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Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826

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Journal of Archaeological Science


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Research paper

A Late Roman ceramic production from Pompeii


Celestino Grifa a, *, Alberto De Bonis b, Alessio Langella a, Mariano Mercurio a, Gianluca Soricelli c, Vincenzo Morra b
a

Dipartimento di Scienze per la Biologia, la Geologia e lAmbiente, Universit del Sannio, Via dei Mulini 59/A, 82100 Benevento, Italy Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Universit Federico II, Via Mezzocannone 8, 80134 Napoli, Italy c Dipartimento di Scienze Umane, Storiche e Sociali, Universit del Molise, Via Mazzini 8, 86170 Isernia, Italy
b

a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history: Received 12 September 2011 Received in revised form 27 August 2012 Accepted 28 August 2012 Keywords: Pompeii Pottery Clayey deposits Volcanic temper

a b s t r a c t
The Via Lepanto site is one of the best examples showing how the Vesuvian region was partially reconstructed and earlier re-occupied after Vesuviuss eruption in the year 79 AD. The large amount of ceramic nds illustrates the typology in use in this area during the IV and V century AD. Analyses were focused on table and cooking ware productions. Archaeometric data were obtained using chemical and minero-petrographical methods (OM, XRD, XRF and SEM). Grain size measurements using Image Analyses on thin sections and a geochemical comparison with clayey deposits outcropping in the Campania region permitted the identication of the raw materials used for these pottery productions. XRD and SEM completed the data set, establishing the protocols used for pottery production in the Pompeii area during Late Roman period. The Via Lepanto site was part of an exchange network of markets with a periodic frequency, where locally produced and imported pottery was sold, indicating a ourishing network of exchanges spanning short, medium and long distances. 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The so-called Agro Nocerino-Sarnese, in the southern part of the Campanian Plain, had been an optimum for human settlements since pre-historic times, due to its fertile soils and propitious climate (Soricelli, 2001; Marturano et al., 2009). However, the scenario commonly proposed for this land immediately after the 79 AD eruption, which destroyed Pompeii, Ercolano and Stabia, is that of a bare and abandoned land. In fact, several authors hypothesise an abrupt interruption of all human activities immediately after the eruption and only a late and sporadic reoccupation of the area, up until III century AD (Soricelli, 2002). However, such reconstructions suffer a lack of interest on the part of archaeologists for the post-79 AD levels which consequently, were only summarily investigated or simply removed, in order to reach the pre-eruption layers. According to ancient sources (Suet. Tit. 8,4; Cass. Dio LXVI.24, 3e 4 in Gazzetti, 1976), the reconstruction process immediately after the disaster, which focused on agricultural infrastructures, public buildings and road networks, was managed by two imperial ofcers, the curatores restituendae Campaniae, and was funded by the imperial treasury (Soricelli, 2001, 2002). Several sites and settlements, in particular along the NuceriaePompei road (Fig. 1)
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 39 (0)824 363649; fax: 39 (0)824 323623. E-mail address: celestino.grifa@unisannio.it (C. Grifa). 0305-4403/$ e see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.08.043

(De Carolis and Soricelli, 2005), conrm a reoccupation of the area, such as the Porta-Vesuvio necropolis and the Moregine complex. The Via Lepanto site is one of the best examples of a reoccupation of the Vesuvius area after the 79 AD eruption (Fig. 1). It dates back to the rst half of II century AD (as shown by the African Red Slip Ware, forms Hayes 7A, 8A). The site is located on the Nuceriae Pompei road, at approximately 1 km from the SE walls of the ancient city of Pompeii. It was abandoned after the 472 AD eruption, as shown by the Pollena pyroclastic deposits that covered the whole settlement (De Carolis and Soricelli, 2005). Some ceramic dumps, dating back to the late IVeearly V century AD by the African Red Slip Ware forms Hayes 59, 60, 61, 73 and 91, brought to light a large amount of pottery, among which samples of table and cooking ware. These were collected and analysed from a mineralogical and petrographical point of view. This research study aims at dening the technological features of some selected ceramic productions that were widespread in the Via Lepanto site, by means of an exhaustive mineralogical, petrographical and chemical characterisation, focussing on the identication of the clays and tempers used, as well as the ring technologies. Moreover, the whole data set aims at providing a useful archaeometric database on the ceramic productions from this area. An attempt of hypothesis on the provenance of the shards was also carried out in order to conrm the presence of active ceramic workshops in Pompeii and the surrounding area during the Late

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Fig. 1. Simplied geological map of Campania region (modied from Bonardi et al., 2009). Main roads (Shepherd, 1911) and clay sampling sites are also reported.

Roman period. This would provide a useful indicator of a retrieved socialeeconomic activity. Mineralogical, petrographical and geochemical analyses may also provide information on the provenance of the pottery. This is particularly true for coarse-grained common ware and amphorae productions in which inclusions can be easily correlated to the rocks cropping out in the surrounding area. The relationship between the minero-petrographical composition of the coarse-temper is particularly effective in volcanic contexts, as reported for some ceramic productions of the Circum-Mediterranean volcanic area, such as those from Sicily (Barone et al., 2010), the Aeolian islands (Williams et al., 2008) and Pantelleria (Grifa et al., 2005a). With regards to ceramic productions from the Bay of Naples, the occurrence of well sorted, rounded volcanic temper, mainly composed of sanidine, Ca-rich pyroxene, plagioclase, pumices and scoriae, is largely attested in both fabrics of common wares and amphorae (Grifa et al., 2005b, 2006, 2009a). To complete the characterization of the potsherds, clayey raw materials located close to the Pompeii area and along the Late Roman period main roads (e.g. Appia and Traiana roads) were also sampled and compared with the investigated ceramic products, from a mineralogical and geochemical point of view (De Bonis, 2011; De Bonis et al., 2012). 2. Volcanological remarks Located not far from the Southern-eastern part of the city of Naples and within one of the most densely inhabited areas of the

world, this typical stratovolcano has always conditioned human behaviour in this portion of the Campania region. Mount Somma represents the oldest volcano that concluded its activities with a caldera formation. Within this caldera, the Vesuvius volcano successively formed (Cioni et al., 1999). The volcanic history of the SommaeVesuvius complex is still debated. After a rst phase, which started circa 300e400 ka (Brocchini et al., 2001), it was only after the Phlegraean Campanian Ignimbrite eruption that activity was recorded (39 ka; Fedele et al., 2008). It was upon this eruption that the present volcanic complex was formed (Di Vito et al., 1998). Since its last eruption in 1944 AD, the SommaeVesuvius has experienced a quiescent status. From a petrological point of view, the volcanic products belong to the HK series and they are typical leucite-bearing rocks (Conticelli et al., 2004). The rst historical Plinian eruption, recorded in the archaeological layers and largely used as a stratigraphic marker for the Bronze Age, is the Pomici di Avellino eruption (4.365 ka; Santacroce et al., 2008) which deposited large volumes of pyroclastic falls and ows, causing the migration of the prehistorical population to the surrounding areas. However, the most important Plinian event, also from a historical point of view, is the 79 AD Pompei eruption (Lanphere et al., 2007) directly observed and carefully described by Plinius the Younger. Successively, the 472 AD Pollena eruption (Santacroce et al., 2008) also had a strong impact on the Vesuvius area. These latter two eruptions represent important events for the Via Lepanto site, as they mark the beginning and the end of occupancy.

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3. Materials 3.1. Pottery Some Late Roman potsherd dumps, sealed by Pollena products (472 AD), brought to light several thousands of ceramic fragments, mainly represented by common ware (table and cooking ware). Fifty-two fragments from these ceramic classes (Table 1) were sampled for minero-petrographical analyses. From an archaeological point of view, the pottery from Via Lepanto can be compared to similar products circulating in the region between the end of IV century AD and the beginning of the V century AD (De Carolis and Soricelli, 2005). Three different types of table were investigated: Red Painted Ware (RPW), Painted Ware (PW) and Burnished Ware (BW). The Red
Table 1 Archaeological information of 52 common ware ceramic samples from Via Lepanto. The colour code form Munsell Soil Colour Chart. Sample PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL 1 2 3* 4* 5* 6 7* 8 9* 10* 11 12* 13 14 15* 16 17 18 19* 20 21* 22 23 24 25 26* 27* 28 29 30 31 32 33 34* 35* 36 37 38* 39* 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 Class BW BW BW PW PW PW PW PW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW CW RPW RPW RPW RPW CW CW RPW RPW RPW RPW RPW RPW RPW* CW RPW* RPW RPW RPW RPW RPW CW Body 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/8 5YR 6/3 5YR 6/3 5YR 6/3 5YR 6/3 5YR 5/6 5YR 6/3 5YR 6/6 5YR 6/6 faded faded faded faded 5YR 6/3 5YR 6/3 faded 5YR 6/3 faded 5YR 6/3 faded 5YR 5/6 sharp 5YR 6/6 faded 5YR 6/6 5YR 6/6 faded 5YR 6/6 faded 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/8 sharp sharp 2.5YR 5/8 sharp 2.5YR 5/8 sharp 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/8 5YR 4/3 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8 5YR 6/3 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 2.5YR 2.5YR 2.5YR 2.5YR 2.5YR 2.5YR 2.5YR 2.5YR 2.5YR 2.5YR 2.5YR 2.5YR 4/8 4/8 4/8 4/8 4/8 4/8 5/6 4/8 4/8 4/8 4/8 5/6 5/6 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 2.5YR 2.5YR 2.5YR 4/8 5/6 5/6 4/8 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8 5YR 5YR 5YR 5YR 6/3 6/3 6/3 6/3 2.5YR 2.5YR 2.5YR 2.5YR 5/8 5/8 5/8 5/8 Zoning Heart Rim Slip 2.5YR 4/8 2.5YR 4/8 2.5YR 4/8

Painted Ware (17 samples), mainly represented by open shapes (Fig. 2a), can be easily identied by a light reddish slip that covers the entire internal surface and partially overlaps the external rim of the artefact. Macroscopic observations permit the recognition of two different groups of fragments. The rst is characterised by a ne and very hard paste. The colour of the paint is red/red-orange (2.5YR 4/8). A second group of samples shows a coarser and softer paste. The thin paint is red in colour (2.5YR 5/6). In both groups, the ceramic body has a redebrown colour (2.5YR 5/8) but some sandwich structures can be observed (sample PVL 39 and 41, Table 1). Examples of RPW have been found in late IVeearly V century AD contexts from Somma Vesuviana (Aoyagi et al., 2007) and Mercato S. Severino (Fiorillo, 2003). These can be compared with pottery from other Southern Italy sites: Naples (Arthur, 1994), Pratola Serra (Alfano, 1992), Ordona (Annese, 2000) and Calle (Di Giuseppe, 1998). A second tableware ceramic class is represented by 5 samples of the Painted Ware (Whitehouse, 1966) showing a greyish ne paste (5YR 6/3) with a redebrown decoration applied by a paintbrush or a cloth. These vessels (Fig. 2b) can be compared with analogous products from other Campanian sites: Cuma, Miseno (Grifa et al., 2005b, 2009a), Benevento (Lupia, 1998) and Caudium (Perrone, 2005; De Bonis et al., 2010). The last three samples of tableware are represented by small closed shapes with a ne red paste (2.5YR 5/8) and with a shiny red cover (2.5YR 4/8) on the external surface: the Burnished Ware (inset of Fig. 2b). Well represented in Vesuvius area, this ware is common in Naples and in other Campanian sites (De Carolis and Soricelli, 2005). The Cooking Ware samples (CW, 27 samples) show a very coarse paste. In general, the matrix shows a red/brown colour (5YR 6/3e 5YR 6/6) but in several samples, sandwich zoning of the ceramic body can be observed. Main attested shapes (Fig. 2c) are the casseroles that can be found in other Campanian contexts, in particular in Benevento (Lupia, 1998), Caudium (De Bonis et al., 2010), Neapolis (Carsana, 1994) and the Phlegraean area (Soricelli, 2000). Saucepans and lids also occur. Only one sample (Fig. 2c) can be referred to the Pantellerian Ware, a cooking ware widespread in the Mediterranean area between IV and VI century (Grifa et al., 2005a). 3.2. Clayey raw materials Ten samples of clayey raw materials (Table 2, Fig.1) were collected in order to compare their mineralogical and geochemical composition with that of the ceramic nds. Samples were chosen according to their proximity to both possible ancient sites of production and the main Roman roads of the Campania region (Fig. 1). They are mainly represented by basinal sediments, subordinate alluvial deposits and strongly weathered pyroclastic soils (Table 2). Basinal sediments mainly outcrop along the Apennine chain located in the eastern part of the Campania Region and are ubiquitously ascribed to different units such as the Sicilide Unit (samples BS1, BS2, GS1) or the Fortore Unit (sample MLV1), which all date from the Upper Cretaceous to the Lower Miocene (Table 2; Fig. 1) (Bonardi et al., 2009). Sample MLV1 was collected in the area surrounding the mud volcano known as the Bolle della Malvizza in the Miscano river valley, very close to the Traiana Roman Road (Fig. 1), which crossed the Apennine chain to the Adriatic coast. The GS1 sample crops out close to the town of Gioia Sannitica (Caserta province). Other basinal samples (SQ1 and TRE1), ascribed to Caiazzo Sandstones (Bonardi et al., 2009), come from the Northern Campania area, which is well-known for the presence of several Roman settlements. The SQ1 sample was collected near the town of Caiazzo (Caserta province). The TRE1 sample comes from the village of Treglia (Caserta province), a Roman settlement (Trebula),

BW Burnished Ware; PW Painted Ware; CW Cooking Ware; RPW Red Painted Ware, * Samples studied by image and modal analyses.

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Fig. 2. The variegated repertoire of the common ware ceramic from Via Lepanto; a) the Red Paint Ware (RPW), bowls and dishes; b) the Painted Ware (PW), bowls and dishes, in the inset the shape representative of the Burnished Ware (BW); c) The Cooking Ware (CW), pans, pots, saucepan and lids, in the inset a typical saucepan of Pantellerian Ware.

where an ancient ceramic workshop is reported to have existed (Livadie, 1994). The PMV2 alluvial clayey sediment (Piana di Monte Verna, Caserta province) of the Volturno River plain is a holocenic clay
Table 2 Clayey deposits description. Sample BS1 BS2 GS1 MLV1 SQ1 TRE1 PMV2 VEL1 CSC1 SO1 Locality Bisaccia (AV) Bisaccia (AV) Gioia Sannitica (CE) Montecalvo Irpino (AV) Castel Campagnano (CE) Pontelatone (CE) Piana di Monte Verna (CE) Velina di Castelnuovo Cilento (SA) Cascano di Sessa Aurunca (CE) SantAgnello (NA) Geological origin Basinal sediment Basinal sediment Basinal sediment Basinal sediment Basinal sediment Basinal sediment Alluvial sediment Alluvial sediment Pyroclastic deposit Pyroclastic deposit Description Blue-greenish clayey silt Reddish clayey silt Reworked brownyellowish sediment Greyish clayey sediment Reworked brownish silty sediment Reworked brownish silty sediment Yellowish clayey silt Yellowish sandy silt Reddish clayey silt Brownish sandy silt

collected two meters below the ground level, in which bricks of Roman age were also found. VEL1 is an Alento River sediment (PleistoceneeHolocene), sampled in a former clay quarry in the area surrounding Velia, the ancient Greek colony of Elea. Other clayey raw materials derive from strongly weathered pyroclastic deposits that were widespread in the volcanic areas of the region. Such materials were most likely exploited in the past for pottery productions, especially in the Bay of Naples area, and are still used for the manufacturing of bricks for wood-burning ovens or cooking wares, following ancient techniques and taking advantage of their refractory properties. One sample (SO1) comes from a brownish lahar-like deposit of the Sorrento Peninsula, deriving from the activity of SommaeVesuvius. The other sample (CSC1) comes from the pyroclastic soils of the Roccamonna volcano (De Bonis, 2011).

4. Analytical techniques The mineralogical and textural properties of the pottery fragments were investigated on thin sections with a Leitz Laborlux 12POL polarising microscope. On selected representative samples of each ceramic class, accurate measurements of the non-plastic inclusions were carried out with an image analysis software (Leica Q-Win). Point-to-point modal analyses were carried out on

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C. Grifa et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826 qz/fd* quartz and feldspar microcrystalline; cpx clinopyroxene, san sanidine, pl plagioclase, bt biotite, garn garnet, pum pumices, sco scoriae, lc-sco leucite-bearing scoriae, obs obsidians, cc calcite, por pores, mat matrix, tot incl total inclusions; volc volcanics. Statistical parameters of f size and logit (SF). median; s Standard Deviation; mean.

Table 3 Point-to-point modal analyses results and statistical parameters obtained on particles size by image analysis (expressed as area%) on representative samples.

5. Results 5.1. Optical microscopy Optical microscopy observations of the investigated samples have already been reported in a previous paper (De Carolis et al., 2009) and this data highlighted a close relationship among textures and ceramic classes. A brief description of the main features of the group samples is reported below focussing mainly on the image and modal analyses data of selected samples. The results of a point-to-point modal analysis, statistical parameters of f size and logit (SF) are reported in Table 3. The BW samples (PVL 1, 2 and 3 e in bold numbers, are samples which underwent image and modal analysis) showed a ne-size grains of quartz, feldspar and volcanics scattered in a brown isotropic clay matrix (49.8%) and a 0.2 mm thick vitried

bt

pl

san

qz/fd*

cpx

Sample

RPW

BW PW

CW

PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL

3 4 5 7 9 10 12 15 19 21 26 27 34 35 38 39 44 46

28.63 25.51 21.20 27.89 24.48 27.63 14.60 7.98 18.96 23.60 29.10 18.43 20.36 25.80 24.41 24.35 16.12 13.60

3.62 0.30 2.20 0.33 0.52 2.88 1.50 2.67 1.63 1.38 0.00 0.57 0.48 0.80 0.24 0.12 1.63 0.80

2.23 0.36 1.40 0.67 4.04 8.13 10.13 12.17 10.38 3.75 4.19 5.86 1.50 2.20 2.76 1.43 3.00 2.80

1.00 0.20 0.80 1.22 2.64 2.00 3.00 4.50 4.00 4.50 4.45 2.43 2.35 1.20 1.98 2.78 3.75 1.80

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.37 2.13 0.67 0.63 1.00 0.00 2.86 1.60 2.40 2.64 0.60 0.13 0.80

ca. 3000 points for each sample, evaluating the abundance of paste constituents (grains, matrix and pores). Using a manual procedure, image analyses also permitted measuring some shape parameters of the inclusions, such as the minimum (Am) and maximum (AM) axis of single grains, assuming the grain inscribed in an ellipse. The two axes were used to calculate the Krumbein f size (f log2 AM; Krumbein and Sloss, 1963) and the Am/AM axis ratio that was assumed, in this study, as a shape factor (SF). As SF values range from nearly 1.0 for circular grains to nearly 0.0 for elongated grains, a logit transformation, Logit (SF) Ln(SF/(1 SF)), was applied (Prakongkep et al., 2010). Optical conditions for particles measurements varied as a function of the inclusion grain size. Image resolution was 1280 1024 pixel, for ner grains captured with 40 magnication (1 mm 480 pixel) and for coarser grains captured using 25 magnication (1 mm 320 pixel). All images were captured in parallel-polarized light in order to avoid extinction problems. Bulk chemical compositions of the shards and the reference clay samples were evaluated by XRF (Philips PW 1400): ten major elements (Si, Ti, Al, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K, P as oxide %) and 9 trace elements (Ni, Rb, Sr, Zr, Nb, Sc, V, Cr, Ba in ppm) were determined on pressed pellets. Analytical procedures were carried out according to Melluso et al. (2005). Volatile content (LOI) was determined measuring mass lost (1 g of powdered sample) heated at 1000  C. XRF analyses were not performed for sample PVL 28 and 41 due to a lack of sufcient material. A statistical multivariate approach was carried out on the XRF data set to better evaluate the chemical behaviour of the ceramic fragments in a multidimensional space and to verify homogeneity in the different data populations. Statistical treatment of the Grain-Size Distribution (hereafter GSD) and the XRF data was carried out using the R version 2.10.0 software (R Development Team, 2005). Two analytical approaches were united in order to evaluate the ring temperatures of the ceramic shards. X-ray diffraction (XRD) permitted the identication of the mineralogical composition of the potsherds, which depends on the base-clay and possible submicroscopic phases related to the ring dynamics (Philips PW 1730/3710 diffractometer, CuKa radiation 40 kV, 30 mA, curved graphite monochromator, scanning interval 3e80 , step size 0.020 2q, counting time 5 s per step). Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM Jeol JSM 5310) observations, carried out on goldcoated fresh-fractured fragments, provided information in terms of microstructures and the sintering degree of the clay matrix (Maniatis and Tite, 1981). Bulk mineralogy of clay-rich sediments was investigated by XRD on randomly oriented powders; clay minerals were identied on the <2 mm fraction on oriented mounts (Air dried, EG solvated, and 550  C heated samples) to enhance their peak intensity (Moore and Reynolds, 1997).

mean logit (SF) median mean median

s s f
mat/inc volc tot inc tot mat por cc lc-sco obs pum sco garn

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.17 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

1.63 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.22 1.25 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.75 0.00 0.00 2.50 0.00 4.67 1.12 5.50 3.00

3.38 0.89 1.20 0.54 3.23 1.62 2.88 4.17 1.13 2.75 0.00 7.71 4.29 2.20 3.34 2.87 5.24 8.40

0.00 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.63 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.13 0.00

4.13 0.00 0.20 0.10 0.00 1.00 0.38 0.00 4.75 1.88 0.00 0.43 3.42 1.80 1.72 3.11 4.13 5.40

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.63 1.00 0.50 0.13 1.33 1.42 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20

5.63 10.13 7.60 6.00 4.89 7.24 4.88 8.50 4.38 6.13 7.25 6.00 12.75 15.00 8.34 11.52 6.12 7.00

49.75 62.43 65.20 63.25 59.46 46.75 59.50 58.67 52.88 52.75 53.59 55.71 50.75 48.60 49.90 52.10 53.25 56.20

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

44.62 27.44 27.20 30.75 35.65 46.01 35.62 32.83 42.74 41.12 39.16 38.29 36.50 36.40 41.76 36.38 40.63 36.80

1.11 2.28 2.40 2.06 1.67 1.02 1.67 1.79 1.24 1.28 1.37 1.45 1.39 1.34 1.19 1.43 1.31 1.53

15.99 1.93 6.00 2.86 10.95 17.75 20.02 24.35 23.65 16.19 8.64 19.86 16.14 10.60 17.35 12.03 24.51 23.00

3.926 4.383 4.255 4.461 3.752 3.664 3.317 3.365 3.550 2.998 3.239 4.028 4.800 4.250 4.466 4.605 4.107 4.454

0.608 0.501 0.746 0.674 0.735 0.698 0.847 0.848 0.668 0.946 0.783 0.887 0.557 0.664 0.776 0.740 0.928 1.120

3.887 4.387 4.160 4.374 3.655 3.601 3.337 3.303 3.485 2.986 3.176 3.892 4.786 4.188 4.328 4.519 3.945 4.140

0.344 0.488 0.415 0.223 0.542 0.507 0.441 0.616 0.446 0.542 0.541 0.203 0.624 0.539 0.282 0.097 0.201 0.227

1.094 0.834 1.001 0.915 0.900 0.883 0.975 1.050 1.046 1.096 0.983 0.905 1.116 0.906 0.903 1.006 0.953 1.053

0.535 0.573 0.594 0.341 0.675 0.507 0.517 0.731 0.594 0.693 0.649 0.333 0.854 0.656 0.349 0.236 0.378 0.380

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Fig. 3. Micrographs showing some optical properties of the analysed samples. a) paste and cover, sample PVL 1, parallel polars; b) matrix and inclusions, sample PVL 5, parallel polars; c) matrix and inclusions, sample PVL 4, parallel polars; d) grain and matrix of RPW group 1 representative sample, sample PVL 34, parallel polars, e) grain and matrix of RPW group 2 representative sample, sample PVL 44, crossed polars; f) coarse-grained CW sample, sample PVL 9, crossed polars; g) coarse-grained CW sample, sample PVL 15, crossed polars; h) anorthoclase crystal, sample PVL 52, crossed polars.

red slip (Fig. 3a). The modal analysis carried out on the PVL 3 sample evidenced a low porosity (5.63%), tiny particles of quartz and feldspars (28.6%) and subordinate volcanic grains such as: obsidians (4.13%), clinopyroxene (pale green Fe-rich diopside and colourless diopside, 3.62%), scoriae (3.38%), sanidine (2.23%), pumices (1.63%) and plagioclase (1.00%) attesting a high total inclusions content (Fig. 4a). For all the samples, a theoretical skew-t (Azzalini and Genton, 2008; Azzalini, 2006) Probability Density Function (PDF, dashed curves in Fig. 5) was plotted (using the same mean and standard deviation values) in order to compare the real and the theoretical curves. The density GSD histogram (Fig. 5a) showed a skewed f size curve from main coarse silt/ne sand particle sizes (median value 3.93; z0.70 mm, mean value 3.88) to subordinate coarse/very coarse sand (weak negative spread). The standard deviation value (sf 0.61) expressed a moderately well sorted distribution of the inclusions (Folk, 1974). Moreover, the logit (SF) histogram

highlighted moderately to poorly elongated shapes of grains as illustrated by the tail toward positive values of the PDF curve (Fig. 5b). The PW pastes were formed by predominant grey (PVL 4, 6, 7 and 8) to red-brown isotropic matrixes (PVL 5), ranging from 62.4 to 65.2% in PVL 4 and PVL 5, respectively, and subordinate inclusions (from 27.2 in PVL 5e30.7% in PVL 7). This ceramic class is characterised by the highest matrix/inclusions ratio (>2) and lowest volcanics and inclusions content when compared to the others (Fig. 4a, Table 3). Furthermore optical properties of the clay matrix (Fig. 3b), PVL 5 also showed a different GSD, namely, a skewed PDF curve (main medium silt/medium sand, Fig. 5c) with a tail toward coarser grains (coarse sand), due to a higher volcanic grains content (6.00%) and the moderate sorting (sf 0.75). The inclusions are mainly constituted by microcrystalline quartz and feldspars (21.2%) and subordinate volcanic elements, such as clinopyroxene (2.20%), sanidine (1.4%), scoriae (1.2%), plagioclase (0.8%),

Fig. 4. Diagrams showing some modal parameters.

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Fig. 5. f size and logit (SF) frequence diagrams for some representative samples of the studied potsherds. a), b) PVL 3, BW sample; c), d) PVL 5, PW sample; e), f) PVL 4, PW sample; g), h) PVL 39, RPW sample; i), l) PVL 44, RPW sample; m), n) PVL 10, CW sample; o), p) PVL 15, CW sample.

leucite-bearing scoriae (0.2%) and obsidian fragments (0.2%). The grain shape varies from subrounded to poorly elongated (Fig. 5d). In contrast, samples PVL 4 and PVL 7 (Fig. 3c) showed approximately normal GSD diagrams (Fig. 5e), ranging from medium silt to ne sand, and moderately well sorted grains (sf 0.50 and 0.67, respectively) composed of quartz and feldspar particles and very subordinate volcanic grains (Table 3). Logit (SF) curves evidenced, for each sample, a moderately elongated shape of the grains (Fig. 5f). Porosity ranged from 6.00% in PVL 7 up to 10.1% in PVL 4. The RPW samples can be grouped in accordance with their different textures, despite their similar stylistic character. All the samples generally showed a red-to-red-orange coloured isotropic matrix. Occasional colour zoning can be related to a different optical activity of the clay matrix. Group 1 (PVL 32, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 47, 48 and 49, Fig. 3d) showed a slight lower matrix (50%

vs. 54%, on average), volcanic grains (14% vs. 23%, on average) and a higher quartz-feldspar fraction (23% vs. 14%, on average; Figs. 3d and 4b and Table 3), when compared to the samples of group 2 (PVL 33, 44, 46, 50 and 51, Fig. 3e). Volcanic grains were constituted by scoriae (2.20e4.29%, average values), obsidians (1.72e3.42%), plagioclase (1.20e2.78%), pumices (1.12e4.67%), sanidine (1.43e 2.76%), biotite (0.60e2.64%) and clinopyroxene (0.12e0.80%). A skewed GSD from medium silt to medium sands, with the tail towards coarser grains up to coarse sand (Fig. 5g) was evidenced for the group 1 samples. The inclusions varied from moderately well (PVL 34) to moderately sorted (PVL 35, 38, 39), as illustrated by the sf values (Table 3). The logit (SF) evidenced a mainly elongated shape of inclusions (Fig. 5h). The samples of group 2, on the other hand, show higher sf values, indicating a moderate (PVL 44) to poor (PVL 46) sorting. In

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Fig. 5. (continued).

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reference to this group, the GSD diagrams (Fig. 5i) showed a skewed distribution (medium silt to coarse sand) with a more pronounced tail (higher density) toward coarser grains. Non-crystalline elements, such as scoriae (leucite-bearing scoriae in PVL 44), pumices and obsidians still represent the most abundant volcanic component. Subordinate sanidine, plagioclase, clinopyroxene and biotite were also observed (Table 3). RPW group 1 showed a higher porosity than group 2 (12% vs. 6%, on average). The logit (SF) again evidenced a mainly elongated shape of inclusions (Fig. 5j). The CW samples (PVL 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,14, 15, 16,17,18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 36, 37, 43, 45 and 52) showed wider differences in textures namely, GSD and inclusions content and optical characters of the matrix (Fig. 3f, g). The inclusions range between 35.6% (PVL 9) and 46.0% (PVL 10), dened matrix/inclusions ratios from 1.02 (PVL 10) to 1.79 (PVL 15) (Fig. 4a). GSD diagrams varied from slightly positive skewed (PVL 10, Fig. 5k) to bimodal textures (PVL 15, Fig. 5m). The sorting rate ranged from moderately well sorted (sf 0.67 in PVL 19) to moderately sorted (sf 0.95 in PVL 21). In comparison to the other ceramic classes, the GSD curve of the CW samples evidenced a shift toward larger grain size and a higher density of coarse grains, from coarse silt to medium sand (Fig. 5k, m). The shape of the grains is generally elongated with a weak tail toward more rounded grains (Fig. 5l, n). Along with the quartzefeldspar component (ranging from 7.98% up to 29.1% in PVL 15 and PVL 26, respectively), volcanic grains always occur and are mainly constituted by sanidine (4.04e12.17%), plagioclase (2.43e 4.50%), scoriae (1.13e7.71%), clinopyroxene (0.52e2.67%), obsidian (0.38e4.75%), biotite (0.30e2.76%) and pumices (0.22e1.25%). Garnet (0.11%) was observed in samples PVL 10, 15 and 21; leucitebearing scoriae were only recorded in PVL 19. The presence of secondary calcite was noticed in PVL 9, 10, 12, 15, 19, 21, 26 and 46. Some relevant exceptions should also be noted: samples PVL 24, 25, 26 lack volcanics, whereas the PVL 52 sample showed distinctive exotic volcanic grains such as quartz, anorthoclase (Fig. 3h), green clinopyroxene, subordinate aenigmatite. 5.2. XRF All the ceramic fragments are characterised by a low CaO content (<5e6 wt%) with the exception of some PW samples (PVL 4, 6, 7, 8) and one RPW sample (PVL 40) which show CaO ranging from 9.65 (PVL 8) to 13.1 wt% (PVL 4)(Table 5). The same samples can be distinguished for their lower Al2O3 (ca. 14 wt% vs. 20 wt%, on average) and a slightly higher magnesium oxide content (>3.50 wt %). The low CaO samples, excluding silica (58.3 wt% in PVL 44 up to 67.2 wt% in PVL 2), are all characterised by a good chemical homogeneity, as illustrated in diagram Fig. 6. A higher Na2O content (3.2 wt%) was recorded for sample PVL 52. North America Shale Composition (NASC)-normalized (Gromet et al., 1984) spider diagrams permitted a simultaneous comparison of the trace elements abundance. Similar patterns (Fig. 7a and b) were recognised for samples from the BW and RPW classes, which only differ from the NASC by a slight Rb enrichment. The high CaO samples (PVL 4, 6, 7 and 8) of the PW group (Fig. 7c) have similar patterns, with marked positive Sr and Nb peaks when compared to the NASC; Rb, Zr and Nb are denitely enriched in sample PVL 5. With regards to trace elements, the CW group identied similar patterns for a large number of samples (shaded eld e Fig. 7d). Only Nb and subordinately Sc experienced a wider variation. However, within this group few samples can be distinguished: PVL 52 showed a bell-shaped pattern attesting very low content in the Nie Cr pair and enrichment with respect to the NASC in ZreNb. Samples PVL 24 and 25 differ by way of the lowest Nb content. PVL 26 showed a marked Sr and Sc enrichment. LOI values (Table 5) range from 0.15 wt% in PVL 35 up to 9.80 wt% in PVL 46.

All clayey samples show low CaO contents, ranging from 0.28 to 4.3 wt%. Silica ranges from 55.2 wt% (GS1) to 69 wt% (SQ1). These values are negatively correlated with Al2O3 (from 16.3 wt% in SQ1 to 27.1 wt% in GS1) and these are likely due to different contents of quartz/feldspar and clay minerals as evidenced in XRD analyses (see Section 5.3). Fe2O3 content ranges from 5.2 wt% (GS1) to 10.5 wt% (BS2). With regards to alkali elements, K2O shows an average content of 3.27% in basinal and alluvial sediments (BS1, BS2, GS1, MLV1, SQ1, TRE1, PMV2, VEL1). Samples of weathered pyroclastics evidenced higher values (SO1 4.04%; CSC1 6.11%); basinal sample MLV1 shows a very high sodium oxide content (4.43 wt%), which most probably is due to the peculiar conditions of the outcrop located in a mud volcano environment, where gas emission and highly saline (NaeCl) thermal springs exist (Duchi et al., 1995). Major oxides of clayey sediments and potsherds were plotted in a binary variation diagram, using CaO as a differentiation index (Fig. 6). Despite a wide chemical afnity, some raw materials differ from the artefacts for some oxides content. Strong differences were noticed for MLV1 that can be distinguished for its higher Na2O (4.43 wt%) and CaO (4.57 wt%) values. GS1 shows the highest Al2O3 (27.12 wt%) and the lowest SiO2 content (55.21 wt%). CSC1 differs by way of a high alkali content (Na2O 2.32 wt%; K2O 6.11 wt%). Sample SO1 is marked by minor differences (slight higher alumina). Samples BS1 and BS2 show higher MgO contents (4.34 wt% and 3.42 wt%, respectively); sample TRE1 is characterized by a higher CaO value (4.09 wt%); PMV2, VEL1, and SQ1 show slightly lower Fe2O3 contents (6.18, 6.47 and 5.26 wt%). Trace elements of clayey sediments in NASC-normalised diagrams (Fig. 7e, f and g) permitted the identication of a group of three samples (SQ1, VEL1, and TRE1) which showed similar patterns comparable with the low CaO potsherds group. Weathered pyroclastics (CSC1 and SO1) clearly differ for their lower Cr and Ni values and higher Rb, Sr, Zr contents. These chemical features are quite far from those of the ceramic potshards. Concerning the trace elements of the four basinal samples (BS1, BS2, MLV1, and GS1), they also show substantial differences with the investigated potsherds. In particular, they are characterised by a higher Cr content, more pronounced in BS1 and BS2, and by a variable Sr content (higher in MLV1 and lower in GS1). Multivariate statistical analysis (Hierarchical Cluster Analysis, HCA, Fig. 8) on the XRF data of the potsherds and clayey deposits were carried out. Raw data was log-10 transformed (Aruga, 2003; Hall, 2004). MnO, P2O5 and Ba were omitted from the dataset, as they could be affected by post-earthen alteration (Fabbri et al., 1994; Maggetti, 2001). Statistical data treatment largely conrms the homogeneities of the low CaO main group, namely all the potsherds, the BW, RPW and CW classes, as well as one PW sample (PVL 5). The alluvial deposits (VEL1 and PMV2) and two marine (basinal TRE1 and SQ1) sediments can be closely associated to this main group. The high CaO PW samples (PVL 4, 6, 7, 8) and one RPW sample (PVL 40) belong to a different group. All the other potsherds (CW: PVL 24, 25, 26, 52; RPW: PVL 43) as well as the other clay samples scatter from the above reported groups. 5.3. XRD The XRD data (Table 6) on the pottery samples, generally conrmed the optical microscope observations, evidencing the abundance of quartz and feldspar and subordinate sanidine and pyroxene. In contrast, the occurrence of pyroxene, not documented by optical microscopy, was reported for most of the PW group samples (PVL 4, 6 and 8). Consequently, in these samples the Capyroxene was interpreted as a high-temperature phase (Grifa

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Fig. 6. Major elements binary diagrams.

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Fig. 7. NASC normalized spider diagram.

et al., 2009b) due to the calcareous character of the raw materials. An almost ubiquitous occurrence of illite was detected (except for PVL 3, 4, 6, 8, 11, 25, 29 and 41), with the highest content for the RPW samples PVL 32, 38, 50 and 51. Hematite was recorded in samples PVL 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 19, 25, 41, 47, 48, 49 and 52. Fehydroxide (goethite) in samples PVL 2, 6, 10, 11, 15, 17, 25 and 32 was most likely formed after hematite hydroxylation during postearthen processes (Secco et al., 2011).

All the basinal and the alluvial clayey sediments are mainly composed of quartz and feldspar with subordinate illite/mica group minerals (Table 6). Minor calcite was noticed in TRE1 and MLV1; hematite in BS2 accounts for its reddish colour. Among the clay minerals, kaolinite, illite/smectite mixed layer and chlorite were ubiquitous; the only exceptions are for the GS1, PMV2 and VEL1 samples in which chlorite was absent. Weathered pyroclastics are mainly constituted by feldspar (sanidine) and illite/mica (biotite).

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Fig. 7. (continued).

Clinopyroxene is abundant in SO1. Quartz occurs only in traces along with hematite in CSC1. Kaolinite and/or halloysite are the main occurring clay minerals. 5.4. Firing temperature estimation Based on mineralogical data, 14 samples were selected for Scanning Electron Microscope analyses in order to investigate the sintering degree of the clay matrix in order to obtain information on ring temperatures (Maniatis and Tite, 1981). The estimated ring temperatures are reported in Table 4. The evaluation of this parameter, in addition to mineralogical and microtextural data, also takes into accounts the CaO content of the raw material and the redox conditions in the kiln. All the samples were red in oxidative conditions of the kiln, as conrmed by OM and macroscopic observations. Furthermore, the raw material did not contain important amounts of carbonates, except for the PW sample PVL 4. The presence of illite along with a low sintered matrix (NV, Fig. 9a) in the BW samples (PVL 1 and 2) permits hypothesizing a ring temperature lower than 800  C.

Regarding the PW ceramic class, sample PVL 4 showed a higher sintering stage of the matrix as testied by the complete loss of the crystalline structure of the clay minerals and the ne pore size (CVFB, Fig. 9b). The ring temperature of this sample ranged between 950 and 1050  C; the low sintering stage of sample PVL 5 accounts for lower ring temperatures (NV, T < 800  C). The illite-bearing RPW samples (PVL 35, 50 and 51) showed a vitrication of the ceramic body (V, Fig. 9c), indicating ring temperatures ranging between 850 and 950  C. The advanced sintering degree (CVFB, Fig. 9d) of a hematite-bearing sample (PVL 41) conrms higher ring temperatures (>950  C) coherent with the type of original clay (low CaO). A wider variability in microtextures was observed for the CW samples, which except for sample PVL 11, always showed the presence of illite along with a low sintering stage (NV), leading to the possibility to hypothesize ring temperatures lower than 800  C. Samples PVL 16, 17 and 18 showed an Initial Vitrication (IV, Fig. 9e) with clear evidence of the sintering of phyllosilicates that tend to clump in homogeneous aggregates. The presence of illite and the observed microtextures permitted estimating ring

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Fig. 8. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis of potsherds and clayey materials.

temperatures ranging from 800 to 850  C. Higher ring temperatures were estimated (between 850 and 950  C) for the CW samples PVL 36 and 37, for which a sintered paste (V) was observed (Fig. 9f).

6. Discussion A careful investigation on fragments of table and cooking ware selected among thousands of shards from some pottery dumps of Via Lepanto site (Pompeii) provided relevant information on the role of ceramics as a possible socialeeconomic indicator of a deeply proven land after the 79 AD Pompeii eruption and up to 472 AD (the Pollena eruption). However, it should be noted, that neither kiln wastes nor furnace structures have been identied in this archaeological site. Hence, in the rst instance, the provenance of the pottery can only be hypothesized via the comparison of mineralogical and geochemical data on ceramics and raw materials. Microscopical observations on a thin section indicated the presence of a volcanic component characterised by sanidine, pale green Fe-rich diopside and colourless diopside, plagioclase, biotite crystals along with obsidians, pumices and scoriae. This volcanic body, common to all the ceramic classes with the exception of a few scattered samples (see below), shows a paragenesis that can be related not only to the differentiated products of SommaeVesuvius but also to that of the Campi Flegrei magmatic activity or Ischia too. From a rst approximation, a provenance from the so-called Bay of
Table 4 Evaluation of ring temperatures after SEM observation. Sample Clay Residual/newly Atmosphere Vitrication Temperature  C type formed phases PVL PVL PW PVL PVL RPW PVL PVL PVL PVL CW PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL PVL BW 1 2 4 5 35 41 50 51 11 16 17 18 36 37 NC NC C NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC illite illite diopside illite illite hematite illite illite // illite illite illite illite illite Ox Ox Ox Ox Ox Ox Ox Ox Ox Ox Ox Ox Ox Ox NV NV CVFB NV V CVFB V V NV IV IV IV V V <800 <800 950e1050 <800 850e950 >950 850e950 850e950 <800 800e850 800e850 800e850 850e950 850e950

ill illite; di diopside; hem hematite; NC non-calcareous; C calcareous; Ox oxidative; NV no vitrication; CVFB continuous vitrication with ne bloating pores; IV initial vitrication; V vitrication.

Naples can be asserted. In effect, the presence of some minor components of the paste, such as garnet crystals or leucite-bearing scoriae, suggests a temper supply area located close to the Sommae Vesuvius, including sand beach deposits (Morra et al., 2012). Leucite, in fact, is the typical feldspathoid, almost ubiquitous in the activity of SommaeVesuvius and completely lacking in the products from Campi Flegrei and Ischia, whereas garnet only appears in the sialic products (phonolite) of SommaeVesuvius (Santacroce et al., 2008). Moreover, the entire volcanic inclusions observed in the samples are well consistent with those usually found in production indicators (kiln wastes, spacers and bricks from the furnace structures) from the Pompeii area (Cavassa, 2009; Grifa and Morra, 2009). These production indicators come from a Roman furnace (then re-adapted to a tannery) in the insula 5/Regio I, representing so far, the second nd of a pottery furnace, after the wellknown lamp furnace (Cerulli Irelli, 1977). Following these assumptions and taking into account the compositional homogeneity of the BW, RPW and CW samples, a local production for these ceramic classes could be hypothesized. However, some exceptions in the CW group were noticed. For example, samples PVL 24, 25, 26 showed quartzefeldspars temper grains, phases almost absent among the inclusions of the potsherds from the Bay of Naples and reasonably compatible with sandy-like deposits from the inland Apennine chain. The lack of specic comparisons does not permit attributing these samples to a reliable production centre. On the contrary, the PVL 52 CW sample can be easily attributed to the Late Roman Pantellerian ware ceramic class, widespread in the Mediterranean area and conrmed in other Campanian sites (e.g. Sacello degli Augustali, Grifa et al., 2005a). This is due to its very distinctive volcanic temper composed of differentiated peralkaline rock grains (quartz, anorthoclase, green pyroxene and brown amphibole). The PW group showed a quite different chemical composition, namely a higher Ca and Sr content along with lower silica and alumina. The only exception is sample PVL 5 that can be denitely attributed to the PW group due to its similar typological character although it presents a different texture and chemical composition. The high-CaO PW group can be related to the Phlegraean broadline production (Whitehouse, 1966) from Cuma. Those samples showed wide homogeneity, both from a chemical and mineropetrographical point of view, with the reference group dened by Grifa et al. (2009a). Nevertheless, sample PVL 5, which showed typological afnities with the Phlegraean broad-line production but technological properties very similar to the BW, RPW and CW, suggests a local production of the PW. Investigation on a larger number of samples could provide further support to this hypothesis.

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Fig. 9. SEM micrographs of some analysed samples. a) No Vitrication (NV), sample PVL 1; b) Continuous Vitrication-ne bloating pores (CVFB), sample PVL 4; c) Vitrication (V), sample PVL 35; d) Continuous Vitrication-ne bloating pores (CVFB), sample PVL 41 e) Initial Vitrication (IV), sample PVL 16; f) Vitrication (V), sample PVL 37.

While the mineralogy of grains inferred the provenance of potsherds, the way those grains are arranged in the clay matrix highlighted important aspects of ceramic technology. The GSD curve of the pottery (Fig. 5) showed that ner particles (skeleton) are mainly composed of quartz, feldspars and sometimes micas, with a normal distribution due to the natural selection of grains during clayey sediment deposition (Boggs, 2009). A tail towards coarser grains turning to a bimodal distribution was observed as the volcanic content increases to about 18% (Fig. 10a), modifying the samples with a skewed distribution and lower sorting (e.g. PVL 4) in samples with a bimodal GSD and higher sorting (e.g. PVL 15). The CW, RPW and BW samples (Fig. 10b) share the same ranges of volcanic content (from 8.64 to 25.51%) and sorting (from moderately to poorly sorted). However, the CW samples can be clearly distinguished due to a coarser grain size as showed by f median values that reach coarse sand grain sizes (f 0.75e0.25). Moreover, median and mean logit (SF) values of the majority of the CW samples (Fig. 11a, b) attested slightly elongated particles (Am/ AM ca. 1/2) in comparison with the other ceramic classes which vary from strongly elongated to circular shapes. Despite the presence of negative skewness (tail) and a bimodal distribution of grain size ascribable to different sources of grains during deposition of clays, all the data set (in particular the optical and image analyses) permits hypothesizing the addition of a selected volcanic temper to the clayey raw material in order to achieve the best technological performances of the pottery. The different amount of temper in a range not higher than 15%, does not affect the bulk chemical composition of the potsherds, as showed by XRF and HCA analyses (Figs. 6e8), in particular for the main lowCaO group (except for sample PVL 26). This accords well with Grifa et al. (2009b) and De Bonis (2011) that highlighted the slight chemical changes in ceramic replicas with up to 30% of volcanic temper addition. Another fundamental aspect concerning ceramic technology is the type and the properties of the clay raw materials used to

handcraft such ceramic productions. They can be inferred by the chemical composition of the potsherds and the mineralogy of noplastic inclusions. Such information could permit identifying the exploited source of the raw material or associate it to a specic

Fig. 10. Diagrams showing the relationship between volcanic content and grain size parameters.

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Vesuvius area was profoundly different from its current setting and the pre-79 AD paleo-environmental reconstruction (Vogel and Marker, 2011 and references therein) have evidenced large uvial/lacustrine deposits partially covered by the 79 AD products and by those of the following volcanic activities (e.g. 472 AD Pollena eruption). The above reported data permits hypothesizing that alluvial deposits are the most likely raw materials. The whole data set evidenced a close relationship of the clay type and temper (grain size, sorting and abundance of volcanic inclusions) with the ceramic classes, which accounts for the precise protocols, the material culture of the potters, followed in Pompeii Late Roman workshops to produce table and cooking ware. Such protocols also included the nal transformation process of raw material and the ring process. On this account, the tableware production attested different ring temperatures, showing lower values for the BW rather than the RPW samples. Moreover, within the RPW ceramic class, two different groups e group 1 red at slightly higher temperatures than group 2 (>950 and 850e950  C respectively) e can be distinguished based on their sintering structures and illite content. A well-developed pore system along with diffused Ca-pyroxene formation in the PW CaO-rich samples account for ring temperatures close to 1000  C as veried for the same Phlegraean production from Cuma (Grifa et al., 2009a). Finally, as expected, CW shards experienced low ring treatments, mainly ranging from 800 to 850  C in order to minimize the thermal shocks, thus preventing damage of the potsherds during food cooking. 7. Conclusions The whole archaeological and archaeometric data set on pottery from the Via Lepanto site permitted identifying the production area of the cooking ware and part of the ne ware in the Vesuvius district, contributing to outline some important social and economic aspects of this region between IV and V century AD, when new settlements most probably formed (Soricelli, 2001). First of all, it should be remarked that archaeologists, due to the occurrence of African Red Slip Ware, dated the occupancy of this rural settlement not later than the second half of the II century AD, thus contradicting the historical sources that hypothesized a later reoccupation of these lands (not before the III century AD). This present research conrms the archaeological data on the basis of the analytical investigation carried out on the potsherds of the Via Lepanto site and the relative raw materials, bearing witness not only to the activity of a rural settlement immediately before its abandonment (472 AD) but also to the local production of these potteries. The technology applied in the workshops followed accurate choices in terms of raw materials, temper and ring temperatures in order to produce performing pottery. The most relevant aspects pointed out by the present research are briey summarized as follows: -) with regards to the ne ware, it is possible to hypothesize a Vesuvius provenance of the BW pottery and a Phlegraean origin for 4 samples of the PW out of 5. Mineralogical and petrochemical data on one sample permitted hypothesizing a local production of the PW pottery. The PW samples account for medium-distance exchanges (approximately at a distance of 40 km from Pompeii) as well documented in Cuma and Miseno (Grifa et al., 2005b, 2009a). -) The RPW pottery was also crafted in Vesuvian workshops. Two groups of fragments were distinguished and characterized by a common repertoire. The existence of two different technological protocols was inferred, one using low inclusions/high ring temperatures yielding a ne and very hard paste and a second

Fig. 11. Diagrams showing the relationship between grain size parameters.

geological context (epivolcanic, marine or alluvial). The clays used to craft the pottery studied (with the exception of samples PVL 4, 5, 6, 24, 25, 26 40 and 52) were characterized by low CaO and high SiO2, Al2O3, Ni and Cr. Moreover, quartz and feldspar were always recorded by the XRD and observed as ner skeleton particles by optical microscopy investigations. Some investigated clayey deposits (MLV1, GS1, and CSC1 e see Fig. 6 and Table 5) sensibly differ from the main chemical composition of the pottery thus permitting their exclusion as possible raw materials. Some other clay samples show minor discrepancies only in their major oxides content (BS1, BS2, SQ1, TRE1, PMV2, VEL1, SO1), which are not sufcient to exclude them as potential raw materials. As a matter of fact, only trace elements may likely provide information on the original clay materials used for the production of the potsherds. As far as the epivolcanic deposits are considered, SO1 displays lower Ni, Cr and higher Rb, Sr, Zr, Nb contents with respect to the ceramics. In general, both the epivolcanic deposits (SO1 and CSC1) did not evidence quartz grains among the ner particles, as they are the product of weakly to strongly undersaturated weathered pyroclastics. However, these epivolcanic deposits are nowadays used for traditional ceramic productions (De Bonis, 2011; De Bonis et al., 2012). Local workshops in Sorrento exploit the SO1 deposits to make refractory wood-oven bricks and a semi-traditional cooking ware production is present in northern Campania using Roccamonna epivolcanic deposits (CSC1). The Varicolori clays (BS1, BS2 and GS1) also differ from the potsherds for their higher Sc, V, Cr and lower Ba contents. An overall similar chemical and mineralogical composition with the local pottery was observed for some alluvial (PMV2 and VEL1) and marine deposits (SQ1 and TRE1). It should be noted that the presence of alluvial type deposits from the Sarno River plain was recognized in the area. In fact, the geomorphological setting of the

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using high inclusions/low ring temperatures with a coarse and softer paste. This information supported two hypotheses, the presence of different workshops acting in the area, or the parallel circulation of a low quality (group 1) along with a higher quality (group 2) production, which only share typological characters (shape and red decoration). The quality of the tableware was enhanced by selecting the raw materials and choosing specic ring temperatures with consequent longer manufacturing times and higher fuel consumption, thus inuencing the nal cost of the pottery. -) Most of the CW samples also accounts for a production from Pompeian workshops set in a local circuit of distribution (Bay of Naples) as well as medium to long-distance exchanges (e.g. Apenninic contexts). -) Some samples of the CW such as PVL 23, 24 and 25 (likely Apennine production) and PVL 52 (Pantellerian Ware) along with African Red Slip Ware, Oriental and Iberian Amphorae (not included in this study) inferred long-distance exchanges. It is possible to hypothesize that the Via Lepanto site was part of a well-developed exchange network and included in a periodic e high frequency system of market (the nundinae), as supported by epigraphic documents of the Northern Campania/Southern Lazio region (Storchi Marino, 2000). The pottery, locally produced or imported, was individually distributed in this network market. In addition to these important aspects concerning the economic activities and human relationships of the inhabitants of this Late Roman site, this research also sheds new light on the technological ability of the workers, who exploited local low-CaO alluvial clayey deposits, mixed with selected volcanic grains (probably beach sands, Morra et al., 2012), red at different temperatures, in order to enhance the thermal or shock resistance of the potshards. Acknowledgements This research was funded by a Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra (Universit Federico II di Napoli) grant (VM). The authors are grateful to Germana Barone and three anonymous referees whose suggestions considerably improved the paper. The authors also thank Antonietta Longo for the last revision of the manuscript. The authors would like to thank Leone Melluso and Vincenzo Monetti for the XRF analyses, Stefano M. Pagnotta for his useful discussions and support on statistics and Antonio Canzanella for the SEM analyses. The authors kindly thank dr. E. de Carolis and Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Napoli e Pompei. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.08.043. References
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