Mono- and sesquiterpenes are the chief constituents of the essential oils while the other terpenes are

constituents of balsams, resins, waxes, and rubber. Oleoresin is a roughly equal mixture of turpentine (85% C10monoterpenes and 15% C15- sesquiterpenes) and rosin (C20diterpene) that acts in many conifer species to seal wounds and is toxic to both invading insects and their pathogenic fungi (Steele CL et al., Plant Physiol 1998, 116, 1497). A number of inducible terpenoid defensive compounds (phytoalexins) from angiosperm species are well known (Stoessl et al., Phytochemistry 1976, 15, 855). These include both sesquiterpenoid and diterpenoid types. The most basic setup of a cold fusion cell consists of two electrodes submerged in a solution containing palladium and heavy water. The electrodes are then connected to a power source to transmit electricity from one electrode to the other through the solution.[112] Even when anomalous heat is reported, it can take weeks for it to begin to appear this is known as the "loading time," the time required to saturate the palladium electrode with hydrogen (see "Loading ratio" section). Below the Earth's crust, there is a layer of hot and molten rock called magma. Heat is continually produced there, mostly from the decay of naturally radioactive materials such as uranium and potassium. The amount of heat within 10,000 meters (about 33,000 feet) of Earth's surface contains 50,000 times more energy than all the oil and natural gas resources in the world. In Iceland, virtually every building in the country is heated with hot spring water. In fact, Iceland gets more than 50 percent of its energy from geothermal sources.9 In Reykjavik, for example (population 115,000), hot water is piped in from 25 kilometers away, and residents use it for heating and for hot tap water. The Thaler (or Taler or Talir) was a silver coin used throughout Europe for almost four hundred years. Its name lives on in various currencies as the dollar or tolar. Etymologically, "Thaler" is an

abbreviation of "Joachimsthaler", a coin type from the city of Joachimsthal (Jchymov) in Bohemia, where some of the first such coins were minted in 1518. (Tal is German for "valley". A "thaler" is a person or a thing "from the valley". In the 1902 spelling reform, the German spelling was changed from "Thal" and "Thaler" to "Tal" and "Taler", which, however, did not affect the spelling of "Thaler" in English. Tolar is the Czech word for Thaler.) Even the name of the Romanian, Moldavian and Bulgarian currencies (Romanian Leu, Moldavian Leu and Bulgarian Lev) comes from Thaler via one of the Dutch daalders, the leeuwendaalder. Cyanobacteria are the only bacteria that produce oxygen during photosynthesis. Earth's primordial atmosphere was anoxic. Organisms like cyanobacteria produced our present-day oxygen-containing atmosphere. There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode (negative side), a cathode (positive side) and an electrolyte that allows charges to move between the two sides of the fuel cell. Electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity.

Understanding the mechanisms behind how some organisms concentrate rare minerals (such as siderophores) from sea water could make it biotechnologically possible to grow and farm organisms to filter sea water and extract these minerals, similar to bioleaching.

. Biosynthesis (also called biogenesis or "anabolism") is an en yme!cataly ed process in cells of living organisms by which substrates are converted to

more complex products. The biosynthesis process often consists of several en ymatic steps in which the product of one step is used as substrate in the following step. "xamples for such multi!step biosynthetic pathways are those for the production of blood clots, amino acids, fatty acids, and natural products. The prere#uisites for biosynthesis are precursor compounds, chemical energy (such as in the form $T%), and catalytic en ymes, which may re#uire reduction e#uivalents (e.g., in the form of &$'(, &$'%(). )ommonly known complex products of biosynthesis include proteins, vitamins, and antibiotics. *ost organic compounds in living organisms, including but not limited to carnitine, cholesterol and many others, are built in biosynthetic pathways. via wiki+,iosynthesis Lipid Biosynthesis -atty acid synthesis and their further use for phospholipids and triglycerides is referred to as lipogenesis. $ny metabolite that yields acetyl!)o$ during its degradation is a potential supplier for lipogenesis, the most important being carbohydrates. .n general, it can be understood that excess carbohydrates beyond the body/s energy needs will be converted into fat. 0ipogenesis is not a simple reversal of beta oxidation, but uses an entirely different pathway for the regeneration of fatty acids from acetyl!)o$ precursors. The synthesis of an extensive group of plant lipids as well as compounds of a lipid nature start with isoprene. .soprenoid compounds are synthesi ed from acetate.Terpenes are repeating isoprene units.

The formation of micelles can be understood using thermodynamics1 micelles can form spontaneously because of a balance between entropy and enthalpy.

"mulsification. .n water, bile salts form small aggregates called micelles. The behavior of bile salt micelles is #uite different from micelles formed by detergents. ,ile salt micelles are smaller, more highly charged and of different structure than detergent micelles. ,ile salts form mixed micelles with a variety of other soluble and insoluble lipidic substances. 2hile bile salts increase slightly the solubility of relatively nonpolar molecules (such as cholesterol or fatty acids), they have a striking capacity to render soluble certain important insoluble molecules of biological importance such as phospholipids and monoglycerides. .n fact as little as 3 mole of bile salt can solubili e 4 moles of lecithin. %yruvic acid can be made from glucose through glycolysis, converted back to carbohydrates (such as glucose) via gluconeogenesis, or to fatty acids through acetyl!)o$. .t can also be used to construct the amino acid alanine and be converted into ethanol. %yruvic acid supplies energy to living cells through the citric acid cycle (also known as the 5rebs cycle) when oxygen is present (aerobic respiration), and alternatively ferments to produce lactic acid when oxygen is lacking (fermentation). $cetyl!)o$ is produced during the second step of aerobic cellular respiration, pyruvate decarboxylation, which occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria. $cetyl!)o$ then enters the citric acid cycle. (pyruvate decarboxylation 6 ,iochemical reaction that uses pyruvate to form acetyl! )o$, releasing &$'(, a reducing e#uivalent, and carbon dioxide via decarboxylation.) 2hen compared to other macronutrient classes (carbohydrates and protein),

fatty acids yield the most $T% on an energy per gram basis by a pathway called 7!oxidation. ,eta oxidation splits long carbon chains of the fatty acid into acetyl )o$. 8nce freed from glycerol, free fatty acids can enter blood and muscle fiber by diffusion. -atty acids, stored as triglycerides in an organism, are an important source of energy because they are both reduced and anhydrous. The energy yield from a gram of fatty acids is approximately 9 5cal (:; k<), compared to = 5cal+g (3; k<+g) for carbohydrates. >ince the hydrocarbon portion of fatty acids is hydrophobic, these molecules can be stored in a relatively anhydrous (water!free) environment. )arbohydrates, on the other hand, are more highly hydrated. -or example, 3 g of glycogen can bind approximately 4 g of water, which translates to 3.:: 5cal+g (= 5cal+: g). This means that fatty acids can hold more than six times the amount of energy per unit of storage mass. %ut another way, if the human body relied on carbohydrates to store energy, then a person would need to carry ?;.@ lb (:3 kg) of hydrated glycogen to have the energy e#uivalent to 3A lb (@ kg) of fat. (ibernating animals provide a good example for utili ing fat reserves as fuel. -or example, bears hibernate for about ; months, and, during this entire period, the energy is derived from degradation of fat stores.-atty acids are usually ingested as triglycerides, which cannot be absorbed by the intestine. B4C They are broken down into free fatty acids and monoglycerides by pancreatic lipase, which forms a 313 complex with a protein called colipase, which is necessary for its activity. The activated complex can work only at a water!fat interface. Therefore, it is essential that fatty acids (-$) be emulsified by bile salts for optimal activity of these en ymes. The digestion products of triglycerides are absorbed primarily as free fatty acids and 4!monoglycerides, but a small fraction are absorbed as free glycerol and as diglycerides. 8nce across the intestinal barrier, they are reformed into triglycerides and packaged into chylomicrons or lipoproteins, which are released into the lacteals, the capillaries of the lymph system and then into the blood.

$lternatively, copper hydroxide is readily made by electrolysis of water (containing a little electrolyte such as sodium sulfate). $ copper anode is used, often made from scrap copper.

)opper(..) hydroxide in ammonia solution, known as >chwei er/s reagent, possesses the interesting ability to dissolve cellulose. This property led to it being used in the production of rayon, a cellulose fiber. .t is also used widely in the a#uarium industry for its ability to destroy external parasites in fish, including flukes, marine ich, brook and marine velvet, without killing the fish. $lthough other water soluble copper compounds can be effective in this role, they generally result in high fish mortality. )opper(..) hydroxide has been used as an alternative to the ,ordeaux mixture, a fungicide and nematicide.B3AC >uch products include 'upont/s 5ocide :AAA. )opper(..) hydroxide is also occasionally used as ceramic colorant. )opper(..) hydroxide has been combined with latex paint, making a product designed to control root growth in potted plants. >econdary and lateral roots thrive and expand, resulting in a dense and healthy root system. .t was sold under the name >pin 8ut, which was first introduced by Driffin 0.0.). The rights are now owned by >e%E8 )orp.B33C .t is now sold as *icrokote either in a solution you apply yourself, or as treated pots. Synthesis $lternatively, copper hydroxide is readily made by electrolysis of water (containing a little electrolyte such as sodium sulfate). $ copper anode is used, often made from scrap copper. EM radiation "lectromagnetic radiation carries energyFsometimes called radiant energy Fthrough space continuously away from the source. .n classical physics, "*E is considered to be produced when charged particles are accelerated by forces acting on them. "lectrons are responsible for emission of most "*E because they have low mass, and therefore are easily accelerated by a variety of mechanisms There is no particle displacement in electromagnetic radiation . (8r any other wave motion for that matter). $ time ! varying electric field produces magnetic field, similarly a time !

varying magnetic field also produces an electric field. .n "* radiation we have both fields continuously inducing each other. This couple of electric and magnetic fields is what is travelling in space. The amount of energy carried by a photon varies inversely with wavelength, the shorter the wavelength, the more energetic the photon. The maximum wavelength at which a body emits radiation depends on its temperature. 2ein/s 0aw states that the peak wavelength of radiation emission is inversely related to the temperature of the emitting body. That is, the hotter the body, the shorter the wavelength of peak emission. The >un being a much hotter body emits most of its radiation in the shortwave end and the "arth in the longwave end of the spectrum. $ny body that has a temperature is emitting electromagnetic radiation.

"lectric and magnetic fields oscillate together but perpendicular to each other and the electromagnetic wave moves in a direction perpendicular to both of the fields. (http1++www.astronomynotes.com) Thus the molecules and atoms which make up the human body are vibrating, colliding, and moving. This motion can be detected as temperatureG higher temperatures, which represent greater kinetic energy in the particles, feel warm to humans whom sense the thermal energy transferring from the obHect being touched to their nerves. >imilarly, when lower temperature obHects are touched, the senses perceive the transfer of heat away from the body as

feeling cold. $denosine triphosphate ($T%) is the usable form of chemical energy for muscular activity. .t is stored in most cells, particularly in muscle cells. 8ther forms of chemical energy, such as that available from the foods we eat, must be transferred into $T% form before they can be utili ed by the muscle cells. %yruvic acid supplies energy to living cells through the citric acid cycle (also known as the 5rebs cycle) when oxygen is present (aerobic respiration), and alternatively ferments to produce lactic acid when oxygen is lacking (fermentation).%yruvic acid is a colorless li#uid with a smell similar to that of acetic acid and is miscible with water. .n the laboratory, pyruvic acid may be prepared by heating a mixture of tartaric acid and potassium hydrogen sulfate,B=C by the oxidation of propylene glycol by a strong oxidi er (e.g., potassium permanganate or bleach), or by the hydrolysis of acetyl cyanide, formed by reaction of acetyl chloride with potassium cyanide1 %yruvate is a key intersection in the network of metabolic pathways. %yruvate can be converted into carbohydrates via gluconeogenesis, to fatty acids or energy through acetyl!)o$, to the amino acid alanine, and to ethanol. .f insufficient oxygen is available, the acid is broken down anaerobically, creating lactate in animals and ethanol in plants and microorganisms. %yruvate from glycolysis is converted by fermentation to lactate using the en yme lactate dehydrogenase and the coen yme &$'( in lactate fermentation, or to acetaldehyde and then to ethanol in alcoholic fermentation. *itochondria are rod!shaped organelles in the cell cytoplasm. Through en ymatic activity, they convert oxygen, fatty acid, and glucose into adenosine triphosphate ($T%), the chemical energy necessary for the cellIs metabolism. Stars are held together by gravity and pressure. At any layer of a star, there must be a balance between the thermal pressure and the gravity. This is hydrostatic equilibrium.

Consciousness )rick and 5och, for example, have argued that there is a structure called the claustrum that is a thin layer of tissue underlying the insular cortex of the brain. 2hatIs exciting about this layer of tissue, what caught )rickIs eye and 5ochIs eye, was that it doesnIt have any known function, unlike other regions of the brain. There are many regions that we donIt know the function of, but the claustrum is especially mysterious. .tIs not a tiny, little structure. .tIs a medium!si ed structure, and itIs homogenous in its cell constituents. .t also doesnIt have the layered structure as with the rest of the cortex. The astonishing thing )rick noticed was that itIs connected to almost every part of the brain, including every part of the cortex. .t seems reciprocal. .t sends connections to the somatic sensory cortex and receives connections back from the somatic sensory cortex. .t sends signals to the amygdala, back from the amygdala, to the anterior cigulate, back from the anterior cigulate. .n fact, itIs very hard to find any region of the brain that is not connected to the claustrum. &ow, the central attribute of human conscious experience, so fundamental, in fact, that we take it for granted, donIt pause to think about it, is the sense of unity.$nother way to formulate this #uestion is that there are different brain regions actively processing different aspects of information, including memories, and yet you experience yourself as a unity. (ow does that come aboutJ .n fact, )rick says that the most axiomatic thing about consciousness is its unity. $nd guess what the claustrum is doingJ .tIs getting sensory inputs, even inputs from the motor cortex. .tIs getting inputs from every region of the brain in one little gathering place and sending messages back. .tIs ideally suited for performing this unifying role. ThereIs an analogy here between what the structure of the claustrum is and what the phenomenology of consciousness is. *aybe the clue to consciousness lies in looking at the structure of the claustrum, a detailed study of its microanatomy and its connections to the rest of the brain.