key concepts in elt

Learner self-beliefs
Sarah Mercer

In research and theorizing on foreign language learning (FLL), selfconstructsi.e. beliefs about oneself which are thought to affect behaviour and attitudesappear in a number of areas. For example, references to selfcondence, self-concept, self-efcacy, and self-esteem can be found in work on affect, autonomy, strategies, individual differences, motivation, identity, attributions, anxiety, and willingness to communicate. (See, for example, rnyei 2005; Williams et al. 2004; Yang 1999; Yashima et al. 2004.) Do However, although the signicance of self-beliefs has been increasingly recognized in F L L, they have not so far received the same degree of attention as in educational psychology. (See for example, Bandura 1997; Baumeister et al. 2003; Marsh 1990.) This is partly because research in FLL (and in psychology itself) has been hampered by the intrinsic complexity of conceptualizations of self-beliefs and problems with use of terminology (Byrne 1996: 17). In particular, three key self-constructsself-esteem, selfconcept, and self-efcacyare often referred to inconsistently or even inaccurately. Valentine and DuBois (2005: 55) explain that theoretically, self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efcacy beliefs share a common emphasis on an individuals beliefs about his or her attributes and abilities as a person. However, they also show that it is possible, and indeed necessary, to differentiate between the terms. They suggest that the key distinguishing criteria are (1) the degree of specicity with which the three constructs are measured, and (2) the relative importance of the cognitive and evaluative self-beliefs involved (Valentine and DuBois: op. cit.). Self-esteem can be seen as a more global construct, one which is related to an individuals value system, and thus considered to have a larger evaluative component. As Harter (1999: 5) explains, self-esteem is focused on the overall evaluation of ones worth or value as a person, and she uses the terms self-esteem and self-worth interchangeably. Self-esteem is the broadest and most evaluative of the three constructs. In contrast, self-efcacy is seen as more cognitive in nature and more concerned with expectancy beliefs about ones perceived capability to perform a certain task in a very specic domain (Bandura 1997), for example, to carry out a particular type of reading or writing activity. In other words, as Pajares and Miller (1994: 194) say, it is a context-specic assessment of competence to perform a specic task, a judgement of ones capabilities to execute specic behaviours in specic situations.
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Self-concept, on the other hand, is viewed as containing both cognitive and affective elements, and is seen as less context-dependent than self-efcacy. It concerns an individuals self-perceptions in a wider domain (for example, learning E F L) than is the case for self-efcacy. However, as Bong and Skaalvik (2003: 7) point out, when self-concept is measured at increasing levels of specicity, it becomes more difcult to separate it from self-efcacy. Indeed, as they also state (ibid: 1011), some researchers accept that selfconcept subsumes a self-efcacy component and that this component may be the most important building block in ones self-concept. Self-constructs in FLL may be different in nature from those for other subjects, and may in fact play an even more central role. As Cohen and Norst (1989: 61) say, research shows that there is something fundamentally different about learning a language, compared to learning another skill or gaining other knowledge, namely, that language and self are so closely bound, if not identical, that an attack on one is an attack on the other. Thus, a clear understanding of the nature of learner self-beliefs is crucial to making greater sense of the individual motivation and behaviour of FL students, and, thereby, the development of a sound FL teaching approach in general.
References Bandura, A. 1997. Self-Efcacy. New York: W. H. Freeman and Co. Baumeister, R. F., J. D. Campbell, J. L. Krueger, and K. D. Vohs. 2003. Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science in the Public Interest 4: 144. Bong, M. and E. M. Skaalvik. 2003. Academic selfconcept and self-efcacy: how different are they really? Educational Psychology Review 15/1: 140. Byrne, B. M. 1996. Measuring Self-Concept Across the Life Span. Washington: American Psychological Association. Cohen, Y. and M. J. Norst. 1989. Fear, dependence and loss of self-esteem: affective barriers in second language learning among adults. R E L C Journal 20/2: 6177. rnyei, Z. 2005. The Psychology of the Language Do Learner. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates. Harter, S. 1999. The Construction of the Self: A Developmental Perspective. New York: Guildford Press. Marsh, H. W. 1990. The structure of academic selfconcept: the Marsh/Shavelson model. Journal of Educational Psychology 82/4: 62336. Pajares, F. and M. D. Miller. 1994. Role of selfefcacy and self-concept beliefs in mathematical problem solving: a path analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology 86/2: 193203. Valentine, J. C. and D. L. DuBois. 2005. Effects of selfbeliefs on academic achievement and vice versa in H. W. Marsh, R. G. Craven, and D. M. McInerney (eds.). International Advances in Self Research. Volume 2. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing: . Williams, M., R. Burden, G. Poulet, and I. Maun. 2004. Learners perceptions of their successes and failures in foreign language learning. Language Learning Journal 30: 1929. Yang, N.-D. 1999. The relationship between E F L learners beliefs and learning strategy use. System 27: 51535. Yashima, T., L. Zenuk-Nishide, and K. Shimizu. 2004. The inuence of attitudes and affect on willingness to communicate and second language communication. Language Learning 54/1: 11952. The author Sarah Mercer has an MA in T E F L from the University of Reading and teaches E F L at the University of Graz, Austria. She is also pursuing a part-time PhD at Lancaster University, England, on the nature of the foreign language learner selfconcept. Email: sarah.mercer@uni-graz.at

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Learner self-beliefs

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