What is the reaction that joins two amino acids called?

Condensation What is the name of the bond formed by this reaction? Peptide bond What is the process of breaking the bond by adding water, called? Hydrolysis Describe the sequence of events involved when amino acids join to make polypeptides: Primary structure the initial sequence of amino acids in a chain Secondary structure alpha helices (coils) or beta pleated sheets (parallel chains joined) emerge due to hydrogen bonds between the C=O and N-H of the amino acids. Tertiary structure The alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets are folded into a compact globular, 3D structure. Disulphide covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds as well as hydrophobic/philic interactions are all present. Quaternary structure A complex structure of more than one amino acid chain, clustered together. Explain how the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain determines the 3D shape of a functional protein: The sequence of amino acids determines the secondary and tertiary structures of a protein. It also determines the types of bonds between the amino acids and between the residual groups e.g. ionic/hydrogen/disulphide bonds. What is the importance of hydrogen bonds in protein folding? Hydrogen bonds are present in secondary (hydrogen bonds hold the alpha coil and beta parallel sheets together) They are also present in tertiary structures, and are involved in maintaining the 3D shape. Hydrogen bonds form links between adjacent AAs, which in turn alters the shape of the protein and therefore the correct enzyme it is meant to be. Hydrogen bonds form between the O and H groups of the AAs, due to the weak electrostatic bond. Hydrogen bonds are also formed between residual groups. What is the importance of water-repelling and water-attracting amino acid side groups in protein folding? Water-repelling side groups are known as hydrophobic the hydrophobic side chains are turned outwards to keep out of contact with water. Water-attracting side groups are known as hydrophilic the hydrophilic side chains are turned inwards to keep in contact with water. The hydrophobic and hydrophilic qualities to the molecules are important in maintaining the structure of the tertiary and secondary shape.

Amino acids join together into polypeptide chains by peptide bonds, which are formed through condensation reactions.

The linking bonds are formed between the (carboxylic) acid and amine groups of the amino acids, once water has been released rom the condensation reaction. Polypeptide chains can e folded into secondary structures such as alpha helices or beta pleated sheets. Secondary structures can be further folded into tertiary structures such as the globular protein. Polypeptides are then further combined to give the quaternary structure of the protein. The 3D shape is held firmly in place by ionic, hydrogen and covalent disulphide bonds. Disruption of these bonds, by pH extremes or increased temperature, can lead to a denaturing of the protein. Hydrogen and ionic bonds in particular are susceptible to denaturing because they are not heat stable. Protein Keratin Elastin Collagen Myoglobin Ligase Function Forms a waterproof hard layer on skins surface Enables joint capsules to stretch Forms strong fibers in muscle tendons Holds oxygen in muscles Joins molecules using ATP energy

During inspiration (breathing in), air reaches the alveoli through small tubes known as bronchioles. The alveolar wall is composed of a thin layer of epithelial cells, which increase the diffusion rate of oxygen from the alveolar air into the capillaries surrounding the alveoli.

Describe three ways in which alveoli are adapted for their functions: Large surface areas to volume ratio The alveoli are folded, providing a much greater surface area for gas exchange to occur. More oxygen can diffuse across the alveoli due to its increased surface area. The rate of oxygen diffusion is faster. Thin epithelial well because the alveolar wall is one-cell thick, there is a shorter distance for the oxygen to diffuse across to reach the capillaries. This ensures rapid diffusion between the alveoli and capillaries. Steep concentration gradient oxygen travels from a high-low concentration. This means that oxygen is continuously being diffused from the alveoli (higher concentration) to the capillaries/blood (lower concentration). Each alveolus is surrounded by blood capillaries, which ensure a good blood supply. This is important as the blood is constantly taking oxygen away and bringing in more carbon dioxide - which helps to maintain the maximum concentration gradient between the blood and the air in the alveoli. Each alveolus is ventilated, removing waste carbon dioxide and replenishing oxygen levels in the alveolar air. This also helps to maintain the maximum concentration

gradient between the blood and the air in the alveoli. Explain how the structure of the lungs is adapted for rapid gas exchange: Narrow branches blood is travelling at high pressure, which increases the rate of diffusion. Numerous branches/bronchioles allow more deoxygenated blood to gain oxygen, which in turn increases the rate of diffusion. Thin capillary walls reduce the distance for gas to travel and therefore ensure rapid gas exchange. Capillary network the capillaries are wrapped around the alveoli which reduces the distance for the oxygen to travel to the deoxygenated blood and therefore increases rate of diffusion. The purpose of inhalation is to take in oxygen from the surroundings. The purpose of exhalation is to remove waste products/gasses from the body e.g. carbon dioxide.

List four functions of the plasma membrane: o split the interior of all cells from the outside environment, serves a gateway between the fluid inside and outside the cell, works as a communicative device, recognizes a cell coming from a particular individual and retains the cell whole and intact. It gives a definite shape to the cell. 2. It provides protection to the internal contents of the cell. 3. It is selectively permeable. 4. It can take in solid and liquid materials by in folding. 5. In animal cells, it is involved in the formation of vesicles, cilia, flagella, microvilli, etc. List the parts and functions of the cell membrane: Phospholipid bilayer Integral protein Fatty acid tails Phosphate heads Peripheral proteins Cholesterol Glycoprotein Glycolipid

Explain how the properties of phospholipids results in the formation of a bilayer: