1

SEISMIC WAVE PROPAGATION

One-Dimensional Wave Propagation
Three diIIerent types oI vibration can occur in a rod: longitudinal vibration during
which the axis oI the rod extends and contracts without lateral displacement; torsional
vibration in which the rod rotates about its axis without lateral displacement oI the axis;
and Ilexural vibration during which the axis itselI rotates laterally. The Ilexural vibration
problem has little application in soil dynamics and will not be considered.

One-Dimensional Wave Equation
Longitudinal wave equation in a unconstrained rod,

2
2
2
2
x
u E
t
u

(elastic material) (1a)

t x
u
x
u E
t
u

2
3
2
2
2
2

(visco-elastic material) (1b)

Longitudinal wave equation in a constrained rod,
2
2
2
2
x
u M
t
u

(elastic material) (2a)

t x
u
x
u M
t
u

2
3
2
2
2
2

(visco-elastic material) (2b)

where is the density, E is the Young`s modulus, M is the constrained modulus,
and is the viscous damping.

2
Tortional wave equation in a rod

2
2
2
2
x
G
t

(elastic material) (3a)

t x x
G
t

2
3
2
2
2
2

(visco-elastic material) (3b)

where G is the shear modulus.

Notice that all the 1-D wave equations are oI the same Iorm. The only diIIerences
are the variables oI interest (u or ) and the constants in the wave equation. Equation (1)
will be used to illustrate the solution oI wave equation.

Solution of One-Dimensional Wave Equation
Electromagnetic Iield quantities are Iunctions oI space and time. It has long been
known that an arbitrary time signal can be thought oI as a superposition oI many
sinusoidal components, i.e., it has a distribution or spectrum oI components. Working in
terms oI a spectrum is called spectral analysis. II the time variation oI the Iield quantities
is oI interest at a particular point in space, then a Eourier Series can describe the spectral
representation.

+
=
=
k
t f f
k k

e f x U t x U
2
) , (
`
) , ( (4)
where
dt e t x U
T
f x U

T
t f f
p
k k


=

2
) , (
1
) , (
`

(5)

in which U represent any Iield quantity in Eqs. (1), (2), and (3),
k
U
`
are the spatially
dependent Eourier coeIIicients, f
k
k/T
p
is the Irequency oI the k
th
Irequency coeIIicient,
and T
p
is the Iundamental period oI the Iield quantity.
3
In spectral analysis, the governing equations can then be simpliIied to be only a
Iunction oI space, and the Irequency dependency oI the constitutive relations can be taken
into account naturally. Notice that the Eourier coeIIicients are Iunctions oI Irequency and
thus there is no reduction in the total number oI independent variables. However, using a
spectral representation, the diIIerentiation and integration with respect to time in the
partial diIIerential equations become simple algebraic operations. Using Eq. (4), Eq. (1)
is then simpliIied to

) ( `
) ( `
2
2
2
x u
dx
x u d
= ,

/
2
E
f f
= (6a)

) ( `
) ( `
2
2
2
x u
dx
x u d
= ,
( )

/
2
/ 2
2
*
E
f f
f f E
f f
=
+
= (6b)

in which f f E E 2
*
+ = is deIined as the complex Young`s modulus Ior convenience
and is called the propagation constant. is called the displacement in phasor Iorm.
Propagation constant, is a pure imaginary number iI the material is elastic and lossless.
Viscous elastic material (i.e. consider material damping) can be represented by a complex
modulus (in Irequency domain) and the propagation becomes a complex number with
real part and imaginary part. In general,

f + = (7)

The general solution oI the ordinary diIIerential equation (6) can be easily obtained as

x x
e u e u x u
+
+ = ` ` ) ( ` (8)

where
+
u` and

u` are the unknown constants in the general solution. Equation (7) can be
interpreted as the sum oI Iorward- and backward-traveling waves with 2 unknown
4
coeIIicients. The real part oI propagation constant represents the attenuation oI the wave
and the imaginary part is the spatial Irequency, which gives the velocity oI the wave
propagation when divided by temporal Irequency (2f). Eor example, the Iorward-
travelling wave at Irequency f can be expressed as


)
/ 2
( 2
2
` ` ) , (

f
x
t f f
x ft f x
e e u e e u t x u

+ +
= = (9)

A line in the x-t plane connecting a common a common point is a straight line. That is,
points oI common phase(position on the sinusoid) travel along straight lines in x-t plane.
II the slope oI this line is thought oI as a speed, then it is called the phase velocity and is
given as

f
v
p
2
= (10)

Eor elastic material (with zero damping), the phase velocity is a constant independent oI
Irequency.

/
2
E
f
v
p
= = (11)

Eor visco-elastic material, the phase velocity is aIIected by the damping and depends on
the Irequency. This is called the dispersion phenomenon, in which diIIerent Irequency
component travels at diIIerent speed.

Notice that the wave equation not only holds Ior displacement at a point but also holds
Ior velocity and stress at a point. ThereIore,

x x
e e x


+
+ = ` ` ) ( ` (12a)
5
x x
e v e v x v
+
+ = ` ` ) ( ` (12b)

Note that and are not independent according to Newton`s law.

v f f e e
dx
d
x x
` 2 ) ` ` (
`

= =
+
(13)

ThereIore, can be written in terms oI as

( )
x
c
x
c
x x
e
Z
e
Z
e e
f f
: v

+
+
= =
` `
` `
2
) ( ` (14)

where Z
c
is deIined as the characteristic impedance

p c
v E
f f
Z

= = =
*
2
(15)

The characteristic impedance is the ratio oI stress to particle velocity propagating along
the rod. The characteristic impedance is an intrinsic property oI the rod. Eor a rod with
sections having diIIerent impedances, reIlection and transmission oI waves can occur at
the section interIaces.

Terminal Conditions and Particular Solutions
A rod will have terminations at the leIt and right ends that consist oI independent
stress and/or velocity (or displacement) sources and lumped elements such as spring and
damper. These terminal constraints provide the additional two equations (one Ior the leIt
termination and one Ior the right termination) that can be used to explicitly determine the
two undetermined coeIIicients in the general solution.
6
Consider a rod which is terminated at the load end, x l, with a load impedance,
L
Z
`
. At the source end, x 0, an independent stress source
S
and a source impedance,
Z
S
, terminate the line. Thus, the boundary conditions (terminal constraints) are

) 0 ( ` ` ) 0 ( ` v Z
S S
= (16a)
) ( ` ) ( ` l v Z l
L
= (16b)

At this point, we could apply the boundary conditions to solve Ior unknown coeIIicient
+
` and

` . However, in order to extend the useIulness oI the solution, more systematic

approaches are taken. Two methods are discussed below. These methods may not seem
straightIorward as directly applying boundary conditions to the general solution in the
case oI a uniIorm rod, but they will become useIul when solving the wave equation Ior a
non-uniIorm rod.

Input Impedance Method
The Iirst method uses the concept oI input impedance in circuit analysis. The concept is
similar to the equivalent stiIIness in mechanical dynamics in which Iorce and
displacement are analogous to the voltage and current. Eirst let us deIine a complex
stress reIlection coeIIicient at a particular point x in the rod as the ratio oI the phasor
stress oI the backward- and Iorward-traveling waves:

x
x
x
e
e
e
x

2
`
`
`
`
) (
`
+

= = (17)

The reIlection coeIIicient at some other point on the line is related to the load reIlection
coeIIicient as

) ( 2
`
) (
`
l x
L
e x

=

(18)

7
where ) (
` `
l
L
= . In terms oI this reIlection coeIIicient, the voltage and current
expressions in Eq (12) may be written as

[ ] ) (
`
1 ` ) ( ` x e x
x
+ =
+
(19a)
[ ] ) (
`
1
`
) ( ` x e
Z
x v
x
C
=

+

(19b)

we may also deIine an input impedance to the line at any point on the line as the ratio oI
the total voltage and current at that point on the line as

) (
`
1
) (
`
1
) ( `
) ( `
) (
`
x
x
Z
x v
x
x Z
C in

+
= =

(20)

II the input impedance at the source end (i.e. the impedance at the source end looking into
the rod) can be determined, ) 0 ( ` can be calculated by the boundary condition at the
source end (Eq. (16a)). In order to Iind the input impedance at the source end (x 0), we
Iirst examine the input impedance at the load end (x l). Erom the deIinition oI the input
impedance in Eq. (20)

( )
L
L
c in
Z l Z

+
=
`
1
`
1
(21)

The boundary condition at the load end (Eq. (16b)) can be written as

( )
( )
( )
L in
Z
l v
l
l Z = =
`
`
(22)

The reIlection coeIIicient
L

`
is determined Irom (21) and (22) as

8
c in
c in
c L
c L
L
Z l Z
Z l Z
Z Z
Z Z
+

=
+

=
) (
) (
`
(23)


Thus the reIlection coeIIicient at any point in the rod can be related to the load reIlection
coeIIicient by Eq. (18). And the input impedance at any point can be calculated by Eq.
(20). This gives a general procedure Ior calculation oI the stress and particle velocity.
The procedure is as Iollows:

1. Using the boundary condition at load end, compute the load reIlection coeIIicient by
Eq (23).
2. Once the load reIlection coeIIicient is known, the reIlection coeIIicient and input
impedance at any point, in particular
!
( ) 0 and
!
( ) Z
in
0 , can be Iound by Eq. (18) and (20).

l
L
e
2
`
) 0 (
`

= (24)

( )
( ) l l Z Z
l Z l Z
Z Z Z
in c
c in
c C in

tanh ) (
tanh ) (
) 0 (
`
1
) 0 (
`
1
) 0 (
`
+
+
=

+
= (25)
where ( )
l
l
l l
l l
e
e
e e
e e
l

2
2
`
1
1
tanh


+

=
+

=

3. Using the boundary condition at source end, compute the phasor stress at x 0.

S
S in
in
Z Z
Z
`
`
) 0 (
`
) 0 (
`
) 0 ( `
+
= (26)
4. Compute the undetermined constant
+
` Irom Eq (19a) as

) 0 (
`
1
) 0 ( `
`
+
=
+

(27)
5. Einally compute the stress and particle velocity at any point on the line Irom (19).

ABCD Matrix Method
Recall the general solution to the uniIorm transmission line (12) and the terminal
constraint (16). There are Iour unknown quantities in the terminal conditions (stress and
9
particle velocity at both ends). However, they are related by Eq. (14). Evaluation oI the
stres and particle velocity at the two ends (x 0, x l) can be obtained as

( )
( )

`
`
1 1
1 1
0 `
0 `
c c
Z Z
v
(28)
( )
( )

`
`
`
`
c
l
c
l
l l
Z
e
Z
e
e e
l v
l
(29)

The relationship between the stress/particle velocity at x 0 and the stress/particle
velocity at x l can be obtained by equating
+
` and

` in Eq. (28) and (29) as

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )

0 `
0 `
cosh sinh
1
sinh cosh
`
`
v
l l
Z
l Z l
l v
l
c
c

(30)
where
( )
2
cosh
l l
e e
l

+
= (31a)
( )
2
sinh
l l
e e
l

= (31b)

ThereIore,
+
` and

are eliminated by putting the solution (12) in the Iorm oI (30).

The 2x2 matrix relating stress and velocity at two ends is called the ABCD matrix ().

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

=
l l
Z
l Z l
D C
B A
c
c


cosh sinh
1
sinh cosh
(32)

This representation relates the rod stress and velocity at one end oI line, x 0, to
the rod stress and velocity at the other end oI the line, x l. In Iact, the chain parameter
10
matrix can be used to relate the voltage and current at any point on the line by replacing
the l with x. Now that the general solution in terms oI the ABCD matrix has been
obtained, we incorporate the terminal constraints in order to solve Ior terminal stress and
velocity (Iour equations and Iour unknowns in (16) and (30)). The solution oI particular
interest is ) 0 (
`
J
( )
s
s s L L
L
B AZ CZ Z D Z
C Z A
v ` 0 `
+

= (33a)
( )
( ) ( )
s
s
L
L
L
L
s
L s L
L
Z
C Z A
B D Z
C Z A
B D Z
A C Z Z B D Z
B D Z
` ` 0 `
+

= (33b)

where Z
L
is the load impedance, Z
S
is the source impedance,
S
` is the source stress, and
A, B, C, and D are Irom Eq. (32). Equation (26) makes use oI input impedance to relate
stress and velocity at a point, while Eq. (3.33b) makes use oI the ABCD (chain)-matrix to
relate stress and velocity at two ends. Comparing Eq. (33b) and Eq. (32), input
impedance at x 0 is related to the ABCD matrix by

( )
C Z A
B D Z
Z
L
L
in

= 0
`
(34)

Heterogeneitv Effect
As discussed previously, the solution oI the wave equation can be interpreted as
waves traveling along the rod. Consider a rod with l . Substituting l into Eq. (25),
the input impedance at source end becomes Z
in
(0) Z
c
. Erom Eq. (26), the stress at x
0 becomes

( )
S
S c
c
Z Z
Z
` 0 `
+
= (35)

11
Comparing Eq. (35) with Eq. (12a), we obtain 0 ` =

and ) 0 ( ` ` =
+
. ThereIore,
the voltage at any point x becomes

( ) ( ) ( ) ) ( 0 ` 0 ` ` x T e x
x


= =

(36)

Z
1
Z
2
Incident Wave,
i
Transmitted Wave
t
ReIlected Wave,
r
x


Eigure 1 The reIlected wave (
r
) and transmitted wave (
t
) at the interIace oI two
rods with impedance Z
1
and Z
2
.

Equation (36) represents a wave traveling in the x direction (i.e. Irom source
down to the transmission line). T(x)e
-x
is deIined as the traveling wave Iunction. As
( ) 0 ` propagates down to the transmission line, the attenuation and phase shiIt are
changed by the traveling wave Iunction. There is no wave component traveling in the
negative x direction because this is a semi-inIinite rod. When there is a line termination
or impedance mismatch, the wave will be reIlected and transmitted as shown in Eigure 1.
And the stress and velocity at point x becomes

( )
t r i
x ` ` ` ` = + = (37a)
( )
2 1 1
` ` `
`
Z Z Z
x v
t r i

= = (37b)

where ( )
x
i
e



= 0 ` ` represents the wave traveling in a inIinite transmission line,
r
is the
reIlected wave,
t
is the transmitted wave, Z
1
is the characteristic impedance Ior the
section oI the rod in which the reIlected wave propagates; and Z
2
the characteristic
impedance Ior the section oI the rod in which the transmitted wave propagates. Equaton
12
(37) represents the interIace condition at x. The reIlected wave and transmitted wave can
be obtained by solving two unknowns in Eq. (37) as

i r
= (38a)
i t
= (38b)

where reIlection coeIIicient and transmission coeIIicient are deIined as

1 2
1 2
Z Z
Z Z
i
r
+

= =

(39a)

+ =
+
= = 1
2
1 2
2
Z Z
Z
i
t
(39b)

In a general non-uniIorm transmission line, the parameter will be Iunctions oI x.
In this case the transmission line diIIerential equations become non-constant-coeIIicient
diIIerential equations. Although the diIIerential equations remain linear (iI the
surrounding medium is linear), they are diIIicult to solve. However, iI we can
approximate the non-uniIorm line as a discretely uniIorm rod Eq. (12) still represents the
general solution Ior each uniIorm section.
Eor each oI the n uniIorm sections, the general solution consists oI the sum oI
Iorward and backward travelling waves with two unknown coeIIicients. ThereIore, there
are a total oI 2n unknown coeIIicients. The terminal conditions are the same as in Eq.
(16). This leaves 2n unknown coeIIicients with only two boundary conditions. The
continuity constraints at the discontinuities between the terminations provide 2(n-1) more
equations as

( ) ( ) 0 ' ` ' `
1 1
= = =
+ + i i i i i
x l x (40a)
( ) ( ) 0 '
`
'
`
1 1
= = =
+ + i i i i i
: I l : I (40b)

13
in which :
i
denotes the local coordinate Ior each section.
Again, at this point we could apply the 2n boundary conditions to solve Ior 2n
unknown coeIIicients (
+
i
` ,

i
` ). This is done more conveniently by numerical solution.
However, the eIIort made in the previous section enables a more systematic explicit
procedure.

Input Impedance Method
Instead oI solving the simultaneous equation, the simpliIied procedure involves
calculating the input impedance Irom the end termination to the source termination. The
analysis starts with the point Iarthest Irom the signal source, transIorming the impedance
back successively to the next discontinuity until the input is reached. This is done using
Eq. (25) in a bottom-up Iashion, which relates the impedance at the two ends oI the
uniIorm section oI the non-uniIorm rod.

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1 1 1 ,
1 1 1 , 1
1 ,
1 1 1 1 ,
1 1 1 , 1
1 , 2
,
,
, 1
tanh ) (
tanh ) (
) 0 (

tanh ) (
tanh ) (
) (
tanh
tanh
) (
) (
l x Z Z
l Z x Z
Z Z
l x Z Z
l Z x Z
Z x Z
l Z Z
l Z Z
Z x Z
Z x Z
in c
c in
c in
n n n in n c
n n n c n in
n c n in
n n L n c
n n n c L
n c n in
L n in

+
+
=
+
+
=
+
+
=
=

"
(41)

where Z
c,i
,
i
, and l
i
, are the characteristic impedance, propagation constant, and length oI
each section. Once the input impedance looking into the entire rod is obtained by use oI
Eq. (41), the stress at x 0, ( ) 0 ` , can then be solved using Eq. (26).

3.6.2.2 ABCD Matrix Method
As shown in Eq. (30), the ABCD matrix (

) relates the stress and velocity oI the

two ends oI the ith uniIorm section oI a non-uniIorm rod.
14

( )
( )
( )
( )

1
1
`
`
`
`

i
i
i
i
i
x v
x
x v
x
(42)

The overall ABCD matrix () oI the entire line is the matrix that relates the stress
and velocty at the two boundaries.

( )
( )
( )
( )

0 `
0 `
`
`

v l v
l
(43)

The can be obtained as the product (in the appropriate order) oI the ABCD
matrices oI the individual uniIorm sections as

1 1
=

#
n n
(44)

Once the overall ABCD (chain) matrix oI the entire line is obtained by use oI Eq. (44),
the stress at x 0 can be obtained by Eq. (33b). The major advantage oI ABCD matrix
method over input impedance method is that the overall ABCD matrix can be obtained
without the recursion in a bottom-up Iashion.