Materials and Design 19 1998.

1 10

An overview of the technology of bre-reinforced plastics for design purposes

K.L. EdwardsU
Elmac Group Limited, Northern Works, Appletongate, Newark-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire NG24 1LR, UK Received 29 December 1997; accepted 2 February 1998

Abstract Fibre-reinforced plastic materials or composites are recognised as possessing superior specic properties when compared to conventional engineering materials. However, the widespread use of these materials is still limited, with engineering designers choosing to stick with what they know best. This unfortunately tends to stie innovation and leads to sub-optimal solutions. This article provides a simplied introduction to the technology of bre-reinforced thermosetting plastics from the perspective of the information requirements of engineering designers. The use of detailed descriptions has been kept to a minimum and a concentration on the most regularly used material types, properties and manufacturing processes. The aim of this article is to help engineering designers, who are not familiar with this technology, obtain a reasonable understanding and sufcient knowledge to pursue relevant topics further. 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Fibre-reinforced plastics; Composites; Technology; Design

1. Introduction Traditionally, bre-reinforced plastics were and still are used for decorative and lightly loaded structures. A typical general application might be a metal space frame clad with bre-reinforced panels. Here the major loads are carried by the metal frame, the panels ll the interstices and provide a functional surface. Fibre-reinforced plastics are now regularly used in stress critical applications, as more and more designers are realising the high specic strength and stiffness properties available from these materials. Unfortunately, this material substitution is not without drawbacks. In general the raw material costs are higher than for metals, but the processing costs are generally lower. Therefore the materialrprocessing package has to be taken into consideration when choosing these materials. An obvious advantage of bre-reinforced plastics over metals is the shape potential, particularly the ability to produce large double curvature geometry.
U

Tel.: q44 1636 707262; fax: q44 1636 605147; e-mail: kle@elmacgroup.com 0261-3069r98r$19.00 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. P I I S 0 2 6 1 - 3 0 6 9 9 8 . 0 0 0 0 7 -7

Complex parts in metals often necessitate the use of multiple parts and processes including joining. Using bre-reinforced plastics, the shape potential is virtually limitless and part consolidation reduces assembly time and costs. The most pronounced advantage of bre-reinforced plastics over metals is the ability to be able to tailor the material to a given application leading to efcient material utilisation. However, the material is simultaneously processed at the component manufacturing stage. It is therefore important that the component is designed for the process. This is a major source of difculty for designers new to these materials. A good working knowledge of the materials and processes is therefore essential to be an effective designer. In addition to the considerations normally made when designing with conventional engineering materials, the designer using bre-reinforced plastics has to also consider the selection of constituents, i.e. proportions, types, distribution and orientation, depending on the properties required and the selection of processes, depending on the shape and production requirements. This article provides sufcient guidelines and information for designers who are unfamiliar with these materials. A more detailed treatment of the various aspects

K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 1 10

of the subject can be found in the references provided and by consulting material suppliers literature. It is recommended that the guidance of these suppliers and advice from experts in the eld be sought as early as possible.

accounts for almost 95% of total glass bre production, but only a small amount of this bre is used for electrical purposes. 2.1.2. Aramid bre This is the generic name for aromatic polyamide bres, a class of synthetic organic bres. A high modulus aromatic bre is produced commercially by DuPont under the trade name Ke lar . The chemical structure of Kevlar bre consists of oriented para-substituted aromatic units, a rigid rod-like structure, produced by melt-spinning from liquid polymer solutions. Kevlar has a crystalline structure with strong covalent bonding in the bre direction and relatively weaker hydrogen bonding in the bre transverse direction. The anisotropic nature of the bre causes Kevlar to have poor compressive properties. Under compressive loads the bre develops kink bands which eventually lead to ductile failure. Kevlar bres are available in three main types: 1. Kevlar: used for mechanical rubber goods such as tyres. 2. Kevlar 29: used for cables, ropes, coated fabrics and ballistic protection. 3. Kevlar 49: used for reinforcement of rigid polymer matrices for aerospace, automotive and marine structures.

2. Reinforcement materials There are a variety of reinforcing agents for brereinforced plastics FRP., such as bres, particles, akes and whispers w1 4x. Fibres, especially long and continuous forms, provide the stiffest and strongest materials and it is for this reason that they are also the most common method of reinforcing FRPs. The other reinforcement agents mentioned above are normally classied as llers. The introduction of bres into the matrix induces directionality or anisotropy in the material. The properties of the FRP are therefore highly dependent on the alignment of the bres. The variables that have a major inuence on the properties of FRPs are:

bre type; alignment of the bre; distribution of the bre; brermatrix interface; size and shape of the bre; and loading direction.

2.1. Fibre types The most common type of bre material used to reinforce FRPs is glass. The other regularly used bre materials are aramid, carbon and in small quantities, boron. 2.1.1. Glass bre Glass bre is a mixture of oxides. The principal oxide is silica with varying smaller amounts of calcium, aluminium, sodium, boron, iron, etc. There are several commercial grades of glass bre of which the following are the most common: E-glass, good electrical insulator and high strength. C-glass, good chemical corrosion resistance. S-glass, high silica content with high temperature performance, high strength and stiffness military grade.. R-glass, civil version of S-glass. A-glass, high alkali content for chemical resistance. D-glass, low dielectric and low density. L-glass, high lead content for radiation protection. By far the most widely used grade is E-glass which

2.1.3. Carbon bre Carbon bre is produced by the controlled pyrolysis of a precursor. The most commonly used precursors are pitch, rayon and polyacrylonitrile PAN.. The successive stages of pyrolysis are: oxidation: heating in an oxidising atmosphere at 200 250C; carbonisation: heating in a non-oxidising atmosphere at 1000C for high strength bre; and graphitisation: heating in a non-oxidising atmosphere of 2500 3000C for high modulus bre. Therefore by adjusting the process temperature it is possible to produce a range of carbon bres with different mechanical properties, i.e. strength and stiffness. To complete the process the bre is chemically treated. There are three main types of carbon bre: 1. High modulus Type I.. 2. High strength Type II.. 3. General purpose Type III.. 2.1.4. Boron bre Boron bre is produced by high temperature reduc-

K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 1 10

tion of boron trichloride vapour on a tungsten or carbon substrate. The strong, stiff boron bres are much larger in diameter and denser than glass, aramid and carbon bres. 2.1.5. Metal bre Occasionally metal or metal coated bres of aluminium, zinc, stainless steel, etc., are incorporated for electromagnetic EM. shielding. 2.2. Fibre properties In general, a material converted, or drawn, into bre form becomes much stronger in the drawn direction than in its original form. Drawing glass, aramid and carbon bres leads to quite different structures. For glass, the resulting glass bre formed by melt drawing is isotropic, however, for aramid, formed by wet spinning and drawing and carbon bre, formed by oxidation and carbonisation, the resulting bres are anisotropic. As a consequence, the bres have different properties in the longitudinal parallel to the bre. and transverse perpendicular to the bre. directions. Also, all these bres exhibit, in tension, elastic behaviour up to the point of failure. There is no yield point and very low strain to failure. Table 1 shows a comparison of mechanical properties of reinforcing bres used in brereinforced plastics. 2.3. Fibre forms 2.3.1. Ro ing This is a bundle of continuous laments. The bundle may be in the form of an untwisted strand or twisted yarn. The roving is available in a range of weights or tex; weighed in grams per kilometre.
Table 1 Typical properties of some popular reinforcing bres Fibre type Density Mg my3 . Tensile strength GPa.

2.3.2. Chopped strands These are rovings which have been cut or chopped in to short lengths of between 3 and 50 mm. The bres are normally mixed with resin and llers for compression moulding. Fibre lengths below 3 mm are available by milling. 2.3.3. Chopped strand mat (CSM) This is a sheet of reinforcement material comprised of randomly dispersed chopped bres usually 25 50 mm in length. held together with a resinous binder. CSM, is produced in a variety of widths, lengths and weights. 2.3.4. Continuous bre-reinforced mat (CFRM) This is similar to CSM except the bre is continuous and swirled in a random manner. 2.3.5. Needled mat CFRM and CSM are sometimes stacked, or plied, to achieve a desired aerial density and mechanically connected in the dry form before resin is applied. by a process called needling or needle-punching. In this process, thousands of barbed needles penetrate the ply stack, consolidating it and providing a three-dimensional reinforcement. The resulting bre entanglement imparts integrity to the composite mat. 2.3.6. Wo en fabric This is produced from yarns. A plain weave is the simplest form with warp and weft yarns alternatively passing under and over each other. A balanced weave is one in which the number and count of warp and weft yarns are equal. A satin weave has each warp and weft yarn going over one yarn and under a number of yarns.

Modulus of elasticity GPa. Long. Trans.

Strain to failure %.

Coeff. of thermal exp. 10y 6 Ky 1 . Long. Trans.

Glass E R Aramid HM LM Carbon HM1 HM2 HT HST IM

2.6 2.53

2.4 3.5

73 86

73 86

3.8 4.1

5 4

5 4

1.45 1.44

3.0 2.8

130 65

5.4

2.1 4.3

y2

17

1.96 1.8 1.78 1.75 1.77

1.75 3.0 3.6 5.0 4.7

500 300 240 240 295

5.7 15

0.35 1.0 1.5 2.1 1.6

y1.5 y0.2 y0.5 y0.1

30 10

Abbre iations: HM, high modulus; LM, low modulus; HM1,2, high modulus; HT, high tensile strength; HST, high strain; IM, intermediate type.

K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 1 10

A ve-harness or ve-end satin weave, for example, has one warp yarn passing over four weft yarns before passing under the fth yarn. A twill weave is one in which the warp and weft yarns which pass over each other are varied, recognisable by diagonal lines. A 2 = 2 twill weave has two over by two under. Compared with plain weave, both satin and twill weaves have better drape characteristics and are therefore more suitable for moulding complex curvatures. Woven fabrics are described by the weave pattern; the number of yarns in warp and weft and the yarn count. Woven fabrics are available in most reinforcement types and also in hybrid or mixed bre form making them very versatile. Woven roving is a coarse heavy weight woven fabric produced from strand rovings. A range of lament diameter, number of strands and weave style are available. Plain weave woven roving is the most common. Tapes are usually woven in a variety of weave styles and widths, normally less than 150 mm. 2.3.7. Non-crimp fabric Non-crimp fabric is continuous reinforcement, usually roving, laid in planar form in straight lines usually at some specied angle to the weft direction and is held together with a light weight warp, or linking yarn knit.. The absence of reinforcement loops reduces kink stresses and allows the fabric to shear easily and therefore drape into complex shapes. A variety of permutations are available but they can be categorised as unidirectional, biaxial, triaxial, etc. 2.3.8. Non-wo en fabric This is similar to non-crimp fabrics except the reinforcement is held together using an adhesive or binder. Generally, the fabric is unidirectional and is not easy to shape and is usually used as local reinforcement or stiffening and for components having at or gentle curvature, e.g. panels. 2.3.9. Knitted fabrics These are produced using conventional textile knitting processes. Using modern computer controlled knitting machines the process is capable of producing a large variety of patterns and shapes at high rates of production. Unfortunately, the reinforcement materials are easily damaged by the process and the high proportion of looping in the resulting fabrics leads to poor mechanical properties. 2.3.10. Braids These are continuous tubes of material with a woven type structure formed by counter-rotating bobbins. These can subsequently be shaped into three-dimensional preforms. Most braiding has been limited to textile machinery normally used for making ropes and

hoses, but with the recent adoption of computer control, increased exibility and accuracy is provided. 2.3.11. Tissues, felts and eils These are very light weight, random reinforcement, mats primarily used to improve the surface appearance of mouldings. They are normally placed either between the gelcoat if used. and the heavier laminating reinforcement, or as the nal lamination to block out the bre pattern of the underlying reinforcement and provide a smooth surface nish. Metallised bre tissues are sometimes incorporated for EM shielding. 2.4. Hybrids A hybrid is a reinforcement, with two or more different types of bre or bre form to achieve cost andror performance benets. There are two distinct categories of hybrid: combination laminates; and mixed bres. 2.4.1. Combination laminates In this category, mats of the form previously described are combined either chemically or mechanically to form a combination mat. A regularly used combination mat comprises woven roving and chopped strand mat. Also in this category are laminates with plies of different types of reinforcement. 2.4.2. Mixed bres Although this form of reinforcement can be considered a combination form, it is categorised separately because it combines different types of reinforcement material in a single ply. Mixed bres are usually formed in to woven structures, but unidirectional forms are also available. There are hundreds of different combinations of weave style, reinforcement type and density to choose from. Also, different mixed bre plies can be combined to form a combination laminate. 2.5. Preforms Preforms are dry bre mats, usually CSM or CFRM, that have been preformed into a desired shape prior to resin impregnation. The mats are a special preformable grade coated with a thin thermoplastic binder which may be in emulsion or lm. form or in powder form. The preforming operation is normally carried out in a heated press which melts the thermoplastic binder present on this grade of mat and forms the desired shape. On removal of the heat and pressure the mat retains its formed shape. The handleable preform is removed from the press and taken to another mould for the resin impregnation operation. The preforms have sufcient integrity to be stacked in quantity prior to subsequent moulding.

K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 1 10

3. Matrix materials The role of the matrix in a FRP is to maintain the structural integrity by bonding the reinforcement together. The matrix also serves to provide environmental protection for the reinforcement. The choice of matrix material depends on the mechanical, thermal and chemical properties required as well as the processing methods available and permitted cost. Polymer matrices are classied as either thermoplastic or thermoset, but thermosets are the most common and only described w1 4x. Thermosets are polymers which undergo a curing reaction or chemical crosslinking, where a resin of relatively low molecular weight is converted in to a material of high molecular weight. The process is irreversible and can take place at either room or elevated temperature. These materials do not remelt when heated and eventually char and burn. The choice of thermoset matrix is considerable and by far the most regularly used in the industry. The commonest generic groups are: polyesters, epoxies, phenolics and polyimides. Some cured resin properties are shown in Table 2. 3.1. Polyesters Polyesters are the most widely used thermosetting resin and formed by a condensation reaction between a glycol and an unsaturated dibasic acid. The unsaturated resin dissolved in a monomer solvent, usually styrene, is cross-linked radical copolymerisation. by the addition of a catalyst and heat. At room temperatures, an accelerator may also be added to speed up the reaction. The reactivity can be further controlled by the use of an inhibitor. The catalysts generally used are organic peroxides with accelerators based on cobalt soaps or tertiary amine. Some resin systems are supplied with the accelerator already included and are called pre-accelerated resins. There are also many other ingredients added to impart various properties to the resin, such as thixotropic agents, exiblisers and shrinkage control additives. The shrinkage of polyesters on curing is typically between 4 and 7% by volume.
Table 2 Typical cured properties of some popular resins Property Density Mg my3 . Hardness Rockwell M. Tensile strength MPa. Tensile modulus GPa. Flexural strength MPa. Flexural modulus GPa. Strain to failure %. Coeff. of thermal exp. 10y6 Ky 1 . Heat distortion temp. C. Polyester 1.1 1.46 70 115 42 91 2 4.5 103 4.2 1.25 9.9 18 100 125

3.2. Vinyl-esters Vinyl-esters are similar to polyesters in that they cure by radical initiated polymerisation. They are derived from the reaction of an epoxy resin with acrylic or methacrylic acid and properties can be varied by using different epoxy resins. They are generally tougher, have improved chemical resistance and are capable of higher operating temperatures than polyesters. They fall between polyesters and epoxies in terms of performance and cost. 3.3. Epoxies Epoxies are formed by condensation of epichlorhydrin and polyhydroxy compounds. They range from low viscosity liquids to high melting point solids. Epoxies are normally supplied as a single constituent, the resin, with a second constituent, the hardener or cross-linking agent, has to be added. Typical hardeners are aliphatic amines, aromatic amines and anhydrides. A range of properties is therefore possible by combining different resins and hardeners. Epoxies have higher strength and adhesion to bres than polyesters. The shrinkage of epoxies on curing is typically between 0.25 and 2% by volume. 3.4. Phenolics Phenolics are the oldest thermosetting resins and formed by condensation of phenol and aldehyde. The condensation reaction is usually promoted by heat but can also be initiated using a strong acid catalyst. Phenolic resins have good re resistance with low smoke and toxic fume emission characteristics, but during cure produce high volatile contents, predominantly water and are unstable at room temperature. The pot life of the resin is therefore generally low and a high proportion of the mass of the hardened resin is made up of water. Also, the resin cannot be pigmented, its colour being unstable and ranging from pink to brown.

Vinyl ester 1.15 73 3.5

Epoxy 1.11 1.4 80 110 28 91 2.4 80 3.5 47 8.1 11.7 110 150

53

K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 1 10

The shrinkage of phenolics on curing is typically between 8 and 10% by volume. 3.5. Polyimides Polyimides are formed by condensation of an aromatic tetracarboxylic acid dianhydride and an aromatic amine. A subdivision of polyimides are maleimides of which the majority are difunctional orbismaleimides. The processing cycles for these materials are long and occur at high temperatures. A post-cure cycle is also necessary. They have the advantage of high operating temperatures with no volatiles generated during cure, but suffer from brittleness. 3.6. Special forms 3.6.1. Gel coat Gel coat is a dense, void-free layer of resin on the exterior of mouldings to improve the surface nish. It is applied to the mould and cured, or partly cured, prior to applying the main resin. The gel coat can be either a normal resin or a modied resin. The latter are resins specially formulated to give tough, resilient lms and are intended only to be used for gel coats. Most gel coats can be pigmented. 3.6.2. Pre-preg Pre-preg is a thin sheet of partially cured, or Bstaged, resin containing reinforced bres. The bres can be woven or unidirectional. The pre-preg sheet usually comes with a plastic backing sheet or release lm which is removed prior to laminating. The resin systems have until recently been thermosetting, predominantly epoxies, but now thermoplastic pre-preg sheeting has become available. Pre-pregs are normally supplied as rolls. The parameters that can typically be specied are: bre type and grade and whether surface-treated, the resin type and content and the cured ply thickness. The material has a limited shelf life because of the partially cured state and therefore has to be stored at low temperatures in a freezer. The obvious advantage of pre-preg is its excellent quality control but at a much higher price than purchasing the constituent materials separately. Processing of pre-preg materials is normally by hand lay-up, vacuum bag and autoclave moulding. 3.6.3. SMC and DMC Sheet Moulding Compound SMC. is a form of prepreg. A SMC comprises a mixture of chopped glass bres, catalysed polyester resin and mineral ller, e.g. calcium carbonate. Typical proportions might be: resin 35%., ller 40%. and glass bre 25%.. Processing is normally by compression moulding. Dough or Bulk. Moulding Compound DMC. is similar except the ma-

terial is presented in a dough like form. The bres are usually much shorter than with SMC and processing is by compression moulding or transfer moulding. The properties obtained with DMC are inferior to SMC but the material is capable of being processed into more complicated shapes.

4. Properties of bre-reinforced plastics In the context of FRPs, the material consists of high modulus reinforcing bres embedded in a low modulus polymeric matrix w1,3,5 7x. The combination of the two distinct phases allows load to be transferred between bres due to elasticity in the matrix. The matrix also serves to separate and protect the bres. The stiffness and strength of a FRP depends on:

Proportions of bre and resin; distribution and orientation of bre; type of bre; type of resin; length of bre for discontinuous bre.; and void content.

FRP materials are non-homogeneous and anisotropic, therefore the properties will vary throughout the structure. In a similar way to the reinforcing bres, the behaviour of a FRP under load is elastic up to the point of failure with no yield point or plastic behaviour. The strain to failure is also low with a correspondingly small amount of work done. This lack of yielding makes the material very notch or stress concentration sensitive, therefore localised stresses have to be critically analysed. The mechanical properties of a FRP depends on the properties of the constituent materials; the reinforcement and matrix, in particular the quantity and orientation of the bre. The bre orientation ranges from random e.g. CSM., through bi-directional e.g. woven., to unidirectional. For random orientation and it is assumed in-plane only, a FRP has equal properties in all directions pseudo isotropic., for bi-directional orientation, a FRP has equal properties in the two directions and for unidirectional orientation, the properties are greatest parallel to the bre. If the same amount of bre was used in each case, the unidirectional FRP would have the highest mechanical properties and the random FRP the lowest mechanical properties. However, the properties of a unidirectional FRP are only superior in the direction parallel to the bres; just a small angle away from the bre-axis and the mechanical properties drop-off considerably to very low values. The transverse properties of the FRP, perpendicular to the bre direction, are close to that of the base resin.

K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 1 10

Typical bre volume fractions obtainable are:

unidirectional, 50 70%; bi-directional, 30 55%; and random, 15 35%.

The properties of the composite can be predicted approximately using the available constituent properties by the rule-of-mixtures. This simple mathematical model can be used to predict the tensile modulus, density and Poissons ratio. However, the model is a poor predictor of tensile strength, but does provide a maximum value. The reason for this is the matrix normally behaves in a non-linear manner and fails at a different level of stress to the bre. Assuming there is a perfect bond between the bre and the matrix, then by the rule-of-mixtures, the tensile modulus, for example, is Ec s Ef f A q Em 1 y f . where, Ec s composite modulus; Ef s bre modulus; Em s matrix modulus; f s bre volume fraction; A s bre efciency factor. where, A s 1 for unidirectional, s 1r2 for bi-directional, s 3r8 for random. The prediction of transverse and shear properties can also be treated mathematically using similar methods. The selection of a suitable composite material involves comparing the properties. A direct comparison
Table 3 Comparison of mechanical properties of popular composites and metals Material Density Mgrm3 . Tensile strength GPa.

of the properties of composite materials on a weight fraction basis is not easy because the densities of the constituents need to be considered. It is therefore much easier to compare the properties of composite materials on a volume fraction basis. However, in production it is more convenient to work in terms of weight. Therefore conversion between the two is a regular activity. The conversion between weight fraction and volume fraction is wf s d f f r d f f q d m 1 y f .. wm s 1 y wf 2. 3.

1.

Table 3 shows a comparison of mechanical properties of composites and commonly used engineering metals. A major disadvantage of using glass FRPs in light weight structures is the low stiffness resulting from the low modulus of elasticity, even when in unidirectional form. In terms of specic properties, however, the stiffness is comparable with most metals and with higher strength. This demonstrates that FRPs have much higher specic properties than commonly used engineering metals. The tensile properties of aramid and carbon FRPs are better than glass FRPs, but at a signicant cost penalty. However, if exural and compressive properties are considered a different result is obtained. In particular, the compressive strength, bending strength and shear strength of aramid FRPs are very poor and much lower than for carbon and glass FRPs. The major contributors to this are the tendency for the bre to buckle easily and the poor bonding obtained between bres and resins. The viscoelastic behaviour of aramid bre composites lead to higher work of fracture and the high ductility leads to better damping characteristics. For long-term properties static and dynamic loading., carbon FRPs are generally far superior to glass

Tensile modulus GPa.

Specic Strength Stiffness

Compositesa E glass Aramid Type I carbon Type II carbon Metals Steel Aluminium Titanium
a

2.1 1.4 1.5 2.0

1.1 1.4 1.1 1.5

45 75 220 140

0.5 1.0 0.7 1.0

20 90 130 90

7.8 2.8 4.0

1.3 0.3 0.4

200 73 100

0.2 0.1 0.1

26 26 25

Sixty percent bre volume fraction unidirectional reinforcement.

K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 1 10

and aramid FRPs. The behaviour of FRPs under fatigue or creep conditions are however, complicated subjects. They are also important in most design work but it is essential that a reasonable level of understanding of the underlying theory is achieved before the properties can be sensibly applied.

5. Materials processes There are a wide variety of FRP processes w1,2,4,8 10x. The choice of process is dependent on many factors, such as type of reinforcement and matrix materials, size, shape, quantity and cost. There are many specialised processes available, but only the most commonly used commercial processes are briey described. 5.1. Hand lay-up or contact moulding The hand lay-up method, sometimes called contact moulding, is simple and versatile and the most widely used FRP process. In its simplest form, the process consists of applying layers of reinforcing material against a single sided mould and working resin into the material with a brush and roller. After a suitable period of time to allow the resin to cure, the moulding, with one smooth surface, is removed from the mould and trimmed to size. The process is slow and highly labour intensive. When the quantity of mouldings is sufciently large the resin and reinforcement material can be simultaneously applied by spraying on to the surface of the mould. After consolidating with a roller and curing, the moulding can be removed and trimmed as before. Hand lay-up, because of the high labour content and the dependence on the skill of the laminator has the inherent problem of variability in the nished mouldings. However, the size and complexity of the mouldings that can be produced by this method are endless. Hand lay-up can be divided into two categories: wet laminating; and dry or pre-preg laminating. 5.1.1. Wet laminating Using this method wet resin is applied to dry reinforcement by the methods described above. Even with high skill, it is difcult to accurately control the resinto-bre ratio. The process though is cheap and the materials have a long shelf-life, only being mixed prior to processing. As most systems are cured at ambient temperatures and pressures only basic tooling is required. 5.1.2. Dry or pre-preg laminating By this method the reinforcement is already impregnated with a resin which is partially cured pre-preg.. It

is normal to consolidate the lay-up with external pressure by vacuum bagging andror autoclave techniques described later. The advantage of pre-pregs is the consistency of the material. There is more accurate and repeatable control of the resin-to-bre ratio, but at a much higher cost than wet-laminating. Most pre-preg systems require elevated temperature and pressure curing with moulds capable of withstanding these conditions. The pre-preg systems also have to be stored at low temperatures in freezers with a limited shelf life, usually 6 9 months. 5.2. Spray-up or spray moulding In this semi-mechanised process, the operator manipulates a chopperrspray gun to dispense bres and resin on to the mould. The gun simultaneously chops rovings and pumps resin producing a combined spray of chopped bres and resin. It is difcult to control the deposition of material accurately and this leads to local variations in bre fraction and moulding thickness. However, the material deposition rates are high compared to conventional hand lay-up. 5.3. Press moulding This process is operated at cold ambient. or hot temperatures under pressure. There are a variety of different techniques used. The process provides mouldings with two good surfaces as opposed to one good surface by contact moulding. The cycle times in the mould tend to be low, typically 10 100 min. There are several variants of which the following typify the range. 5.3.1. Leaky mould technique Using this method a at metal mould is manufactured to allow excess resin to escape. When the pressure is applied, the two mould halves come together to a pre-determined pressure or to depth stops to achieve the desired bre volume fraction in the material. Both wet lay-up and pre-preg resin systems are used in this process. 5.3.2. Matched-die technique This technique makes use of matched male and female moulds to manufacture shaped mouldings with minimal leakage of resin. Depending on the operating pressure and temperature and quantity of mouldings, the moulds can be made from composite materials or metal. Both wet lay-up and pre-preg resin systems are used in this technique. The technique can be broadly divided into two categories: ash moulding in which excess resin and air are squeezed out into a ash groove, and net or positive moulding in which no resin escapes. In the latter, the quantity of materials must be

K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 1 10

accurately determined and a means of venting air and volatiles must be provided. The materials used for compression moulding range from wet impregnated mat or fabric to preimpregnated materials. The latter is used for higher volumes of production with heated matched metal tools. There are basically two types of preimpregnated material used: SMC and DMC. The former is a mixture of randomly oriented bres usually 25 mm or 50 mm in length. combined with resin and ller in sheet form, where the latter is a mixture of short bres usually approx. 6 mm in length. combined with resin and ller in dough form. A variety of agents are also added to each type to impart various properties. A major problem with the process is the induced bre orientation as the material ows under heat and pressure. This leads to shear ow and weld lines where distinct boundaries are formed in the material and no bres cross. 5.4. Vacuum-bag and autocla e moulding This technique is used on mouldings which are large or of complex shape. The mould is either male or female in conguration. The technique is usually used with pre-preg resin systems although there are techniques for wet resin systems. Consolidation is achieved by covering the moulding with an airtight membrane or bag from which the air is subsequently removed with a vacuum pump providing up to one atmosphere of pressure. If pressures higher than 1 atm are required the whole assembly is placed inside an autoclave or heated pressure vessel. The cycle times tend to be long, often several hours and the labour content is high. The process is highly dependent on the skill of the laminator. 5.5. Resin injection (resin transfer moulding or RTM) In this process, dry reinforcement is placed between two matched moulds. In its simplest form, resin is injected into the cavity and through the reinforcement which is trapped or pinched at the edges of the mould. The effect of the pinching is to provide a path for air to escape but block the passage of resin. There are variations to this which lead to more accurate mouldings with less material wastage. Removal of air is achieved by the use of a vacuum or by vapour purge. The resin is injected into the mould by gravity, pressure-pot or by positive displacement pump. Both cold and hot resin systems are used, the latter providing more rapid curing and control of viscosity. The process has the advantage of accurate bre management with reproducible mouldings. With automation, the process is capable of reproducible quality and high volume production with

cycle times down to minutes using reactive resin systems. 5.6. Injection moulding This process is similar to injection moulding of thermoplastics. The process uses a matched metal tool which is closed prior to injecting the material, usually DMC. The heated matched tools are held in a press and the material is fed by a screw. The screw itself is fed by a stufng box. Degradation of the material is a major drawback of the process. A variation of the process is transfer moulding in which a single charge of material is introduced in to the tool cavity by a ram. The ow of the material in both processes leads to bre orientation in the mouldings resulting in similar problems to compression moulding. 5.7. Filament winding Filament winding is a mechanised process. In its simplest form, the winding machine is similar to a lathe, the payout eye replacing the cutting tool and a cylindrical the workpiece. As the mandrel rotates, resin impregnated laments are pulled on to its surface via the payout eye which is mechanically traversed parallel to the mandrel axis producing a helical pattern. On completion of the winding process, the resin is cured and the mandrel removed. Modern winding machines are multi-axis and computer controlled, being capable of winding non-axisymmetric and branched shapes. Also, because of the complexity of generating data for winding patterns quickly and accurately they are also being interfaced to sophisticated CADrCAErCAM systems. The process produces accurate reproducible parts but is relatively slow; cycle times for machine utilisation are fairly low. Specialised machinery, however, can produce continuous cross-sectional pipes at high rates of production. Braiding is a special form of lament winding in which several counter-rotating bobbins simultaneously orbit a stationary mandrel. The resulting lay-up is a dry basket-weave construction which has to be followed by a resin impregnation process such as RTM. The process produces similar shapes to lament winding but at higher rates of production. 5.8. Mandrel-wrapping Mandrel wrapping involves the use of a mandrel on to which a pre-preg material is wrapped, then cured and consolidated by heat and pressure. The process is limited to simple tubular shaped components, but at a much lower cost than lament winding. Special purpose-built equipment is available for semi-automated production. The rolling-table is most commonly used,

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K.L. Edwards r Materials and Design 19 (1998) 1 10

consisting of two platens, one of which moves horizontally relative to the other. The pre-preg is cut to shape, depending on the tube prole and lay-up and laid on the bottom platen. The pre-preg leading edge is attached lightly to the mandrel and rolled between the plates under controlled pressure to give optimum consolidation without disturbing the bre orientation. Final consolidation is achieved by wrapping with a shrink lm, which is best applied automatically to ensure an even tension. The lm shrinks during the oven cure cycle, owing the resin and compacting the rolled prepreg layers. When the cure cycle is complete, the shrink lm is removed and the mandrel extracted leaving a FRP tube, with moulded interior and exterior surfaces. 5.9. Pultrusion Pultrusion is another mechanised process for producing continuous sections. The process consists of pulling impregnated laments together with mat or fabric through a heated die. The timing of the process is arranged such that as the material leaves the die it is sufciently cured to enable it to be gripped by a hauloff mechanism. In theory the process could run indenitely provided sufcient raw materials can be supplied. In fact, a small diameter rod is coiled several kilometres long directly on to drums. Normal sections are automatically cut to length. Both solid and hollow sections can be produced with a quite complex crosssectional shape. The process is capable of producing consistent quality at high rates of production. There are a couple of special variants of the basic pultrusion process that are worth noting. Pulforming extends the capability of pultrusion, allowing curved shapes to be formed with variable cross-section, provided the cross-sectional area remains constant. Pulwinding is a combination of pultrusion and la-

ment-winding, allowing helical and hoop laments to be incorporated in the pultruded section.

6. Conclusions The subject of bre-reinforced plastics has been presented in an abbreviated handbook type format, providing a condensed ready reference source of information to those not necessarily knowledgeable or regularly involved in the technology. Additionally, it provides sufcient insight for exploring the design possibilities of these materials and allows more detailed investigation through the references, but it is not a substitute for expert advice. References
w1x Phillips LN, editor. Design with Advanced Composite Materials. The Design Council, 1989. w2x Noakes K. Successful Composite Techniques: A Practical Introduction to the Use of Modern Composite Materials. Osprey Publishing, 1989. w3x Richardson T. Composites: A Design Guide. Industrial Press, 1987. w4x Mayer RM, editor. Design with Reinforced Plastics. The Design Council, 1993. w5x Hull D, Clyne TW. An Introduction to Composite Materials. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 1996. w6x Hancox NL, Mayer RM. Design Data for Reinforced Plastics: A Guide for Engineers and Designers. Chapman and Hall, 1994. w7x Johnson AF. Engineering Design Properties of GRP. The British Plastics Federation, 1986. w8x Anon. GRP Laminating. Plastics Processing Industry Training Board, 1989. w9x Holland P. Moulding and Glass Fibre Techniques. Argus Books, 1989. w10x Astrom BT. Manufacturing of Polymer Composites. Chapman and Hall, 1997.