verses of a less favourable type from the code of
^

Manu.
stating a case falsely from a pious
truths
is

In certain cases a

man

motive, even though he

knows the

not excluded from

heaven

such a statement they

call divine speech.

'Whenever the death of a Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya or Sudra may result from speaking the truth, then an untruth

may

be told

for falsehood in this case

is

preferable to truth

(viii. 103, 104.

I

Compare

p.

o^ofi^

note

i,

of this volume).'

could easily multiply examples of a far more objectionable

character.

Nay,

do not hesitate to declare

which
I

my

conviction

that the

gems of

truth,

have carefully and with much

buried

trouble unearthed from the sacred literature of the Hindus

and exhibited
in a false

in the foregoing pages, are generally so

under a superincumbent mass of erroneous teaching or so set

framework of

fable

and

fiction, as to

be practically

of

little

or no value as rules of

life,

or as guides to the per-

formance of a man's duty towards God, his neighbour, and

himself

CHAPTER

XXII.

Supplementary \
The Worship of Brahma at Piishkara, with some Account of the Sara-sayyet or Arrozuy -bed' form of
'

self mortification (tapasya)

We
sense.
'

have seen that Brahmanism has no Creator

in

our

The personal god Brahma (mascuHne) who

is

is

called

the Creator,'

himself evolved out of the one impersonal

self-existent Being,

Brahma
as
its

(neuter).

The

personal

Brahma
is its

then becomes the Evolver of the Universe, while Vishnu

associated with
solver.

him

Maintainer, and Siva as

Dis-

These three gods constitute the well-known Hindu

Triad (Tri-murti, pp. 44, 45). How then has the worship of the first fallen into comparative desuetude ?

According to the Abbe Dubois

current that the god
for

in his interesting
p.

work on
is

the religions of India (English translation,

430) a legend

Brahma indulged an
his

incestuous passion

Sarasvati,

who, being really

daughter, afterw^ards

became
of the

his wife.

He

states that the god's

is

supposed violation

most sacred laws of nature

the true cause of his

Else-

being without any temples and ceremonies in India.

W'here he relates another legend that the absence of temples

dedicated to

Brahma

arose from a curse pronounced upon

him by

a holy man,

whom

he had treated with irreverence.

is

To
as

say, however, that

I

Brahma

wholly without temples

in

is,

shall

show, inaccurate.

Rodriguez

his

exhaustive

Supplementary notes collected during

my

Indian travels in 1884.


556
'

Neglect of the Worship of Brahma.

Brahma

Hindu Pantheon' (published at Madras in 1841) affirms that is never adopted by any Hindu as his guardian deity,

and, like Dubois, repeats the legend of Brahma's unnatural

passion for his daughter; assigning the neglect of the god's

worship to

this cause.

Furthermore he adds a legend from

it is

the Skanda-purana, in which

declared that

had

five

heads, but that one was cut off

Brahma once by the god Siva

that he

inflamed with anger because

greater god of the two.

Brahma boasted

was the

Others again explain the neglect of

office is to create,

Brahma's worship by asserting that his only

and that having once created men and endowed them with life he has no further benefit to confer upon them, while men, on the other hand; have nothing to gain by propitiating him.
Probably the origin of these
Tantras
fanciful notions
is

to

be traced to

some of the Puranas, or possibly

;

to the

Upapuranas and

but

it

seems scarcely worth while to ransack these

immense

repositories of

myths

in the
;

hope of discovering the

less so as I

source of a few grotesque legends

and the

hold that
is

the true reason for the rarity of Brahma's temples

to be

sought for

in

the fact that, according to

orthodox Brahmanism,
be
with

the functions of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva are interchangeable,

and that both Vishnu and

pointed out

Siva

may

identified

Brahma, or be worshipped as Brahma.

(p.

This has been already

in

45),

and the remarkable verse

the

Kalidasa's

Kumara-sambhava which expresses

repeated here
:

doctrine,

may

be

God was shown Each first in place, each last not one alone Of Siva, Vishnu, Brahma, each may be First, second, third among the blessed Thread
In those three Persons the one

Others declare that Brahma's inferiority

legend which makes him spring from

is

indicated

by the
(yd).

Vishnu's navel (see p.

'

^ Translated by Griffith. The Sanskrit words are as follow Ekaiva murtir bibhide tridha sa samanyam esham prathamavaratvam Vishnor Haras tasya Harih kadacid Vedhas tayos tavapi Dhatur adyau.'
:

Neglect of the Worship of Brahma.

It
is

557

certainly incorrect to

compare
in

(as

some have done)

the

Hindu doctrine
in Trinity in

of a Triad with the Christian

dogma
it

of a

Unity
borne

and a Trinity

Unity.

For

must be

mind that Brahma, Vishnu and Siva are

and that
all

all

three held

to be subordinate deities,

three have celestial bodies

all

(antecedent to their earthly incarnations), and that

three

are believed to be corporeal manifestations of the one sole

self-existent, bodiless,

impersonal Essence of the Universe, and

destined to be reabsorbed into that Essence.

Their coequality
Self-

and interaction
existent
at

as personal manifestations of the one

God

is

nobly symbolized

in the caves of

Elephanta
rock,

Bombay, where may be seen sculptured out of the

three majestic heads springing out of one body.

Such repreand the

sentations, however^ are rare in other parts of India,

intelligent traveller

who judges

of the

HindQ

religion

by what

meets the eye finds that he

may

generally regard the apparent

medley of Indian

divinities as

forms of the two chief gods

Vishnu and Siva with

Indeed, so far as
of

their wives.

He would
I

see

little

or no

evidence of any worship paid to the male god Brahma.

I

was able

to ascertain

could only hear

to

two temples dedicated directly and primarily

vast

Brahma,

amid the
this

number which may be observed dedicated

to forms of Vishnu, Siva, or to their wives or offspring.

is

And

the

more remarkable
in

as certain localities are held

to be consecrated through a sacrifice supposed to have been

performed by Brahma

the

neighbourhood

^.

Moreover

among

the various idols and symbols scattered throughout

India, those of

Vishnu and Siva are by

far

the most abundant

and often imply that these gods are worshipped as Brahma,

or are identified with

Universe
^

^,

him in his character of Evolver of the whereas the image of Brahma with his four faces
of

The remarkable myth

Images of Vishnu with

the form of Purusha rests on a

^

Brahma offering himself up as a victim in hymn of the Rig-veda (X. 90). Brahma in the act of being evolved out of his
it is
I have stated further by no means uncommon.

navel are

common

enough, and, as

on, the Liiiga

with four faces carved round

558
looking

The Worship of Brahma

in
all

at Pushkara.
carved

directions

^,

though

and

sold

by

image-vendors, and even found in houses or in the precincts

of Saiva and Vaishnava temples, do not imply that he combines
in his

own person

all

the functions of the Triad.

Of course the substitution of a kind of ditheism for tritheistic is quite in harmony with the dualism which I have already described as an essential element in Hindu philosophy. It is exactly what every student of the Sankhya and Vedanta
ideas

aphorisms would be led to expect

falling off in the direct

(p.

o^"^).

But the general

is

worship of Brahma

nevertheless a

point of great interest in the development of Indian religious

thought, and
India, to

therefore determined,

when

last travelling in

make

a detour with the object of accomplishing a

journey to Pushkara (Pokhar), where the most celebrated of

the two temples of

Brahma now
India.

stands.
is

Pushkara,

should state at the outset,

all

one of the most

sacred Tirthas in

It is said

that

Brahma having

once performed a particular

of the small

sacrifice (yajiia) there, the waters

lake near

the present town were thereby so

sanctified that they ever afterwards

for the removal of every kind of

became a potent

specific

guilt.

The

greatest sinner

has only to bathe

fit

in

them

to be at once purified

and rendered

for admission to

Brahma s heaven (Brahma-loka) ^.

all

In the Tirtha-yatra-parva of the Maha-bharata (Vana-parva,

sec. 82)

the precedence over

given to Pushkara:
affirms,
'

'Any

other places of pilgrimage

there,'

is
it

one who sojourns

so

becomes equal to the was there that the gods, Daityas and Brahmarshis, having performed self-mortifying austerities (tapas taptva) accumulated
It

God

of gods (deva-devasya).

And, as some

say, symbolizing the four

(II. 3)

Brahma
is

is

called Vag-Isa,
'

'The lord

Vedas. In Kumara-sambhava but of speech or of word

'

his epithet

Sarvato-mukha, looking in all directions.' ^ I need not repeat here that Brahma, Vishnu and Siva each has his own special heaven (see pp. 54, 291). The Krishna form of Vishnu also has a heaven of his own.

The Woj'ship of Brahvui

at Pushkara.

559

vast merit and attained to the rank of deities.

trol are cleansed from their sins

Men

of self-con-

by ever thinking

of Pushkara.

The

great

Brahma (pitamahah), who has

little

the lotus for his seat

this Tlrtha.'

(Kamalasanah), dwelt with great delight at

wonder, then, that the
lake
is

No

lined with bathing Ghats,

'

and according
princes.

to Sir

W. W.

Hunter's

Imperial Gazetteer,'

surrounded with houses belonging to most of the Rajput

It is stated

that no living thing

is

allowed to be put

to death within the precincts of the town,

rule can

though how

this

be enforced seems

difficult to

understand, considering

that, at the great fair held there in

October and November,

at least 100,000 pilgrims

It

throng the neighbourhood.

of Mr. L. Saunders,

at Ajmere in Rajputana, that I I made an expedition from Ajmere to Pushkara (popularly The distance was only called Pokhar), on February 22, 1884.

was with the assistance was when he was collector

whose guest

about seven
that
I

m.iles

from Mr. Saunders' house, and he arranged

the country

should be accompanied by an intelligent, well-educated

thoroughly, and
likely to

Brahman Pandit who knew

interest

would be able to point out every object which was

me.
road, like

most of the roads made by Anglo-Indian engineers, seemed to me admirably constructed, and as

The

macadamized road in England. Soon after leaving the town of Ajmere it passes through a deep cutting in the hills, and then emerges on I noticed here and there in the rather a wild country.
pleasant
to
travel

on as the best

adjoining fields traps for catching tigers, leopards, and other

less
ings,

formidable beasts of prey, while occasional rude paintimages, and shrines

by the road-side warned

us to be on

our guard against prowling demons, especially those most

spiteful of all
evil
spirits

the
rites,

spirits

of recently deceased

human

beings who, through some failure in the due per-

formance of their funeral

were believed to rove about

It

and haunt the neighbourhood.

was hinted

to

me

that

560

'

Arroivy -bed' form of

self-torture,

some of these malignant and unrestful spirits were in the habit of making themselves troublesome to any travellers or passers

by who might neglect to propitiate them by offerings. When we had accomplished about half of our journey and were approaching Pushkara we came upon a very interesting
anthropological curiosity.
ascetic,

This was a Vairag! or Vaishnava

whose appearance would certainly have shocked any one fresh from London Society and inclined to be a stickler
for the proprieties of
life.

His demeanour seemed to be that of

human

being, who, though just alive himself,

indifferent to the

seemed to be

supremely

existence of everything else in

demons and beasts of prey. He had, however, erected for his own protection close to the road a rough covering consisting of a mat supported on four poles, open to
creation, including
all

the winds of heaven.

Like other ascetics of

his

type

still

to be seen in India, he to

was not altogether an inviting object

at all fastidious in regard to the
for

be looked upon by any one

realities of

human anatomy,

he was absolutely nude with

a very promising object

the exception of the smallest conceivable patch of cloth, three

or four inches square.
of investigation to

Nor was he

any

one, who, like myself,

was bent on
;

extracting information from every possible source

for

he was

under a vow of silence (mauna-vrata) which was supposed to

be inviolable for
a kind of
to

at least six years.

Yet, for

all that,

he made

mumbling sound through his closed lips, and tried make himself intelligible to us by signs, when, descending from our vehicle, we approached his hermitage to examine his
condition and surroundings

more
in

closely.

An
name

inscription written

rude characters indicated his

his

Khaki

Jhana-das.

Round

neck was a rosary

(japa-mala) consisting of eighteen large rough TulasI beads

(see p. 67).

He was

seated in the usual

way on

the ground,

but close to him on his right hand was his only bed

an iron

framework resting on four short

legs,

and unprovided with

mattress or coverlet, but studded instead with rows of iron

'

A rrowy-bed

'

form of

self-torture.

561

spikes,

somewhat blunted

at the points, while at the pillow-

end there was a spiky head-rest.

called

by
'

my Brahman
thorns,'

This remarkable couch was companion the devotee's KantakaI

sayya,

bed of

though

noticed that
it

it

had an

in'

scription in Sanskrit letters designating

as
it

'

a bed of arrows

(Bana-sayya).

This convinced

me
'

that

was intended
'

to
in

represent Bhishma's Sara-sayya or

arrowy bed described

the Maha-bharata (Bhishma-parva and Anusasana-parva 7732),

and, on

my

mentioning

this

to

my

companion, the Vairagi

gave a grunt of assent and approval, evidently pleased with

my
I

acquaintance with the story of Bhishma.

should observe that, resting on the spiky bed, was a
(i)

wooden stand on which were deposited

(Sala-grama) of Vishnu,
Siva, and (3) the red stone of
I

the black stone

(2) the white stone (Bana-liiiga) of

Ganesa

(see pp. 69, 70, 412).

noticed no symbol of the divine mother (generally identified

with Siva's consort) nor of the Sun, which, together with the
three just named, usually represent a Pentarchy of divinities

worshipped at the Pancayatana ceremony (see pp. 410-416).

with a genuine

met example of the spiky-bed form of selfmortification (tapas) for during my numerous travels in
It

was a great

satisfaction to

me

that

had

at length

different parts of India I

had hitherto sought

for

one

in vain,
in

and had begun to doubt the truth of the story told

paper read before the Asiatic Society of Bengal
(see the fifth
in

1792

volume of the Asiatic Researches),

relative to

Brahman
is

ascetic at Benares,

who

is

depicted as actually

lying naked

day and night on one of these spiky couches

described as having used for thirty-five years.

which he

That man's name was Parama SvatantrT Prakasananda.

had travelled much as a devotee through many
and part of
his process

He

countries,

of self-mortification^ during winter,

consisted in placing himself beneath a perforated

pot

full

of water which

fell

drop by drop on

his head, and, during

fires

summer,

in reclining

between four blazing

with the rays

O o

562
of the

'

Arrowy -bed' form of

self-torture,

burning sun beating down upon him from above.

Questioned as to his reason for punishing himself by such

severe forms of self-torture (tapasya), he repudiated the idea
of resorting to

what we

call

'

penance

'

as an atonement for

the commission of sin or of any special crime.

The simple

reason he gave was that since a celebrated Rishi or holy

man named Agni-varna had undergone

of austerity in the Satya-yuga or
since the
first

the spiky-bed form

age of the world, and

demon Ravana had done

the

same

for ten

thousand

years in the Treta or second age of the world, and since

Bhlshma had done the same it had been assigned to him

through similar austerities

in the

Dvapara or

third age,

as a

peculiar privilege to go

in the present

age of the world.

in the

Of

course, as

we have already shown

is

(see pp. 72, 87), the

efficacy of bodily mortification

an essential element

Hindu

creed,

and the ostensible motive of

all self-torture is

either to accumulate merit, or to acquire supernatural power,

or to achieve complete absorption of individual personality

in the

one eternal Essence of the Universe.

story of Bhishma's arrowy couch
is

The

one of those exnoticed

travagant figments, occurring here and there in Indian sacred

literature, which

has hitherto been passed over or

little
is
it

by European

writers

on Hinduism.

Nor indeed

easy to

disentangle this remarkable episode of the Maha-bharata from

the tedious succession of legendary stories with which

it

is

interwoven

although

it

constitutes an

important link in the

continuity of the leading narrative.

It will

be

sufficient to

note here that the Bhlshma-parva of that immense Epic

relates

poem
the

how

the two armies of the Pandavas and Kauravas

met on Kuru-kshetra
Kauravas
(or

a vast

plain north-west of Delhi

Kurus) being commanded by Bhishma.

Long

tedious descriptions of the battles which ensued are closed

wdth an account of the

terrific

duel between Bhlshma and

Arjuna

the bravest of the Pandavas.

In the end Arjuna

arrows, so that there

transfixed

Bhishma with innumerable

BhisJnnas
was not a space of two
surface of his body.

Arrowy

Bed,
left

56

->

fingers'

breadth
fell

unpierced on the
his chariot, but his frame

Then BhTshma

from

the countless arrows which

had penetrated

pre-

vented

it

from touching the ground, so that instead of lying

it

prostrate

remained suspended, and, as

it

were, reclining on

an arrowy couch (sara-talpe sayana).

In that condition the

old warrior continued alive and conscious.

The

story goes

on to

relate that

he had been endowed with the supernatural

power of

fixing the time of his

own

death, and that, although

pierced through and through and grievously wounded, he

resolved not to die, but to remain

alive

till

the sun had

entered

its

northern course in the heavens.

All the warriors

on both sides thereupon ceased fighting that they might view

this

wonderful sight.

As he

lay on his arrowy bed his head

;

hanging down, he begged

brought
all

for a pillow

whereupon the

chiefs

kinds of soft supports, which Bhishma rejected.

for his

Arjuna then made a pillow

arrows, which
for water,

head with three sharp

after this

BhTshma approved.

Soon

he asked

and Arjuna thereupon struck the ground with an

This so refreshed
that he remained alive on the field of battle for

arrow, causing a pure spring to burst forth.

Bhishma
fifty-eight

days and nights, pouring forth words of wisdom

for the benefit of the listening warriors,

and enunciating many

social

excellent moral precepts and sage counsels on

political subjects^.

and

When
his

the time

came

for

him

to die, the

arrows suddenly and of their

skull divided,

own accord
p.

left

his body, his

and

spirit,

bright as a meteor, ascended

through the top of his head (see

291) to the skies.

Doubtless the voluntary bodily suffering

undergone by

Bhishma for so long a period, pierced and agonized by sharp arrows, was the supposed efficient cause of the divine knowledge of which he became possessed and which he was able
to impart to others in his long series of discourses.
^ These precepts are all collected in the Santi and Anuiasana Parv'as of the Maha-bharata, two of the longest books in that vast thesaurus of

Hindu legendary

tradition.

Compare

p.

546 of this volume.

564

Bhishmas Arrowy Bed,

picture of the old warrior sage, lying in a
is

moribund conedition of
I

dition on his arrowy bed,

given in the

Bombay
I

the Maha-bharata \ and always interested me, whenever

had

occasion to refer to its pages.

dentally

Here then

had

at last acci-

come

across a living specimen of a 'holy

man

'

intent

on practising a similar method of obtaining divine knowledge and that, too, under our own and union with the Deity
;

matter-of-fact work-a-day rule, and notwithstanding the ex-

pected collapse of superstition under the pressure of steam,

and generally advancing civilization and education. Of course my interest in the example before me led me to scrutinize his condition and habits rather critically, and in the
electricity,

absence of
ascetic
feel

all

power of cross-questioning

this utterly apathetic

under a vow of

silence, I confess that I

soon began to

somewhat
spiky bed.

sceptical as to his sincerity, or at least as to

the fact of his torturing himself by too close a contact with

his

To

test

therefore

the reality of his

selfall

imposed bodily
I offered

suffering, as

well as his freedom

title

from

worldly desires and consequent right to the

of VairagT,

him

half a rupee

if

he would
;

rise

from the ground

and

lie

on the spikes for a few minutes

but he declined either

pointing to his

to gratify

my

curiosity or to satisfy

my doubts,

pebble-gods, and making signs to intimate that they were

asleep on the spiky bed and could not be disturbed without

impiety.

Perhaps

it

was unfair

to place an uncharitable construction

first

on his excuses, without

Possibly his

paying him a nocturnal

a

visit.

vow debarred him from taking

later

recumbent

posture except at night, and he might not improbably have

been found at a

hour, reposing on his bed of thorns

under the protection of his then wakeful and vigilant gods.

Or

possibly

my

silvery offering

was not

liberal

enough

to

saw one also

in

the

Comte de Gubernatis' Indian Museum

at

Florence.

The Worship of Brahiita

be tempting, yet
I

at Pttshkara.

565

noticed

that he evinced

no particular

contempt

for

money

doles tendered in the form of metal of

a Tulasi shrub in front of him, and

the baser kind.

He had

even during our short sojourn near his hermitage two or three
passers

by approached him, bowed

their

heads reverently
'

before the divinity supposed to be embodied in the

holy man,'

and offered him one or two pice which he accepted without

demur, while giving
in return

one or two leaves of the sacred

of a few leaves

plant to be preserved
evil.

by the

recipients as preservatives against

gift

We,

too,

were honoured by the

presented to us quite gratuitously, but evidently only intended

as a parting

memento, or

as a token that the prolongation of

our

visit

would be unwelcome.

On

our reaching the outskirts of the town of Pushkara,

my

companion pointed out on the

Varaha-mandira
incarnation.
It

right of the road a celebrated

in his

that a
is

temple of Vishnu

Boar-

was a

striking structure^, built on an elevation,

flight of steps.
I

and approached by a long

ascended, and

was allowed
in

to inspect the

image of the god represented here

tlie

his boar-form

and

in

act of destroying the

I

demon

Hiranyaksha
attracted a

(see p. 109).
all

Willingly would

have lingered

and taken note of

the surroundings had not

my

presence
to

number

of temple-attendants
for fees in

who began

crowd
and

round us and clamour

It

an excited m.anner.
to our carriage

was with

difficulty that

we escaped

proceeded on our
street,
I

way

to the town.

Before entering the main

to Siva (Maha-deva),

noticed a temple dedicated

which, like the other temples, was raised above the level of

the road.

On
liiiga

ascending the steps leading to the shrine,

it

found the usual image of a bull (Nandi) looking into

the usual
of Siva in the sanctuary, but with four
it.

and

human

faces carved round

This was to show that Siva was worI

shipped there as identified with Brahma.

four-faced liiiga in a shrine between Jaipur

saw a similar
in

and Ambar.
the

With

reference to this point,

may

observe that

566

The Worship of Brahma

at Pushkara.
is

Sauptika Parva (770) of the Maha-bharata there

account of the subordinate part which
to take in the creation of the world,

a curious

Brahma

instigated Siva

and of the delay caused

it

by

the preparatory course of austerity which Siva thought

necessary to perform immersed in water.

In the Siva-purana,

on the other hand, the god Siva

author of creation, and the linga
of the whole visible universe.
is

is

described as the direct

asserted to be the source

But

to return to Pushkara,

no sooner did we enter the town on exacting money-

and reach the margin of the sacred waters than a crowd of

Brahman Harpies surrounded

fees.

us, intent

It

was

useless maintaining that the shore of the lake

;

was open

to the public

the

mob was

not to be reasoned with,

and the demeanour of a few individuals close to us became so

threatening that
peace-offering.
I

unwisely tendered two or three rupees as a

proffered coins were instantly snatched

My

by those

nearest to us, and snatched at again

by

others

considered that they had a right to a share in

my gifts.

who Then

a free fight ensued

a few
idlers,

no mere good-natured scramble between

fierce struggle of

but the

a mass of half-frantic

human
and
lake.
all

beings, each grappling the other in savage embrace,

vociferating together, while they surged hither

and
this

thither in remarkable contrast to the peaceful surface of the

Happily under cover of the confusion caused by

battle-royal,

we

effected a retreat, congratulating ourselves that

in

our garments had not been torn off our backs

the melee.
all

Of course the

chief object of

my journey
The

was the
first

but

unique temple of the god Brahma.

impression
at
its

made on me by
massiveness.

this structure

was one of surprise

It is erected

on an elevated piece of ground at

full

the further end of the town in

view of the picturesque

hill in

temple of Savitrl which crowns the sugar-loaf peak of a

the Aravali range close at hand.
(pp.

No

doubt

Savitri, or

Gayatri

19;

403; 406)

is

there personified and worshipped in

wife.

connexion with the god Brahma as his

The temple

of


The Worship of Brahma
Brahma
itself is

at Pushkara,
flights

567
of solid

approached by successive

stone steps, and has rather the appearance of a small fortress

with loop-holed bastions.

of no great antiquity, and

The
is

present structure

is

said to be

believed to be not

much

older

than the present century.

ascended the steps along with

my Brahman

companion, and passing through the portal

entered a spacious court-yard surrounded

by

cloisters.

This

cloistered quadrangle constitutes the precincts of the temple.

Looking back

noticed above the entrance gate a covered

place for the temple-musicians, and just below an image of a

goose-like bird (Sanskrit, hansa) carved in the stone-work
this

animal being the vehicle or symbol of the god

;

Brahma

(see pp. 104, 3

328).

In the centre of the quadrangle was the actual shrine of

Brahma

an isolated temple of some architectural pretensions,

the usual pyramidal tapering tower rising above the
is

with columns supporting a roof on which was a low central

dome and

sanctuary, where Brahma's image

enshrined.
I

In front of
to look

the entrance was the inevitable

bell.

was allowed

through the well-carved wooden gates at the image which

was clearly

visible in its
I

sanctuary at the end of the vista of

it

open columns.

observed that

had four black

fact,

faces,

each

one of which was supposed to be directed towards one of the

four quarters of the compass.
of the faces were

In point of

however, three

made

to look at the observer, each face

having two great staring glass eyes.

umbrella-shaped ornaments.

Covering the four-faced

five

head was a broad red turban, and over that were hanging
I

noticed that the image was

dressed in red clothes with flaps of coloured cloth hanging

round the waist.

his wife

On

one side of the god's image was that of

(p. 19)^,

worshipped here as Gayatri or Savitrl

and

behind both was the image of Kama-dhenu

the sacred

cow

^ The Gayatri or most sacred verse of the Veda is personified and sometimes identified with SarasvatI and called the Mother of the four Vedas. She is also regarded as the daughter of Prajapati (Brahma).

568

The Worship of Brahma

all

at Pushkara.

granting
shrine

desires.

On

the

marble

floor in

front of the

was the carved representation of a tortoise, significant, no doubt, of Brahma's connexion with Vishnu (p. 108), out of whose navel he is fabled to have sprung, seated on a lotus.
In the court-yard surrounding the inner temple and in front of
it

on one side was a small shrine dedicated to the

liriga

of

Siva, which here

really represents

as

in the instances already

It consists of a
it,

mentioned

Brahma.

dwarf stone column

is

with four faces carved round

while underneath
is

the usual

female symbol (yoni).

Near

it

a shrine of Vishnu

doubta shrine

less here identified with

Brahma.
to the

Again, there

is

close at

hand dedicated

Ardha-narl form of Siva, and

another to Dattatreya, regarded as an incarnation of Brahma,

Vishnu and Siva united

in

one person

(see p. 267).

Else-

where

in the precincts,

noticed images of Indra and Kuvera,

both riding on elephants, and of course, here, supposed to be

subservient to the god of the temple.
that reclining
lazily
I

ought to mention,

on the ground

in

the cloisters of the

class.
if

quadrangle were two devotees, of the Parama-hansa

One

of these was a sleek stalwart youth,

fat of

who

looked as

he lived well and was daily fed on the

the land.

Both
to

devotees were supposed to be wholly devoted to the contemplation of

Brahma

(here manifested as Brahma),

I

and

do

nothing else whatever.

could not help addressing them

and suggesting that the god Brahma would be more honoured

by

their doing

some

useful

work

for the

good of

his creatures.

Several sacred trees were growing in the court-yard of the

temple

for instance, a

trees (Vata), a

Banian '^'^^S)^ two Nim, an Asoka, an Amalaki, and the sacred

Pipal tree (see p.

TulasT (Tulsi) shrub.

In one spot
p. 2)?)^'

noticed a

Sam!
is

tree

married to a Banian (see

With regard
believe
I

to the other temple of

Brahma, which

said
I

to be the only other temple existing in India,

and

to

which

was the

first

to

draw attention

in

a note to the

first

edition of

my Manual

of

Hinduism

(p. 90), it is to

be found

Accoimt of a Maharani
near Tdar (or Edar), but
to this place.
I

Cremation.
to

569

was unable

make an expedition

Mr. G. P. Taylor, a missionary, having observed

my

note,
is

made
very

inquiries of a friend living in the Idar state,

which

situated
far

about sixty miles N. E. of Ahmedabad, and not

S.
:

of

Mount Abu, and

ascertained the following

particulars

This second temple dedicated to Brahma

is

not in the

town of Idar
called

itself,

but about

fifteen miles distant,

It is

on a plain
seven

Brahma-khed (Brahma-kshetra).

constructed of
It is

white sandstone and bricks covered with cement.

feet long, thirty broad,

and thirty-six high, and

is

traditionally
son, Bhrigu

believed to have been built

by Brahma's reputed

probably
much

the identical personage

who gave

his

name

to

Broach (Bhrigu-kaccha).
Pushkara temple,
resorted to
it is

Though not

so celebrated as the

nevertheless held in high esteem and

by

pilgrims and others at certain seasons of

the year.

A7i Accozmt of the late Mahdrdni of NtMeas Cremation and the stibsequent Funeral and Sraddha

Ceremonies as performed by her Son, Kshitlsa

Cha7idra

Raya, Maharaja of Nuddea.

of

The young Maharaja

I

Nuddea
at

paid

me

a visit whilst
Calcutta,

was Lord Ripon's guest

and knowing that

Government House,

in

the early part of the year 1884, attended by his English

;

tutor

was interested

in the religious

ceremonies of the Hindias, gave

me
by

an account of the creI

mation of

his mother, written

himself.

here give

it

nearly in his

own words

'On

the evening of Dec. 26,

1883,

my

mother died

at

Krishna-nagar (Krishnagar),

in the

Nuddea
in to

district (Bengal).

Some Brahmans were

at

once called

remove the dead

570
body
to

Account of a

Makaram s
it

Cremation.
near the Ganges. Havdied,

Nuddea, that they might burn

ing wrapped the

body up

in the

bedding on which she

we

fastened

it

with strings, and put a small piece of iron

in the

wrappings.

The dead body was then

midnight we started
for

laid

on a charpoy, and

covered with a curtain.

This was carried by Brahmans only.

Soon

after

early on the

morning of the 27th.

etc.,

Nuddea, arriving there Having collected wood,

priests,

ghee, earthen vessels,

we summoned our

and the
arrange-

Pandit Braja-nath Vidya-ratna, the chief expounder of Smriti

who
ments

all

lived at

Nuddea.

Then the man who makes

'

for cremation, called

Ganga-putra'

(p. 347),

enclosed

a space near the Ganges with a long sheet, there being an

opening only on the river

time we ordered it we took the body

side.

As

a boat was passing at the

to the other side.

off the charpoy,

Removing the
laid
it

curtain

and

on the bank,

covered only with a simple white cloth.

The

feet

up to the

ankle were immersed in the water, the rest of the body was

on the dry land.

tras),

The

priest then repeated

some

texts

(Man-

corrected from time to time

by

the chief Pandit.

The

deceased meanwhile was supposed to be assisted by this cere-

mony

in crossing the
all
p.

river

BaitaranI (Vaitarani), the river

to
lie

supposed by
the next (see
'

good Hindus

between

this

world and

297 of this volume).

then plunged into the Ganges, and on coming out boiled

rice,

a mixture of

sesamum,

plantain,

and ghee, which

took

near the dead body of

ture into two parts,
into the river.

my

mother.

and repeating
is

Then dividing the mixsome Mantras, I threw it

is

This ceremony

called the giving of Pinda

(Pinda-dana, see pp. 285, 293)

that
I

to say, presenting the

I

dead with an oblation of

rubbed some ghee,
etc.

food.

Then

bathed again, and

on

my

deceased mother's head, and

then re-covered the face.

threw some water over the body.

Next, we removed the body to a pile of wood about two feet

high, called a Chelu, within the enclosure.

Then

laying the
in

body on

this pile, I

uncovered the

face,

and with a torch

Accottnt of a

Maharani s Cremation.

571

right hand burned the hair, but my back was turned, and was not allowed to see the face. The whole pile was then set on fire, and soon after I threw seven pieces of sandal-wood
I

my

into the flames, repeating a Mantra.

Some two
it

hours after-

wards

took a sharp-pointed bamboo, and piercing the backis

bone which

never totally consumed, placed

in the water.

This concluded the actual ceremony of cremation.

'

Then

after a substitute

had dipped ten times

in the river for

me, and, instead of

prepared
it

my

dipping, had touched

me

ten times,

my

breakfast with

my own

hands, and after taking

returned to
27.

my home
all

at Krishna-nagar

on the evening of

December
good

For the twelve days during which the mournluxurious food

ing lasts the use of

such as
;

fish

or flesh,

of
is
I

clothes, of beds, of chairs, of shoes,

and of an umbrella,
but in

forbidden to the nearest surviving relative

my

case,

being an adopted son, the prohibition only took

days, during which period
I

effect for five

in a

slept

wrapped up

blanket

on the

floor,

and ate no

rich food, nor used luxurious oils

when

bathing.
'

On

the morning of the 28th, or second day, the priest and

the chief Pandit

came from Nuddea, and we went

dividing
river,
it

to a neigh-

bouring tank, and boiled some simple food, such as ghee, sesa-

mum,
'

rice,

and plantain

into eight portions,

we
for
I

threw each portion into the

repeating a Mantra.

Thus altogether

ten portions

had been given as food

the deceased during ten days (see p. 293 of this volume).

then shaved

my

hair

off,

the other relatives shaving their

moustache only.

Next

cooked

my

simple food of

rice

and ghee (Havishya).

On

the third day, or

December the
no

29th, the first thing I did

was

to bathe in the tank, using

I

towel, soap, or luxurious

oils.

then put on

my

simple

clothing, consisting of a white sheet

known
to

as

Kacha, which
five

was the only clothing

days prescribed
I

was allowed

wear during the

for the period of

mourning, called the Asanca.

fruit,

then went to a room and dedicated

money, a bed,

rice,

572
shoes,

Account of a

Maharams
in the

Cremation,
presence of the Priest,

and umbrellas to Vishnu,

the Guru, and other Brahmans.

distributed
is

These offerings were then amongst the Brahmans who were present. This
'

called the Tri-ratra or

Three-night ceremony,' after which

the spirit of the deceased, having been judged (see p. "292 of

this volume), is sent to its

own

place.

short time after the

performance of

this rite I

again went to the tank, and cooked

to Vishnu.
I

and dedicated a Pinda, or funeral cake,

sula or Trident,

also

dedicated to him a bull-calf marked on one side with the Tri-

and on the other with the Cakra or

which were
pleased.
all

Circle,

and four young

to

heifers,

let loose,

and allowed
over
I

roam where they

*

These ceremonies
called

breakfasted.

On
the

the fourth
fifth

day
I

was not

upon

to

do anything.

On

day

fixed a

wooden

pole, with the

in the
it

image of a
went

bull in a small shrine

on

its

summit,

ground a few yards

I

from the house.

to the tank

After walking round

seven times

and bathed, being now allowed

oils.
I

to use soap, towels,

first
;

and fragrant

then breakfasted for the

fish

time after

my
this

mother's death on

and the

flesh of kid

and from

day was again allowed

first

to use fine clothes, chairs, shoes,

beds, and umbrellas,

presenting some

Brahman with one

of each.
'

On January
number

5,

or the tenth day,

dedicated to Vishnu a

large

of shoes, umbrellas, beds, brass and silver cooksilver,

ing utensils, copper,

and gold and

coin,

lampstands of

silver

and

brass, carpets, shawls,

clothes.

After the dedication

the things were distributed amongst the Pandits, Brahmans,

and
all

relatives present.

In the evening

we

entertained
;

them
and

at a feast, to the

number of about one thousand

during the night some thirteen thousand poor were fed with
rice

and sweetmeats, and each man, woman, and

child received

On January 7, or the twelfth day, the { = 6d.). Sraddha ceremonies were concluded by another feast given to some five hundred relatives and Brahmans.'
four annas

Account of a Maharajcis Deva-puja.

573

An

Accotmt of the daily Deva-puja peifo7'7ned by

the

Maharaja of Dholpur.
I

When

(in

1884)

was the guest of General Dennehy

at

the Residency, Dhol-pur, the youthful Maharaja (named

Rana

Nihal Sinh)

whose education the General was then ably superintending very obligingly performed his usual diurnal
Deva-puja, or
'

worship of the gods,'

in

my

presence.

The ceremony took place in one of the courts of his palace, under a Mandapa or open hall leading to a shrine of Vishnu,
worshipped as Narasinha.

square piece of ground was

marked
centre of
silver

out

and

consecrated

on the

floor,

and

in

the

the ground so prepared was a small rectangular

legs,

platform or low stand on

little

and

in the centre of this

again a

round platter with a

silver

cup containing several

Bana-liiigas, Sala-gramas, etc. (see pp. 69, 392, 412).

On

the

right of this
silver stand,

was a
on the

little

white conch-shell resting on a small

left

a silver bell, and at the opposite corner

a cocoa-nut.
ficial

All around on the ground were arranged sacrilotas,

implements, sacred vessels, cups,

and

flowers.

On

one side of the prepared ground and close to the

sat the

silver stand
in

Maharaja, with his legs folded under him

the usual
in front

manner, having the sacred vessels and implements

of him within easy reach of his hands.

Behind him

sat his

domestic priest (Purohit) ready to give him directions for the

due performance of the ceremonial, and on one side of the

prepared ground sat a row of four Brahmans

who took

part

in the muttering of prayers, the repetition of texts and chant-

ing.

Not

far off,

on an elevated
fire.

step,

was the

altar (vedi) for

the

Homa

or sacrifice to

This altar was made of clay

well plastered with cow-dung, but only rising a few inches

from the ground.

(p. 91,

It

note

1)

or auspicious

was of an oblong form, with a Svastika mark in the centre. It was also
its

consecrated by water scattered on

surface with

Kusa

grass.

574

Account of a Maharaja! s Deva-puja.

it

On

was kindled the sacred

fire

which was fed with Samidh

different kinds
etc.),

or fuel,

(Palasa, SamI, Khadira, Asvattha,

composed of pieces of wood of six Udumbara,

and was
sacrificial

made

to blaze

up by ghee poured on the wood with

ladles (Sruva, darvi).

At

the

commencement

of the Deva-puja a piece of silk was

bound round the Maharaja's arm, with repetition of benedictory formulas, to protect

him from the

called

evil influence

of

demons always on the watch

religious ceremonies.

to counteract the

good

effect of

This

is

Raksha-bandhana.
volume.

Much

of the detail of the ceremonial resembled that of the

p.

Paiicayatana-puja, described at

410 of

this

The
by

Maharaja, under the direction of his Purohit, performed the

usual acts of worship

by the

offering of flowers (pushpa),

placing garlands of yellow flowers round the sacred vessels, by

the burning of incense (dhupa), by the waving of lights (dlpa),

by oblations of
(vastra) placed

rice-grains etc. (naivedya),

by

offering a cloth

on the central stand, by the pouring of water

his

with a
vessel,

little

spoon into

own hand,

or into a boat-shaped
etc.

by repeatedly sprinkling the Bana-lingas

with water

taken out of the larger sacred water-vessel (Kalasa), by again

pouring water into the Kalasa, and by putting yellow flowers

into
It
it,

and by again pouring out water with these

to

flowers.

seemed

me

that the most important part of the

ceremonial consisted in the constant sprinkling and pouring

out of water and scattering of rice-grains.
the

Some

of the latter

Rana threw behind his head, while during the entire ceremony the Purohit and Brahmans recited texts, muttered
and chanted
verses.

prayers,

There was also a

hymn

to Siva

(Siva-stotra), with repetition of

pp. 81, 106), preceded

some of his 1008 names (see by adoration of the nine planets (p. 344)

represented by nine areca nuts placed in rice and arranged in

order on the ground.

The

repetitions

were concluded by the

in the efficacy of

exclamation,

'

Om

phat,'

and by clapping of hands.

How

far the

young Rana himself believed

Accoimt of Kalis Temple at Vindhyadal.

these ceremonies,
I

575

cannot undertake to say, but he went

fulfil

through them with an evident desire to

requirement of the
ritual in a careful

every minute

and reverential manner.

An

Account of the Temple of Kail at Vindhyacal.

I

When

was

at

Mirzapur

in the spring of 1884, I visited the five miles distant),

neighbouring temple of Kali (about

wor-

shipped under the name of Vindhyacala-vasinI (popularly

Vindhyacal),
'

dweller on the Vindhya mountains.'

This was

the form of the goddess to which the Thags were supposed

to offer

up

their victims,

and here was the particular shrine

all

to which they
It is still

made

pilgrimages from

parts of the country.

in India,

one of the most popular temples

and on
col-

the day of

my

visit at least a

thousand worshippers were

is

lected in the precincts.

There

a small central temple with

a low roof, on which several flags were kept flying.

the time of dai'sana
it

As

it

was

e. homage paid to the idol by viewing when dressed and decorated the surging, struggling crowd
i.

passed in through a narrow door on one

side,

and out

at

an equally narrow exit on the

other, amidst a deafening din

bells.
I

of yelling, shouting, and tolling of

was informed that

and of 12 and 5 at between the hours of 12 and night, the goddess is put to sleep on a silver bed, and the
3 in the day, shrine
is

then closed.
has a space round
it

The temple
open
area,

for

pradakshina

(p.

68, 2)
is

or reverential circumambulation. and round this again

an

on three sides of which are rows of shrines to

I

various deities behind finely carved screens.

noticed an

image of SarasvatI

in a particularly beautiful shrine,

behind

an exquisitely carved
especial pleasure in

lace-like stone screen.

the place for sacrificing goats.

The

priests

Near this was seemed to take

chopping

off the

heads of as

many

goats

as possible while

was examining the

shrines, perhaps to

atonement

for the pollution

caused by

my

presence.

make The

576

Account of the Santals.

animals were then flayed, and dogs came and licked up the
blood.

Close to the exit of the temple the

Homa

sacrifice to fire

was being performed by a number of Brahmans seated in a I observed two or three women at one semi-circle round it.
end of the
semi-circle.

All were engaged in putting ghee

ladles

into the fire with

wooden

and then scattering grain,

camphor, and sawdust of sandal-wood on the flames, the

Brahmans chanting

texts (see p. 367).

What
left

struck

me

as

most curious

in the

conduct of the crowd

was that some of the worshippers before leaving the temple

an impress of their hands

dipped

in

some dark colouring

I

matter

on

the exterior wall, close to the entrance.

was

told that this

was intended
if

as the record of a vow, binding

the worshipper,

he obtained some particular boon which he

a goat to the goddess.
fulfilled,

had prayed
wall

for, to sacrifice

When

the the

boon was obtained, and the vow

was to be
effaced.

the

mark on

Account of the One

Cttstoins

and

Religiotts

Tenets

of the Santals.
of

my objects in

travelling through India in 1883-1884,

was to gain a better knowledge of the Jains and of the points I of difference which distinguish Jainism from Buddhism.
therefore determined to visit Parasnath, which
is

perhaps the

most sacred of
rate mit,
all

all

the

hills

dedicated to Jaina saints.

At any

numerous Jaina temples crown the table-land on the sumand are daily
visited

by hundreds

of Jaina pilgrims from

parts of India.
this pilgrim-frequented
feet
is

Yet
jungles,

mountain,

rising, as

it

does,

about 4.500

above the sea, is surrounded by tiger-haunted by no means easy of access. My ascent of it is briefly described in my work on Buddhism (p. 509) and I propose referring to it more particularly in another work. As my way led me through a tract of country inhabited by

and

Accotmt of the Santals,

the Santals,
self
I

577

availed myself of the opportunity to

make my-

acquainted with some of the customs of that aboriginal

race

a race generally
had received an

classified

under what

is

usually called

the Kolarian group of aborigines.

I

invitation to stay with Mr. Stevenson, an

energetic missionary of the Free

Church of Scotland, who had

^

laboured for

many

years

had fixed
Girldi

his residence at

among the Santals and at that time Pachamba about three miles from
narrow guage railway leading from

station of the

Madhupur and about 200 miles north-west of Calcutta. The whole of the plain extending for thirty miles between
Giridi

and the Parasnath range, forms part of the

District

officially

known

as the Santal Parganas.

district,

According to the

Imperial Gazetteer this

which

is

under the Lieutenant

Governorship of Bengal, has an area of 5,488 square miles and

a population (at the last census) of 1,259,287 souls inhabiting
9,872 villages.

Colonel Dalton considers, that there were in 1872 about

200,000
Santals,

and the same authority

total

states, that

they

form about one-third of the

races of Bengal
^.

number

of the aboriginal

On

the 28th of January, 1884,

started wath Mr. Stevenson

from Pachamba with the view of gaining some knowledge of

these people and with the special
relation

object of observing the

between their usages and those of Hindiaism.

We
^

drove through a pleasant undulating country, passing

Mr. Stevenson died of cholera at Pachamba three years ago, to the among whom he laboured and of all who knew him but his influence still lives in Santalia. In 1887 he published a little pamphlet containing a brief history of the Scotch Mission to the Santals, and of Santal customs, and this I have consulted. Most of the information, however, embodied in this part of my book was gathered from Much has been written on the same subject by Colonel his own lips. Dalton, Sir W. W. Hunter, and others. According to Mr. Stevenson the name Santal should properly be spelt Saoiital. 2 The whole number of Santals amounted in Mr. Stevenson's time to about a million, and of these about 8,000 were Christians.
great grief of those
;

Pp

578

Accoimt of the Santals.

rice-fields, till

many villages and

village

we came

to

what appeared

to

be a good typical example of a Santal village-community. The

called, I believe,

Chamarkho

lay about a quarter of

it,

a mile from the road, and to reach

we had

to leave our

carriage and follow a well-beaten path across a paddy-field

bordered here and there by palm-trees.

tive inhabitants quite as

We found
visit,

the primias

unprepared for our

we had
for

hoped

to find them.

No head-man made
visible.
I

his

appearance

some time
children,

after our arrival,

first

and few human beings, except

noticed that the huts and

were at

homesteads which constituted the village were not grouped

together in an irregular cluster, as
tricts of India,
is

usual in the rural dis-

but were arranged

in

one long straight

line,

protected on both sides

by a high

thick fence,

made

of boughs
sticks,

of trees wattled together and strengthened

by thick

while here and there the

monotony of the

line of fencing
trees,

was
and

broken by the stems of living palms and tamarind

castor-oil plants.

The

fence ran parallel on one side with the

homesteads, but so as to leave an intervening space, which

formed a kind of long straight

street.

Each homestead, too, was

surrounded by a similar protection^ enclosing a kind of separate

compound.

Of course

the usual troop of village dogs and

yelping curs surrounded us,

use of our sticks.

and had

to

be kept

off

by

the free

Their barking, however, had the

effect of

rousing some of the villagers,

who approached

us and greeted

Mr. Stevenson with exclamations of pleasure^ appearing to

recognize

him

as an old friend

and benefactor, and talking

familiarly with

him in their own peculiar speech. Parenthetically I may remark that the Santal language offers to scholars an interesting example of the Kolarian family, and those philologists who have investigated it have shewn that it contains some remarkable curiosities of complex grammatical structure and idiom. All the difficulties and intricacies of the dialect had been mastered by my companion, Mr. Stevenson, and
another excellent missionary (Mr. Campbell),

who had

heard

Account of the Santals,

of our expedition and joined us.
to the natives with as

579

Both missionaries spoke

if

much

ease and fluency as

SantalT
I

was

as familiar to

them

as their

own mother-tongue.

noticed

that the Santal

men were branded

or tattooed on three places

on the

left

arm under the elbow.

Such marks are supposed

to act as charms against evil influences.

the arms and chest tattooed in the same

purpose.

The women have way and for the same

liberty of action.

They

chattered as unconstraincdly as the men, and

seemed to enjoy quite as much freedom and

It

was not long before the head-man,

called ManjhT, appeared

to the village

a venerable old gentleman who

in the

welcomed us

name

of

all

the inhabitants.

We found
owners,

the main-street not particularly clean, but enter-

ing one of the

we observed
all

compounds at the invitation of its smiling a marked contrast to the state of the
and great
tidiness

street in the well-swept floors

and good

order of
the
left

the interior arrangements of the homestead.

On

of us

was a

buffalo-shed,

and near

it

a shed for cooking

and another

for other

domestic purposes.

On

our right was

the dwelling-place of the family, consisting of a large shed

with a thatched roof and walls

floors smeared with mud.

we had

to

made of mud-cement and The one door-way was so low, that stoop on entering. Creeping inside we noticed that
in the

the dimly-lighted apartment had a vacant space in the middle

with a solitary piece of furniture

shape of a small charlie

poy, barely big enough for the father and mother to

while the children slept on the
floor.

upon,

All around the wall

for

were about fourteen huge bee-hive shaped receptacles

stored grain

noticed also a weaving-loom,

bound round and round with straw bands. We some gourds for holding water,
collection

some native-made umbrellas and a

arrows.

of

bows and

As
it

to wardrobe, nothing of the kind

was

visible.
is

Nor was
this

needed, since the only dress of the

Sari satisfies

men

a strip of cloth,

while a single

the

women^ though

one

P p 2

580
article of dress

Accoimt of the Santals.

yards long.

may consist of a strip of The women, however, have

;

calico, five or six

very heavy brass

ornaments on their neck, arms, ancles and

brass finger-rings

toes, besides curious

the whole collection of ornaments often

weighing sixteen pounds.

We

observed that the

girls

and

women were
cheerful
;

generally tolerably clean and always bright and

but the

men were

dirty,

rough and unkempt, with

their shoulders.

long locks of dark hair hanging

down over

As
full
its

to the children, they ran about innocent of all clothing,

and
the

to all appearances utterly untended

and uncared

for, in

enjoyment of unmitigated

dirt.

Each

child, too,

held in

hand a

stick of sugar-cane, the continued sucking of

which

was not conducive

to

its facial

cleanliness.

And

may mention

here that throughout India there exists

it

a superstition

according to which

is

unlucky to wash

children until they reach a certain age, or until they have

been taken to some

far distant temple, to the deity of

birth.
little

which
or no

they have been dedicated at their

I

was informed that Santal parents exercise

control over their offspring, and for no other reason than a

rooted dislike to trouble of any kind.

Girls are not generally

married

till

fourteen or even fifteen or sixteen years of age,

It is

betrothal taking place three or four days previously.

important to choose a lucky day

ding.

for

both betrothal and wed-

This

is

done by observing omens, and strange to say,

the sight of a dead

wives, however,

body is considered auspicious. must always be purchased, and the

Santal
price of
to

a bride ranges from five to sixteen rupees.

With regard

intermarriage there are no distinctions of caste

Santals, but there are differences of tribe
;

among

the

each tribe forming

a kind of separate caste.

curious custom prevails of not

permitting a youth to take a wife of the same tribe as himself

Emerging from the homestead, which served

where
in

as a fair sample
village,

of Santal family-life, we proceeded to the centre of the

an open space was a small shed roofed over with

Account of the Santals.

circular tiles

581
pole.

and supported by four posts and a central

Its clay floor,

feet

smeared with cow-dung, was raised about two from the ground, and on one side of the central pole were

ranged what resembled three thick nine-pins, roughly moulded

out of clay and

made somewhat

thicker in the centre.

The

whole Santal community firmly believe that these are tenanted

by the

spirits

of the last three head-men (Manjhl) of the village,

is

and the simple shed-like shrine which contains them

fore called the

there-

ManjhT-than or abode of the Manjhls.

struck

To these

clay representatives of their dead chiefs daily offerings are

made, and

it

me

that Africa

itself

could not afford a

'

better illustration of genuine fetish-worship.

They cleared

the

jungle for us, they w^atched over the cultivation of our

fields,

and

it

is

now our

turn to support them

by our

offerings.'

Such was the explanation given by the

was of the simplest construction.
formed a roof over
his head.

villagers themselves.

Further on we came upon the village- weaver.

His loom

hole dug in the ground

served as a receptacle for his legs and a quantit}/ of branches

Half hidden

in that well-like

cavity he sat patiently at

fellow-villagers.

work

to supply the

wants of

his

We were told, that a hard-working man could

we were
invited to witness
in

weave

five

yards a day of a kind of rough unbleached cloth.

a

Before leaving the street Santal dance.

Three young men stood

a row holding

drums (tom-toms), two of which were beaten with the hand and one with sticks. Then a row of eight girls filed out of
their

dwellings looking bright and modest.

These clasped

hands together, each girl bending her fingers upwards through

the fingers of the next girl and turning the other palm towards
us.

In this

way they made

a quiet

movement backwards and

forwards, advancing and retiring with joined hands to the sound

drums or occasionally moving sideways and singing a The effect was simple and the combination of dance and song was on the whole pleasing and
of the

low quaint melody.

attractive.

It

seems that dancing, singing and feasting

to-

582
gether

Account of
make up a

the Santals,
life

considerable portion of the every-day

of every Santal community.

Passing out of the street

we

noticed that the village was

fields.

surrounded with well-cultivated paddy

flocks

Here and there

lazy,

and herds were grazing and nowhere could we detect

any

signs of poverty.

Yet Santal men are decidedly

little

and

in the winter

arrows in hunting for game.

work beyond using their bows and When the rain comes they may be seen exerting themselves a little to turn up the soil. But even then the women have to make up for the laziness of the
do very
men.

They

not only cook for the family, but are expected

to

work

in the fields,

reap the harvest and carry the grain on

their

heads for storing at home.

Just outside the village was the sacred grove, which always
consists of Sal-trees

tall

stately trees, not unlike poplars.

Under

a cluster of three of these trees planted close together

p.

(compare

332)

we

noticed rude erections consisting of four

poles with three crossing at the top to keep the structures

together.
Spirits
It is in these that the six great

Bongas or Demonreside.

named

Jaherera,

Monreko, Turuiko, Marang Buru,

Gosaeera and Pergana Bonga are believed to

six

Of

these

Marang Buru

is

thought to have most power over human

that

beings.

Indeed^ although the Santals believe in the existence

of one

Supreme God, they consider

He

need not be

worshipped since

He

has no dealings with His creatures except

through the great demon-spirit Marang Buru, who alone requires any real adoration and propitiation.

He
away

is

a supreme
inac-

Being

it

is

true,

but

He
;

resides too far

in the

cessible orb of the

Sun

He

is

even identified with the Sun,

every morning (compare

and the Sun

is

therefore saluted

pp. 62, 406), and a festival held in his honour at intervals of

three, five, seven or ten years.

Yet

it

is

certain that Heliolatry

is

not a real element in

the religion of the Santals.

consists rather in

Such

religion as they possess

is,

Demonolatry

that

in

the worship of

Account of the Santals,

demon-spirits (Bongas) combined with ancestor-worship.
this respect the aboriginal tribes closely

583
In

resemble the great

majority of the unlettered and ignorant Hindus of the mixed

Aryan Yet

race
it

who

live

around them.

should be noted that the worship of a man's

is

own

deceased ancestors

thought to be a duty which

is

not so

homage due to the departed spirits of the head-men of his own village for his belief is that the interests of the community ought to take precedence of
obligatory on a Santal as the
;

those of the family.

As
above
air,

to the worship of

limited
;

to

demons and spirits, it Marang Burn or to any of the

is

not, of course,

six

enumerated
the

for demon-spirits are innumerable.

They haunt
in trees

pervade the waters, ride on the winds, and are to be found

everywhere, being particularly fond of residing

and
in-

sometimes dwelling
fluence for
if

in

animals and even in men.

the affairs and events of

They
life
;

good or

evil all

and

they are not well supplied with food and offerings, they
spiteful

become very

and

vindictive, causing diseases, pro-

ducing storms and blighting crops ^

These demon-spirits, however, are not represented by images

(compare pp. 243 We have already seen that rude 249). nine-pins like lumps of clay are set up in roughly constructed
;

shrines, as

representatives of

the spirits of the head-men.

In contradistinction to these clay fetishes, lumps of quartz,

smeared with red

the

paint, are deposited

under trees to represent

sacred
groves.

demon-spirits (Bongas) dwelling in the

Several feasts are held in honour of the demon-spirits, but the

chief festival of the year
is

that called Soharai at the begin-

They

will

apparently take possession of hysterical persons, who,

when

and run about, writhe and contort their limbs, or speak in the name of some demon, perhaps, to some terrified villager, or calling out and saying I am come to eat your wife, if you do not wish her to be killed (by some disease) you must give a goat to propitiate the
so possessed, jump
:

'

demon.'

584
ning of January.

Account of

the Santals,
it

Mr. Stevenson describes

as a kind

of

harvest festival, which lasts for four or five

village
;

days

in

each

but as the period of

its

celebration varies in different

places, every

and

in this
is

There

own feast, way the feasting may be prolonged for a month. much drinking of strong liquor, distilled from Mahwa
invites the other to its

community

flowers, the

method of

distilling

which

is

supposed to have

been revealed by the chief demon, Marang Burn.

In
fact,

a Santal has no idea of

any form of worship except

that of propitiating an irascible being

sacrifices of fowls

by offerings of food and and other animals, of which the worshippers

His religion
is

partake themselves.

one of much eating and

drinking and carousing.

Christian sense
;

He

has no conception of sin in the

for

nor would he dream of asking pardon

sufficient

any

error,

except that of omitting to make a

number

of oblations.

No

act of immorality, according to his ideas,

If a villager sins against a

can possibly offend a Bonga.

fellow-villager, a

money compensation
all

to the person sinned

against expiates

the guilt.
its

Then each family has

own

special

Bonga belonging

to
is

the household which must be propitiated every day, and

on special occasions very exacting.

If,

after receiving his

due

mead

of offerings and invocations, he does nothing for the

is

fulfilment of the wishes of the family, he

abused

in

decidedly

strong and vituperative language

^.

Then Bongas
tigers

often

dwell in ferocious animals, such as

and leopards, and when a Bonga occupies human

it

beings or otherwise harmless animals,

fierce

may make them

district,

and dangerous.
were passing through the Santal

When we

we were

gravely warned to beware of an elephant which had been

For instance I gave you a goat and you ought to be ashamed of yourself, you are a brute (or some equivalent expression) for not having
^
:

'

cured

my

son.'

Account of the Santals.

selected

585

by a Bonga

for its habitation,

it

and had killed several

people

who had

before found

tractable and good-tempered.

I

In regard to death-ceremonies,
occasion of a death

was informed that the

excuse

for a feast.

among the Santals is always made an Then after the corpse is cremated, five
be found

small bones or pieces of bone are searched for am.ong the

ashes.
If portions of the skull or collar-bone can

they are preferred to any other fragments^.

fully placed in

These are carein

an earthen

lota,

and are either preserved

the house of the nearest relative or are buried under a tree

until

an opportunity occurs of making a pilgrimage to the

river

Damodar^, which

is

the sacred river of the Santals.

In

due course of time the nearest

relative carries these pieces of

for

bone to the sacred stream^ taking with him some bread

offerings.

Next he
the

erects three rude altars

on the bank, and

first immerses his own body and then bony fragments on the stream, allowing the current to bear them away. Finally he makes three offerings of bread on the altars one to Marang Burn, calling on that spirit to introduce his relative

entering the water,

scatters

to the world of spirits

inviting

another to the spirits of his ancestors,

them

to receive the recently deceased

man

and a

third to the spirit of the dead

man

himself, at the

same time

expressing a hope that every possible steps have been taken

for the furtherance of his welfare in the other world.

These strange
testify to

superstitions, as well as those previously

described, point to a close connexion with

Hinduism, and

the fact of a constant interaction and interfusion

ideas

of religious

between Aryan and

Non-Aryan

races

(see pp. 274-312).

It is this interaction

between Brahmanical pantheism and

the pre-existing cults and superstitions, not only of aboriginal

^

in

my
^

Compare the funeral ceremony witnessed by me at Bombay, described work Modern India and the Indians (Triibner and Co.), p. 97. Damodara is a name of Krishna and also of a river in Bengal.
'
'

586
races,

Conclusion.
but of Dravidians and Buddhists, that has led to the

production of the composite and complex religious system

which, from the absence of any one founder or supreme Head,

and from the want of a general name applied to

double
as
I

Hindus themselves, we have been obliged to Brahmanism and Hinduism a system which, title

by the designate by the

it

'

'

have explained

in

the Preface to this volume,

is

really

no system, but rather a vast mosaic, inlaid with every variety

of idea which the
natural inspiration,

human mind, unaided by any

is

true superitself.

able to conceive and elaborate for

And

the reader

who

looks back on the foregoing pages

will, I think,

bear

me

out

when

assert that I

have had no

light task in endeavouring to bring some kind of order out

of a chaotic confusion of creeds, traditions and usages, overlaid

with some of the worst superstitions which have ever

in

degraded the human race at any time or

any country.

We may
which
it

speak of this complicated system as peculiar to

India and the Indians, but in real fact the pantheistic ideas on
rests

and

its

cardinal doctrines of Self-evolution,

self-evolved righteousness,

and

self-created new-births, belong

quite as

much

to other nations,

and are the spontaneous proand

instincts,

duct of every

human

thinker's inborn faculties

when they work naturally. Our conviction is that Hinduism will ultimately crumble to pieces when brought more fully into contact with the truths
of Christianity.

But

it

may

be predicted

that, as

long as
are, so

human
and
its

nature and the

human mind remain what they

its

long will this subjectively evolved creed, though

doctrines

gods

may

be called by other names, continue to prevail

in various parts of the world,

and

its

more philosophic phases

continue to
is

commend

themselves to those

who deny that

there

any other source of authority in religion than a man's own innate personal intuitions, and any other external revelation
than the book of Nature.

INDEX.
Observe

In the following
is

Index the numbers indicate the pages.

When more

than one
a pre-

page

given the numbers are separated by semicolons.

unit separated

from

ceding number by a

comma

indicates the

number of

a foot-note.

Abbe Dubois, 555. Abhisheka, 68. Abhisheka-patra (vessel\4l2. Abstinence (total), 195. Abu (Mount), 349.
Acamana, 144; 401; 407.
A(^amaniya, 415. Acarya (worship
of),

Ahain-kara, 31; 32. Ahi, 320.

Anaryan, 388,

I.

Ahmedabad, 149. Ahobala, 129.

Ahuti (offerings), 425. Air, 20 30.
;

Aiiavalopana, 356. Ancestor-worship, 72 Andhaka, 81. Aiiga, 164.

274.

Airavata, 109.

lOI

Aitareya-brahmana, 21
102.

24;

Angada, 164. Angarakha, 395. Anger (personified), 404,

Aiigirasa, 407.

i.

116; 117.
Acarya-tarpana, 410. A-(5it, 120.
Activity, 36.

Acts

(live

Sakta), 192-196.

Ajagava, 81. Ajmere, 529 Ajnana, 35. Ajya, 367.

Akali, 175.

Angushtha-niatra, 291.
;

559.

Animal-life

(sacredness

of),

118; 316/
Animal-marriages, 327. Animal- sacrifice, 13; 369; 393. Animal-worship, 72 313, Animals (sacred), 327; 328. Animishah, 106, i.
;

Adam\Mr. W.),

485.

Adbhuta-brahmana, 398. Adhika-masa, 433.

Adhishthana-deha, 28; 293,1.

Akasa (ether), 30. Akbar (Emperor), 318. Akhay Kumar Datta, 492.
Akshatah, 420. Akshaya-vata (tree), 337.

Adhyapaka, 515. Adibrahma-Samaj, 493 526. Adi-Granth, i6l 169. Aditi, 15 182 223.
; ; ; ;

Animism, 339

Alchemy (Sakta
Allbag, 392.

idea of), 206.

at),

Ankana branding),

340. 132.

Aditya, 75.
Adityas, 10. A-dvaita, 122 139 142. Advaita-drohinah, 86.
; ;

Allahabad (camp-meeting
136.
All Souls' day, 275, 3. Alopi (shrine of), 226.

Afghanistan, 4.

Agama, 185;

(Sacred Books

Amalaki, 339 568. Amar-das, 164.

;

Anna-prasana, 353; 358. Anna-purna, 87, 2 ; 439. Ansa, 142. Ansa-rupinl, 187. Antar-vedi, 282. Antaryamin, 123.

Anthropomorphism,
Antyeshti, 22
;

7.

of the Saivas), 89. Agama-prakasa, 94 ; 189, I. Agastya, 421. Age (Dvapara), III (Kali),
;

Amaru-Sataka, 56,

2.

394; 532.

Amba (mother), 222. Ammans (mothers), 228.

Amrita, 108.
Amrita-sar (tank), 165 (tem(town), 166. ple at), 175 Amrita-vapuh, 106, I. Amritsar. See Amrita-sar. Amulet, 204 468.
;

Anumana,

39.

114; 163;

(Satya),

109;

(Treta), no. Ages (four\ 433.

Agha-marshana, 404. Aghora-panthI, 87 94. Aghoil, 87; 94. Agnayl, 14 182. Agni, 5; 9; 10; 15.
; ;

An-upalabdhi, 39. i. Anuradha-pura, 338. Anusasana-parvan, 78 Anushthanika, 524. Amistarani, 282, I. Apah (water), 30.

105.

Apam-napat, 346.
Apa-smfira, 441. Ap-linga, 446.

An-adhyaya, 433.
Anala, 82.

Ananda, 34.
Ananda-giri, 59. Ananda-tiriha, 130.

Agnihotri-Brahnians, 50.

Apsaras, 237 238. Arani, 9; 364; 368.

;

Agni-Narayana, 50. Agnishtoma, 368. Agra, 175; (Fort), 272.

Arddha-mandapa, 447.
Ardha-nari, 85. Ardha-narisa, 225.

An-anta, 323. Anantesvar, 130.

; .

588
Arghya,404; 415.
Argh3'a-daaa, 404, Arishta, 193. Aristotle, 105, i. Arjun, 164; 165 ; (tomb of),

Index.
27; 31, 2; 33; 34; 37; _ 85 95, 2 xxi. Atmaram Pandurang (Dr.),
;
;

Bazaars (Indian), 463. Beaconsfield,Lord (late), 88,2.

Beatification,

41

118; 234.

174; 175Arjiina, 63 271 Arka (tree), 338.

;

_ 526. Atmlya-Sabha (society), 482. Atmosphere, 5.

BedarajT, 227.

Bell (adoration

oO, 414-

Benares,

50;

272;

434;

272.

AuM,
168

44.

Aurangzib (Emperor),
;

166

Arrack, 193.

477

(mosque

of),

Arrows (five, of Love\ 200. Arrowy bed, 560 561.

;

4.37-

Artha, 38S.
Arthapatti, 39,
Arti, 94. Arts (Indian),
I.

Aurdhva-dehikam, 293, Aushadham, 106. Avadana, 368.

I.

462

468.

Avahana (invocation), 415; 418.

Avatara, 47
;

19
97.

(Sraddha at), 308. Bentinck (Lord W.), 490. Beral, 227. Berkeley, 33, l; 132. Betrothal (ceremony of), 377Bhadrotsab, 504. (Sikh saints), Bhagat, 87, I 162 169. Bhagavad-glta, 63, 2; 116;
; ;

Aruna, I04,
Arya,
4.

3.

62

63

Arya-dharma, 20 Aryaman, 5.
Aryans, 223
;

53

55.

Avayava, 39. A-vyakta, 30.

Axe (Rama

with), lio.

235Bhagavata-purana, 45 141. Bhairava, 82 85.

;

116

244

(early re-

_ ligion of), II. Arya-Samaj, 529.

Aryavarta, 517 Asana, 415.
;

Ayatana, 413. Ayenar, 209; 218-220; 245. Ayenar-appan, 2x8. Ayodhya (Oudh), no.

Bhairavi, 188.

531.

Bhakta, 87, I. Bhakta-mala, 1 47. Bhakti, 97. Bhakti-marga, 63.

Bhakti-sutras, 63, 2 ; 97. Bhandara (of a Bhuta), 248.

Babar (Emperor), 161.

Babylonia, 313.

Asapura, 227. Asauda, 288 57 r. Ascetics (Aghora-panthi), 87 (Akasa - mukhin), 87

;

Bicchus (Indian), 12.

Bhandarkar

(Prof.), 121,

Badava-mukhah, 106.
;

(Kapalka),
vat),

88

Liiiga-

88;

(SaiVa),

86-88;
;

(Urdhva-bahu),

87

(at

Badrinath, 55, i. Bagala (or Vagala), I18. Bahadur Shah, 168. See Vaitaranl. Baitarani.
Bala-ji, 267.

Benares), 87, 2 ; (at Bombay), 91 (at Gaya), 87,

;

Balak-das,

79.

(Dandin), 87.

Asclepias Acida, 12.

Bala-Krishna, 136. Rala-rama, 112; II3

195;

Ashes (application of), 400; (act of taking up\ 420.

Asiatic (Journal) ,

270

323;

43 2

1 1

Bali (sacrifice), 25 ; 393Bali (tyrant-demon), 104, 2

Asoka (^tree"), 338. Asrama, 154. Asramas (four\ 362.

Association (Reform), 506.
Asthi-saficaya, 284;
sik),

no;

233.

Bali-gayatri, 20l.

Bali-harana (ceremony), 329

394; 418; 421.

Balini, 1S8.

300; 302.

Asthi-vilaya-tirtham (at

Na372
;

Balkh, 4.

301. Astrologer (family),

Bam-i-dunya, Bana, 104, 2.

Bana-linga,

3.

528. Bharata, 47. BrahmaBharatavarshiya Samaj, 502, Bha>karacarya (astronomer), 146 202. Bhasma-dharana, 399. Bhat, 169. Bhava, 85. Bhavani, 79. Bhikshu, 53; 55; 362. Bhikshukas, 386 Bhima, 271 322. 272 Bhishma, 561-564. Bhog, 170. Bhogavati, 322. Bhojana-vidhi, 423. Bhrigu, 45 46; 52, I 264. Bhrlgu-pata (suicide), 349.
; ;
; ; ;

Bhringi, 441.

_ (village), 457. Asura, 235; 236; 237. Asvalayana, 281 ; 356 ; 358. Asva-medha, 8 24; 329. Asvattha (tree), 83 335. Asvavatara, 114. Asvins, 9; 271 341.
; ;
;

69; 392; 412;

Bhroach, 337

569.
i

561. Bauaras, 434, I. Banerjea (Dr. K. M.), 121

Bhumya, 243.
;

123; 322, Banyan, 337.

I.

Atala, 102,

I.
;

Baptism (self), 403. Barber (vdlage), 459

fessional),
;

(pro-

Bhur, 9 ; 102, 403. ; Bhuta, 82 241. Bhuta-bhavana, 83. Bhuta-puja, 71. B mta-sthan, 249. Bhuta-suddhi, 197.
;

Atharva-veda, 8 9; 15; 21; 182, 2 ; 238. Ati-kricchra (fas:), 427.

Atithi-pujana, 423,
i.

374. Barth (A.), 19 211, i. (purana), 88. Basaba, 88

;

Bhiita-yajna, 42 1. Bhuvah, 9. Bhuvanesvara (temple

of), 68,

Ativahika, 28.

Basil (holy), 333. Bathing (religious),

;

3; 93;

Atman

(or

Atma), 20

26

393 399. Baval or Babul (tree), 399, i.

Bhuvaiiesvari, 188.

Bhuvar, 102,

234; 403.

Index.
Bible (Hindu"), 8
tic
;

589
C'andrn, 108.

Cof noniis-

(pantheism of), 224; (philosophical),

istic),

Brahmanism'),

52

73; (Sakta), 184; (Sikh), 158; 161 165; (Vaislinava), it6 (of
(Saiva),
; ;

25-41; (ritual21-24; (theory of),

2
;
;

C'andrayana-vrata (fast), 427. C'aranamrita, 137.

Car-festival('Jagan-nath),447.

180.

tenth Guru), 167. Bickersteth (Bishop), 516.

Blja,

197-202.

Ril (leaves), 90.

Bilva (Vilva-tree), 336. Birbhum, 332. Bird (Garuda), 104 327. Birds (of ill-omen), 329 ; 398. Birdvvood (Sir George), 460.
;

53 (acts and duties of), 393; 394; (Ayengar), 129; (god of), 84 (Mantra-sastris), 199 (race), 353 (two classes oO, 386; (Vaidik), 386; (Vedic), 50 (wife of), 394. Brahmanyah, 106, I. Brahma-randhram, 291.
; ; ;

Brahmans,

Carpenter (M iss Mary),47S. I Carpenter (village), 459.

Cashmere,
Caste
tion

I ; 4. (institution I
;

of),

17;

18; 53; 128,

to trades
tries),

(in rela-

and indus;

(abolition of,

452-474; 487, I among Sikhs),

471
;

167

(definition of),

Br.ihma-Sabha, 486.

Birth-record, 372.

Brahma-Samaj, 491-529
459.
hidia),

(of

(kingly and military), 98 ; no; (subordination of),

502-526; (schism Blessedness (stages of), 10. in), 510; (festivals), 504. (method of Brahma-sambandha, 1 36. Bliss (pure), 34 obtaining), (three Brahma-vid, 84. 444 Brahma-yajiia, 393 conditions of), 118. 408.
(village),
; ;
;

Blacksmith

139
of),

sion of), 192,

(temporary suppresI (tyranny

;
;

298

472
;

(equality
of),

0' 377

(abolition

Boar, 109.

Bodh-gaya. /S'^eBuddha-Gaya.

Body

(causal),

35;

(gross),

28; 35;

(subtle),

28; 35.

Bombay

(burning -ground),

284; 302. Bone - gathering ceremony, 284^ 300 302. Bose (Ananda Mohan), 513
; ;

Brahmiya-Samaj, 486. Brahmopasana, 493. Brahmotsava (festival), 510. Branding (cereniony of), 129 (Madhva), 132 133. Brands (Saiva), 67 (Tengalai), 127; (Vaishnava), 67; 118.
;
; ;

499. Cat (sacred), 328. Cat-hold theory, 125. C'aturmasya (sacrifice), 368. C'aturthi-karma, 354.
C'aula,

'

353 359. Cause (material), 119. Caves (Buddhistic), 271.

;

Census, 452

525.

(Raj Narilin), 478; 494; 496; 500; 511, 2; 514: (S. C), 526, I 295
;

Breath (exercise), 402. Brihad-aranyaka Upanishad, 26 182. 29

;

Ceremonies (at Linga Shrine),

89-91

(domestic),

52

306; 307; 429. Bo-tree (Bodhi-druma), 33S, Bow (miraculous), 109 (Vishnu's), 104.

Brihas-pati, 215. Brishotsarga.^'f'eVrishotsarga.

(funeral and Sraddha), 288; (over a corpse), 297 ;

(Saiva),

89-94

(name-

Broach.
338.

See Bhroach.

Buddha, 42; 58; 64; 114;

giving), 370; (Sakta), (.Sraddha), 196

;

192284
;

Brahma, 2; 3; 21; 25; 34; 35 43 409Brahma, 2 3 102, I. Brahma, 31, 2; 36; 44; 48 65 66, i 95 (worship of), 555-569. BrahmacarT, 55; 84; 151
; ;

Buddha-Gaya, 272 338. Buddhi, 27; 31 32 215,

;
;
;

(Tambila), 248. Ceylon, 245; 313.

2.

Chamar, 179.
Chanda-pur, 323. C'handas, 7.

Buddhisni, 3; 41; 58; 97; 1 14. Buddhists, 3. Buffalo (Yama's), I04, 3.

Bull (Siva's), 104, 3. Burial-ground, 94.

C'handogya Upanishad,
34-

26

Chapal, 148.
13,
I
;

362. Brahmadi-staniba, 44, Brahma-dvish, 237.

;

Burnell,
I.

Dr.

(late),
I
;

52, i; 56,

62,

247.

Brahma-karma-pustaka, 401. Brahma-loka, 54 291. Brahman (the God), 21 26. Brahman. See Brahmans. Brahma-dharma, 494. Brahmanas, 21; 52; (story in), (doctrine of), 356
;

Burning-ground, 302.

279; 284;

Charms, 197-202 254. C'hathI (goddess), 229. Chatisgarh, 179.

;

Chatterjea

(Nagendra-nath),

Butter (clarified), 6.

478.
Child-marriages, 385 500. Child-widows, 3S8. Children's attire, 397.
;

387

C'aitanya

138; 139; 140; 142 ;_476; 515.

(life of),

C'aitanya-daritamrita,

140.

Brahmanhood
of)'

(two

badges

1 44. C'akra, 103. C'akravartI (Nilambar), 138. Caldwell (Bishop), 251.

374;

Brahmanism, 2; 3; 19-55; 97; (four phases of), 21

(fundamental doctrine of), 20; 21; (mythological),

Camp-meeting, 261. C'amparanya (forest), 134. 228. C'amunda, 18S, I

;

China, 313. C'hinna-mastaka, 188. Christianity, 3, and Vaishnavism (compared), 119. Churel (demon), 229.
Circles (holy), 196.

41-51

(nomistic),

51-53;

Candalas, 422. C'andana (sandal), 144 415-

Ciicumambulation,
;

68,

308

145; 334; 348; 415C'it, 34; 120.

590
C'it-pavan
(tribe of Brahmans), 271, I 311. C'itra-gupta, 292 ; 425. C'itrahuti, 425. C'itra-kuta, 147; 349. C'itrinT (woman), 389.
;

Index,
(demoniacal),
248.

246

247

Deva-dasT, 451.

C'itta-vritti-nirodha, 4^^. Class (Smarta), 95 ; (Saivas),

Danda, xxi note. Danda-dhara, 290. Dandin (Saiva ascetic), 87Dara-ganj, 323. Darbar Sahib, 1 75.

95

(Vaishnava), 95.
(four
distinct),

Darbha Sraddha, 306. Darkness (indifference), 31.

Darsana, 61,
I
;

Devaki, ill; 112; 113, Deva-puja, 394; 411 573. Devas, 4. Devata-pujana, 394, i. Deva-tarpana, 409. DevayanI, 194, i ; 214. Devi, 185.
;

Devil and

demon

(not con-

Classes

53

152.

vertible terms), 231.

(three principal Hindu), 95.

Cleanliness, 88.

Daruni

Club fMusala), I12 nu's), 103; 104.

Coiling-folk, 324.

(Vish-

Colebrooke, 417, 2. Collet (MissS. G.), 475, I. Colombo, 247. Commerce (Indian and European compared), 454.
Conch-shell, 92
;

103

104

109; 412 413. Conjivaram = Kanjivaram.

Continuity (law of), 330. Converts (Christian), i.

ratrih, 204. Darvi (spoon), 420. Dasa (slave), 358. Dasa-hara (festival), 329. Dasa-nami Dandins, 87. Dasangula, 414, i. Dasa-ratha, 1 10. Dasya, 141. Dasyus, 237. Datta (Akhay Kumar), 492. Dattatreya, 205 267. Dawn, 9 (goddess), 182.
;

Devil-dancing, 246; 247; 248. Devil-region, 245. Devil-worship, 244; 251.

Devotee (at Bombay), 92. Dhan, 117. Dhanna, 169. Dhanus, 109. Dhanush-koti, 444; 445. Dhanvantari, 108; 422. Dharma, 290 388. Dharma-raja, 290. Dharma-sala (clergy asylum),
;

Dawns

(personified),

407.

Dayabhaga, 286, I. Dayananda Sarasvati,

531-

529-

Cooking

(of food), 128 423. Council (village), 456. Courtezans (Indian), 451.
;

(the condition of), 274. Death, 274 ; (present Hindu

Dead

153. Dharma-sastra, 51. Dharma-tattva, 510, Dher, 249 250. Dhol-pur (ceremony Dhoti, 395.
;

513.
573.

at),

Cow

108; (sacrednessof), 172; (worship of), 317; 318. Cowell (Prof.), 119; 122;
(of plenty),

creed regarding), 291.

Dhrita-rashtra, 322.
;

Debendra-nath Tagore, 491 498; 514; 531Dehii, 265.

Deification,

Dhiimavati, 188. Dhundhi-raja, 218, I. Dhundhiraj Vinayak Sudas,

123; 133Cowherdesses, 136.

258

(Chinese),

262
459.

(local), 263.

39 2Dhupa, 415.
Dhurjati, 83.

Cowman
Cows

(village),

Deities (favourite presiding),

(sacrificed), 195.

Creation (description of), 13.

Creator, 45.

50; (tutelary), 209-229. Demon-dancing, 246 247.

;

Demon and
;

devil

(not con-

(BrahCreed (Aryan), 53 man), 523; (Hindu), 37; (of modern Theism), 503. Cremation, 281; 299; 518; 569-572. 519, I
;

vertible terms), 231. Demon-festivals, 247.

Diagrams (mystical), 203. Dig-ambara, 83. Digby (Mr.), 480. Diksha, 61 191. 117
; ;

Crocodiles (sacred), 328. Crosses (sacred), 90.

Demon-host (lord of), 215 218; (three classes), 241. Demon-kings (seven), 236. Demonophobia, 210. Demons (character of), 234;
;

Dinanath, 155. Dining (ceremony of), 423. Dipa, 415. Directory (Theistic), 494.
Disintegration (act of), 74; 75.
Dissolver, 44.
Diti, 182.

Crows

(sacred), 329. C'udel (demon), 229.

(corporeal organization ot), 235 (destroyed by Vish-

Divah

(festival),

432; 529.

Dadu, 178; 268.

Dadu-panthi, 178. Daityas, 233 238. Daiva, 235. Daivika (Sraddha), 305. Dakini, 189.
;

nu), 104, 2 (numbers of), 234; (orders ofj, 213; (two

;

Dnyanesvara, 266.

Dnyano-ba, 266.
Doctrine (Vedanta), 53 (Hindu, various phases of),
(four principles 71 ; 72 of theistic), 495. Dog (sacred), 328.
;

great divisions of), 236.

Demon-shrines, 243.

Demon-worship,
256.

71

230-

Dennehy (General), 534.

Dervishes, 141,
2
i.

Daksha

(sage), 82.
(gilt),

Dakshiria

308.

Deshmukh (Gopal
;

Hari), 94,
;

Dog-demon, 243. Dogs (watch), 289.

Dola-yatra (festival), 430. Ancient Domestic rules V Hindu), 353. Domestic worship (Hindu), 352.

Dakshina-margi, 185.

189,

200, 2
2.

208

Damaru,

81.

311; 401,
;

Damdama,

168.

Danavas, 233 238. JDancing (religious), 141; 451;

Destroying-god, 9. Dev (deva, god), 272,

I.

Deva-cakra, 196.

Index,
Drakshii, 192.
Entity, 2 29. Entities (tri-unity of), 34. Envelopes (three corporeal),
;

591
Gadil, 103.

DrJikshHramesvara, 446, Draupadi, 271. Draupadi- Amman, 271. Driivana-bana, 200. Dravidians, 244.

5.

35. Epicureans of India, 135. Epithets (of Siva and Vishnu),

Gadada, 150. Gadi (chair), 135. Gana, 85.

Gana-pati, 77
;

211.

Ganapatim gananam, 413.

Ganapatyas, 59. Ganas, 79-

Dravya, 40.
Dress
(of Indian household),

395DrishadvatI (river), 51.

Drishti-dosha, 12S.

106; 107; 239. 105 Eras (four Hindu), 433. (Akasa), Ether 30.
;

Evil eye,

253

254.

Evil (impersonations of), 238.

Gandaki (river), 69 ; 347. Gandha, 66 415. Gandharvas, 237 238.

;

Drisyam, 119. Dualism, 37.

Duality (in the divine unity),

Involution (doctrine of), 43. Existence, 34.

Gandiva, 272. Ganesa, 48; 62;

(temple),
of),

79; 392;
;

Exercisers (^professional), 241

440

(worship

29 131

(doctrine
;

of),

30

246.
P'air (religious),

(first

dawn

of),
;

181

211-217. Ganesa and Subrahmaiiya

429.

(enunciated), 182

183.

Dubois, 202, I. Duff (Dr.), 316; 485. Durga, 72 188, I ;

;

185
;

197; 19^Durga-puja, 197; 198

Dilrva (grass), 338. Duryodhana, 322. Duties (six daily), 158, Dvaita, 130.
;

431.

Faith (doctrine of), 63, 1 ; 97. Fakirs, 87, I. Family-religion (Hindu), 352; 370Fasting (Hindu powers of),

Ganesa

(contrasted), 215. - caturthi (festival),

426.
Fasts (special Hindu), 427.
1.

Dvapara (age), ill 433. Dvaraka-nath Tagore, 482

485. Dvarika, 55, Dvi-ja, 361. Dwarf, no.
i
;

Fatihah, 403. Fergusson (Mr.), 313; 330. Festival (Purnima), 151 152. Festivals (of the left-hand worshippers), 204 (time
;
;

431. Ganga-putra, 347 570. Gangashtaka, 399. Ganges, 80 295 347. Garbha (sanctuary), 445. Garbhadhana, 353 354. Garbha-griham, 440. Gargya, 407.
;

Garpagari, 241.

113; 400,

2.

428 oO, 431 (Brahma-Samaj), 504.

;

(special),

Garuda (vehicle), 65 ; (bird), 104; 288 321 327. Garuda-purana, 288 293 298; 301.
;

Fetishism,

340

341.

Dyaus (heaven), 182.

Dyaus,

Fever-gayatri, 201.
of),

Zeus

(worship

223. Dyaus-pitar, Jupiter (worship

'of},_223.

Fig-tree (sacred), 9 399. Figures (twenty-four mysti;

Gati (refuge), 260. Gaudi, 193. Gauri, 80, 2.

cal),

406.
of),

Gautama, 42. Gautamlya (Tantra), 207.

Fingers (consecration of), 405.

Fire,

Gay a,

Dynasties (warrior), 43, Dyu (or Dyaus), 8. Dyupitar, 4.

10; 20; (god

420

Ear (sacredness

405, 2. Ear-boring, 360 376. Early Ideas (by Anaryan),

;

of),

(Tejas or Jyotis), 30. Fire-god, 9; 15. 282. Fires (sacred), 281 Fire-worship, 2 346 364.
;

Fish,

107;

(sacred),

328;

388, I. Earth (Prithivl 30; 182.

Earth-spirit, 243.

(Varuna's"), 104, 3. Fish-gayatri, 201.

309. 19 342 403 (translation of), 19; 361: (upadesa), 362. Gayatri-japa, 406. Gayatri Mantras, 20o; 201. Gayawals, 310. Gems (magical), 46S. Genesis (viii. 21), 12, I.
; ;
; ;

81 Gayatrl,

or

Bhumi),

Flood, 107.

Food (secrecy
of), 128.

in

preparation

Ghana (recitation), 409. Ghanta (bell), 144.

Ghanta-mandapa, 447Ghanta-mudra, 414.

Egypt, 313. Ekam-eva-advitlyam, 34. Ekamranatha, 446.

Fortune-tellers, 202.

Foulkes (Mr.), 440,

Fruits (sacred), 339.

3.

P'ree-will (doctrine of), 125.

Ekoddishtam (Sraddha), 305. Elements (five subtle), 30. Elephant (Indra's), 104, 3;
(mythical), 108. Elephanta (caves of), 74 82; 85, I 236, I.
;

Funeral

'>

Sraddha ceremonies compared), 285 (cere(ceremonies), 278 monies in Vedic times), 279; (Hindii), 276 ; (of a
(and
; ;

435 (NimTollah), 518; 519, 1. Ghataka, 377.

;

Ghasl-das, 179. Ghat (at Benares).

Ghose (Pratapa-dandra), 197. Girgaum House, 381.

Girls (dancing 1,450; (Indian).
.^87.

Elephant-worship, 328. Ella-amman, 228.

Ellora
(caves
of),

child), 287.

Funeral-pile, 299.
2
;

84,

(temple

at), 71, i.

Funerals (expense of), 278. Furniss (Rev. J.), 232, 3.

Girnar (hill), 349. Gita-govinda, 114; 146. Gobhila, 354, i. Godavari, 295.

592
Goddess-worship, 180196.

Index.
Guru, 352; (derivation of), (Vaishnava), 142. 161 Guru-mukhl (alphabet), 164;
;

Hingraj, 227.

Gods
3;

(ancient Vedic),

182;
(five

(animal attendants of), 104,

(Brahman), 44;
;

170.

Hindu), 392 (number of), 417, l; (offerings to all the), 420 (structure of the bodies of), 28 ; (worship of the), 411.
;

Gurus, 61
164.

(ten chief Sikh),

Haas

(Dr.), 363, i.

Gokuia, 113. Golden temple, 436. Goloka, T18 291,

;

Hadakai, 227. Hair (cutting off the), 359;

(the pride of

Hiouen Thsang, 337. Hiranya-garbha, 14 35 44. Hiranya-kasipu (tyrant), 109. Hiranyaksha (demon), 109. Hiranya-Sraddha, 306. History (absence of), 38. Holi (festival), 430. Homa (ceremony), 299; 394;
; ;

women), 375.

Hansa, 104,

3.

Gomeda

(gem), 468.
(bag),

Go-mukha, 348.

Han Tan Hien, 262. Hanuman, 48; lli; 326;

406.

Gomukhl

92

445

Goodness, 36. Gopal Hari Deshmukh, 94, 200, 2 208. 2 189, I

; ; ;

(temple of), 65, 2 (worship of), 220-222.

;

Hapta Hendu,

7.

Gopatha-brahmana, 21. GopT-candana, 67 400,

;

2.

Gopis
136.

(cowherdesses),

13;

Hara, 82. Hare (David), 491, I. Har-Govind, 164. Hari (name), 522; (temple),

367; 576. (acts of), 415. Homa-sala, 365 411. Hongi, 273, I. Horoscope, 372 373. Horse (high-eared), 108. Horse-sacrifice, 8 24; 329. Horses (clay), 219; 220. House (arrangement of), 391. Householder's wife, 397.

(sacrifice),

Homage

Hrishikesa, 405.

Human

life

(three great ob-

175; 176;
Hari-das, 142.

(bol), 297.

jects of),

Gorakhpur, 158. Goreh (Rev. Nehemiah), 373,

l; 422, 2; 536. Gosains, 87; 135 142. Gosainji,_l35,
;

Haridra-Ganapati, 2 1 Hari-Hara, 65.

Hari-jana, 269.

7.

Hunter's Bengal, 332,

388. Annals
1.

of

Rural

Hutasani

(festival),

430.

Hymn

Hari-Krishna, 269.
Haris-candra, 24. Hari-vansa (chap, clxxxi), d^.

(creation), 404. Hymns, 7 ; 8 ; (to the Vedic

triad), 15 16; (character of Vedic), 18.
;

Goshthl-Sraddha, 305. Gospel (St. John's), 419, 2. Gotroccara (ceremony), 407.

Gough

(Prof.),

37,
;

119;

Har-Kisan, 164. Har-Rai, 164.

Hastini, 389.

Hymn-veda,
Ida, 5.

8.

122; 130; 131 133. Govardhana (mountain), 113. (bible of), Govind 167; (character of),

168; (shrine

of),

Hang's Rig-veda, 102. Haya-gardabhih, 107. Head-coverings, 395.

Idar (temple), 569. Idol-crown, 449.

Idols,

123;

(artificial),

70.

175; 176.
Govinda, 405. Govind-Sinh, 164; 166; 167. Grace (before dinner), 424. Grain (parched), 192 193. Grama-devata, 209. Grant (Sir A.), 265. Granth or Grantha (bible of Sikhs), 158; 165; (arrangement of), 170; (pas;

Headman

(duties of),
; ;

Heaven, 22 23 (Indra's), (Dyaus), 182 13; 49; (Krishna's), 118;

;

456. 232

Ikshu, 193.
Illecchida

Nema

(festival),

247.
Illusion, 27; 36; 37; 41. Images (sanctity of), 69. (agricultural), Implements

(Vaishnava),
nu's),
(five

70

(Vish-

118;

(Saiva),
;

70;

heavens), 102

403.

Heaven's gate, 449. Heber (Bishop), 149. Hell (twenty-one), 127,

232.

456 418;
;

(five

destructive),

(for shaving),

459.

Inca, 273, I.
I

Incarnation
of),

(Hindu doctrine

sages from), 171

(teach-

ing of), 172; (worship of),

177. Graphic, 255,

;

172

Heramba, 218. Hercules (Indian), 112.

Hermaphrodite, 183. Hero-worship, 71 257-273. Hetu, 39.
;

63. Incarnations (Vishnu's), 107;

62

116; 115; 315Incense, 415.

I.

(jrasses (sacred), 338. Greece, 313. Grihastha (householder), 138 150; 362; 386. Grihinl, 397.

Hills (sacred),

349.
Sects, 160, I.

Himalaya,

4.

Mother, 513. Indian Antiquary, 265. Indian Mirror, 509; 512; 513. Indian Wisdom, 13; 112.
India's

Hindu Religious
Hindu-I, 170.
;

Grihyat;ni, 365. Grihya-Sutras, 28 1.

Groves (sacred), 332.

Guhyah, 106, I. Gujarat, 113 225.

;

Gunas, 30

31

36

163.

Gupta

(protected), 358,

Hinduism, 2 54-72 3 (compared to banian-tree), 98 (Sakta form of), 180 (Theism of), 224. 186 Hindus (naturally religious), 100 (as they are), 296, I.
;
;
;

Indifference, 36. Indische Studien, 363, i. Indra, 9 ; 10; 12 ; 16 63;

;

271.
188, Indrani, 14 182 (ceremony), Indriya-sparsa
; :

406.
Influenza, 227.

Index.
Initiation,

59.
Kanjivaram, 124; 446. Kansa, 104, 2 in 113,
; ;

117

Instruments (musical),

360; 377. 145

Jupiter, 4.
;

Jvara, 201.

381

450.

Jyotisha

(Jyoshi,

or JoshI),

Interchangeableness (of Indian

religious beliefs), 159. Isa (or Isana), 85.

372. Jyotishtoma, 32; 368.

Kantaka (a thorn), 191, I. Kanthi (rosary), 117; 135.

Kantimati (Parvati), 447. Kapiila, 367.

Isa Upanishad, 26.

Ishtah, 106, I. Ishta-devata, xiv

Kablr,

99,
;

476
;

(life of),

148 ; 158

169;
;

Kapjilika, 59.

(say-

370; 435.

ings

and precepts

of),

160

Kapardin, 77. Kiirakal, 250.

Kiirana-sarira, 35 ; 36. Kara-nyasa, 405. Karma (works), 140.

Islam, 3. Islands (seven circular), 232,1. Isopanishad, 487, I.

Isvara,

(twelve disciples of), 178. Kabir-panthis, 160.

35 ; 85 89; 119. Itihasa, 41 ; (verses), 287.

;

Jada, 132.

Kabir-Var (tree), 337. Kaca, 194, I. Kadambarl, 193. Kadru, 233; 322. Kah, 106, I.
Kailasa, 70
;

Karma-marga, 63. Karma-nasa (river), 348. Karman, 22. Karmaiiga (Sraddha), 305.
;

Jagad-amba, 185. Jagan-mata, 185. Jagannath (temple of), 59, I 139; 447; (car of), 118. Jagannath-purl, 55, i; 447.
Jag-jlvan-das, 179.

78

84

103

291
;

447.

Kaira, 269.

Karna, 273. Karta, 89. Karttika-purnima

432. Karttikeya, 48 Karya, 89.

(festival),

Jahangir (Emperor), 166. Jaimini, 198. Jalesvara, 201, Jamadagni, no; 421.

Jambukesvara

(Siva),

445

Kaka-bali (ceremony), 329 ; 421. Kalahasta, 441. Kalansa-rupini, 187. Kala-ratri, 204. Kala-rupini, 187. Kalas (of Moon), 343. Kalasa (vessel), 412; 413;
513Kali (age), 52 ; 1 14. Kali (goddess), 25 79
;

211
313.

213.

Kashmir, 312
Kasi, 434.

(temple), 446.

Jambu-tree, 445. Janah (heaven), 102, Janamejaya, 321. Janam-sakhi, 162, Janar (heaven), 403.
Janilri,

I ;

403.

393

(description of),

187 189

Jaiigamas, 88. 182.

Janma-patra, 372.

Janmashtami, 113,
Jap-ji, 170.

2.

(worship of), 185. Kall-caturdasI, 204. Kalidasa^ 45 333, i. Kali Ghat (temple), 431. Kali-puja (festival), 431. Kaliya (serpent), 113. Kali-yuga (age), 60; 163;
;

Kasyapa, 104,3; 233; 322; 421. Kasyapa (sage), 123, I. Katak, 139. Katerl, 228. Katha Upanishad, 26. Kathopanishad, 121, I ; 528. Katwa, 179. Kaula (Upanishad), 185.
KaulesI, 188.

Japu, 170. Jata (recitation), 409.

398 433. Kalka, 227.

;

KaumodakI, 103. Kaupinesvara, 50. Kaustubha, 104 108. Kavacas (or Amulets), 204. Kaveri (river), 119 347.
; ;

Jata-karman, 353 357. Jatavedas, 420. caste, Jati (Jat), 471. Jati-mala, 207, I(poet), Jaya-deva 146.
;

Kalkatti, 250.

Kayastha (caste), 292, Kedarnath, 56.

Kerala (Malabar), 55. Kesanta, 353 359.
;

I.

Kalki, 114. Kalkin, 1 14.

Kalkuda, 250. Kallurti, 250.

Kallyata
(festival),

Keshab Chandar
247.

Jetalpur, 149. (miraculous), Jew^el

Sen, 496 497; 499; 505; 510; 512-523; 525 526.

;

108;
;

(Vishnu's), 104. Jewelry (Indian), 396

466.
;

Kalmucks, 313. Kalpa (age), 82. Kalpa-druma, 332.

Jiva (or Jivatman), 26 28. Jivan-mukti, 206.

27

Kama, 388.
Kamac^T, 228.

Ketu, 344. Khadira, 367; 535. Khalsa, 167. Khande-Rao, 266. Khando-ba, 266.
Khatijana, 328. Kharjuri, 192.

Jivatman, 37

40, Jiian-marga, 63.

;

Jnana (knowledge), 27
Jnana-prakasa, 179. Jnana-vapT, 437. Jnanesvara, 266.

140.

Kama-deva, ,83 114; I15; 200; 447. Kama-dhenu, 108; 318. Kamiikhya (Tantra), 207. Kamalatmika, 188. Kamandalu, xxi, note.
;

Khatvaiiga, 81. Khela, 163.

Khodiyar (shrine
226. Kim, 106, I. Kimidins, 237.

of),

225

Kamya

Jneyam, 49. John (St., Gospel,

i. l), 419,2. Journal (Asiatic), 432; 511, i.

(Sraddha), 305. Kanara, 250. Kaiici-puram( = Kanjivaram),

119.

Kimpurushas, 238.

King

(deification of), 259.

Q q

594
Kinnaras, 238. Kirata, 84. Kirtana, 264. Kistna (river), 348. Kitchen (Indian), 128.
182.

Index.
Lakshmi, 14;

103;

108;

Mahabalesvar,
348-

216;
: ;

217;

(temple Lakshml-Narayana of), 151; 184. Lamps (feast of), 432 529.
;

Knowledge
63Koli, 193.

(salvation

by),

Lares (Indian), 392.

Lares, 425, 1, Larvae, 274, I.

Kolla

(festival),

249.

Konarak, 343. Kookas. See Kukas. Krama (recitation), 84; 409. Kravyad, 237. Krishna, 47 98; 111-114; 116; 259; (worship of), 144; 145; 447; (life of), (miracles of), 113 112
; ; ;

Laukikagni, 287. Lava, 48, I. Law-books and Law Schools,

Maha-bharata, 41 47 63 ; 116; 232, J 271241 273; 292; 321; 389. Mahabhashya, 198 ; 419, 2 ; 519.1Maha-bhuta, 31, 2. Maha-cakra, 196. Maha-deva, 78 '^^. Maha-devI (manifestations of),
; ;

(repetition

of

name

of),

51; 52; 2S6, I. Leader (religious), 10 1. Leaves (Bilva), 68; 90; (as plates), 461. Lecture (by Keshab), 515. Left-hand worshippers, 185. Lemures, 274, I.
Lila (sport), 43; 138. Linga (body), 28 ; (phallus),

186.

Maha-Ganapati, 2 i 7. Maha-kala, 82. Maha-krodhah, 107. Maha-lakshmi, 385.

Maha-mandapa, 447Maha-matris, 188.

143 [ (sons of), 114. Krishna (Kistna), 295 ; 348.

Krishna-das, 144. Krishna-deva, 134. Krishna-janmashtami, 430. Krishna-nagar, 569.
Kristo-das Pal, 519,
I.

Maha-mayah, 106.
Maha-nirvana (Tantra), 207. Mahant, 87, I.
Maha-pralaya, 179. Mahar (heaven), 403.

33; 68; 70; 83; 90; 447; (typical), 224; (number of), 78, I ; (worship
.of),

439; 440; 567; 568.

;

Lingaits, 88.

Maharaja (homage

(title

of),
;

135;
137.

to),

136

Krita (age), 433. Krita-jna, 329. Krittikas (six), 213. Kshatriyas, 53 ; (god of the),
84.

Linga-purana, 65
Liiiga-sarira,

74.

Maha-ratri, 204.

35

297.
;

Maha - Siva 430.

ratri

(festival),

Liquor (spirituous), 108 112; 193; 194. Liquors (twelve Sakta), 192.
Lithuania, 313.

Mahatala, 102, I. Maha-tapah, 83.

Kshaura (shaving), 312; 353;

359-

Kubera, 238; 268. Kuber-bhaktas, 269. Kuch Behar (Maharaja, marriage of), 512 518, I.
;

Kukas

(sect of Sikhs), 268.

Kularnava (Tantra), 207.

Kulluka, 184.

Loango (king of), 273, I. Lokas (seven), 102, I. Lotus-flower, 103; 338. Love (god of), 83. Lubbock (Sir John), 273, I 313; 330; 340; 372, ILuther (Martin), 138; 139
162.
Lyall (Sir A.), 262.

Mahatma, xii, I. Mahatmya, 433.

Maha-vidya
(ten), 187.

Kulumandl-amman, 228. Kumara, 214. Kumara-sambhava, 45.

Macdonald (Rev. K.), 478,

Machinery, 470.

1.

Kumbhaka, 402. Kumbha-Konam, 348.

Kunda, 417. Kufikuma, 91. Kunte (Mr. M. M.), 366,
Kunti, 271.

Madagascar (bishop
3-

of),

274,

Mahayajiia (five), 411. Maha-yogI, 83. Mahidhara, 405. Mahisha, 104, 3. Mahishasur (demon), 431. Maine (Sir Henry), 507. Maintenance, 74 ; 75. Maireya, 193. Maithuna, 192. Ma-karas (five), 192, 2. Makara-sankranti, 428. Mallari, 266.
Mallasura, 266.

2.

Kupa-kacchapa, 329.

Kupa-manduka, 329.
Kiirma, 108.

Kurma-purana, 74Kurukulya, 188, I.

Kusa, 48,
1
;

Madhava, 405. Madhu, 104, 2. Madhuka, 193. Madhurya, 1 41. Madhva, 96 130 476. Madhvika (plant), 193. Madhyahna-sandhya, 407. Madras (Missionary Record),
; ;

Malwa, 168.

Man

(divine and human), 235. Manas, 27; 31 32; 40.

;

Manasi-piija, 524. Milnavas, 51.

(grass),296; 338.
3.

179.

Kush (Hindu),

Kuvera, 59; 79; 238.

Laghima, 427. Lahana, 164.

Lake-temple, 165.

Madura (temple of), 58, I 65 442 (town), 79, 1 182, 2 219 228; 272. Madya, 192.
;

Mandapa, 440. Mandara (mountain), 108. Mandir (or Mandira), 151,513. 392; 411
;

Manes, 274, I. Mangalor (district), 247. Maiigal SinhRamgharia, 175-

Magar, 158. Maghotsab, 504.

Lakshmana, 47.

Mahah

(heaven), 102,

403.

Mango (tree), 446. Mani-karnika, 308 ; 438. Mani-pur, 322, 2; 329, I.

Index,
Man-lion, 109.

595
Monkey-theory, 125. Monotheism, ii 17. Months (lunar), 432.
;

501;
335;

(marriage of trees),

Mansa, 192.
Mantra, 7 of), 61
;

(importance
;

(Silkta), 197 ; (eight - syllabled), 297 (number of Mantras), 199 (efficacy of), 199 translations of), 200 ; 197-202.
;

Marriage-hymn, 363, I, Marriages (early), 362 ; 385. Mars (Hindu), 212.

Moon,

108.
Service,

Marshman

(Dr.), 484, I.

Miirudayi, 228. Maruta, 221.

Moon-worship, 343. Morning Sandhya 401.

Moses, 515; 517.

Mantra-pushpa, 415. Mantra-sastri (power of), 201 (decline of 202

;
;

Maruts, 9.

Mata

(religious sect), 61, I.

Mata

(mother), 106

(wor-

power

of), 20S.

ship), 222.

Mantra-vid, 84.

Manu, 30; 52, i; 107; (Book I. 5), 30 (1. 49), 331; (II. 60), 406; (III.
;

Matangi, 188. Matara, 182.

Mothers (number of), 225 ; (shrines of), 226 (special), 227; 228; (Tantrikas), 229; 245. Mother-worship, 188 ; 222;

229.
(professional),

Match-maker
377-

68), 418, 3; (III. 70.81),

Matha (monastery), 55
;

29.

421;

(III.

84-93), 417;

(III. 237), 285; (IV. 21), 421; (IV. 26), 368; (IV. I73),287, i;(IV.88-9o), 232; (V. 68), 287; (VI. (VI. 20), 428; 10), 368;

Mathura, I13 375. Matri (or Mother forms of Siva's wife), 188; 188, I. Matrika, 188. Matrika-bheda Tantra, 193.
Matris, or Mothers, 223. Matsya, 107 192. Maya, 35; 37; 44; 5; 120. Maya-did-yoga, 37, 1.
;

Mountain-worship, 349. Mourning (time of), 306, 3. Mozoomdar (Mr. P. C), 496, I 509; 510. I 514;
; ;

515; 521-523; 526. Mricchakatika (drama), 77,1.

Mudra, 204 406 (double meaning of), 192, 2. Muir (Dr. John), 182, 2 237,
;

(Seventh), 237 ; (VII. 41), 241; (IX. 96), 334; 387; (IX. 317. 319), 260; (X.
75),

414,

1.

Muir's Texts, 366.

394,

i;
2 16),
;

(XI.

260; (XI.
; ;

428;

84), (XI.

Men-eaters, 237.

Mukunda, 318. Mula (root), 107.

Metempsychosis,

(code of), 243. 244), 235 (doctrine of), 53 51 52 (teaching of), 129. Manushya-yajfia, 423, I.

27;
115
339;

18; 26; 41; 53; 57; 60; 316; 331 173;

;

Mundaka
120.

Upanishad,
at),

26;

Munich (church
Mura, 104.
2.

229, 1.

Midnapur Samaj, 494.

Milton, 386.

Muralis, 266.
Murti-pilja, 524, Musala (club), 1 1 2.

Man-worship, 71

273,

I.

Manyu, 404,
Maraki, 227.

I.

Mimansa

(Sutra), 26.
1
;

Minaci (goddess), 58,

;
;

228

Margah, 106. Mari-amman, 226 228. Marjana (sprinkling), 403

404. Marjara-nyaya, 125.

442. Miuakshi, 58, I 228 Minakshi-sundaresvara

goda), 442, I. Minos (Hindu), 290.

Muslin (Indian), 465. Mystical formulae, 197. Nabhaji, 147. Nach (girls), 381 Naches, 430, Nadiya, 1 38.

442.
(pa;

382; 451.

Mark
66 66;
;

(sectarial),

66

(nilma),
(tilaka),

Mira-bai, 268.
Miracles, 266.

(pundra), 66
(tri-pundra),

66;
;

(ur-

dhva-pundra),
vatsa),
tika),

103;
104,
I

(SrT67 113; Svas;

(sacred),

400.

Markandeya, 441. Markata-nyaya, 125.

MarkI, 227. Markings (religious), 400. Marks (Saiva), 66; (Vaishnava), 66; 1 18; (Tengalai), 126; (Vada-galai), (Madhva), 133. 126
;

Marriage-act, 508.

Marriage-ceremonies (ancient

Misra (Jagannath), 1 38. Missionary Conference, 5 1 2,1. Mitakshara (law-book), 52 286, I. Mitchell (Dr. Murray), 265. Mithra, 406. 10 Mitra, 5 406. 9 Mitra (Dr. Rajendra - lala), 282, I. Mitropasthana, 406. Modelling (art of), 469. Model-wife, 389. Moha-ratri, 204. Mohini, ()^, i Monasteries (founded by San;

(serpents), 233 237 321-326^ Naga-kanya, 233. Naga-pafi^anu, 323 40.

;
;

Naga

Naga-pratishtha, 324. Naga-shrines, 323.

Nagendra-nath, 478. Nag-loka, 322. Nagpur, 323. Nahusha. 241.

Naimittika (Sriiddha), 305.

Naivedya (food), 144; 415. Nakshatra, 345; (name), 372;

(constellation), 373, I.

Nakula, 271

272.

form form

354; 363; (re500 507 (ex(modern), pense of), 379 (in Brahma-Samai), 379
in),
;
;

of),

Monkeys
;

kara), 55. (veneration

Nala, 235. Nalayira, 125.

of)

Namakand Camak,
Nama-karana,

416.

222 326. Monkey-temple, 327.

132;

353;

358

370-

Q q

. ;

596
Nama-kirtana, 141.
Nama-safikirtana, 105. Namaskara, 415. Namdev, 169. Name (importance of), 358 (name(for sorcery), 372
; ;

Index.
Nritya-priyah, 84. Nuddea (cremation at), 569, Numismatic Chronicle, 1 04, 1
Pan-supari, 137.

Nyasa (ceremony), 204; 405;

413.

Nyaya

(Sutra), 26.

giving),

358; 370; 371.

;

Pantheism, 2; 7; II ; 17. Papa (demerit), 292. Paradise (temporary), 118. Parali, 268. Parama-hansa, 87. Paramarthika, 38.

(of (special), 35S Objects (worship of), Vishnu andSiva), 105-107. 349Nanak (life and teaching of), Oblations (to fire), 365 161 162 163 476.
; ; ;

Names

339
;

366

Paramatman, 37; Paramesvara, 35 45 50;

;

xii, I.
;

36

44
52

Nanda (herdsman),
;

113.

367.

Parasara (code of), 51

Nandaka, 104. Nandi (bull), 8 1 440. Napita (barber), 374 459.

;

Obstacles (lord of), 216.

Odyssey (Homer's), 274,

394. IParasu-rama,
I.

no
;

270.

Parijata,

Nara-bali
190.

(human

sacriiice),

Offerings, 6; (at dinner), 425. Oil (festival), 442.

Om, 10
449.

44

357

402

108 332. Parikrama (of a river), 349. Parinama, 269.

Parrot (Kama's), 104, 3. Partha-sarathi, 107. Parvana (Sraddha), 305. Parvati (goddess), 46 ; 47

Narain Bose, 478. See Bose. Nara-sinha, 109. 102. Narayana, 62, I
;

Omens, 320

Narbada
348'

(river),

69

347

; 397. Ophiolatry, 319. Origin of Civilization (Lubbock's), 273,1; 313.

446
ent

(will of),

65
;

(differ-

Nariad (temples
Narikela, 192.

of),

269.

Narmada, 295.
Narmada-sankar, 371? Nasik, 272 301.
;

Orissa, 447. Ornaments (eight kinds), 396. Oudh (Ayodhya), no; (prin-

names

of), 79-

Pasa (fetter), 81

89.

ces of), 113, I.

Oxus

(river), 3.

Pasin, 290. Passion (or activity), 31. Pasu (an animal), 89 ; 191.

Natesvara, 84.

Nathubhai

(Sir

Mangaldas),

Pachamba

381. Nature-worship, 2 ; 4 5 ; 72. Navanita-Ganapati, 218. Nava-ratra (festival), 431.

;

577. Pada (recitation), 409. Padartha-tritayam, 1 19.

(village),

Pasupata, 59. Pasupati (Siva), 85 89. Patala, 102, I ; 233; 322

;

323.

Padma, 103.
Padmini, 389. Padya, 415.
Pagri, 396, 2,

198 419, 2. Pathas (five Veda), 409.

Patanjali,
;

Nayars (aborigines), 271,

2.

Pati, 89. Patiala (Maharaja),

467.

Nayika (forms of
188.

Siva's wife),

Pahul, 167.
Paishtl, 193. Pala, 151.

Necklace (thread), 35.

Nectar-gayatrl, 201.

Patna, 166 ; (temple at), 174. Patrimony, 286. Pauranika, 25.

Pavamana (hymns), 368.

Pavana, 221. Pavitram, 106.
;

Neta

(guide), 106, I.

Panasa, 192.

New

Dispensation, 516; 517;

526. Nicholson (General), 260.

Pancajana (demon), 103, 2. PahcakosI (Benares), 218, i

435. Pahcanana, 79.
Panca-patra, xxi, note. Panca-prayaga, 367. Paficasuna, 418.

Nigamana, 39 185. Nikkal Sen (worshippers), 2 60.

;

Peacock (Skanda's), 104, 3. Pebbles (sacred), 69 349. Penance (six courses of), 87.
;

Ninibarka (miracle

of),

146.

Penates (Indian), 392. People (social condition), 18.

Nimitta-inana, 397. Nim ToUah (Ghat), 5i9> I-

Permagudy, 219.
Persia, 313.

518
;

Pahcayatana(ceremony),4lo416. PanchSyat, 456. Pandavas, 112 271. Pandharpur, 50; 263; 264. Panditah, 84. Pandit (lady), 389.
;

Nirguna, 31, i; 36, Nirnaya-sindhu, 303 Nirvana, 106. Nirvapa, 367. Nisacarah, 106.
;

i
;

121.

305.

Peterborough (Bishop),2 75,2. Phalgu-Sraddha, 312. iSe^ Linga. Phallus, 68, I. Phenta, 396. Philosophy (Vedanta), 33 85; (Sankhya), 30 ; 85.

Nishkramana, 353 358. Nitya (Sraddha), 305. Nityananda, T39 142.

;

Pandu, 271

(princes), 322.
I.

Pandu-lene, 272. Pandya (kingdom), 58,

Panini,

Phoenicia, 313. Pictures(on temple walls), 441.

Pidari, 228,

Niviti,

379

410.
of), 86.

84;
I-

184,1;

329;

Pilgrimages, 311

Noah, 107.
Non-duality (doctrine
Non-entity, 29.

5I9

348; 349; ,434; 444; 570;

Pan jab,
Panjiirli,

7.

Pinaka, 81.
Pindas, 293; 298-310. Pips, 148 ; 169.

Notary

(village),

456.

250. Pannagas, 238.

; ;

j ;

Index.
Pipal or
Pippala-tree,

597
Race (great Aryan), 3 (Anarya)_, 19; (Dasyu), 19; (Dravidian), 3 ; 19 (Kolarian), 3; (lunar)_, 112; (Naga),2.^3;(Non-Aryan), 3; (Nishada), 19; (pastoral), 3; (Serpent), 321. Radha, 113.
;

83
241
;

Prayaga,_375.

334; 335; 336. Pisacas, 82 ; 237

242.
Pita,

Prayagwal
;

(priests),

Prayasditta, 41 ; Prayer (eight-syllabled), 136.

375. 367.

106

182

244.

Pitara, 182.
Pitri (departed ancestors), lo.

Prayers (for the dead), 275. Preta, 241 ; 242.

Preta-sarira, 28.
Priests,

Pitri-loka, 28.

386
;

Pitri-paksha,

329; 431.
;

Primitive
.274, 2

457. Culture (Tylor's),

;

Pitri-tarpana, 394, i Pitrya, 410, I.

410.

3i3_; 314i
;

Rag
(Pan19.

Princes (Rajputana), 113,

Radha-Krishmu, 184. (or Ragas), 170 (Asa), (Gauri), 1 70 (Majh), 1 70

;

Planet-worship, 344. Plant-marriages, 334. Plants (sacred), 338.

(Oudh), 113, I dava), 271 272.

;

170.

Principles (triad of),

Rahu, 344. Rain-god, 9; 12

Rain-worship, 2. Raja-cakra, 196. Rajanya, 415.
Rajas, i\; 36.

16.

Plant-worship, 72 ; 330 ; 332. Plateau (Pamir), 3. Plates (of leaves), 424; 461. Pliny, 330, I.

Pritha, 271.
Prithivi, 8;

30; 182.
lo67i.

Priya-krit,

Proclamation (Keshab's),5i5.
Profession (choice of), 386. Progressive Samaj, 526.

Plough (Indian), 456.

Pluto (Hindu), 290. Poems (heroic), 42. Poison (deadly), 109. Polyandry, 271.

Prosonno Kumar Tagore, 485.

Prosperity (temple of), 385. Pudkala, 219. Pujari (priest), 249.

Rajendralala Mitra (Dr.), 93; 108, 2 ; 193 ; 194, I ; 195, 3; 282, I. Rajo-guna, 45.
Rajput_(tribe), 233, I. Rajputana, 1 1 3 ; 559 ; (princes
of), 113, I. Rakshasas, 237
;

Polygamy

(forbidden), 500. Polytheism, 7; 11 ; 17. Pomla (caste), 229.

Pulastya, 192. Puliyar, 211 ; 217.

244.

429. 144. Population (Hindu), 2. Potter (village), 460 xxii. Prabhus, 142.

Pongal

(festival),

Poona (temple

at),

Pulney Hills, 214, 2 349. Pumsavana, 353 355. Pundalika(or Pundarika), 263. Pundra, 66 118; 400. 67 Punishment (future), 295
;
;

Ram

(Agni's vehicle), 104, 3.

Rama, 47

; 62,1; 98; iii; 220; 259; 445 ; 462. Rama-candra, no; 220;

PracInavitT,

378

Pradakshina by), 68, 2; 145; 348; 415. Pradhana, 30.

410. (worship
;

(of school-boys), 458.

270, Rama-lila, 431.

Punya

(merit), 292.

Ramanand, 169
of),

(disciples

Pura, 81.

148.

Pradyumna, II4; I16.

Prahlada, 109.
Praja-pati,

Puraka, 402. Puranas, 63

99.

35;
31

237;
;

341

PuranT, 219, Purgatories ^temporary), 232,

Puri, 142 ; 447. Purity (or goodness),

Ramananda-Svami, 149. Rama-navami (festival), 430. Ramanuja (doctrine of), 1 19

120; 121
;
;

476.
; ;

355Prakriti,

Ramayana, 41 42 47
31
;

1 1 1
;

30;

32; 36;

85; 223.
Prama, 27.

(age of), 114. Purna-prajna, 130.

116 220 148 328 329; (of TulsT-das), 116.

;
;

Rambha, 108.
151
; ;

Pramana (four), 39. Pramanam, 106, i.

Pramathas, 238. Prana, 35. Pranah, 106. Pranava, 402.

Piirna sakti, 187.

Purnima

(festival),

152.

Puro-dasa, 367. Purohita (priests), 352

386;
;

Ram-das, 164 165 268. Ramesvara (island), 443. Ram Kant Roy, 478. Rammohun Roy, 475-490.
; ;

457Purusha, 31
;

Ramnad, 444.
33
;

34

35
1

Rain-singh, 26S.

Pranayama, 402.
Prarthana (prayer), 19. Prarthana-Samaj (manual
of),

(division of), 415.

Purusha-hymn (or sukta), 23; 33; 414.

Purusha-kara, 125, Purva-mimansa, 198. Pushan, 9. Pushkara (Pokhar), 558.

Ran-chor, 152. Raujit Sinh (tomb

177.
Rasatala, 102,
I.

of), 1

74;

526; 528; 529.

Prasada
(sacred

food),

69

Rasesvara-darsana, 206,

I.

94; 145; 168; 447.

Pratah-sandhya, 401. Pratapa-candra Ghosha, 197. Prathama-grantha, 179.
Pratibhasika, 38.
Pratijna, 39. Pratisbtha, 70.

Rat (Ganesa's), 104,

Rati, 447.

3.

Pushpa (flowers), 144; 415.

Pushti-marga, 134. Pushty-artha (Sraddha), 305. Put (hell), 287. Piitatma, 106.
Put-tra,

Raurava

(hell),

127,

I.

Ravana (tyrant-demon), 110;

220; 238; 445.
Ravi, 162. Ravi-das, 148
;

169.
39.

Pratyaksha, 39.

287; 355.

Reasoning

(^logical),

Qq3

598
Recaka, 402.

Index.
(Branding), medha), 22 132; 133; (Funeral), 274;
;

Redeemer
in),

(universal

belief

Saivism, 71 ; 73~94 (preva(compared lency of), 244

'>

114.

(Jyotishtoma),

22

(Va-

with Vaishmvism), 64.

SakaJ^era), 433. Sakha (of the Veda),

Reformation (Hindu), 477. Reformers (Vaishnava), 476 (advanced Indian), 505. Reforms (religious), 496. Regions (seven lower), 102, 1 232 233 (seven upper), 232 233.
;
;

japeya), 22, 194; (Dedication), 117; (purificatory),

530,

Reintegration, 74 75. Religio-Philosophical Journal,

;

157; 3.=i3; (sacrificial), 22; 367; (Sikh, baptismal), 167; (VaitaraDi), 297 ; (Sautramani), 194. River-god, 182. River-goddess, 182. Rivers (sacred), 295 ; 347
;

and note. Sakhya, 141.

Sakinis, 189. Sakshi, 106, I.

Sakshin (witness), 218, I, Sakshi- Vinayaka, 218, 1.

Saktas, 59
Sakti,
;

140.

256. Religion (social equality

(trinity of), 347.

in),
;

Rivington (Rev. Luke), 5 15,1.

33; 62; 187; 392. Sakti-sangama (Tantra), 207.

Saktism, 71
finition
;

64;
(in

(Hindu

daily),

351

Rocks

(sacred), 349.

180-196

(de-

modern family-life), 370.

;

Roer, 183.
Rohini, 113. Rosary, 67 406 135 (Vaishnava), 67 II7 (Saiva),67; 82; (of asce;

of),

180; (theory

Religious Truth, 510, i. Remarriage of widows, 472

of), 181; (licentiousness of),

190

(initiation into), 191.

500; 508. Reproach (terms

Reproducer, 44.
Revati, 112.

Sal (tree), 582.

of),

329.

Salagrama, 46

69

296

tic),

92.
;
;

Reva

(river), 347.

Ric (hymn), 415. Rice, 6 ; (^consecration of), 419. Riddhi, 215. Right-hand worshippers, 185. Rig-veda, 8 12; 13; 14; (I. 25), 407; 21 281 (I. 34. II), 10; (I. 45. 2), 10; (I. 72. 6), 418; (I.
;
;

Rudra, 9 3^ 75 7^ 77 82 85 (h).-mns), 416. Rudraksha (tree), 67 (ber;

;

.335; 392; 4' 2; 561Salivahana, 433.

Sallvatlsvara,

446,
;

5.

Salokya, 41

ries),

82.
(eleven), 10.
;

118. 71 Salutation (at Sandhya), 536.

;

Rudras

Samadh (tomb),
;

179.

Rudra-Siva, 44

75.

Rudra-yamala (Tantra), 207.

Samadhi, 48 261. Samajes (various), 494; (compared), 509.

Rukmaka
Rukmini.
Rules (of

(fire),
1

419.
;

14.

Saman (hymn), 415.

51
281.

life),

114. 8). 421 (I. 164. 20), 120; (I. 164. 46), 51 (H. (HI. 59), 23. I), 216 406 ; (HI. 62. 10), 403 (IV. 5. 5), 28r, i; (IV. 51. II), 407; (IV. 58. 3), 419; (V. 4. 5). 418; (V. 4. 9), 420; (VI. 20. 2),
;

Sabala, 289 422. Sabarniati, 347.

;

Sabda (or aptopadesa), 39, Sabha-mandapa (assembly

153. Sacerdotalism (Hindu), 352.
Sacrifice
hall),

Samanodakas, 286. Samarpana, 117 137. Samavartana, 353 362 Sama-veda, 8 21. Sambhu, 83.
; ;

379.

Sarnhita (recitation), 409.

Sarnhiias (of the Veda), 8.

(VII. 89. i), (VII. 99. 7, 100. 7),

320;

280; 416;
l;

(Vn.

104.

3),

281,

(meaning of), 12; (foreshadowing of), 13, I 17; (efficacy of), 22; 23; (Brahmanical), 22 ; 23 (human), 24; 166; (ani; ;

Sami (tree), 338 535. Samidh (fuel), 367.

;

Samipya, 41

71

118.

Sarnjna, 341.

Sammohana, 200.
Sampradaya, 61
62. Sainvat (era), 433. Sarnvatsara-karah, 106.
;

(VIII. 58. 2), 51; (IX. 73. 8), 281, I ; (X. 9), 403;

mal), 24.
Sacrificial-rites,

367.

(X. 10), 289; (X. 14. 9), 282; (X. 14. 7. 10,283; (X. 17. 3), 299; (X. 18.
3),

Sada-Siva, 83.

Samya, 30.
San (era), 433. Sanaka, 422. Sanat-kumara (Tantra), 207. Sandal, 144; 415, I.

Sadharana

(Brahma-Samaj),

283; (X. 18.

2),

8),
;

280;

513; '514Sadhus (holy men), 87,1; 150.

Sadyo-jata, 400.
SatTron, 91.

(X. 71.

182, 2 (X. 85)^ 363; (X. 85. 5), 343; (X. 86), 222, I (X. 88.
;

(X. 90), 23; 414; (X. 121. 10), 424; (X, 129), 29.
II).

341

Saguna, 31, i 121. 36, i Sahadeva, 271 272. Sahajananda, 148; 149; 268. Sahishnuh, 106, I.
;

Sandhya

Sandansa, 232. (morning), (mid-day), 407

;

40 1

(even-

ing) ,_407-

Ripon (Lord), 569.

Rishis, 2
;

(seven), 107.

Saint-worship, 257-273. Sainya, 407.

Saira, 193.

Rishi-tarpana, 410.
Rita, 404.

Saiva (worshippers of Siva),

Sandhya-japa, 394, i. Sandilya, 63, 2 97. Sandipana, 200. Sankalpa, 23 27. Sankara, 55; 56; 83; (doc;

Rite (Agnishtoma), 22 ; (Aptoryama), 22 ; (Asva-

59; 60; 73; 96. Saiva-darsana, 89.

.

trine of), 120.

Sankaracarya, 53

59.

Index,
Sankara-Narayana, 65.
Saiikara-vijaya, 59
;

599
Shanilrs (religion of), 251.

Sattara,
2
;

267
;

268.

67,

Sattra, 368.

Shan-mata-sthapaka, 59.
;

86

Saiikha

217; 236; 342. (shell), 65 92 ; 103

;
;

Sattva, 31
;

299. Sankhini, 389,

109

36. Sattva-guna, 45 412, 2. Saturnalia (Hindu), 430.

Satya,

Shashthi (goddess), 229 Shat kariiiani, 394, 1.

;

328.

102,

(age),

109

Sankhya

(Sutra), 26.
1

Sanklrtana,

41.

114; 433Satyah, 106 403.

;

Shaving (religious), 127; 359; 374; (of corpse), 297. Sherring (Mr.), 437, i.
Shodasi, 188.

Sankrant (festival), 428. Sannyasi, 53; 55; 87; 129;

Sanskaras (twelve), 353.
Sanskrit Texts (Muir's), 182,

342. Saura-sukta, 342.

;

Sauras, 5,9

Shoemaker

(village),

460.

261J

362; 375;

xxi.

Savam
Savitri,

[isaucam, 288.

Shoes, 396. Shrines (celebrated),

Savana, 369.

434-451
75
;

139; (demon), 249.

9;

341; 361

2; 237,

I.

403-

Siddha (perfect onesj, 191. Siddhi, 215.

Sights
(inauspicious),

Sanskrita (language), 4. Santals and Saiitalia, 576-

Sayam-sandhya, 407.
Sayana, 78,
2
;

397

419,
;

2.

(auspicious), 398.

585Santana-Ganapati, 218. Santa-Ram, 269. Santi, 141 346. Santi-da, 106, i. Santi-parvan (13140), 66. Sapindana (Sraddha), 305. Sapindas, 286. Sapta-padI, 364 3S0, 3. Sapta Sindhu, 7.
;
;

Sayana-Madhava, 56,
Sayujya, 41 118. 71 Sayujya-mukti, 196. Scape-goat, 227.
;

Sikandar Shah Lodi, 158. Sikh (sect), 161-178. Sikha, 374. Sikha-bandhana, 400.
Sikshii-patrT (translated), 155.

Schiidel-haus, 275, i.

Schoolmaster

(village),

458.

Simantonnayana, 353

357.
;

Schools (village), 458. Scriptures (Huidu), 408.

Sindiira (vermilion), 221.

Singing (religious), I4I

.

264;

Sea (of milk, &c.), 108. Sect (Hindu), 60; (Bhatta),

527; 528.

Sipivishta, 416.

Sarada-tilaka (Tantra), 207.

86

(C'aitanya),

13S-I45

Sipping water, 144; 401.

Siras-dheda, 201.

Saranam, 106, I. Saraiigl, 38 1. Sara-sayya, 561.

Sarasvat, 182.

SarasvatI (goddess), 14;

47;

182; 211; 536

(worship

oO 429; (river), 51. Sarayu, 347. Sarcostema Viminalis, 12.

Sari, 396.

(Ganapatya), 217; (Jangama), 86 (Madhva), 129-134; (Nimbaditya), (Nimbarka), 146 146 (Pasupata),86; 89; (Ramilnuja), 1 19-129 (Rlimananda), 147; (Raudra), 86
; ;
; ;

Sin Rag, 170.

Sisu-pjila,

259, I. 143 Sua, 48, 1 220 445. Sitala Devi, 228.

; ;
;

Sitalji-saptami (festival), 430.

Sita-Ramau, 184.
Siva,

(Saiva),

86-89;

(Sikh),

161-178;

Sarlraka-bhiishya, 121. Sarnian (prosperity), 358. Sarnga, 104. Sarsa, 268.

Sarshti, 205.

95; (Svami-Narayana), I48158; (ofKablr), 158-161;

;

(Smarta),

(Vaishnava), 116-161. Sectarianism (Hindu), 60

(Saiva),

46 47 54 3 45 56; 62 66 65 67 68 (supremacy of), 69 (symbol of), 78 74 (names of), 78 82 106

;
;

(description of),

86-89;

(Vaish-

78 79 ; (names of attendants of),

;

Sarupya, 41
Sarva, 85.

71

118.

Sarva-bhuta-hara, 82. Sarva-darsana-saiigraha,

121,
I
;

19;
I
;

nava), 116-160. Sen (Keshab Chandar), 496 497; 510; 512-523; 525; 526. Sen (Ram Comul), 497.
Serpent,

79,

(five faces

of),

79,

(eyes of),

80

(weapons
(repre-

of),

81

(five

chief char-

acters of),

81-86;

122
i.

124,

80; 105
;

(Kaliya),

sentation of), 82; (feminine counterpart), 83 ; (eight

133Sarvah, 106, Sasta, 218.

Sat, 34.

131

113

(demons),

233

material
cipal

forms

of),

85 85

(temple), 323

(worship),

(miracles),

85

(eight prin;

313; 319-326.

manifestations),

Sastris (Pandits), 386.

Sesamum

Services (religious), 392. (seed), 296.

(female energy), 187; (contradictory qualities),

186

Satani (school^, 125, I. Satapana, 200.

Satapatha-brahmana, 21; 24 182. 29 Satarudriya, 76 79 328. Sat!, 79; 261 279, I 299; 4S1. SatnamT, 178 179.
;

Sesha (serpent-god), 59 ; 63 ; 105; 112 ; 232, I ; 321; 323; 332, 1. Setuh, 106, 1. Seven (steps), 364; (seas),

(incarnation), 266.
Sivii-ji,

265.
78.

Sivanjlth Sastri (Pandit), 514.

Siva-purana, 74 Siva-rat, 90,

Siva-rjitri,

108 (worlds), 403. Shadvinsa-brahmana, 398.

;

204

428.

Shakespeare, 386.

Siva-stotra, 535. Siva-sutras, 84, I.

Satru-ghna, 47.

Shamanism, 246.

Skanda, 48

62; 79; 214.

6oo
Skanda-purana, 74. Skull (cracking), 299. Sky, 5 ; 9 ; 20.
Sky-god, 15. Sleeman (Col), 331. 3; 335. Small-pox (goddess of), 227.
Stages
life),

Index,
(four,

of Brahman's

Svastika (mark), 90, 2; 104,

I
;

362.

573.
;

Stambhana, 200.
Statue (Jain), 250. Stephen (Sir Fitzjames), 507. Sthanu, 83.
Sthiila-sarira,

Svayam-bhu, 30
Sveta, 80, 2.

69.

Smarta Brahmans, 55 Smarta-karman, 365. Smasana, 203 ; 281.

Smasana-vasin, 82.
Smriti, 53.

95.

28

35.

Svetasvatara Upanishad, 419. Swan (Brahma's), 104, 3. Sword (Vishnu's), 104.

Smriti-karman, 52.
Smriti-sastra, 51. Snake-chiefs, 233.

Sthuna (column), 280. Stones, 272 ; (irve), 349 411 ; (five methods of arrangement of), 412. Storm -god, 9.
Stri

Swords (sacred), 175. Syama, 187; 289; 422. Syama-rahasya (Tantra), 207. Symbols (of Siva), 67 239 (of Vishnu), 127; 239;
;
;

Parambattur, 119.

(sanctity of), 69.

Stuti (praise), 19.

Snake-stones, 325. Snake-superstitions, 324. Snake- worship, 319.

Styx (Hindii), 297.

Subrahmanya, 48 ; 21 1-2 18; (contrasted with 323

;

Tabla (tom-toms), 381.

Tacitus, 330.

Snana

(bathing),

394,

399; 415-.
Societies (Theistic),

485-520.

Socrates, 515. So-daru, 170.

Sohila, 170.

Ganesa), 215. Sudarsana, 103 ; 133 ; xxi. Suddhy-artha (Sraddha), 305. (god of Sudra, 53 ; 415 ;
the), 84; 212. Sugriva (king), 221. Suhrid, 106, I. Sukh-nidhan, 160. Suklah (name of Siva), 107. Sukra, 194, i.

Tagore(Debendra-nath),49i;

498; 514; 53i;(Dvarakanath), 482 491 485 (Prosonno Kumar), 485.

; ;

Tailotsava (festival), 442.

Taittiriya

Aranyaka, 400

Soma (moon), 343.

\ Soma-god, 12.

403Taittiriya-brahmana,23; 195,
3.

NSoma-juice, 25

/Soma

(plant),

369. 8 ; 12
;

\Soma-sacrifice, 25

332. 368; 392.

;

Taittiriya-samhita (VI. 4. 10.

I).

Sukshma, 123.
Sukshma-sarira, 28. Sulabh Samachar, 510, Sun, 10; 20; 104;
(titles of),
^

237-

Son (importance

355. Sons (of the Ganges), 347. So-purkhu, 170. Sorcerer (story of a), 299. Soul (restless state of), 2771

of),

I.

Taj at Agra, 175 ; 176. Takshaka, 233 323.

; ;

365

Talatala, 102, I.

Sound (eternity
Spell-Veda, 8. Spiky bed, 561.
Spirit

of),

198.

(Supreme), 14; (bodily coverings of), 26 ; 27

; ;

341. Sunahsepa, 24. Sundaresvara, 442. Sun-god, 9 10 16. Sun-temples, 342. Sun-worship, 2 ; 5 ; 341. Sun-worshippers, 62 342.
;

Tali (toddy), 192. Talismans, 197-202

254. Talvandi, 162.

204

Tamas, 31

Tamatoa

36. ; (king), 273, I.

(mode of worshipping), 49 (disembodied), 291 50 292 (embodied), 293. Spirit-worship, 71 230-256. Sraddha (ceremonies), 276 303; (object of), 304; (twelve Sraddhas), 305 (payment for), 307 (time and place of), 308 (special), 308 310 311 (expense of), 278 312.
; ;
;

Superstition,

210; 230; 344;

108
;

370. Sura (wine-goddess),

Tambila (ceremony), 248, Tamo-guna, 45; 412, 2. Tamraparni (river), 324.

19a

195;

Tandava (dance), 85. Tandya-brahmana, 21

Tanjore, 66,
2
;

23.

Surabhi, 108

318.

439.
2.

Sur-das (poet), 147; 169. Surya, 9; 16; 75; 341 392.

;

Tanka, 193. Tanmatra, 30; 31,

; ;

Surya-Narayana, 342, i. Surya-sukta, 342. Siirya-sukta, 343 363, note.

;

Sramana, 58. Srauta-karman, 365

Sri,

Sutala, 102, I, Sutra (aphorism), 26.

Tantra (Matrika-bheda), 193. Tantras, 63 184; (ex85 tracts from), 189; (Vaishnava), 207; (authorship and
character of), 205
;

206.

368.

Sutratman, 35.
Suttee (for Sati).

103.

See

Sati.

Tantra-sara, 200, Tantrikas, 25.

I.

SrI-cakra,

203. Sridharalu Naidu, 525.

;

196

Svadha, 304.

Tanus

(eight), 85.

Sringa-giri, 55. Sri-phala, 299.

Sri-raiigam, 119; (temple of),

Svadhyaya, 394, i. Svami. See Dayananda. Svami-Narayana (sect), 148 268 (manual), 155.
;

Tapah
102,
;

or
I
;

Tapar
403.
;

(heaven),

Tapana, 86.
Tapas, 72 87. Tapasvi, 83.

70,

447-451.

Srishti-sthiti-laya, 44.
Sruti, 7.

Sruti-karman, 52.

Sva-pada, 329. Svar, 9 102, I ; 403. 118. Svarga, 13 ; 49; 71 Svarna-Ganapati, 218.
; ;

Tapta-kumbha, 232. Tapta-loha, 232.

Tapti
(river),

347.

1; ;

Index.
Tara, 187. Taraka-mantra, 297. Tarpana (ceremony),
Transmigration, 24; 52; 235. 6Ve Metempsychosis. Travancore (king of), 468.

60
Upadiina-karana, 120. Upadesa (knowledge), 191.

394;

Upamana,

39.

409. Tattva, 106. Tattva-bodhini-patrika, 509. Tattva-bodhinl-sabha, 492. Tattva-muktavali, 122. Teachers (Vaishnava), 86. Teeth-cleaning (religious act),

Tree (celestial), 108. Tree and Serpent Worship,

Trees (sacred), 338
Tree-worship, 72
;

Upanaya, 39. Upanayana (ceremony), 353

3^^o; 377Upanishad (Kaula), 185.

(Siva's

association with), 446.

Upanishads, 26

(philosophy

330; 332.
433.

Treta (age),

no;

376; 399Teg-Bahadur, 164

Tejas
(fire),

166.

Temple 436 ;

30. (golden), 175 ; 176 Vishnu-pada), (of

;

Triad(sacrcd),5;9;44;45; 49; 74; (of Principles), 119; (Vaishnava), 142. Tribe (Yadava), 112; (Rajput), 233, I. Trichinopoly, ^o,
(temples),

oO> 37. I. Upasana (meditation), 19. Upasthana (service), 406 (act), 420. (prayer), 407
;

309; (of Ganesa), 217. (description of), Temples 434-451-

i; 217; 445
temple
I.

119; 447

Upavastra, 415. Upavlta, 378. Upaviti, 409. Upaya (means), 125.

(Vaishnava
447Tri-dandin, 541,

at),

Temple

(Sir

Richard), 467.

Ten-galai, 125-127. Tennyson, 3S6. Thag. See Thug. Thana (temples of), 50.

Urdhva-bahu, 88 439. Urdhva-deha, 293, I. Urdhva-pundra, 67 118. Urvasi (nymph), 333, I.

; ;

Trikona, 45.
Tri-murti, 45 ; 74. Trinity (Hindu, wrongly called), 44; (contrasted with
Christian Trinity), 49.
Tri-pati, 267.

Thanush-kodi, 445. Theism, 7 (introduced into

;

Ushas, 5 ; 9 ; 182. Utsava-murti, 447Utsava-vigraha, 449. Uttariya, 395.

Vada-galai, 125-127. Vagala or Bagala, 188. Vag-dana, 377. Vaghoba, 328, Vahana, 104, 3. Vaidika Upadesa, 362. Vaidyah, 106. Vaikuntha, 70; 102 118; (terres142 291 124 trial counterpart of), 448. Vairagi, 87; 561. Vairagya, 48 510.
;

India),

(forms of), 475 524; (modern Hindu), 492.

;

Theistic Annual, 510, i. Theistic Church (first Hindii),

486.
Theistic

Churches

(number

Tripura, 81. Tripuril, 188. Tripurasura (demon), 432. Tritheism, 1 1. Tri-vikrama, 365 ; 405.

00,517.
Theistic Society, 493. Theistic Quarterly Review,

Trumpp

510, I. Theists (Vaishnava), 179.

(Prof.), 161 164 169; 170, I. Tryiiyusham, 421. Tukaram or Tuka-rilma,

;
;

Theosophy, 526;

xii, i.

Thomas (Mr. Edw.),

Thread 360; 361; 378; 409.

Threefold pains of
life,

104, 1. (Brahmanical), 84
97.

528. 264; 265 Tulasi or Tulsl (shrub), 46 67 ; 296 ; (healing qualities oO 333; (worship of), 333. Tulsi-das (poet), 147 ; I48. Tuiiga-bhadra, 347.

Vaiseshika (Sutra), 26.

Vaishnavas, 59; 60; 95-160. (general Vaishnavism, 71

;

characteristics),

95-106

Thug

(thag),
;

260

575.

Tibet, 3

313.
;

Tiger (Durga's), 104, 3. Tilaka, 66 118 400. 67 Tinnevelly, 272; (Saiva temple), 446.
;
;

Turbans, 396. Turlya,35. Tutelary deities, 71^

(compared

with Saivism),
Christianity),

64
2; 313;

(with

119.

Ty!or(E.

B.), 274,

314; 330Uccaih-sravas, 108; 329. Uc<^hishta-Ganapati, 218.

Vaisvadeva (ceremony), 394; 416. Vaisvadeva-balikarmani, 417,

2.

Tirtha (water), 145. Tirtha-kaka, 329. Tirumell Nayak, 443.

Udaharana, 39.
2.

Vaisvanara, 35. Vaisya, 53; 415;

the), 84. VaitaranI, 290;
Vajra, 81.

(god

of

Todas
375-

(aborigines), 271,

Tonsure,

359;

(modern),

Udasa, 154. Uddisa (Tantra), 207.

297; 570.

Udumbara, 535.
(regions of), 293,
;

Vajasaneyi-sanihitii, 76.

Torment

Tortoise, 108

328.

Udupi, 130. Ugra, 76; 85.

Ujjh! Puliyar, Ulupl, 233, I
2 1 7.
;

Vallabha
(life

or

Vallabhadarya
(teach-

Totemism, 314.

00,134; 135;

Towns

(Indian), 462.

322.

ing oO, 476; (Maharajas),

Trade (Indian), 453.

Trade-castes, 454. Tradition (Brahmanical), 53. Transfiguration, 206.

Uma, 79;

229. Untai, 227. Upacara. 413.

Upadana, 119.

335Valli-amman, 214. Valmiki, 196. Vama-margis, 185.

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