PARTS OF SPEECH 1. noun -- person, place, thing, idea -- parent, home, lunch, love 2.

verb -- action or state of being -- laughing, is 3. Adjective -- describes a noun -- blue, big, pretty 4. Adverb -- describes everything else -- slowly, never . conjunction -- joins two words or ideas -- and, or, but !. interjection -- adds emotion -- "ey# $. preposition -- joins a description to a word -- %& the house, &' the roof (. )ronouns -- ta*e the place of a noun -- he, her, my, mine STRESSED- are the ones that get pronounced more forcefully +ain verbs - ,-.., /01-, -+).&2 'ouns - 3A4, +5,03, +A42 Adjectives - 4-6, 70/, 0'%-4-,%0'/ UNSTRESSED- are the ones that get pronounced less forcefully. )ronouns - he, we, they )repositions - on, at, into Articles - a, an, the 3onjunctions - and, but, because Au8iliary verbs - do, be, have, can, must SCIENCE %he atmosphere of Earth is a layer of gases surrounding the planet -arth that is retained by -arth9s gravity. %he atmosphere protects life on -arth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention :greenhouse effect;, and reducing temperature e8tremes between day and night :the diurnal temperature variation;. %he common name given to the atmospheric gases used in breathing and photosynthesis is air. 7y volume, dry air contains $(.<=> nitrogen, 2<.= > o8ygen,?1@ <.=3> argon, <.<3=> carbon dio8ide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1>. Although air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, air suitable for the survival of terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals currently is only *nown to be found in -arth9s troposphere and artificial atmospheres. %he atmosphere has a mass of about .1 A1<1( *g, three Buarters of which is within about 11 *m :!.( miC 3!,<<< ft; of the surface. %he atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. %he DErmEn line, at 1<< *m :!2 mi;, or 1. $> of -arth9s radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 12< *m :$ mi;. ,everal layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition. %he study of -arth9s atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science or aerology. -arly pioneers in the field include .Fon %eisserenc de 7ort and 4ichard Assmann.?2@ Air is mainly composed of nitrogen, o8ygen, and argon, which together constitute the major gases of the atmosphere. Gater vapor accounts for roughly <.2 > of the atmosphere by mass. %he concentration of water vapor :a greenhouse gas; varies significantly from around 1< ppmv in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as > by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically provided for dry air without any water vapor.?3@ %he remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases,?4@ among which are the greenhouse gases such as carbon dio8ide, methane, nitrous o8ide, and oHone. Iiltered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. +any substances of natural origin may

be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. 1arious industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine :elemental or in compounds;, fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. ,ulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dio8ide :,&2; may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution. Composition of ry atmosphere! "y #ol$me?
@

ppmv: parts per million by volume (note: volume fraction is equal to mole fraction for ideal gas only, see volume (thermodynamics))

%as

&ol$me

'itrogen :'2;

$(<,(4< ppmv :$(.<(4>;

&8ygen :&2;

2<=,4!< ppmv :2<.=4!>;

Argon :Ar;

=,34< ppmv :<.=34<>;

3arbon dio8ide :3&2;

3=$ ppmv :<.<3=$>;

'eon :'e;

1(.1( ppmv :<.<<1(1(>;

"elium :"e;

.24 ppmv :<.<<< 24>;

+ethane :3"4;

1.$= ppmv :<.<<<1$=>;

Drypton :Dr;

1.14 ppmv :<.<<<114>;

"ydrogen :"2;

<.

ppmv :<.<<<<

>;

'itrous o8ide :'2&;

<.32 ppmv :<.<<<<32 >;

3arbon mono8ide :3&;

<.1 ppmv :<.<<<<1>;

Jenon :Je;

<.<= ppmv :=A1<K!>; :<.<<<<<=>;

&Hone :&3; 'itrogen dio8ide :'&2; 0odine :02; Ammonia :'"3;

<.< to <.<$ ppmv :< to $A1<K!>; <.<2 ppmv :2A1<K!>; :<.<<<<<2>; <.<1 ppmv :1A1<K!>; :<.<<<<<1>; trace

Not in'l$ e in a"o#e ry atmosphere( Gater vapor :"2&; Structure of the atmosphere Prin'ipal layers 0n general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. "owever, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions :see the temperature section, below;. 7ecause the general pattern of the temperatureNaltitude profile is constant and recogniHable through means such as balloon soundings, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish between atmospheric layers. 0n this way, -arth9s atmosphere can be divided :called atmospheric stratification; into five main layers. Irom highest to lowest, these layers areO

L<.2 > by mass over full atmosphere, locally <.<<1>M > ?3@

-8osphereO P$<< *m :P44< miles; %hermosphereO (< to $<< *m : < to 44< miles;?!@ +esosphereO < to (< *m :31 to < miles; ,tratosphereO 12 to < *m :$ to 31 miles; %roposphereO < to 12 *m :< to $ miles;?$@

E)osphere Main article: Exosphere %he e8osphere is the outermost layer of -arth9s atmosphere :i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere;. 0t e8tends from the e8obase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about $<< *m above sea level, to about 1<,<<< *m :!,2<< miC 33,<<<,<<< ft;. %he e8osphere merges with the emptiness of outer space where there is no atmosphere.

%his layer is mainly composed of e8tremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, o8ygen and carbon dio8ide closer to the e8obase. %he atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of *ilometers without colliding with one another. %hus, the e8osphere no longer behaves li*e a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. %hese free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind. %he e8osphere is located very far above -arth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible. "owever, the aurora borealis and aurora australissometimes occur the lower part of the e8osphere where they overlap into the thermosphere. %he e8osphere contains most of the satellites orbiting -arth. Thermosphere Main article: Thermosphere %he thermosphere is the second-highest layer of -arth9s atmosphere. 0t e8tends from the mesopause :which separates it from the mesosphere; at an altitude of about (< *m : < miC 2!<,<<< ft; up to the thermopause at an altitude range of <<M1,<<< *m :31<M!2< miC 1,!<<,<<<M3,3<<,<<< ft;. %he height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity.?!@ ,ince the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the e8osphere, it is also referred to as the e8obase. %he lower part of the thermosphere, from (< to < *m above -arth9s surface, contains the ionosphere. %his atmospheric layer undergoes a gradual increase in temperature with height. 5nli*e the stratosphere, wherein a temperature inversion is due to the absorption of radiation by oHone, the inversion in the thermosphere occurs due to the e8tremely low density of its molecules. %he temperature of this layer can rise as high as 1, << Q3 :2,$<< QI;, though the gas molecules are so far apart that its temperature in the usual sense is not very meaningful. %he air is so rarefied that an individual molecule :of o8ygen, for e8ample; travels an average of 1 *ilometer between collisions with other molecules.?(@ -ven though the thermosphere has a very high proportion of molecules with immense amounts of energy, the thermosphere would still feel e8tremely cold to a human in direct contact because the total energy of its relatively few number of molecules is incapable of transferring an adeBuate amount of energy to the s*in of a human. 0n other words, a person would not feel warm because of the thermosphere9s e8tremely low pressure. %his layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. "owever non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australisare occasionally seen in the thermosphere. %he 0nternational ,pace ,tation orbits in this layer, between 32< and 3(< *m :2<< and 24< mi;. *esosphere Main article: Mesosphere %he mesosphere is the third highest layer of -arth9s atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. 0t e8tends from the stratopause at an altitude of about < *m :31 miC 1!<,<<< ft; to the mesopause at (<M( *m : <M 3 miC 2!<,<<<M2(<,<<< ft; above sea level. %emperatures drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause that mar*s the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. 0t is the coldest place on -arth and has an average temperature around K( Q3 :K12< QIC 1=< D;.
?=@?1<@

Rust below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds. %hese are highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the na*ed eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or a similar length of time

before sunrise. %hey are most readily visible when the ,un is around 4 to 1! degrees below the horiHon. A type of lightning referred to as either sprites or -.1-,, occasionally form far above tropospheric thunderclouds. %he mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. 0t is too high above -arth to be accessible to jet-powered aircraft, and too low to support satellites and orbital or sub-orbital spacecraft. %he mesosphere is mainly accessed by roc*et-powered aircraft and unmanned sounding roc*ets. Stratosphere Main article: Stratosphere %he stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of -arth9s atmosphere. 0t lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause. %his layer e8tends from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 *m :$. miC 3=,<<< ft; above -arth9s surface to the stratopause at an altitude of about < to *m :31 to 34 miC 1!4,<<< to 1(<,<<< ft;. %he atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1N1<<< the pressure at sea level. 0t contains the oHone layer, which is the part of -arth9s atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. %he stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. %his rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation :51; radiation from the ,un by the oHone layer, which restricts turbulence and mi8ing. Although the temperature may be K!< Q3 :K$! QIC 21< D; at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near <Q3.?11@ %he stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lac*s the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. 3onseBuently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. "owever, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. %his is the highest layer that can be accessed by jet-powered aircraft. Troposphere Main article: Troposphere %he troposphere is the lowest layer of -arth9s atmosphere. 0t e8tends from -arth9s surface to an average height of about 12 *m, although this altitude actually varies from about = *m :3<,<<< ft; at the poles to 1$ *m : !,<<< ft; at theeBuator,?$@ with some variation due to weather. %he troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause, a boundary mar*ed by stable temperatures. Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. %hus, the lowest part of the troposphere :i.e. -arth9s surface; is typically the warmest section of the troposphere. %his promotes vertical mi8ing :hence the origin of its name in the /ree* word STUVWX, tropos, meaning YturnY;. %he troposphere contains roughly (<> of the mass of -arth9s atmosphere.?12@ %he troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Iifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower .! *m :1(,<<< ft; of the troposphere. 0t is primarily composed of nitrogen :$(>; and o8ygen :21>; with only small concentrations of other trace gases. 'early all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of -arth9s weather ta*es place. 0t has basically all the weather-associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and

rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. +ost conventional aviation activity ta*es place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer that can be accessed by propeller-driven aircraft.

,pace ,huttle Endeavour orbiting in the thermosphere. 7ecause of the angle of the photo, it appears to straddle the stratosphere and mesosphere that actually lie more than 2 < *m. below. %he orange layer is the troposphere, which gives way to the whitish stratosphere and then the bluemesosphere.?13@ Other layers Githin the five principal layers which are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other propertiesO

%he oHone layer is contained within the stratosphere. 0n this layer oHone concentrations are about 2 to ( parts per million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components of the atmosphere. 0t is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 1 M3 *m :=.3M21.$ miC 4=,<<<M11 ,<<< ft;, though the thic*ness varies seasonally and geographically. About =<> of the oHone in our atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere. %he ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere that is ioniHed by solar radiation. 0t is responsible for auroras. 6uring daytime hours, it stretches from < to 1,<<< *m :31 to !21 miC 1!<,<<< to 3,2(<,<<< ft; and includes the mesosphere, thermosphere, and parts of the e8osphere. "owever, ioniHation in the mesosphere largely ceases during the night, so auroras are normally seen only in the themosphere and lower e8osphere. %he ionosphere forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. 0t has practical importance because it influences, for e8ample, radio propagation on -arth. %he homosphere and heterosphere are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mi8ed. %he surfaced-based homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and the lowest part of the thermosphere, where the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases are mi8ed by turbulence.?14@ %his relatively homogeneous layer ends at the turbopause which is found at about 1<< *m :!2 miC 33<,<<< ft;, which places it about 2< *m :12 miC !!,<<< ft; above the mesopause. Above this altitude lies the heterosphere which includes the e8osphere and most of the themosphere. "ere the chemical composition varies with altitude. %his is because the distance that particles can move without colliding with one another is large compared with the siHe of motions that cause mi8ing. %his allows the gases to stratify by molecular weight, with the heavier ones such as o8ygen and nitrogen present only near the bottom of the heterosphere. %he upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen, the lightest element.

%he planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere that is closest to -arth9s surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through turbulent diffusion. 6uring the day the planetary boundary layer usually is well-mi8ed, whereas at night it becomes stably stratified with wea* or intermittent mi8ing. %he depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges from as little as about 1<< meters on clear, calm nights to 3<<< m or more during the afternoon in dry regions.

%he average temperature of the atmosphere at the surface of -arth is 14 Q3 : $ QIC 2($ D;?1 @ or 1 Q3 : = QIC 2(( D;,?1!@ depending on the reference.?1$@?1(@?1=@ Physical properties

3omparison of the 1=!2 5, ,tandard Atmosphere graph of geometric altitude against air density, pressure, the speed of sound andtemperature with appro8imate altitudes of various objects.?2<@ Press$re an thi'+ness Main article: tmospheric pressure %he average atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 standard atmosphere :atm;Z1<1.3 *)a :*ilopascals;Z14.$ psi :pounds per sBuare inch;Z$!< torrZ2=.=2 inches of mercury :symbol "g;. %otal atmospheric mass is .14(<A1<1( *g :1.13 A1<1= lb;,?21@ about 2. > less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and -arth9s area of 1<<$.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by -arth9s mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. %hus air pressure varies with location and weather. 0f the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density from sea level, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of (. < *m :2$,=<< ft;. 0t actually decreases e8ponentially with altitude, dropping by half every .! *m :1(,<<< ft; or by a factor of 1Ne every $.!4 *m :2 ,1<< ft;, the average scale height of the atmosphere below $< *m :43 miC 23<,<<< ft;. "owever, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customiHed eBuation for each layer that ta*es gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account. 0n summary, the mass of -arth9s atmosphere is distributed appro8imately as followsO ?22@

<> is below .! *m :1(,<<< ft;. =<> is below 1! *m : 2,<<< ft;. ==.====$> is below 1<< *m :!2 miC 33<,<<< ft;, the DErmEn line. 7y international convention, this mar*s the beginning of space where human travelers are considered astronauts.

7y comparison, the summit of +t. -verest is at (,(4( m :2=,<2= ft;C commercial airliners typically cruise between 1< *m :33,<<< ft; and 13 *m :43,<<< ft; where the thinner air improves fuel economyC weather balloons reach 3<.4 *m :1<<,<<< ft; and aboveC and the highest J-1 flight in 1=!3 reached 1<(.< *m :3 4,3<< ft;. -ven above the DErmEn line, significant atmospheric effects such as auroras still occur. +eteors begin to glow in this region though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. %he various layers of -arth9s ionosphere, important to "I radio propagation, begin below 1<< *m and e8tend beyond << *m. 7y comparison, the 0nternational ,pace ,tationand ,pace ,huttle typically orbit at 3 <M4<< *m, within the I-layer of the ionosphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to reBuire reboosts every few months. 6epending on solar activity, satellites can e8perience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as $<<M(<< *m.

Temperat$re an spee of so$n Main articles: tmospheric temperature and Speed of sound

%hese images show temperature trends in two thic* layers of the atmosphere as measured by a series of satellite-based instruments between Ranuary 1=$= and 6ecember 2<< . %he measurements were ta*en by +icrowave ,ounding 5nits and Advanced +icrowave ,ounding 5nits flying on a series of 'ational &ceanic and Atmospheric Administration :'&AA; weather satellites. %he instruments record microwaves emitted from o8ygen molecules in the atmosphere. ,ourceO ?4@ %he division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. %emperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 *m, where the temperature stabiliHes through a large vertical distance through the rest of the troposphere. 0n the stratosphere, starting above about 2< *m, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the oHone layer caused by capture of significant ultraviolet radiation from the ,un by the dio8ygen and oHone gas in this region. ,till another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly-named thermosphere above =< *m. 7ecause in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed of sound depends only on temperature and not on the gas pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude ta*es on the form of the complicated temperature profile :see illustration to the right;, and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure. Density an mass %emperature and mass density against altitude from the '4.+,0,--<< standard atmosphere model :the eight dotted lines in each YdecadeY are at the eight cubes (, 2$, !4, ..., $2=; Main article: !ensity of air %he density of air at sea level is about 1.2 *gNm3 :1.2 gN.;. 6ensity is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the eBuation of state for air :a form of the ideal gas law;. Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. %his variation can be appro8imately modeled using the barometric formula. +ore sophisticated models are used to predict orbital decay of satellites. %he average mass of the atmosphere is about Buadrillion : A1<1 ; tonnes or 1N1,2<<,<<< the mass of -arth. According to the American 'ational 3enter for Atmospheric 4esearch, Y%he total mean mass of the atmosphere is .14(<A1<1( *g with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1. A1<1 *g depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are usedC somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. %he mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.2$A1<1! *g and the dry air mass as .13 2 [<.<<<3A1<1( *g.Y