CHAPTER-1 GSM OVERVIEW 1.

1 INTRODUCTION: THE EVOLUTION OF MOBILE TELEPHONE SYSTEMS Wireless communication is the transfer of information between two or more points that are not connected by an electrical conductor. The most common wireless tec hnologies use radio. With radio waves distances can be short, such as a few mete rs for television or as far as thousands or even millions of kilometers for deep -space radio communications. It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable applications, including two-way radios, cellular telephones, personal d igital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking. Other examples of application s of radio wireless technology include GPS units, garage door openers, wireless computer mice, keyboards and headsets, headphones, radio receivers, satellite te levision, broadcast television and cordless telephones. Wireless operations permit services, such as long-range communications, that are impossible or impractical to implement with the use of wires. The term is commo nly used in the telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications syste ms which use some form of energy to transfer information without the use of wire s. Information is transferred in this manner over both short and long distances. Cellular is one of the fastest growing and most demanding telecommunications app lications. Today, it represents a continuously increasing percentage of all new telephone subscriptions around the world. It is forecasted that cellular systems using a digital technology will become the universal method of telecommunicatio ns. By the year 2005, forecasters predict that there will be more than 100 milli on cellular subscribers worldwide with many countries having more cellular than fixed phone subscribers which has already happened in few countries. Fig 1.1 projected mobile phone subscribers The concept of cellular service is the use of low-power transmitters where frequ encies can be reused within a geographic area. The idea of cell-based mobile rad io service was formulated in the United States at Bell Labs in the early 1970s. However, the Nordic countries were the first to introduce cellular services for commercial use with the introduction of the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) in 198 1. Cellular systems began in the United States with the release of the advanced mobile phone service (AMPS) system in 1983. The AMPS standard was adopted by Asi a, Latin America, and Oceanic countries, creating the largest potential market i n the world for cellular. In the early 1980s, most mobile telephone systems were analog rather than digital, like today's newer systems. One challenge facing an alog systems was the inability to handle the growing capacity needs in a cost-ef ficient manner. As a result, digital technology was welcomed. The advantages of digital systems over analog systems include ease of signaling, lower levels of interference, integrat ion of transmission and switching, and increased ability to meet capacity demand s. 1.2 APPLICATIONS OF WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY 1.2.1 MOBILE TELEPHONES One of the best-known examples of wireless technology is the mobile phone, also known as a cellular phone, with more than 4.6 billion mobile cellular subscripti ons worldwide as of the end of 2010. These wireless phones use radio waves to e nable their users to make phone calls from many locations worldwide. They can be used within range of the mobile telephone site used to house the equipment requ ired to transmit and receive the radio signals from these instruments. 1.2.2 WIRELESS DATA COMMUNICATIONS Wireless data communications are an essential component of mobile computing. The various available technologies differ in local availability, coverage range and performance and in some circumstances, users must be able to employ multiple co nnection types and switch between them. To simplify the experience for the user, connection manager software can be used, or a mobile VPN deployed to handle the multiple connections as a secure, single virtual network. Supporting technologi

es include: Wi-Fi is a wireless local area network that enables portable computing devices t o connect easily to the Internet. Standardized as IEEE 802.11 a, b, g, n, Wi-Fi approaches speeds of some types of wired Ethernet. Wi-Fi has become the de facto standard for access in private homes, within offices, and at public hotspots. S ome businesses charge customers a monthly fee for service, while others have beg un offering it for free in an effort to increase the sales of their goods. Cellular data service offers coverage within a range of 10-15 miles from the nea rest cell site. Speeds have increased as technologies have evolved, from earlier technologies such as GSM, CDMA and GPRS, to 3G networks such as W-CDMA, EDGE or CDMA2000. 1.3 GSM (Global system for mobile communication) Global system for mobile communication (GSM) is a globally accepted standard for digital cellular communication. GSM is the name of a standardization group esta blished in 1982 to create a common European mobile telephone standard that would formulate specifications for a pan-European mobile cellular radio system operat ing at 900 MHz. The standardized system met certain favorable criterion: Spectrum efficiency International roaming Low mobile and base stations costs Good subjective voice quality Compatibility with other systems such as ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Netwo rk) Ability to support new services Distinction between user and device identification Extensive security features Throughout the evolution of cellular telecommunications, various systems have be en developed without the benefit of standardized specifications. This presented many problems directly related to compatibility, especially with the development of digital radio technology. The GSM standard is intended to address these prob lems. After multiple field tests, a digital system was adopted for GSM. The next task was to decide between a narrow or broadband solution. In May 1987, the nar rowband time division multiple access (TDMA) solution was chosen. 1.3.1 GSM NETWORK AREAS: The GSM network is made up of geographic areas. As show n in figure, these areas include cells, location areas (LAs), MSC/VLR service ar eas, and public land mobile network (PLMN) areas. Fig 1.2 GSM network areas The cell is the area given radio coverage by one base transceiver station. The G SM network identifies each cell via the cell global identity (CGI) number assign ed to each cell. The location area is a group of cells. It is the area in which the subscriber is paged. Each LA is served by one or more base station controlle rs, yet only by a single MSC. Each LA is assigned a location area identity (LAI) number. An MSC/VLR service area represents the part of the GSM network that is covered b y one MSC and which is reachable, as it is registered in the VLR of the MSC. 1.3.2 GSM AIR INTERFACE A mobile station communicates with a base station via a radio channel. A radio c hannel is a bi-directional radio transmission path. Each radio channel has two d istinct frequencies; one for downlink and one for uplink. Downlink is defined as the transmission path from the base station to the mobile station, while uplink is defined as the transmission path from the mobile station to the base station . The base station transmits on one frequency while the mobile station transmits on another frequency. This creates a full duplex communication path. That is, s imultaneous communication in both directions. Fig 1.3 Uplink and downlink on a radio channel

1.3.3 FREQUENCY ALLOCATION: There are basically three frequency bands which are supported by GSM: GSM 900, GSM 1800 and GSM 1900, all these frequencies are in M HZ. The following table describes the frequency bands of GSM with their uplink a nd downlink. Table1. Frequency bands of GSM 1.3.4 DUPLEX DISTANCE: The distance between one uplink frequency and its corresp onding downlink frequency is called the duplex distance. The duplex distance var ies for different frequency bands, refer to Table as:

Table2. Duplex distance for various Bands The figure below shows the concept of duplex distance. Fig 1.4 Concept of Duplex Distance 1.3.5 TRANSMISSION RATE: The transmission rate over the air is 270 kbps. This is true for GSM 900, GSM 1800 and GSM 1900. The amount of information transmitted over a radio channel over a period of time is known as the transmission rate. Tr ansmission rate is expressed in bits per second or bit/s. 1.3.6 CHANNEL CONCEPT: The carrier separation is 200kHz, this provides 124 carri ers in the GSM 900 band, 374 carriers in the GSM 1800 band and 299 in the GSM 19 00 band. Since each carrier is shared by eight MSs, the total numbers of channel s are: 124 x 8 = 992 channels in GSM 900 374 x 8 = 2992 channels in GSM 1800 299 x 8 = 2392 channels in GSM 1900 Each of these channels, that is one time slot on a time division multiple access frame, is called a physical channel. A variety of information is transmitted be tween the BTS and the MS. There are different types of logical channels dependin g on the type of information being transmitted. Each logical channel is used for a specific purpose, e.g. paging, call setup or speech. These logical channels a re mapped onto the physical channels. 1.3.7 GSM Protocol Stack: Fig 1.5 GSM Protocol Stack The signaling protocol in GSM is structured into three general layers, depending on the interface. 1.3.7.1 Layer 1: The physical layer, which uses the channel structures over the air interface. In this layer during the time of transmission several processes t akes place like: Signaling Voice Coding Channel Coding Interleaving Burst Formatting Ciphering Modulation In this layer during the time of reception several processes takes place like: Signaling Voice decoding Channel decoding De-Interleaving De-Burst Formatting De-Ciphering Demodulation 1.3.7.2 Layer 2: The data-link layer. Across the Um interface, the data-link lay er is a modified version of the Link access protocol for the D channel (LAP-D) p rotocol used in ISDN, called Link access protocol on the Dm channel (LAP-Dm). Ac

ross the A interface, the Message Transfer Part (MTP), Layer 2 of SS7 is used. F unctions of Data Link layer are: Error free transmission Formation of frames Frame synchronization To check the flow of packets to layer3. LAPD is a protocol which helps in peer to peer transmission of data in defined f rame formats and establishment, maintenance and termination of frames. LAPDm is the modified version of LAPD protocol as the transmission of data between MS and BTS is more complicated so that s why we use this modified version between MS and BTS. 1.3.8 BURSTS AND FRAMES: The information contained in one time slot on the TDMA frame is called a burst. There are five different types of bursts: 1. NORMAL BURST (NB) used to carry information on traffic and control chann els. 2. FREQUENCY CORRECTION BURST (FCB) used for frequency synchronization of t he mobile. 3. SYNCHRONIZATION BURST (SB) used for frame synchronization of the mobile. 4. ACCESS BURST used for random access and handover access. 5. DUMMY BURST used when no other type of burst is to be sent. Frame consists of time slots or channels that can be provided to a user. Frames are of different types like hyperframe, superframe, multiframe etc.A hyperframe consists of 2048 superframes,a superframe consists of 51 or 26 multiframes, a m ultiframe consists of 26 frames and a frame consists of 8 time slots. According to sizes of frames they have different time period as hyperframe is largest amon g these and hence having largest time period.

Fig 1.6 Relationship between different frames 1.3.9 LOGICAL CHANNELS There are 12 logical channels in the system. Two are used for traffic, nine for control signaling and one for message distribution. Fig 1.7 GSM channels 1.3.9.1 Traffic Channels (TCH): There are two types of TCHs: Full rate channel, Bm - used for full rate speech at 13kbps or data up to 9.6kbp s. Half-rate channel, Lm - used for half rate speech at 6.5kbps or data up to 4.8kb ps. 1.3.9.2 Control channels: There are three different groups of control channels w ith each group containing three different logical channels. 1. Broadcast Channels (BCH) (Downlink Only) Frequency Correction Channel (FCH) - used for frequency correction of MS. Synchronization Control Channel (SCH) carries information about the TDMA frame n umber and the base station identity code of the BTS Broadcast Control Channel (BCH) - Broadcasts cell specific information to the MS . 2. Common Control Channels (CCCH) Paging Channel (PCH)- used on the downlink to page the MS. Random Access Channel (RACH) - used on the uplink by the MS to request allocatio n of an SDCCH, either as a page response or an access at MS call origination/reg istration Access Grant Channel (AGCH) - used on the downlink to allocate an SDCCH or TCH t o an MS. An allocation to a TCH can be done in the case of an Immediate Assignme nt on TCH.

3. Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH) (Uplink and Downlink) Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH) used for system signaling during ca ll setup or registration, uplink and downlink, as well as the transmission of sh ort text messages in idle mode. Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) control channel associated with a TCH or a SDCCH. Measurement reports from the MS to the BTS are sent on the uplink. On the downlink the MS receives information from the BTS on what transmitting power to use and also instructions on timing advance (TA).The SACCH is also used for the transmission of short text messages in call connected (busy) mode. Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH) - Control channel associated with a TCH. Also referred to as fast associated signaling, the FACCH works in stealing mode . That is, 20 ms of speech is replaced by a control message. It is used during h andover as SACCH signaling is not fast enough. Used on uplink and downlink. 4. Cell Broadcast Channel (CBCH): This is used only on the downlink to carry sho rt message service cell broadcast (SMSCB). CBCH uses the same physical channel a s the SDCCH. 1.3.10 FUNCTIONS OF GSM AND PROTOCOLS: In this paragraph, the description of the GSM network is focused on the different functions to fulfill by the network and not on its physical components. In GSM, five main functions can be defined: Transmission. Radio Resources management (RR). Mobility Management (MM). Communication Management (CM). 1.3.10.1 Transmission: The transmission function includes two sub-functions: T he first one is related to the means needed for the transmission of user informa tion. The second one is related to the means needed for the transmission of sign aling information. Not all the components of the GSM network are strongly relate d with the transmission functions. The MS, the BTS and the BSC, among others, ar e deeply concerned with transmission. But other components, such as the register s HLR, VLR or EIR, are only concerned with the transmission for their signaling needs with other components of the GSM network. 1.3.10.2 Radio Resources management (RR): The role of the RR function is to esta blish, maintain and release communication links between mobile stations and the MSC. The elements that are mainly concerned with the RR function are the mobile station and the base station. However, as the RR function is also in charge of m aintaining a connection even if the user moves from one cell to another, the MSC , in charge of handovers, is also concerned with the RR functions. The RR is als o responsible for the management of the frequency spectrum and the reaction of t he network to changing radio environment conditions. Some of the main RR procedu res that assure its responsibilities are: Channel assignment, change and release. Handover. Frequency hopping. Power-level control. Discontinuous transmission and reception. Timing advance. 1.3.10.3 Mobility Management: The MM function is in charge of all the aspects re lated with the mobility of the user, specially the location management and the a uthentication and security. Location management: When a mobile station is powered on, it performs a location update procedure by indicating its IMSI to the network. The first location upda te procedure is called the IMSI attach procedure. The mobile station also perfor ms location updating, in order to indicate its current location, when it moves t o a new Location Area or a different PLMN. This location-updating message is sen t to the new MSC/VLR, which gives the location information to the subscriber's H LR. If the mobile station is authorized in the new MSC/VLR, the subscriber's HLR cancels the registration of the mobile station with the old MSC/VLR. A location updating is also performed periodically. If after the updating time period, the mobile station has not registered, it is then deregistered. When a mobile stati on is powered off, it performs an IMSI detach procedure in order to tell the net

work that it is no longer connected. Authentication and security: The authentication procedure involves the SIM card and the Authentication Center. A secret key, stored in the SIM card and the AuC, and a ciphering algorithm called A3 are used in order to verify the authenticit y of the user. The mobile station and the AuC compute a SRES using the secret ke y, the algorithm A3 and a random number generated by the AuC. If the two compute d SRES are the same, the subscriber is authenticated. The different services to which the subscriber has access are also checked. Another security procedure is to check the equipment identity. If the IMEI number of the mobile is authorized in the EIR, the mobile station is allowed to connect the network. In order to assure user confidentiality, the user is registered with a Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) after its first location update procedure. 1.3.10.4 Communication Management (CM): The CM function is responsible for: Call control. Supplementary Services management. Short Message Services management. Call Control (CC): The CC is responsible for call establishing, maintaining and releasing as well as for selecting the type of service. One of the most importan t functions of the CC is the call routing. In order to reach a mobile subscriber , a user dials the Mobile Subscriber ISDN (MSISDN) number which includes: a country code a national destination code identifying the subscriber's operator a code corresponding to the subscriber's HLR The call is then passed to the GMSC (if the call is originated from a fixed netw ork) which knows the HLR corresponding to a certain MISDN number. The GMSC asks the HLR for information helping to the call routing. The HLR requests this infor mation from the subscriber's current VLR. This VLR allocates temporarily a Mobil e Station Roaming Number (MSRN) for the call. The MSRN number is the information returned by the HLR to the GMSC. Thanks to the MSRN number, the call is routed to subscriber's current MSC/VLR. In the subscriber's current LA, the mobile is p aged. Supplementary Services management: The mobile station and the HLR are the only c omponents of the GSM network involved with this function. Short Message Services management: In order to support these services, a GSM net work is in contact with a Short Message Service Center through the two following interfaces: The SMS-GMSC for Mobile Terminating Short Messages (SMS-MT/PP). It has the same role as the GMSC. The SMS-IWMSC for Mobile Originating Short Messages (SMS-MO/PP). 1.3.11 GSM IDENTITIES: To switch a call to a mobile subscriber, the right identi ties need to be involved. It is therefore important to address them correctly. T he numbers used to identify the identities in a GSM network are described in thi s chapter. Numbering plans are used to identify different networks. 1.3.11.1 Mobile station ISDN number (MSISDN): The MSISDN is a number which uniqu ely identifies a mobile telephone subscription in the public switched telephone network numbering plan. These are the digits dialed when calling a mobile subscr iber. GSM 900 In GSM 900, the MSISDN consists of the following: MSISDN = CC + NDC + SN CC = Country Code NDC = National Destination Code SN = Subscriber Number Fig 1.8 MSISDN identifier 1.3.11.2 International mobile subscriber identity (IMSI): The IMSI is a unique i dentity allocated to each subscriber to allow correct identification over the ra dio path and through the network and is used for all signaling in the PLMN. All

network related subscriber information is connected to the IMSI. The IMSI is sto red in the SIM, as well as in the HLR and in the serving VLR. The IMSI consists of three different parts: IMSI = MCC + MNC + MSIN MCC = Mobile Country Code MNC = Mobile Network Code MSIN = Mobile Station Identification Number According to the GSM specifications, IMSI has a maximum length of 15 digits. MNC expansion In order to make it possible to define more than 100 operators under one MCC, the MNC is extended from two to three decimal digits in Ericsson s GSM sy stem. The MNC parameter is also used in the Cell Global Identity and in the Loca tion Area Identity. In order to maintain backward compatibility and to allow the Ericsson BSS to be connected to equipment from other vendors, the Ericsson impl ementation has the possibility to switch from two to three MNC digits on both th e air interface and the A interface. A changeable exchange property is used to d ecide if the third digit is used. Fig 1.9 IMSI identifier 1.3.11.3 Temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI): The TMSI is a temporary nu mber used instead of IMSI to identify a MS. The TMSI is used for the subscriber s confidentiality on the air interface. The TMSI has only local significance (that is, within the MSC/VLR area) and is changed at certain events or time intervals . The TMSI structure can be chosen by each operator but should not consist of mo re than four octets (8 digits). 1.3.11.4 Mobile station roaming number (MSRN): A MSRN is used during the call se tup phase for mobile terminating calls. Each mobile terminating call enters the GMSC in the PLMN. The call is then re-routed by the GMSC, to the MSC where the c alled mobile subscriber is located. For this purpose, a unique number (MSRN) is allocated by the MSC and provided to the GMSC. The MSRN is seized for the call s etup phase only and released immediately afterwards. The call setup takes place in the following way: 1. GMSC receives a signaling message "Initial Address Message" for the incoming call (MSISDN). 2. GMSC sends a signaling message "Send Routing Information" to the HLR where th e subscriber data is stored (MSISDN). 3. HLR uses MSISDN to find the subscriber data in the database. The Supplementar y Service (Call forward unconditional not active) is verified. The VLR address t hat corresponds to the subscriber location and the IMSI are retrieved. HLR sends a signaling message "Provide Roaming Number" using the VLR address as the desti nation (IMSI). 4. VLR having received the message, requests MSC to seize an idle MSRN and to as sociate it with the IMSI received. VLR sends back the result to the HLR (MSRN). 5. HLR sends back the result to the GMSC (MSRN). 6. GMSC uses MSRN to re-route the call to the MSC. MSC receives a signaling mess age "Initial Address Message" for the incoming call (MSRN). MSC performs digit a nalysis on the received MSRN. The result is "Mobile terminating". The MSC finds the association between the MSRN and the IMSI. The MSRN is released and the IMSI is used for the final establishment of the call. Fig 1.10 MSRN identifier 1.3.12 BASICS TERMS IN GSM: 1.3.12.1 Authentication: The authentication function determines a mobile subscri ber s authorization to access the PLMN and protects the latter from unauthorized u se. For this purpose, triples generated by the AC and containing a random number (RAND), a signed response (SRES) and a cipher key (Kc) are used. 1.3.12.2 Equipment control: The equipment control function checks the equipment

status as to whether the mobile equipment is allowed, is to be observed or is no t allowed within the PLMN. The equipment control is carried out using the intern ational mobile equipment identity (IMEI) which is hard-coded at the mobile equip ment. 1.3.12.3 Ciphering/deciphering: Ciphering/deciphering secures the information e xchange via the radio interface. Therefore, both the mobile station and the BSS are loaded with the same cipher key (Kc). 1.3.12.4 TMSI reallocation: The TMSI (temporary mobile subscriber identity) real location function periodically assigns a new TMSI to a mobile subscriber. The pu rpose of this function is to prevent an intruder from identifying a mobile subsc riber by listening to the signaling on the radio path. To increase confidentiali ty, the TMSI is reallocated at particular moments in time. 1.3.13 CALL FLOWS: 1.3.13.1 Call flow using channels: Fig 1.11 Call flow using channels 1.3.13.2 Call flow using protocols:

Fig 1.12 Call flow using protocols 1.3.13.3 Call flow using identifiers

Fig 1.13 Call flow using identifier 1.4 DRIVE TESTING: Drive testing is used for network problem identification, ana lysis and its rectification. The equipments used for drive testing are: data col lected to find and analyze problems in a network, vehicle, drive test mobile pho ne, external vehicle mounted GPS, laptop with drive test software and GPS connec tion capability and dongle key etc. 1.4.1 TYPES OF DRIVE TEST: There are basic three types of drive test: 1.4.1.1 Routine drive test: In this network is monitored on a regular basis. Rou tes of drive test include all the major roads, important locations etc. If there is any problem, that is analyzed and solved. This may require removing interfer ing carrier, power change to BTS, frequency plan change and neighbor addition et c. 1.4.1.2 Problem specific drive test: This includes problems reported by statisti cal analysis, routine drive testing, customer care centre etc. List of problemat ic cells are identified and drive tested thoroughly to analyze the problem, data collection and analyses are also done along this. 1.4.1.3 Cell coverage analysis drive test: This type of drive testing is usually carried out for new planned sites in a network. New cells to come on air are th oroughly drive tested to determine their server and coverage areas. Finally opti mization is carried out for any major deviation from the initially planned desig n. 1.4.2 PARAMETERS TO BE CHECKED WHILE DRIVE TEST: Rx level, Rx Qual (Rx quality), BER (Bit error rate), FER (Frame error rate) and TA (Timing advance) etc. 1.5 2G PLANNING: The main aim of radio network planning is to provide cost effec tive solution in terms of coverage and quality. The process of planning starts w ith collecting the parameters such as network requirement of coverage and capaci ty. These inputs are used to make a theoretical coverage and capacity plan. Cove rage planning would be defined as the coverage area services probability and rel ated signals strength. Capacity planning would include subscribers and traffic b ehavior in a region. The requirement of radio planner is to cover 100% of the ar ea but usually it is impossible. So efforts are made to design a network that co vers all the regions that may have good traffic and to have coverage hole with n o traffic zone.

The software used for this planning are MCOM (Mobile communications network appl ication), ASSET, EET (Ericsson engineering tool) and TEMS PLANNER. FIG 1.14 2G frequency planning CHAPTER-2 RF ANDANTENNA PARAMETERS 2.1 RF PLANNING: RF Planning is the process of assigning frequencies, transmitte r locations and parameters of a wireless communications system to provide suffic ient coverage and capacity for the services required. The RF plan of a cellular communication system has two objectives: coverage and capacity. Capacity and cov erage are interrelated. In RF planning, there was survey of antenna optimization using compass and calculating nominal using Garmin GPS which takes data directl y from satellites. 2.1.1 RF SURVEY: RF survey is done so as to find the best cell site location kee ping in mind civil criteria and commercial viability. 2.1.1.1 Procedure for RF Survey: The figures below show the step by step procedu re for RF survey and pre survey for an existing site.

Fig 2.1 Procedure for RF Survey Fig 2.2 Pre RF survey for an Existing Network 2.1.1.2 Procedure for Site Selection: There are following points by which we can select a site: Maximum height of the building is to be consider so that we can find where we ne ed to mount GSM antenna. All the buildings with basement have to be taken care of so that tilt can be fin alized. Our site should be near to positive clutter so that maximum coverage can be prov ided. While performing the survey information should be collected like type of area, t ypes of clutter, major competitor and approximate population. After this orientation of GSM antenna should be estimated. All the information should be gathered and filled properly so as to have no conf usion. 2.1.1.3 Major things to be noted while site selection: Obstacles, high tension l ine, power grid, water tank, railway lines, vegetation and water bodies etc. Height of the building= G+3N; where G is height of ground floor and N is the no. of floors in that building. Length of feeder cable= height of antenna + 5m 2.2 ANTENNA THEORY: According to IEEE, Antenna is a device for Radiating or Rece iving Radio waves. Fig 2.3 Half wavelength dipole or Hertz s Antenna or Half wave doublet or Conductor End A and B are at the same potential with respect to the midpoint C. The RF sig

nal is fed through mid point C and EM wave is radiated by the dipole ends A and B. The energy is reflected from end A and B of the dipole (antenna as resonator) which give rise to standing waves. This is how VSWR is associated with Antenna. 2.2.1 GSM ANTENNA: It is a conductor. When we place a source in between this, it emits radiations. Antenna can be transmit or receive radiations. This is made u p of several arrangements and elements which are shown in figure below. Fig 2.4 Internal structure of Antenna Fig 2.5 Arrangement inside Antenna

2.2.2 MICROWAVE ANTENNA: It is a conductor of conical shape; its mouth is so wid e that if there are many EM waves coming from different directions that can ente r into it and at the end it is small so that all waves get concentrated. It help s in antenna gain. These antennas are used to maintain line of sight (LOS). The figure below shows the microwave antenna. Conductor Modulated signal ODU 2 Mbps Connected to DDF Fig 2.6 Microwave Antenna 2.2.3 FEEDER AND JUMPER: Feeder has either male or female connector at both ends . This is very thick so we can t easily bend it; there is a very small bend after 6m of its length. If we bend feeder before 6m distance then our signal has losse s. It is from antenna to shelter, inside shelter we use jumper. Jumper has male connector at its both ends. Length of jumper is only 2-3m. Jumper can t connect di rectly to feeder because feeder is thicker than jumper so there is a special con nector in between these. This special connector is male on one end and female on another end. Male end is connected to feeder whereas female end is connected to jumper. Male connector has internal rings whereas female connector has external rings. 2.2.4 VSWR (Vertical Standing Wave Ratio): For a radio (transmitter or receiver) to deliver power to an antenna, the impedance of the radio and transmission lin e must be well matched to the antenna's impedance. The parameter VSWR is a measu re that numerically describes how well the antenna is impedance matched to the r adio or transmission line it is connected to. The VSWR is always a real and posi tive number for antennas. The smaller the VSWR is, the better the antenna is mat ched to the transmission line and the more power is delivered to the antenna. Th e minimum VSWR is 1.0. In this case, no power is reflected from the antenna, whi ch is ideal. VSWR is most critical alarm on BTS end. If there is high VSWR then diversity can be high but vice versa is not true. VSWR has transmission effect but diversity has reception effect. Diversity alarm can only affect the voice quality, in this case if we send message that will be definitely reach to destination mobile sta tion but there must be some delay. Call can t drop in this case. On the other hand VSWR alarm drops the call so it is most critical alarm. VSWR always act between two devices source and load. VSWR is determined from the voltage measured along a transmission line leading t o an antenna. VSWR is the ratio of the peak amplitude of a standing wave to the minimum amplitude of a standing wave, as seen in the following Figure: Fig 2.7 Concept of VSWR Voltage is standing when there is not any utilization of this. In standing wave crust and through are at the same point and zero also remains fixed at a point. Feedon

2.2.4.1 Reasons for VSWR: There are following reasons for VSWR: 1. If there is not proper impedance matching but this is rare case in telecommun ication. 2. Bending of feeder or jumper from starting point. 3. If there are faulty connectors. 4. By using broken tilt (Electrical tilt). 5. Any fault on antenna or source side. 6. If feeder is bended there must be VSWR. 2.2.4.2 Equipments in use for calibration of VSWR: There is OMT software, Site m aster, impedance matching analyzer and CRO that are used in calibration of VSWR. 2.3 DIVERSITY: Antenna diversity, also known as space diversity, is any one of s everal wireless diversity schemes that uses two or more antennas to improve the quality and reliability of a wireless link. Often, especially in urban and indoo r environments, there is no clear line-of-sight (LOS) between transmitter and re ceiver. Instead the signal is reflected along multiple paths before finally bein g received. Each of these bounces can introduce phase shifts, time delays, atten uations, and distortions that can destructively interfere with one another at th e aperture of the receiving antenna. Antenna diversity is especially effective at mitigating these multipath situatio ns. This is because multiple antennas offer a receiver several observations of t he same signal. Each antenna will experience a different interference environmen t. Thus, if one antenna is experiencing a deep fade, it is likely that another h as a sufficient signal. Collectively such a system can provide a robust link. Wh ile this is primarily seen in receiving systems (diversity reception), the analo g has also proven valuable for transmitting systems (transmit diversity) as well . Typically, however, signal reliability is paramount and using multiple antenna s is an effective way to decrease the number of drop-outs and lost connections. 2.3.1 APPLICATIONS OF DIVERSITY: A well-known practical application of diversity reception is in wireless microphones, and in similar electronic devices such as wireless guitar systems. A wireless microphone with a non-diversity receiver (a receiver having only one antenna) is prone to random drop-outs, fades, noise, o r other interference, especially if the transmitter (the wireless microphone) is in motion. A wireless microphone or sound system using diversity reception will switch to the other antenna within microseconds if one antenna experiences nois e, providing an improved quality signal with fewer drop-outs and noise. Ideally, no drop-outs or noise will occur in the received signal. Mobile phone towers al so often take advantage of diversity - each face (sector) of a tower will often have two antennas; one is transmitting and receiving, while the other is a recei ve only antenna. Two receivers are used to perform diversity reception. The uses of multiple antennas at both transmit and receive results in a multiple -input multiple-output (MIMO) system. The use of diversity techniques at both en ds of the link is termed space time coding.

CHAPTER-3 TECHNOLOGIES 3.1 GPRS (General Packet Radio Service): The purpose of GPRS is to provide an ef ficient system aimed at data transfer for mobile users. GPRS in starting require d new mobile station. It is based on GSM 800, 900 and 1800 bands. The GPRS system is an access network towards computer networks that is internet and intranet. With GPRS the predicted bit rate is 160 kbps but in practical it i s 8, 12, 20, 22 kbps. It uses packet switched mode for data transfer. Packet swi tched mode is better for bursty connection in which short amount of data are excha nge between the users for a period of time. The service before GPRS for data transfer is HSCSD (High speed circuit switch da ta) but it used same channel for voice and data transfer so speed was very low h ence not be launched. GPRS uses IP addressing that is not there in GSM. GPRS com bines mobile access with internet protocol IP based services using packet data t ransmission that makes highly efficient use of radio spectrum and enables high d ata speeds. GPRS is packet based service for wireless communication system. It u ses or supports mainly two protocols: IP and X.25, X.25 protocol is mainly used in Europe. GPRS users are provided in APN (Access point name). 3.1.1 ARCHITECTURE OF GPRS: GPRS architecture is basically GSM + GPRS architectu re, for voice this uses same architecture of GSM but for data transfer there are additional blocks like SGSN (Serving GPRS support node): it is a central contro ller for data like MSC for voice, GGSN (Gateway GPRS support node): it works as a router, BG (Border gateway): this connects network of one country with another , CG (Charging gateway): it contains history of all the sites that we access fro m internet, LEA (Legal enforcement agency): this is an organization of cyber cri me and deals with all the problems related to hacking, stealing etc. and DNS (do main name server): it is a name used for addresses like for commercial sites we use .com and others are .in, .org etc.

MS MS

MS

Fig 3.1 Architecture of GSM + GPRS 3.1.2 INTERAFACES OF GPRS: 3.1.2.1 Gb Interface: This 3.1.2.2 Gc Interface: This 3.1.2.3 Gd Interface: This 3.1.2.4 Gf Interface: This 3.1.2.5 Gi Interface: This 3.1.2.6 Gn Interface: This 3.1.2.7 Gp Interface: This 3.1.2.8 Gr Interface: This 3.1.2.9 Gs Interface: This There are mainly nine interfaces of GPRS. is between MSC and SGSN. is between GGSN and HLR. is between SGSN and GMSC. is between SGSN and EIR. is between GGSN and external network. is between SGSN and SGSN or SGSN and GGSN. is between BG and BG. is between SGSN and HLR. is between SGSN and MSC (VLR).

3.1.3 MODES OF GPRS: There are three modes of GPRS. 3.1.3.1 Idle Mode: When internet is not access in GPRS mode like switch off, no network, not reachable etc. 3.1.3.2 Standby Mode: When internet is on and we are not using the data pack. 3.1.3.3 Ready Mode: When internet is in use that is ready mode. When we do surfing we are using PDP (Packet data protocol). PDP is used in ready and standby mode. 3.1.4 CHANNELS OF GPRS: GPRS uses same channel as GSM, the difference is only th at channels are in context with packets like PBCCH, PFCCH, PSCH, PSDCCH, PTCH et c. where P stands by packet else functions of channels are same as that in case of GSM. For controlling of voice there is CCU (Circuit Control Unit) and for Dat a it is PCU (Packet Control Unit). 3.1.5 MOBILE PHONE CLASSES: Devices supporting GPRS are divided into three class es: Class A: Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), using bo th at the same time. Such devices are known to be available today. Class B: Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), but usin g only one or the other at a given time. During GSM service (voice call or SMS), GPRS service is suspended, and then resumed automatically after the GSM service (voice call or SMS) has concluded. Most GPRS mobile devices are Class B. Class C: Are connected to either GPRS service or GSM service (voice, SMS). Must be switched manually between one or the other service. 3.1.6 ADDRESSING IN GPRS: A GPRS connection is established by reference to its a ccess point name (APN). The APN defines the services such as wireless applicatio n protocol (WAP) access, short message service (SMS), multimedia messaging servi ce (MMS), and for Internet communication services such as email and World Wide W eb access. GPRS users will be able to log on its APN and have access to many ser vices describe above and remain continuously connected until they log off, only paying when data is actually transmitted. In order to set up a GPRS connection for a wireless modem, a user must specify a n APN, optionally a user name and password, and very rarely an IP address, all p rovided by the network operator. 3.1.7 IDENTIFIERS OF GPRS: There are following identifiers in GPRS. 3.1.7.1 TLLI (Temporary Logical Link Identifier): The TLLI is used GPRS services . It provides the signaling address used for communication between the user equi pment and the SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node). The TLLI can be classified into four groups: Local TLLI: for normal operation between SGSN and user equipment. Foreign TLLI: primarily used when crossing a routing area boundary. Random TLLI: used for initial access or if the user equipment does not possess a ny of the above. Auxiliary TLLI: is selected by the SGSN, but is not used as of now. 3.1.7.2 P-TMSI (Packet Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity): The P-TMSI is a te mporary identity issued to a GPRS enabled mobile and unique within a given RA (R outing Area) and is used by the GPRS network to page the specified mobile. The P -TMSI is comprised of 32bits and is associated with the TLLI (Temporary Logical Link Identifier). It is used to differentiate a mobile SGSN. P-TMSI is transferr ed at each location update. 3.1.8 GPRS PROTOCOL STACK: Following diagram shows the GPRS protocol stack and e nd-to-end message flows from the MS to the GGSN. The protocol between the SGSN a nd GGSN using the Gn interface is GTP. This is a Layer 3 tunneling protocol. One of the most important things to note here is that the application communicates via standard IP, which is carried through the GPRS network and out through the g ateway GPRS looks like a normal IP sub-network to users both inside and outside the network. Fig 3.2 GPRS Protocol Stack Also notice that packets travelling between the GGSN and the SGSN use the GPRS t unneling protocol, so the internal backbone network does not have to deal with I P addresses outside the GPRS network. This GTP is run over UDP and IP.

Between the SGSN and the MS a combination of Sub network Dependent Convergence P rotocol and Logical Link Control is used. SNDCP compresses data to minimize the load on the radio channel. The LLC provides a safe logical link by encrypting pa ckets. The same LLC link is used as long as a mobile is under a single SGSN. When the mobile moves to a routing area that lies under a different SGSN, the LL C link is removed and a new link is established with the new Serving GSN X.25. S ervices are provided by running X.25 on top of TCP/IP in the internal backbone. 3.2 EDGE (Enhanced Data Rate for GSM Evolution): It is a digital mobile phone te chnology that allows improved data transmission rates as a backward-compatible e xtension of GSM. EDGE is considered a pre-3G radio technology and is part of ITU 's 3G definition. EDGE was deployed on GSM networks beginning in 2003 initially by Cingular (now AT&T) in the United States. Through the introduction of sophisticated methods of coding and transmitting dat a, EDGE delivers higher bit-rates per radio channel, resulting in a threefold in crease in capacity and performance compared with an ordinary GSM/GPRS connection . EDGE can be used for any packet switched application, such as an Internet connec tion. Peak bit-rates of up to 1Mbit/s and typical bit-rates of 400kbit/s can be expect ed. In addition to Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), EDGE uses higher-order PSK/ 8 phase shift keying (8PSK) for the upper five of its nine modulation and coding schemes. EDGE produces a 3-bit word for every change in carrier phase. It intro duces a new technology not found in GPRS, Incremental Redundancy, which, instead of retransmitting disturbed packets, sends more redundancy information to be co mbined in the receiver. This increases the probability of correct decoding. EDGE can carry a bandwidth up to 236 kbps (with end-to-end latency of less than 150 ms) for 4 timeslots (theoretical maximum is 473.6 kbps for 8 timeslots) in p acket mode. This means it can handle four times much traffic as standard GPRS. 3.3 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access): In CDMA users co-mingle in time and fr equency but each user has a private code. All CDMA users occupy the same frequen cy at the same time. Time and frequency are not used as discriminators CDMA inte rference comes mainly from nearby users. CDMA operates by using coding to discri minate between users. Each user is a small voice in a roaring crowd but with a uniquely recoverable code. IS-95 was the first CDMA mobile phone system to gain widespread use and it is found widely in North America. This mobile system is ab le to carry data rates at rates up to 14.4kbps for IS-95A and 115kbps for IS-95B . CDMA is a Spread-Spectrum System. Traditional technologies try to squeeze signal into minimum required bandwidth. CDMA uses large bandwidth but uses resulting p rocessing gain to increase capacity. The advantage of CDMA over FDMA and TDMA is that it enables a greater number of users to be supported. In India CDMA has frequency band of 800 MHZ. The channel bandwidth of CDMA is 1.25 MHZ. 3.3.1 CODES IN CDMA: There are two types of codes in CDMA and these are: Walsh codes PN (Pseudo Noise) codes 3.3.1.1 Walsh Codes: These codes are designed by a scientist named Josph Leonard Walsh. Walsh codes are always used in forward links like from BTS to MS. These codes have 64 sequences and each code is 64 chips long. All Walsh codes are diff erent from one another and these codes follow orthogonality principle not consec utively but randomly. According to this principle when we do Xoring of any two W alsh codes there must be equal numbers of 0 s and 1 s in the resultant. This princip le helps to distinguish Walsh codes from PN codes. Walsh code 0 (W0) is known as pilot channel and is used for power control, Walsh code 1-8 (W1-W8) are used as paging channels, W16 is used for synchronization and W32 is for signaling. 3.3.1.2 PN (Pseudo Noise) Codes: These are long chip codes and look like noise s ignal so called as PN codes. These are of two types: Short PN codes: These codes are used to differentiate cells and sectors and are Alpha-numeric codes. These are two codes: I (In phase) code and Q (Quadrature ou

t of phase) and each is 32,768 chips long. If we give I code to one cell then we have to give Q to next cell. In this way these codes differentiate cells. Long PN codes: These are fixed codes that are given separately to each CDMA user like IMSI number in case of GSM. This is 242 chips long code and is generated b y shift register. Register takes 41 days and 10 hours to generate this. From thi s long code small codes of 8 or 16 chips, are given to users for voice and data. These small codes are created by shift register. 3.3.2 CDMA IDENTIFIERS: There are following identifiers in CDMA: 3.3.2.1 IMSI (International mobile subscriber identity): Each register user is u niquely identified by its IMSI. It is stored in subscriber identity module (SIM) . A mobile station can only be operated if a SIM with a valid IMSI is inserted i nto equipment with a valid IMEI (International mobile equipment identity). There are following parts of an IMSI: Mobile Country Code (MCC): 3 decimal places internationally standardized. Mobile Network Code (MNC): 2 decimal places, for unique identification of mobile network within the country. Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN): Maximum 10 decimal places, ident ification number of the subscriber in the home mobile network. 3.3.2.2 IMEI (International mobile equipment identity): This uniquely identifie s a mobile station internationally. It is a kind of serial number. The IMEI is a llocated by the equipment manufacturer and registered by the equipment manufactu rer and registered by the network operator who stores it in EIR (Equipment ident ity register). By means of IMEI one recognizes obsolete, stolen or nonfunctional equipment. There are following parts of an IMEI: Type Approval Code (TAC): 6 decimal places, centrally assigned. Final Assembly Code (FAC): 6 decimal places, assigned by the manufacturer. Serial Number (SNR): 6 decimal places, assigned by the manufacturer. Spare (SP): 1 decimal place. Thus, IMEI=TAC+FAC+SNR+SP. It uniquely characterizes a mobile station and gives clues about the manufacturer and the date of manufacturing. 3.3.2.3 SID (System/service identity): It is unique identity of BTS of CDMA. 3.3.2.4 NID (Network identity): It is unique identity differentiating CDMA netwo rk in form of circles. By this we come to know that from which state s BTS we are connected to. 3.3.3 BTS OF CDMA (CBTS): These BTS are smaller in size as compared to GSM-BTS. We can t define the capacity; it depends on number of calls handled at a time. The re is no concept of time slot here. The main parts of CBTS are: DBS- Digital Bas eband Subsystem, DBC- Digital Baseband Controller, RFS- Radio Frequency Subsyste m, TRX card and FAN unit. There may be any number of cards in CBTS according to users but DBC and TRX are same in number. The figure below shows various parts of CBTS of ZTE:-

DBS

RFS

Fig 3.3 CBTS 3.4 NSS (Network substation system): Network switching subsystem (NSS) (or GSM c ore network) is the component of a GSM system that carries out call switching an

d mobility management functions for mobile phones roaming on the network of base stations. It is owned and deployed by mobile phone operators and allows mobile devices to communicate with each other and telephones in the wider public switch ed telephone network (PSTN). The architecture contains specific features and fun ctions which are needed because the phones are not fixed in one location. The NS S originally consisted of the circuit-switched core network, used for traditiona l GSM services such as voice calls, SMS, and circuit switched data calls. NSS contains MSC (mobile switching center) and its database like HLR (home locat ion register), VLR (visitor location register), AUC (Authentication center) and EIR (Equipment identity register) etc. figure below shows the architecture of ne twork substation system. Fig 3.4 NSS architecture 3.4.1 DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS PARTS IN NSS: The description of various parts of N SS is: 3.4.1.1 MSC (Mobile switching center): The mobile switching center (MSC) is the primary service delivery node for GSM/CDMA, responsible for routing voice calls and SMS as well as other services (such as conference calls, FAX and circuit swi tched data). The MSC sets up and releases the end-to-end connection, handles mob ility and hand-over requirements during the call and takes care of charging and real time pre-paid account monitoring. The Gateway MSC (G-MSC) is the MSC that determines which visited MSC the subscri ber who is being called is currently located at. It also interfaces with the PST N. All mobile to mobile calls and PSTN to mobile calls are routed through a G-MS C. The term is only valid in the context of one call since any MSC may provide b oth the gateway function and the Visited MSC functions, however, some manufactur ers design dedicated high capacity MSCs which do not have any BSSs connected to them. These MSCs will then be the Gateway MSC for many of the calls they handle. The visited MSC (V-MSC) is the MSC where a customer is currently located. The VL R associated with this MSC will have the subscriber's data in it. 3.4.1.2 Home location register (HLR): The HLR is a centralized network database that stores and manages all mobile subscriptions belonging to a specific operato r. It acts as a permanent store for a person s subscription information until that subscription is canceled. The information stored includes: Subscriber identity Subscriber supplementary services Subscriber location information Subscriber authentication information The HLR can be implemented in the same network node as the MSC or as a stand-alo ne database. If the capacity of a HLR is exceeded by the number of subscribers, additional HLRs may be added. 3.4.1.3 Visitor location register (VLR): The VLR database contains information about all the mobile subscribers currently located in an MSC service area. Thus, there is one VLR for each MSC in a network. The VLR tempora rily stores subscription information so that the MSC can service all the subscri bers currently visiting that MSC service area. The VLR can be regarded as a dist ributed HLR as it holds a copy of the HLR information stored about the subscribe r. When a subscriber roams into a new MSC service area, the VLR connected to tha t MSC requests information about the subscriber from the subscriber s HLR. The HLR sends a copy of the information to the VLR and updates its own location informa tion. When the subscriber makes a call, the VLR will already have the informatio n required for call set-up. 3.4.1.4 Authentication center (AUC): A unit called the AUC provides authenticati on and encryption parameters that verify the user's identity and ensure the conf identiality of each call. The AUC protects network operators from different type s of fraud found in today's cellular world. The AUC is a database connected to t he HLR which provides it with the authentication parameters and ciphering keys u sed to ensure network security. 3.4.1.5 Equipment identity register (EIR): The EIR is a database that contains i nformation about the identity of mobile equipment that prevents calls from stole

n, unauthorized, or defective mobile stations. The AUC and EIR are implemented a s stand-alone nodes or as a combined AUC/EIR node. 3.5 VAS: A value-added service (VAS) is a popular telecommunications industry te rm for non-core services, or in short, all services beyond standard voice calls and fax transmissions. However, it can be used in any service industry, for serv ices available at little or no cost to promote their primary business. In the te lecommunication industry, on a conceptual level, value-added services add value to the standard service offering, spurring the subscriber to use their phone mor e and allowing the operator to drive up their ARPU (average revenue per user or unit). For mobile phones, technologies like SMS, MMS and data access were histor ically usually considered value-added services, but in recent years SMS, MMS and data access have more and more become core services, and VAS therefore has begu n to exclude those services. Mobile VAS services can be mainly categorized into three. 1. Consumer VAS 2. Network VAS 3. Enterprise VAS A distinction may also be made between standard (peer-to-peer) content and premi um-charged content. These are called mobile value-added services (MVAS) which ar e often simply referred as VAS. Value-added services are supplied either in-house by the mobile network operator themselves or by a third-party value-added service provider (VASP), also known as a content provider (CP) such as All Headline News or Reuters. VASPs typically connect to the operator using protocols like Short message peerto-peer protocol (SMPP), connecting either directly to the short message service centre (SMSC) or, increasingly, to a messaging gateway that gives the operator better control of the content. Major services under VAS are: Ring Back Tone(RBT & RRBT) Music Tracks Play, download and Ring Tones Sports and Infotainment Services Location Based Services Missed Call Alerts and Voice Mail Box Online Gaming Live Streaming Devotional Applications Mobile Money & M-commerce based services Mobile Advertisements Contests & Voting Phone Backup and Security Services Out Bond Dialer Services WAP content downloads Utility Services 3.6 SIGNALING: In telecommunication, signaling has the following meanings: The use of signals for controlling communications. The information exchange concerning the establishment and control of a telecommu nication circuit and the management of the network, in contrast to user informat ion transfer. The sending of a signal from the transmitting end of a telecommunication circuit to inform a user at the receiving end that a message is to be sent. 3.6.1 SIGNALING METHODS: How the signaling information is conveyed between MSC a nd the fixed network depends on what signaling method is available in the fixed network. In many cases the signaling information exchanged relates to a certain traffic connection. The timeslots used for traffic are called circuits, and iden tified by a Circuit Identity Code (CIC). In other cases, especially for a more m odern usage of the telecommunication networks signaling may not be related to an y traffic connection. There are two types of signaling methods: 3.6.1.1 Channel associated signaling (CAS): Channel Associated Signaling (CAS) m eans that the signaling is always sent on the same connection (PCM link) as the traffic. The signaling is associated with the traffic channel. In a 2 Mb/s PCM l

ink, 30 TSs are used for speech while TS 0 is used for synchronization and TS 16 is used for the line signaling. All 30 traffic connections share TS 16 in a mul ti frame consisting of 16 consecutive frames. On TS 16, each traffic channel has a permanently allocated, recurring location for line signaling, where two traff ic channels share TS 16 in one frame. 3.6.1.2 Common channel signaling (CCS): The Common Channel Signaling (CCS) is al ways used if possible. Here, the signaling network is separated from the traffic network. This means that the signaling messages can take different paths than t he traffic connection to reach the destination. To avoid confusion, a routing la bel containing the address information is added in every message. The label indi cates the traffic connection to which the message belongs. No specific positions are reserved for a certain speech connection as it is for CAS. Whenever there i s capacity free on the signaling channel, it can be used for signaling associate d to any speech connection. This implies a more efficient use of the signaling c hannel. CCS offers a number of advantages. It is a high capacity signaling metho d and large volumes of information can be transmitted. The set-up time is short implying that one signaling channel can handle signaling for up to 4096 traffic circuits, compared to 30 using CAS. CCS is further of two types: Associated CCS: Path of signaling is defined here. This was used in SS6. De-associated CCS: Path of signaling is not defined here and we can choose short est path. This is used in SS7 (Signaling System Number 7). 3.6.2 SS7 (Signaling System Number 7): Signaling System No. 7, the signaling sys tem chosen for GSM, is a common channel signaling system. This means that the ex changes use a separate network for signaling. Since signaling system No. 7 is us ed as a means for information transmission between different users, for example, telephony or ISDN, its functions have been divided into a number of User Parts (UP), Only UPs of the same type can communicate with each other. To forward sign aling messages between UPs located in different nodes, the MTP is used. The user parts contain functions dealing with the processing of signal information befor e and after it is transmitted through the signaling network. It is the User Part s that provide the routing labels for the messages. The routing label contains t he Originating Point Code (OPC) and the Destination Point Code (DPC) to point ou t the previous and the next SP on the route of the message. 3.6.2.1 SS7 protocol stack: The main parts of SS7 s protocol stack are: BSSAP: Base Station System Application Part ISUP: ISDN User Part CAP: CAMEL Application Part TUP: Telephony User Part SCCP: Signaling Connection Control Part MAP: Mobile Application Part MTP: Message Transfer Part TCAP: Transaction Capabilities Application Part

Fig 3.5 Protocol of signaling system number 7 3.6.2.2 ISDN user part ISUP: The primary purpose of signaling in the telecommuni cation networks was circuit-related call control (call set-up, call clearing, et c.) Nowadays traffic connections mostly utilize the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN). The ISDN User Part (ISUP) protocol supports the establishment, s upervision and release of 64 kbps circuit switched network connections between e

xchanges in ISDN networks. In order to establish a traffic connection between tw o nodes a message initiating the connection needs to be defined. Initiating a tr affic connection means reserving one of the available traffic resources (a circu it) for the exclusive use of this connection. The messages of ISUP are: Initial Address Message (IAM): In case of ISUP information about which circuit w as booked for the purpose of the connection travels in an Initial Address Messag e (IAM). This message shall also contain the called address (B-number) and other information relating to call routing and handling. Routing of this message, per formed by MTP, is based on the DPC in the Routing Label. A node receiving this m essage shall send out an IAM message to the next node on the way to the ultimate destination. Address Complete Message (ACM): After the connection is set up a message must be sent in the backward direction to inform about this. An Address Complete Messag e (ACM) is sent in the backward direction indicating that all the address signal s, required for routing the call to the called party, have been received. Answer Message (ANM): This is sent in the backward direction indicating that the call has been answered. Release Message (REL): This message is sent in backward direction and this indic ates call had been completed and now channel has been released. Release Complete Message (RCM): This message is sent after the request of REL. t his indicates that channel had been released. 3.7 SMSC (Short Messaging Service Center): A short message service center (SMSC) is a network element in the mobile telephone network. Its purpose is to store, forward, convert and delivers SMS messages. Basic Trajectories of SMSC are: 1. From Mobile to another Mobile, this trajectory is referred as MO-MT (Mob ile Originated - Mobile Terminated) 2. From Mobile to a content provider (also called as Large Account), this t rajectory is referred as MO-AT (Mobile Originated - Application Terminated) 3. From Application to a Mobile, this trajectory is referred as AO-MT (Appl ication Originated - Mobile Terminated) 3.7.1 OPERATION OF SMSC: The tasks of an SMSC can be described as: 1. Reception of text messages (SMS) from wireless network users. 2. Storage of text messages 3. Forwarding of text messages 4. Delivery of text messages (SMS) to wireless network users 5. Maintenance of unique time stamps in text messages When a user sends a text message (SMS message) to another user, the message gets stored in the SMSC (short message service center) which delivers it to the dest ination user when they are available. This is a store and forward option. An SMS center (SMSC) is responsible for handling the SMS operations of a wireles s network. When an SMS message is sent from a mobile phone, it will reach an SMS center first. The SMS center then forwards the SMS message towards the destinat ion. The main duty of an SMSC is to route SMS messages and regulate the process. The SMSC will store the SMS message if the recipient is unavailable (for exampl e, when the mobile phone is switched off). It will forward the SMS message when the recipient is available or when the message's expiry period is exceeded. 3.7.2 VALIDITY PERIOD OF AN SMS MESSAGE: An SMS message is stored temporarily in the SMS center if the recipient mobile phone is unavailable. It is possible on most mobile handset to specify an expiry period after which the SMS message will be deleted from the SMS center. Once deleted, the SMS message will no longer be available for dispatch to the recipient mobile phone (even if it becomes online ). The validity period should be regarded by the handset user as a request, as t he SMSC itself can be configured to ignore or otherwise handle message delivery schedules. 3.8 IN (Intelligent Network): This is the standard network architecture specifie d in the ITU-T. It is intended for fixed as well as mobile telecom networks. It allows operators to differentiate themselves by providing value-added services i n addition to the standard telecom services such as PSTN, ISDN and GSM services

on mobile phones. The intelligence is provided by network nodes on the service layer, distinct fro m the switching layer of the core network, as opposed to solutions based on inte lligence in the core switches or telephone equipment. The IN nodes are typically owned by telecommunications operators (telecommunications service providers). IN is supported by the Signaling System number 7 (SS7) protocol between telephon e network switching centers and other network nodes owned by network operators. 3.8.1 IN FUNCTIONAL MODEL: This contains 4 blocks as there shown in figure below . In the architecture of IN, a service management system (SMS) is used to suppor t technical management. One of the SMS s major functions is to supervise the netwo rk s service control points (SCPs) at network level; whereas one or several servic e provision points (SPPs) can be connected to the SMS to perform specialized com mercial management functions. SSP is service switching point which performs all the switching functions of IN model. IN is called as intelligent because it perf orms its task smartly.

Fig 3.8 IN functional model 3.8.2 EXAMPLES OF IN SERVICES: The services provided by IN are Call screening, T elephone number portability, Toll free calls, Prepaid calling, Account card call ing, Virtual private networks (such as family group calling), Private-number pla ns, Mass-calling service, Prefix free dialing from cell phones abroad, Seamless MMS message access from abroad, Reverse charging, Home Area Discount, Premium Ra te calls, Call distribution based on various criteria associated with the call, Location Based Routing, Time-based routing, Proportional call distribution (such as between two or more call centers or offices), Call queuing and Call transfer etc.

CHAPTER-4 OPTIMISATION, KPI s AND OMCR 4.1 OPTIMISATION: The aim of optimization is to maximize the quality of service (QoS) of the GSM network. In the order to measure this we need to measure QoS, c ompare the measured value with the desired value, and then take steps to correct the causes of any deviations from the desired value. The goal is to reach or ex ceed the customers required level of performance. Optimization is used to examin e the following criteria when tuning a cell: frequency planning; topology, cell dynamics (handover timers and margins); hotspot detection, database parameter an d antenna tilts.

Optimization is traditionally undertaken immediately after the commissioning sta ge, or after a new frequency plan is introduced in a deployed network. Drive tes t statistics represent a small sample of the total calls on the network and can provide a useful indication of network quality. In order to provide a precise im itation of user traffic, the statistics obtained from the whole network through the OMC-R are a more accurate assessment of the quality of the network. Raw stat istics available from OMC-R is used to generate key statistics. This key statist ics will then be measured against the benchmark agreed with the customer. Optimization based on key statistics and advanced OMC optimization tools require s statistical data from the network; therefore the network must be carrying a si gnificant amount of traffic and we require drive test data, RF design parameters , database parameters and quality of service data to start the process of optimi zation. This service is performed as a continuous RF engineering activity for preventive maintenance. It ensures optimum network performance to meet the Quality of Serv ice targets of the customer. Quality of Service (QOS) targets as per the Operato rs specifications: Coverage of Service Area: Urban, Suburban, Roads or the Rural areas Call Success Rate Minimizing Handover failures Rx quality Improve Speech Quality Index for higher Network quality Satisfied customers resulting in low churn Efficient network utilization Reduced investment costs and increased revenue for the customers 4.1.1 OPTIMISATION SERVICES: There are following services provided by optimizati on. 4.1.1.1 Network Performance Statistics Analysis (Network Audit) and Optimization : Analysis of existing Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) and Development of new KPIs for management. 4.1.1.2 Network Parameter Audit and Optimization: Fine tune radio parameters, e .g., power control, handover parameters, etc, neighbor list audit, unwanted and missing neighbors, co-channel neighbor s identification, etc. 4.1.1.3 Hardware Performance: Misaligned Antennas, Antenna Down tilt, Water In gress, Poorly Calibrated TRX, Wrongly Connected Feeders, etc. 4.1.1.4 Data Servicer Analysis, Test Evaluation and Optimization: Radio and Th roughput Analysis, Analysis of Radio, Baseband and Backhaul Capacity, Recommenda tion of Expansion Plan and Capacity Routing and Wi-Fi offload Strategies. 4.1.1.5 Benchmarking and Drive Test: Cell/Cluster Optimization Drive Testing, C ompetitor Network Benchmarking, Data Post Processing and Radio Coverage optimiza tion. 4.1.1.6 Frequency / Scrambling Code Planning: Identify Frequency / Code Plannin g Technique and Frequency / Code Re-planning. 4.1.1.7 Radio Network Interference Analysis: High Rise Optimization and 2G/3 an d Co-location Interference Issues. 4.1.2 KPI ANALYSIS: Key Performance Indicator (KPI) is a measure of successful n etwork performance and its quality. With growing customer base and continuous ad dition of capacity and coverage sites, operators need to continuously monitor th e KPIs of their network to access service quality. 4.2 OMCR (Operational maintenance center for radio): In mobile networks, an Oper ations and Maintenance Center is the central location to operate and maintain th e network. It deals with maintaining hardware and software of all cell sites. Th is department deals with all the alarms of radio that are act between MS (mobile station) and BTS (base transceiver system). In this department there in NOC (ne twork operation center) where all the engineers sit which monitor all the alarms related to OMCR. 4.2.1 FUNCTIONS OF OMCR: There are following functions of this department: Removing alarms occurring at a cell site. Configuring a cell site. Checking the performance of all cell sites in a circle.

4.3 SUBPARTS OF OMCR 4.3.1 Alarm management (AM): This troubleshoots all the alarms related to radio link. The main functions of alarm management are: Network handling Network supervision Fault handling Fault record query System test 4.3.1.1 Steps for troubleshooting of alarm: There are following steps for troubl eshooting of alarms:1. Monitoring of alarms: This includes identification of a site which is defined by NE (network equipment). NE contains BTS number, site name, operator ID and i nfra/media ID. For example NE is given as: 71 DEL01 RAJIVCHOWNK (4078) In this example 71 is BTS number, DEL01 is operator ID, RAJIVCHOWNK is site name and 4078 is infra/media ID. Media ID can be of 4 digits or 7 digits according t o the companies but in most practice media ID of 4 digits are used. 2. Analysis of alarms: In this step we analyze the type of alarm according to th e severity list. Severity list is a color coding list which includes all the ala rms depending upon their priority. Thus according to severity list, there are fo ur types of alarms: 1. Critical alarms (red): like BTS down, equipment temperature is high, DC input under low voltage etc. 2. Major alarms (blue): like system on battery, E1/T1 unavailable, rectifier fai ls, no RTR detected, no CC (control and clock) detected etc. 3. Minor alarms (yellow): VSWR value below threshold. 4. Warnings (green) 3. Escalation of alarms: We can escalate alarms by using escalation matrix. S. no. Field engineer level I Field engineer level II Contact no. 1. 2. Fig 4.1 Escalation Matrix 4. Making the reports: There are three types of reports: E1 report, DUMP report, TT-outage report. 1. E1 report: This report includes information about E1 cable. E1 cable is an Et hernet cable used for all Ethernet connectivity. 2. DUMP report: This includes some data about the alarms which is necessary at p articular time. 3. TT-outage report (total-time outage report): This report measures losses. In this report, we have to mention alarms which results due to no coverage or no co mmunication. Thus, we can measure total time for which these alarms are occurred at a particular site that s why named total time-outage report. These alarms are BTS down, no RTR detected and no CC detected etc. Fig 4.2 TT-Outage Report 5. Sending mails and SMS: After all above steps we send mails and SMS regarding alarms and their reports. 6. Removal of alarms and getting the issues: After getting information about ala rms in last step we remove all the alarms and if it can t be removed then we send the issue further to the upper department. 4.3.2 Configuration management (CM): After removing alarms we will configure the cell site and this is done by configuration management department. Configuratio n management (CM) is a systems engineering process for establishing and maintain ing consistency of a product's performance, functional and physical attributes w ith its requirements, design and operational information throughout its life. 4.3.2.1 Configuration of MSC: MSC has STEP (signal transfer end point) type of s ignaling. Figure below shows the configuration of MSC. For configuration of ZTE s hardware ZXG10 Integrated Configuration Management software is used.

Fig 4.3 Configuration of MSC 4.3.2.2 Configuration of BSC: BSC has STP (signal transfer point) type of signal ing. New bipp is for enabling additional routers. Link error correct method is o f two types: 1 and 2. 1 is used when we want error correction by parity and chec ksum method and 2 is used for cyclic redundancy check method. Figure below shows the configuration of BSC of ZTE. Fig 4.4 Configuration of BSC 4.3.2.3 Configuration of BTS: Figure below shows the configuration of BTS of ZTE . Net clock is used which is a universal clock for all BTS s.

Fig 4.5 Configuration of BTS 4.3.2.4 Initialize Panel: Figure below shows the initializing panel.

Fig 4.6 Initializing Panel 4.3.2.5 Enter Ports:

Fig 4.7 Ports 4.3.2.6 BTS Rack: Figure below shows the BTS rack. This describes cards, FCU, PD M etc.

Fig 4.8 BTS rack 4.3.2.7 Enable DTRU: Figure below shows the DTRU cards.

Fig 4.9 Enabling DTRU cards 4.3.3 Performance management (PM): This department will check the performance of cell sites. 4.3.4 Equipment management (EM): This department deals with all Ethernet cable c onnectivity. Whenever there are losses in E1 cable equipment management handle t his. Losses occurred in E1 cable when its speed reduces from mbps to bps. 4.3.5 Base station observation (BSO): Base station observation part of OMCR deal s with VSWR. It checks VSWR continuously and whenever value of VSWR increases ab ove expected this will give an alarm. VSWR alarm generates when there are voltag e fluctuations. After getting VSWR alarm, Alarm management checks and remove thi s. VSWR alarm occurs when there is any fault in feeder or jumper, or fault on an tenna or source side, or broken electrical tilt etc. 4.4 ZTE 8018 BTS: ZTE Corporation (formerly Zhongxing Telecommunication Equipmen t Corporation) is a Chinese multinational telecommunications equipment and syste ms company headquartered in Shenzhen, China. The following figure shows the bloc k diagram of ZTE 8018 BTS. MS

Fig 4.10 Block diagram of BTS 4.4.1 Components in Block Diagram of BTS: 4.4.1.1 Antenna feeder processor: It receives signal from mobile station (MS) an d then send it to RF unit to convert into digital signal. 4.4.1.2 RF unit: This unit receives signal from antenna feeder processor and con vert it into digital signal. 4.4.1.3 Signaling unit or Baseband processor (BBP): Data from RF unit is send to Baseband processor, this unit is used for rate conversion, encryption, interlea ving etc. After conversion of suitable code pattern the signals are then transmi tted to BSC. 4.4.1.4 CMB (Control and maintenance board): This unit controls all the function of BTS in a sequence. 4.4.1.5 PDU (Power Distribution Unit): PDU gives power to all blocks of BTS. 4.4.1.6 Uplink function of BTS: The figure below shows the top view of BTS. Top Shelf Shelf

Shelf-3

Shelf-2

Shelf-1

Fig 4.11 Top view of BTS PDM (Power Distribution Module): This module distributes power to all blocks of BTS. EIB (Ethernet Interface Board): This block provides E1/T1 connectivity and its speed is in Mbps. EIB is used in 2G systems and not in 3G because that requires more speed for data transmission than 2G technology. FIB (Fast Ethernet Interface Board): This block is used in 3G/4G technology s BTS. Because of higher technologies they require more speed for data transmission an d FIB provides speed in Giga bps which supports 3G/4G. CMB (Control and maintenance Board): This unit controls all the function of BTS in a sequence. There are two CMB s in this. One CMB is used for signaling purpose which add encryption, do interleaving and rate conversion whereas another CMB is used to provide clock synchronization. AEM (Antenna Equipment Module): It is also called as CDU (Combiner and Distribut ion Unit) and is a card of BTS. This unit combines all the signals received from antenna and then distribute them to various DTRU s (Dual Tran receiver Unit). The re are equal number of AEM s and DTRU s.

DTRU (Dual Tran Receiver Unit): It is card of BTS. Mainly a TRU card has 8 time slots, to increase the number of time slots now we use DTRU which is combination of two TRU s and having 16 time slots. With this way we can provide channels to m ore users. FCU (Fan Control Unit): this unit provides cooling to all parts of BTS.

CHAPTER-4 LATEST TECHNOLOGIES 5.1 3G: 3G Internet or Third Generation Internet Technology is the fastest mode of data communication today. It is a wireless technology and can be used anywhe re and everywhere. 3G improves the data transfer over the 3G device, such as you r cellular phone or a data card. The data transfer rates for third generation mo bile telecommunications is much more than 2G or 2.5 in use. 3G is the next generation mobile technology offering higher speeds on both uplin k (up to 5.7 Mbps) and downlink (up to 28 Mbps). It will enable a host of rich m ultimedia services such as video calling, video on demand, and provide a richer experience for existing services such as mobile internet, mobile TV and MMS. 3G networks operate on technology called High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSPA ). Data is transmitted many times faster than earlier 2G networks. This basicall y means that in addition to the earlier audio, graphics, and text, you can now s end and receive video content too. 5.1.1 NEEDS AND BENEFITS OF 3G: By the year 2000 we will have between 600 800 mi llion mobile phone users around the world. Increasingly those users will want s ervices that are not offered today, and the option of wireless access for applic ations , such as accessing a LAN, using the Internet or Intranets, video-confe rencing and sending and receiving high quality picture for example data communi cations. Packet-based data provides several advantages over the existing circuit -switched techniques used for carrying mobile voice. It allows higher call volum es and support for multimedia data applications, such as video and photography. Users will be charged on how much data they transmit, not on how much time they are connected to the network, because with 3G you are constantly online and only pay for the information you receive. Because third-generation packet based networks will allow users to be online all the time the potential for new applications is vast. 5.1.2 FEATURES OF UMTS: The Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service (UMTS) s tandard was developed by the Third-Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). It evo lved from the Global System for Mobile (GSM) communications to provide support f or enhanced features such as high data rates and packet data transfer capabiliti es. The standard was designed for world-wide use and supports compatibility for both packet-switched and circuit-switched data transmission. 5.1.2.1 Salient Features: The salient features of UMTS are as following: Physical Layer: The radio access consists of Wide band Code Division Multiple A ccess (WCDMA). WCDMA supports both Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Divi sion Duplex (TDD) modes of operation. Data rates: UMTS supports different data rates, 144 kbps for satellite and rural outdoor environments, 384 kbps for urban outdoor and 2048 kbps for indoor and l ow range outdoor environments. Radio Link Control: The radio link control (RLC) part of the data link layer tak es care of issues such as acknowledged and unacknowledged data transfer, transpa rency, QoS settings, error notification, and the establishment of RLC connection s.

Security: UMTS incorporates improved security features in the form of five secur ity groups: Network access security provides secure access to users to 3G services. It is de signed to protect attacks on the radio access link. Network domain security features take care of security in the core network and p rotect the network against attacked from the wired interface. User domain security features consist of mechanisms that enable secure access to MNs. Application domain security features enable the secure exchange of messages betw een the user and provider domains. Visibility and configurability security allows for the configuration of security features by a user on the device. 5.1.3 Evolution of 3G: A look at the evolutionary path from 2G to 3G shows the l ikely migration path for service providers of each major format. Future versions of this will be capable of data and voice. The IS-136 operators do not have a d irect evolution path to 3G. Instead, they will transition to GSM and GPRS. EDGE, originally envisaged as a high data rate, evolutionary path for GSM, was f or a while adopted as a way for IS-136 operators to offer data services to exist ing subscribers. This now looks less certain to happen but it is still expected that EDGE will be implemented to complement data services in 2G and combined 2G/ 3G networks.

Fig 5.1 Migration Path to 3G 5.1.4 UMTS Architecture: The main idea behind 3G is to prepare a universal infra structure able to carry existing and also future services. The infrastructure sh ould be designed so that technology changes and evolution can be adapted to the network without causing uncertainties in the existing services using the current network structure. Separation of access technology, transport technology, servi ce technology (connection control) and user applications from each other can han dle this very demanding requirement. The structure of a 3G network can be modele d in many ways. Being a complete network system, UMTS also covers the following: User Equipment (UE). Radio Access Network, UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) Core Network (CN)

Fig 5.2 Architecture of UMTS The architecture of the UMTS consists of two main domains.

The User Equipment Domain The Infrastructure Domain

Fig 5.3 Domains of UMTS 5.1.4.1 The User Equipment Domain: In this domain the services of the UMTS are a cquired by the users of the UMTS. This domain further consists of the following parts. USIM Domain Mobile Equipment Domain USIM Domain: It is the smart card which is given to each UMTS user. Thus the sim card comes in the USIM Domain. Mobile Equipment Domain: The terminal features and functions come in this domain . It consists of the functions which the UMTS users need to access the network. 5.1.4.2 The Infrastructure Domain: This domain is the main part of the architect ure of the UMTS. This domain is further divided in to two parts. Access Network Domain Core Network Domain The Access Network Domain: The function of the radio access network and all the nodes are in the access network domain. UTRAN comes in the access domain. 5.1.4.3 Architecture of Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network UTRAN: Betwee n the core network and the user equipment it maintains it makes and keeps the Ra dio Access bearers among the above entities. It is responsible to make a connect ion between the core network and the mobile equipment. UTRAN consists of the fol lowing two main parts. The UTRAN works in the UTRAN-TDD and UTRAN-FDD modes. Although the Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS) is rapidly evolvin g towards a fully multi-access network, the UMTS Terrestrial Access Network (UTR AN) forms its main Radio Access Network (RAN). The main task of the UTRAN is to create and maintain Radio Access Bearers (RABs) for communication between User E quipment (UE) and the Core Network (CN). With RAB the CN elements are given a ro ugh idea about a fixed communication path to the UE, thus releasing them from th e need to take care of radio communication aspects. Radio Network Controller Node-B The RNC and Node-B s comes in the radio access network. The UTRAN consists of Radi o Network Subsystems (RNSs) and each RNS contains different numbers of Base Stat

ions (BSs or, officially, Node Bs, which make the Uu interface a reality) and on e RNC. RNSs are separated from each other by the UMTS interface which is situated betwe en RNC (Iur) interfaces that form connections between two RNCs. The Iur, which h as been specified as an open interface, carries both signaling and traffic infor mation. Radio Network Controller RNC: In the radio access network the RNC is the main no de. Between the mobile equipment and the radio access network a number of the pr otocols are applied in the radio network controller through the Iur interface wi th the other RNC s of the core network. The function of the RNC is same as the fun ction of the BSc in the GSM network. The radio resource management is controlled in more than one Node-B by the RNC. The following are tasks of the RNC. Through the radio interface it performs all the data transmission tasks. The radio resources are managed by this entity. The connection and the release of the radio bearers. The admission of the call control through the Call admission control. The allocation of the code is also the duty of this entity. The control of power. Helps in handovers and the scheduling of the packet. The relocation of the SRNS and the conversion of the protocol. The data coming from other networks are ciphered in the RNC s. To enable the transformation of the various entities RNC can connect and switch to ATM connection. Node- B: Its functions are similar to the BTS in the GSM network. The Node-B s are also called as the radio network controller. The following are functions of the Node-B. Many cells are managed by the Node-B. The tasks which are attached to the radio interface is manage in the Node-B. The data splitting and the combination is also the duty of this entity. It helps in the process of handovers too. It uses the mechanism for power control known as the inner loop power control. 5.1.5 INTERFACES OF UMTS: The following are the different interfaces in the UMTS . 5.1.5.1 Iub Interface: The RNC and the Node-B s are connected through the Iub inte rface. There are many functionalities of this interface which include the manage ment of the information system, the validation of the message on the user side, management of the traffic on different channels like in control and the dedicate d channel and timings and the management of the link status. 5.1.5.2 Iur Interface: Two RNC s are connected to the interface known as Iur inter face. The functionalities of this interface include management of the traffic in different channels like dedicated and common transport channel and management o f the SAAl connection. 5.1.5.3 Uu Interface: The RNC and the mobile equipment through the Node B s are con

nected to this interface. The main functionalities of this interface include pag ing and the management of the 32 security, MAC/RLC reconfiguration and configura tion and the handling of priority and the selection of the TFC. 5.1.5.4 Iu Interface: The core network and the RNC s are connected through the Iu interface. The main functionalities of the Iu Interface include establishment of the radio access bearers, its maintenance and the release is also the responsib ility of this interface. 5.1.5.5 Iu-CS: The RNC s connected to the circuit switched domain of the core netw ork through this interface. 5.1.5.6 Iu-PS: The RNC s connected to the packet switched domain of the core netwo rk through this interface. 5.1.6 TYPES OF SWITCHING IN UMTS: There are two types of switching done in the U MTS core network. 5.1.6.1 Circuit Switching: Its function is t o get the support of the traffic co ntrol. It maintains the information of the user location. The switching function s perform for circuit switching by the core network is done by MSc, HLR, VLR, an d the GMSC. 5.1.6.2 Packet Switching: The packet switching tasks are performed by the servin g GPRS support node and gate way GPRS support node. The management of the mobili ty and the session is also done in this domain. 5.1.7 CODES OF UMTS: There are two types of codes in UMTS. Scrambling codes are used as channels and channelization codes are used for differentiation between c ells and sectors. 5.1.8 UMTS AIR INTERFACE PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE: The figure below shows the archi tecture of air interface protocol. Network Layer

Data Link Layer

Physical Channels Fig 5.4 Air interface protocol architecture of UMTS The functions of various blocks of air interface protocol are: 5.1.8.1 Physical Layer: This layer is used for error detection and correction, s plitting and combining data streams, handover, synchronization and power control . 5.1.8.2 MAC (Media access control): It multiplexes the logical channel to transp ort channel. RLC (Radio link control): It is used for segmentation and de-segmentation, flow control and encryption. BMC (Broadcast/multicast control): It is used for submission of messages to all or a group of UE s in a cell. PDCP (Packet data conversions protocol): It is used for controlling of packets a nd compression of data. 5.1.8.3 RRC (Radio Resource Control): It is used for bearer services management, paging and transmission reports. 5.1.9 CHANNELS OF UMTS: There are basic three categories of channels:

5.1.9.1 Logical Channels: The MAC (Media access control) layer provides data tra nsfer services on logical channels. A set of logical channel types is defined fo r different kinds of data transfer services as offered by MAC. Logical channels are classified into two groups: 1. CONTROL CHANNELS (CCH): There are five types of control channels: Broadcast control channel (BCCH): It is downlink channel for broadcasting system information. Paging control channel (PCCH): It is a downlink channel that transfer paging inf ormation when there is no network. Dedicated control channel (DCCH): It is a bidirectional channel that transmits d edicated control information between network and mobile station. This channel is used in connection setup. Common control channel (CCCH): It is a bidirectional channel that transfer contr ol information between mobile station and network. This channel is used when the re is cell selection and reselection. Shared control channel (SHCCH): This channel is used for broadcast and multicast operation. 2. TRAFFIC CHANNELS (TCH): There are two types of traffic channels: Dedicated traffic channel (DTCH): It is a point to point channel dedicated to on e mobile station for the transfer of user information. It can be used for both u plink and downlink. Common traffic channel (CTCH): This channel is used in call conferencing. 5.1.9.2 Transport Channels: There are two types of traffic channels: 1. COMMON TRANSPORT CHANNELS: These are of six types: Broadcast channel (BCH): It is a downlink channel that is used for controlling o f BCCH. It is mapped with the BCCH. Forward access channel (FACH): It is downlink channel and is transmitted over en tire cell or part of cell using beam formatting antennas. It is mapped with the BCH. It is used for transmission of frequency. Paging channel (PCH): It is mapped to PCCH and is associated with the transmissi on of physical layer signal, paging indicators. Random access channel (RACH): It is uplink channel and is used for sending reque st. It is mapped with DTCH. It is transmitted over the entire cell. Common packet channel (CPCH): It is uplink channel, associated with dedicated ch annels which provide power control in case of accessing packets. Downlink shared channel (DSCH): It is a downlink channel which control SHCCH cha nnel. 2. DEDICATED TRANSPORT CHANNELS: It is a downlink channel which is used in a ded icated mode which controls the mapping of all the channels. 5.1.9.3 Physical Channels: These are divided into uplink and downlink category. 1. UPLINK PHYSICAL CHANNELS: These are of four types: Dedicated physical data channel (DPDCH): It is used to carry dedicated data. Dedicated physical control channel (DPCCH): It is used to carry control informat ion such as pilot bits and feedback control bits. Physical random access channel (PRACH): It is used to carry random access channe l (RACH). It is based on ALOHA system. Physical common packet channel (PCPCH): It is used for controlling of CPCH. 2. DOWNLINK PHYSICAL CHANNELS: These are of five types: Downlink dedicated physical channel (DPCH): On the DPCH, the dedicated transport channel is transmitted. Physical downlink shared channel (DSCH): It is used to carry 3G shared channels. Primary and secondary common pilot channel (CPICH): It is used to carry code seq uences. Primary and secondary common control physical channel (CCPCH): It is used to car ry same channelization codes and higher layer signalling. Synchronization channel (SCH): It is used for synchronization purposes. 5.1.10 Services In UMTS: Various services available in UMTS are: Voice, Video te lephony, Messaging, Mobile email, Browsing, Downloading (of applications), Strea ming, Gaming, Mobile broadband for laptop and net book connectivity, Social netw orking, Mobile TV, Location-based services and Machine-to-machine communications

. 5.2 4G LTE: LTE Advanced is a mobile communication standard. It was formally sub mitted as a candidate 4G system to ITU-T in late 2009. It was approved by the IT U as meeting the requirements of the IMT-Advanced standard, and was finalized by 3GPP in March 2011. It is standardized by the 3rd Generation Partnership Projec t (3GPP) as a major enhancement of the Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard. LTE is likely the most complex wireless system ever developed. It incorporates f eatures that could not have been economically implemented as recently as a decad e ago. Today, with large-scale ICs, LTE can be easily accommodated in base stati ons and battery-powered handsets alike. The complexity is a function of the adva nced wireless methods used as well as the many options and features that can be implemented. 5.2.1 MODULATION: LTE uses the popular orthogonal frequency division multiplex ( OFDM) modulation scheme. It provides the essential spectral efficiency to achiev e high data rates but also permits multiple users to share a common channel. OFD M divides a given channel into many narrower subcarriers. The spacing is such th at the subcarriers are orthogonal, so they won t interfere with one another despit e the lack of guard bands between them. In LTE, the channel spacing is 15 kHz. T he symbol period therefore is 1/15 kHz = 66.7 s. OFDM uses frequency and time to spread the data, providing high speeds and great er signal reliability. 5.2.2 MIMO: LTE incorporates multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), which uses t wo or more antennas and related receive and transmit circuitry to achieve higher speeds within a given channel. One common arrangement is 2x2 MIMO, where the fi rst number indicates the number of transmit antennas and the second number is th e number of receive antennas. Standard LTE can accommodate up to a 4x4 arrangeme nt. LTE-A extends that to 8x8 with support for two transmit antennas in the hand set. Most LTE handsets use two receives antennas and one transmit antenna. These MIMO additions provide future data speed increases if adopted. 5.2.3 DATA RATE: The data rate actually used or achieved with LTE depends on sev eral features: channel bandwidth, modulation type, MIMO configuration, and the q uality of the wireless path. In the worst-case situation, data rate could be onl y a few megahertz. But under good conditions, data rate can rise to more than 30 0 Mbits/s. On average, most practical LTE downlink rates range from 5 to 15 Mbit s/s. 5.3 Wi-MAX: Wi-MAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a wirele ss communications standard designed to provide 30 to 40 megabit-per-second data rates, with the 2011 update providing up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations. The nam e "Wi-MAX" was created by the Wi-MAX Forum, which was formed in June 2001 to pro mote conformity and interoperability of the standard. 5.3.1 USES OF WI-MAX: The bandwidth and range of Wi-MAX make it suitable for the following potential applications: Providing portable mobile broadband connectivity across cities and countries thr ough a variety of devices. Providing a wireless alternative to cable and digital subscriber line (DSL) for "last mile" broadband access. Providing data, telecommunications (VoIP) and IPTV services (triple play). Providing a source of Internet connectivity as part of a business continuity pla n. Smart grids and metering.