Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
The purity and the filterability of a precipitate greatly depend upon the particle size of the precipitate. The particle size is determined by the relative rates of the two processes namely, nucleation which is the production of extremely small particles (nuclei) capable of spontaneous growth and particle growth (crystal growth) which is the growth of the nuclei. Once the nucleation process starts, it proceeds ultimately to form the precipitate. This can be represented with the help of actual particle size increase as given below: Ions (10-8 cm) Nucleation clusters (10-8 to 10-7 cm) Colloidal particles (10-7 to 10-4 cm) Precipitate (> 10-4 cm) This shows that the nucleation clusters pass through the stage of colloidal particle size prior to precipitation. Problems which arise with certain precipitates include coagulation or flocculation of a colloidal dispersion of a finely divided solid to permit its filtration and to prevent its repeptisation upon washing the precipitate. Hence, the effect of colloidal state on the process of precipitation is also important. The effect of the rate of precipitation on the particle size has been studied by von Weimarn (10). He found that faster the precipitation, smaller is the particle size. He also found that the rate of precipitation is dependent on the relative supersaturation. According to von Weimarn,
Where, Q-S = relative supersaturation, Q = molar concentration of the mixed reagents before precipitation, S = molar solubility of the precipitate at equilibrium, K = a constant. Applications of the above conceptions are to be found in the following recognized procedures in gravimetric analysis: 1) Precipitation is usually carried out in hot solutions, since the solubility generally increases with rise in temperature. 2) Precipitation is effected in dilute solution and the reagent is added slowly and with thorough stirring. The slow addition results in the first particles size precipitated acting as nuclei which grow as further material
General chemistry, Karnatak university, Dharwad Page 1
WASHING OF PRECIPITATE
The wash liquid is normally water, sometimes containing an electrolyte. The choice of the wash liquid depends on the following aspects: 1) Higher solubility for the impurities and lower solubility for the precipitate. 2) If the precipitate is a flocculated colloid, a suitable electrolyte is added to wash the liquid to prevent peptization of the precipitate. 3) If the ions of the adsorbed impurities are of non-volatile nature, an electrolyte which can exchange its ions with the impurities to form a volatile adsorbate is added. These volatile ions may be removed during drying and ignition. In addition to the choice of the suitable wash liquid, the mode of washing is also equally important. The precipitate on the filter paper should be thoroughly stirred using a jet of wash liquid. This should be followed by washing the edges of the filter paper
General chemistry, Karnatak university, Dharwad Page 3
Page 4
1. Co-precipitation:
If a precipitate is contaminated by substances which are normally soluble in the solution under the condition of precipitation, then co-precipitation is said to have taken place. Co-precipitation occurs by the adsorption or occlusion. Precipitates tend to carry down from the solution other constituents that are normally soluble, causing the precipitate to become contaminated. This process is called coprecipitation. In other wards, coprecipitation is a phenomenon in which otherwise soluble compounds are removed from solution during precipitate formation. There are four types of coprecipitation: 1.surface adsorption, 2.mixed-crystal formation, 3.occlusion, 4. mechanical entrapment.
Page 5
1- Surface adsorption Adsorption is a common source of coprecipitation and is likely to cause significant contamination of precipitates with large specific surface areas, that is, coagulated colloids. Although adsorption does occur in crystalline solids, its effects on purity are usually imdetectable because of the relatively small specific surface area of these solids. The net effect of surface adsorption is therefore the carrying down of an otherwise soluble compound as a surface contaminant. In order to minimizing adsorbed impurities on colloids:
General chemistry, Karnatak university, Dharwad Page 6
Page 7
2. Post-precipitation:
The process by which an impurity is deposited after precipitation of the desired substance is termed as post-precipitation. When there is a possibility that post precipitation may occur, directions call for filtration to be made shortly after the desired precipitate is formed
Oxime
An oxime is a chemical compound belonging to the imines, with the general formula R1R2C=N O H, where R1 is an organic side chain and R2 may be hydrogen, forming an aldoxime, or another organic group, forming a ketoxime. O-substituted oximes form a closely related family of compounds. Amidoximes are oximes of amides with general structure RC(=NOH)(NRR'). Oximes are usually generated by the reaction of hydroxylamine and aldehydes or ketones. The term oxime dates back to the 19th century, a portmanteau of the words oxygen and imine.
Structure and properties Oximes exist as two geometric stereoisomers: a syn isomer and an anti isomer. Aldoximes, except for aromatic aldoximes which exist only as anti isomers, and ketoximes can be separated almost completely and obtained as a syn isomer and an anti isomer.
Page 8
Preparation Oximes can be synthesized by condensation of an aldehyde or a ketone with hydroxylamine. The condensation of aldehydes with hydroxylamine gives aldoxime, and ketoxime is produced from ketones and hydroxylamine. Generally, oximes exist as colorless crystals and are poorly soluble in water. Therefore, oximes can be used for the identification of ketone or aldehyde. Oximes can also be obtained from reaction of nitrites such as isoamyl nitrite with compounds containing an acidic hydrogen atom. Examples are the reaction of ethyl acetoacetate and sodium nitrite in acetic acid,[4][5] the reaction of methyl ethyl ketone with ethyl nitrite in hydrochloric acid.[6] and a similar reaction with propiophenone,[7] the reaction of phenacyl chloride,[8] the reaction of malononitrile with sodium nitrite in acetic acid A conceptually related reaction is the JappKlingemann reaction. Uses In their largest application, an oxime is an intermediate in the industrial production of caprolactam, a precursor to Nylon 6. About half of the world's supply of cyclohexanone, more than a billion kilograms annually, is converted to the oxime. In the presence of sulfuric acid catalyst, the oxime undergoes the Beckmann rearrangement to give the cyclic amide caprolactam:
Page 9
Dimethylglyoxime (dmgH2) is a reagent for the analysis of nickel and a popular ligand in its own right. Typically a metal reacts with two equivalents of dmgH2 concomitant with ionization of one proton.
Oxime compounds are used as antidotes for nerve agents. A nerve agent inactivates acetylcholinesterase molecules by phosphorylation of the molecule. Oxime compounds can reactivate acetylcholinesterate by attaching to the phosphorus atom and forming an oxime-phosphonate which then splits away from the acetylcholinesterase molecule. The most effective oxime nerve-agent antidotes are pralidoxime (also known as 2PAM), obidoxime, methoxime, HI-6, Hlo-7, and TMB-4. The effectiveness of the oxime treatment depends on the particular nerve agent used. [15] Perillartine, the oxime of perillaldehyde is used as an artificial sweetener in Japan, as it is 2000 times sweeter than sucrose. Salicylaldoxime is a chelator[citation needed]. Glyoxime, produced via the condensation of glyoxal with hydroxylamine, forms highly energetic copper, lead and silver salts (copper, lead and silver glyoximate respectively). However these compounds are too unstable to be of any commercial value. [citation needed] Diaminoglyoxime, a glyoxime derivative, is a key synthetic precursor, used to prepare various compounds, containing the highly reactive furazan ring. Methyl ethyl ketoxime is a skin-preventing additive in many oil-based paints. Some amidoximes like polyacrylamidoxime can be used to capture trace amounts of uranium from sea water[18][19]
Page 10
Dimethylglyoxime
Dimethylglyoxime is a chemical compound described by the formula CH3C(NOH)C(NOH)CH3. This colourless solid is the dioxime derivative of the diketone diacetyl (also known as 2,3-butanedione). DmgH2 is used in the analysis of palladium or nickel. Its coordination complexes are of theoretical interest as models for enzymes and as catalysts. Many related ligands can be prepared from other diketones, e.g. benzil. Structure
Preparation Dimethylglyoxime can be prepared from butanone first by reaction with ethyl nitrite followed by sodium hydroxylamine monosulfonate:[1]
Page 11
The use of DMG as a reagent to detect nickel was discovered by L. A. Chugaev in 1905.[2] For qualitative analysis, dmgH2 is often used as a solution in ethanol. It is the conjugate base, not dmgH2 itself, that forms the complexes. Furthermore, a pair of dmgH- ligands are joined through hydrogen bonds to give a macrocyclic ligand. The most famous complex is the bright red Ni(dmgH)2, formed by treatment of Ni(II) sources with dmgH2. This planar complex is very poorly soluble and so precipitates from solution. This method is used for the gravimetric determination of nickel, e.g. in ores.
A sample of Ni(dmgH)2
Page 12