INDEX

CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ABSTRACT

II

LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter-1 Introduction .1-2
1.1 Technology To Create White LEDs1
1.2 Significance Of White LED Technology2
Chapter-2 About LED...3-20
2.1 Light Emitting Diode ..3-4
2.1.1 Direct Recombination ...6
2.1.2 Indirect Recombination .6
2.2 LED Materials..8
2.3 LED Structure ...8
2.4 LED Efficiency.10
2.5 LED History.11
2.6 Controlling LEDs 12
2.6.1 Need For Controlling12
2.6.2 No Current Controller..12
2.6.3 Resistor As Current Limiter .13
2.6.4 Linear Current Regulator .14
2.6.5 A Switching Regulator 15
2.6.6 Computer Control 16

2.7 Regarding The Cost .16

2.8 Applications17
2.9 Advantages Of Using LEDs...18
2.10 Disadvantages..19
Chapter-3 White LED..21-34
3.1 Introduction .21
3.2 Components Of White LED 22
3.2.1 The Optical System ..22
3.2.2. The Light Source .22
3.2.3 The Heat Sink.23
2.4 The Circuit Board..23
3.2.5 The Driver 23
3.3 Characterdtics .23
3.3.1 Spectrum ..23
3.3.2 Iv Characteristics 24
3.3.3 Forward Iv Characteristics ..25
3.3.4 Reverse Iv Characteristics ..26
3.5 White Light LEDs Importance Of Accepted ...27
3.5.1 Measurement Standards ...27
3.5.2 Optical Properties Of White Light LEDs..28
3.5.3 Dependence On Temperature ...28
3.5.4 Spatial Radiation Pattern . 30
3.5.5 Spectral Resolution ..31
3.6 True Efficacy Of LED Lamps .33
3.7public Policy .34

Chapter-4 White Light From LEDs35-47

4.1 How It Is Produced?......................................................................35
4.1.1 Conventional Method 1 : Rgb Method...35
4.1.2 Conventional Method 2: The Phosphor Method ...38
4.1.3 Chromawhite Advanced Colour Mix Technology 39
4.2 Reliability Of White LEDs ..40
4.3 Brightness Of White LEDs ...41
4.4 Efficiency Of LEDs...44
4.5 LED Variations.45
Chapter 5 About Lighting Option ...47-67
5.1 Incandescent Light Bulb 47
5.1.1 Efficacy, Efficiency, And Environmental Impact ...48
5.1.2 Construction .49
5.1.3 Power 51
5.1.4 Current And Resistance.52
5.2 Compact Fluorescent Lamps (Cfl)...53
5.2.1 Parts...54
5.2.2 Comparison With Incandescent Lamps Lifespan .....54
5.2.3 Energy Efficiency .55
5.2.4 Cost ...55
5.2.5 Starting Time 55
5.2.6 Spectrum Of Light 56
5.2.7 Size 56
5.3 Solid State (LED Or Light Emitting Diode) 57
5.5 A Comparison Between LED, Cfl & Incandescent Lamp 64
5.5.1 Why We Chose Cfl Over Incandescent Lamps?............................66

5.5.2 Why Should We Choose LED Lamps Over Cfl?..........................66

5.6 Comparison Chart ....67
Chapter-6 Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications69-75
6.1 Advantages ...70
6.2 Disadvantages....71
6.3 Applications...71
6.3.1 Commercial Applications ..72
6.3.2 Bright LEDs For Outdoor Applications 73
6.4 Limitations 74
Chapter-7 Conclusion And Future Scope.77-78
References

List Of Figures

Page No.

Figure 2.1 Symbol Of LED.. 4

Figure 2.2: P-N+ Junction Under Unbiased And Biased Conditions... 4
(Pn Junction Devices And Light Emitting Diodes)
Figure 2.3: Direct Bandgap And Direct Recombination ..6
Figure 2.4 : Indirect Bandgap And Nonradiative Recombination 7
Figure 2.5: LED Structure (Pn Junction Devices And LED)...9
Figure 2.6 LED History..11
Figure 2.7 Block Diagram Of A Linear Current Regulator.14
Figure 2.8 - Block Diagram Of A Switching Current Regulator..15
Figure 3.1 Structure Of A White LED Lamp.22
Figure 3.2- White LED Spectrum..24
Figure 3.3 Characteristics...25
Figure 3.4 Forward Characteristics26
Figure 3.5 Reverse Characteristics .27
Figure 3.6 Illustrates The Spectral Dependence Of An LED30
Figure 3.7 : Spatial Radiation Pattern And Color Temperatur..32
Figure 3.8: Stray Light Suppression For Different Spectrometers For
Filtered Light From A Halogen Lamp: Double Monochromator .34
Figure 4.1 Rgb Method Combining Red, Green And Blue (Rgb) 37
Figure 4.2 How White Light Is Produced .38
Figure 4.3 How White Light Is Produced .38
Figure 4.4 The Phosphor Method ..39
Figure 5.1 Construction .52
Figure 5.2 Cfl..54
Figure 5.3 Energy Efficiency Use By Bulb ...56

Figure 5.2 White LED Lamps ...59

Figure 5.3 White LED Lamp .60