Ii. o F D (Ofdm) S

Mohammad M.
Banat EE 782: Advanced Wireless Communications

II: Orthogonal Frequency Division (OFDM) Systems
II.1-Multicarrier Modulation and OFDM 26

II. ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION (OFDM) SYSTEMS
II.1. Multicarrier Modulation and OFDM
The basic idea of multicarrier modulation is to divide the transmitted bit stream into many
different sub-streams and send these over many different sub-channels. Typically the sub-
channels are orthogonal under ideal propagation conditions. The data rate on each of the sub-
channels is much less than the total data rate, and the corresponding sub-channel bandwidth is
much less than the total system bandwidth. The number of sub-streams is chosen to insure that
each sub-channel has a bandwidth less than the coherence bandwidth of the channel, so the sub-
channels experience relatively flat fading. Thus, the ISI on each sub-channel is small. The sub-
channels in multicarrier modulation need not be contiguous, so a large continuous block of
spectrum is not needed for high rate multicarrier communications. Moreover, multicarrier
modulation is efficiently implemented digitally.
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is based on the principle of multicarrier
modulation. OFDM can be regarded both as a modulation method and a multiple-access
technique. OFDM has been shown to be an effective technique to combat multipath fading in
wireless communications. OFDM has been chosen as the standard for digital audio broadcasting
and digital terrestrial TV broadcasting in Europe and high-speed wireless local areas networks.
OFDM is used in high-bit-rate wireless applications. OFDM suffers limitations caused by the
wireless environment. OFDM can overcome these inherent bit rate limitations.

Figure II.1
II.2. Channel Impairments
II.2.A. PATH LOSS
Different, often complicated, models are used for different environments. A simple model for
path loss, L , is:

1
r
t
P
L K
P
d
o
= = (II.1)
Mohammad M. Banat EE 782: Advanced Wireless Communications
II.2-Channel Impairments 27

where
r
P is the local mean received signal power,
t
P is the transmitted power, and d is the
transmitter-receiver distance. The path loss exponent 2 o = in free space; 2 4 o s s in other
environments.
II.2.B. SHADOW FADING
The received signal is shadowed by obstructions such as hills and buildings. This results in
variations in the local mean received signal power,

, , r dB r dB s
P P G = + (II.2)
where
2
(0, )
s s
G N o = and 4 10 dB
s
o s s . Shadowing results in non-uniform coverage and
increases the required transmit power.
II.2.C. MULTIPATH

1
( ) ( )
i
L
j
i i
i
h t a e t
u
o t
=
=
(II.3)
The received multipath signals may interfere constructively or destructively.
II.2.D. FLAT FADING
The delay spread is small compared to the symbol period. The received signal envelope, r ,
follows a Rayleigh or Rician distribution.

Figure II.2
II.2.E. DOPPLER SPREAD
A measure of the spectral broadening caused by the channel time variation.

D
v
f
s (II.4)
Example: 900 MHz, 60 mph, 80 Hz
D
f = . 5 GHz, 5 mph, 37 Hz
D
f = .

II.2.F. DELAY SPREAD - TIME DOMAIN INTERPRETATION

When multipath is present, delay spread is defined as the difference in propagation time between
the longest and shortest paths, counting only the paths with significant energy. The delay spread
of the channel dictates its frequency coherence. Frequency coherence shows how quickly the
channel changes in frequency. The frequency response at time t is given by:

2 ( )
( , ) ( )
i
j f t
i
i
H f t a t e
t t
=
(II.5)

Figure II.3

Figure II.4
T t small: negligible intersymbol interference (ISI).
T t large: significant ISI.

The contribution due to a particular path has a phase linear in f . For multiple paths, there is a
differential phase ( ) ( ) ( ) 2
i k
t t f t t t between the
th
i and
th
k paths. This differential phase
causes selective fading in frequency.
II.2.G. DELAY SPREAD - FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERPRETATION

Figure II.5
T t small: flat fading.
T t large: frequency-selective fading.

ISI causes an irreducible error floor. The RMS delay spread imposes a limit on the maximum bit
rate.

For example, for QPSK:

Channel RMS Delay Spread Maximum Bit Rate
Mobile (rural) 25 sec 8 kbps
Mobile (city) 2.5 sec 80 kbps
Microcells 500 nsec 400 kbps
Large Building 100 nsec 2 Mbps

II.2.H. INTERFERENCE
Frequencies are reused often to maximize spectral efficiency. For interference-limited systems,
the noise floor is dominated by co-channel interference.

1
6
S S D
I N I R
o
| |
~ =
|
+
\ .
(II.6)

II.3-Multicarrier Modulation 30

Figure II.6
II.3. Multicarrier Modulation
The principle of multicarrier modulation (MCM) consists of splitting up a wideband signal at a
high symbol rate into several lower rate signals, each one occupying a narrower band.
A generally recognized advantage of MCM is its robustness against different types of channel
distortions, such as multipath propagation and narrowband interference. Ideally, each sub-
channel is narrow enough so that the fading it experiences is flat no ISI. MCM requires use of
filter banks.
The advantages of multicarrier modulation over a classical single carrier system are the
following:

- In a single carrier system, a single fade or interferer can cause the entire link to fail, but in
a multicarrier system, only a small percentage of subcarriers will be affected. Error
correction coding can then be used to correct the few erroneous subcarriers.
- Adaptation of the data rates of sub-channels based on the possible variations of the
channel characteristics. In that sense, OFDM systems overcome problems introduced by
the inherent colored nature of the channel noise in wide-band transmission systems. This
technique is also known as adaptive loading.
- Combining different coding schemes including block (e.g., ReedSolomon) and trellis-
based modulation in order to increase the systems robustness toward transmission errors.
MCM allows a given symbol to be transmitted at a precise location in the timefrequency
plane. Thus, it is easier for the system designer to scatter in the timefrequency plane all
elements of the channel coder in such a way that they are seldom statistically impaired by
selective fading at the same time.


Figure II.7
Transmitter

Figure II.8
Receiver

Figure II.9
The frequency spectrum of the MCM signal is written as:

1
0
( , ) ( , )
M
MCM m
m
S f t F f t
=
=

(II.7)
where ( , )
m
F f t is the frequency spectrum of pulse waveform of the -th m subcarrier. Through a
frequency selective fading channel characterized by the transfer function ( , ) H f t , the frequency spectra
of received MCM signal can be written as:
( , ) ( , ) ( , )
MCM MCM
R f t H f t S f t = (II.8)
When the number of subcarriers is large, the amplitude and phase response of ( , ) H f t can be
assumed to be constant over the -th m sub-channel, so ( , )
MCM
R f t can be approximated as:

1
0
( , ) ( ) ( , )
M
MCM m m
m
R f t H t F f t
=
~

(II.9)
Equation (II.9) clearly shows that MCM is effective and robust in wireless channels; namely, to
combat frequency selective fading, MCM requires no equalization or at most one-tap
equalization for each subcarrier.
Defining the symbol duration at subcarrier level as
s
T , the transmitted signal ( ) s t is written as:

1
2 ( )
0
( ) ( )
m s
M
j f t iT
mi s
i m
s t c e f t iT
t

= =
=

(II.10)
where
mi
c is the -th i information symbol at the -th m subcarrier, and ( ) f t is the pulse
waveform of the symbol. When ( ) f t is a rectangular waveform we have

1, 0
( )
0, Otherwise
s
t T
f t
< s
=

(II.11)
Therefore the subcarrier frequencies and the frequency separation are given by:

m
s
m
f
T
= (II.12)

1
s
f
T
A = (II.13)
Figure II.10 shows the classical MCM, employing nonoverlapped band-limited orthogonal
signals. This method matches the use of analog subcarrier oscillators and filters, but it requires
much wider bandwidth.

Figure II.10: Nonoverlapped band-limited orthogonal MCM
Figure II.11 shows the method employing the rectangular pulse waveforms for the subcarriers.
The frequency spectra of the waveforms are widely spread and overlapped, although it can save
the required bandwidth.

Figure II.11: Overlapped time-limited orthogonal MCM (OFDM)

Figure II.12 shows the method employing overlapped band-limited orthogonal signals.

Figure II.12: Overlapped band-limited orthogonal MCM

II.13: Subcarrier Modulation
II.4-Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing
34

II.4. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
Orthogonal frequency division multiplex (OFDM) is certainly, until now, the most important
class of MCM. OFDM is a special form of MCM, where a single data stream is transmitted over
a number of lower rate subcarriers. It is worth mentioning here that OFDM can be seen as either
a modulation technique or a multiplexing technique. The OFDM acronym often covers two
different types of modulation:

- In the first one each carrier is modulated using quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).
In this scheme, which is also called OFDM/QAM, QAM symbols are shaped with a
rectangular window.
- In a second category of OFDM systems, which is also called orthogonally multiplexed
QAM (O-QAM) or OFDM with offset QAM (OFDM/OQAM), the modulation used for
each subcarrier is a staggered offset QAM (OQAM).

Both the OFDM/QAM and OFDM/OQAM modulation schemes theoretically guarantee
orthogonality and a maximum and identical spectral efficiency. Furthermore, in practice, they
can both be implemented using the discrete Fourier transform (DFT). An important difference
comes from the fact that OFDM/OQAM, unlike OFDM/QAM, allows the introduction of an
efficient pulse shaping, which makes it less sensitive to the frequency offset due to the
transmission channel and to the receiver.
Consider the time interval ( 1)
s s
iT t i T < s + . Let the signal ( ) s t in (II.10) be sampled over this
interval every
spl s
t T M = .
Let

( ) ( ) ( ) spl spl spl
T
s s s
iT t iT qt iT Mt s s s s + + + ( =

(II.14)
Define the M M IDFT matrix
1
( ) W M
whose
th
( , ) q m element is given by:

( 1)
2
1
q m
j
M
qm
w e
t

= (II.15)
Also define the 1 M symbol vector
i
c in the interval ( 1)
s s
iT t i T < s + as follows:

| |
1 2
T
i i Mi i
c c c c = (II.16)
Using the definitions of
1
( ) W M
and
i
c , (II.14) can be rewritten in the form

1
( )
i
s W M c
= (II.17)
Equation (II.17) shows that the transmitted symbol vector is recovered at the receiver by means
of the DFT operation:
( )
i
c W M s = (II.18)
Multiplexing
35

where ( ) W M is the M M DFT matrix whose
th
( , ) q m element is given by:

( 1)
2
q m
j
M
qm
w e
t

= (II.19)
When employing rectangular DFT window at the receiver, intersubcarrier interference can be
perfectly eliminated. The use of IDFT/DFT totally eliminates bank of subcarrier oscillators at the
transmitter/receiver, and furthermore, if selecting the number of subcarriers as the power of two,
we can replace the DFT by the fast Fourier transform (FFT).
Block diagrams of the OFDM transmitter and receiver are shown in Figure II.14.
II.4.A. INSERTION OF CYCLIC PREFIX
Frequency selective fading can be characterized by a channel impulse response with a delay
spread in the time domain, which is not negligibly small compared to the symbol period.
Consider the impulse response of a frequency selective fading channel shown in Figure II.15.
Through the channel, the first path generates the desired signal and the second path generates the
delayed signal at the receiver. Let the transmitted signal on one of the subcarriers be as shown in
Figure II.16. Note that only the waveforms for a certain subcarrier ( 2 m = ) are shown. Without a
guard interval between successive OFDM symbols, intersymbol interference (ISI) from the
th
( 1) i symbol gives a distortion to the
th
i symbol (compare Figure II.16 with Figure II.17 and
see the thick line in Figure II.17).

Figure II.14: OFDM TX and RX

Multiplexing
36

Figure II.15: impulse Response of a Frequency Selective Fading Channel

Figure II.16: Transmitted Signal with no Guard Interval

Figure II.17: Received Signal, No CP
If we employ a guard interval (no signal transmission) with length
max G
t A > , we can perfectly
eliminate ISI, but a sudden change of waveform contains higher spectral components, so they
result in inter-subcarrier interference [compare Figure II.18 with Figure II.19 and see the thick
line in Figure II.19].

Multiplexing
37

Figure II.18: Transmitted Signal with Guard Interval

Figure II.19: Transmitted Signal with Guard Interval
Figure II.20 shows the guard interval insertion technique with cyclic prefix to perfectly eliminate
intersubcarrier interference, where the OFDM symbol is cyclically extended in the guard time.
Paying attention to the
th
i DFT window with width of
s
t in Figure II.21, we can see two
sinusoidal signals with full width, so it results in no inter-subcarrier interference. Note that the
OFDM symbol is
s
T long but the subcarrier frequency is an integer multiple of 1
s
t . This
implies that the subcarrier separation now becomes a bit larger, namely, 1
s
t .

Figure II.20: Transmitted Signal with Cyclic Prefix Guard Interval
Multiplexing
38

Figure II.21: Received Signal with Cyclic Prefix Guard Interval
Modifying (II.10), (II.11), (II.12) and (II.13), the transmitted signal with the cyclic extension is
finally written as

2 ( )
1
( ) ( )
m s
M
j f t iT
mi s
i m
s t c e f t iT
t
= =
=

(II.20)

1,
( )
0, ,
G s
G s
t t
f t
t t t
A < s
=

s A >
(II.21)
Therefore the subcarrier frequencies and the frequency separation are given by:

1
m
s
m
f
t
= (II.22)

1
s
f
t
A = (II.23)
where
s
T ,
G
A and
s
t are the OFDM symbol period, guard interval length, and observation
period (often called useful symbol length), respectively, and they satisfy the following
equation:

s G s
T t = A + (II.24)
II.4.B. BANDWIDTH OF OFDM WITH CP
The total symbol transmission rate is given by:

1
s
M
R
T T
= = (II.25)
The bandwidth in terms of main lobe is written as

( )
2 1
1
OFDM
s s G
M
B
T T o
= +
(II.26)
Multiplexing
39

where
G
o is the guard interval factor, defined as

G
G
s
T
o
A
= (II.27)
Therefore,

2 1
OFDM
s s
M
B
T t
= + (II.28)

Figure II-22: Cyclic extension

Figure II-23: Frequency spectrum of pulse shape waveform

Figure II-24: Frequency spectrum of OFDM signal (
SC
N M )
The bandwidth of the OFDM signal normalized by the symbol transmission rate, is given by:

2 ( 1) (1 )
OFDM G
B M
R M
o +
= (II.29)
When the number of subcarriers is large, we can divide all terms in (II.29) by M and take the
limit as M goes to infinity to obtain

Ii. o F D (Ofdm) S

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Mohammad M.

Banat EE 782: Advanced Wireless Communications

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