JointComprehensiveCertificateCourseon

HVAC&RSystem,2012
2012
FundamentalsofHVAC&RPart2
Presentedby:
Ir Dr.SamC.M.Hui
March1,2012
Joint Comprehensive Certificate Course on HVAC&R System, 2012
Feb-Apr 2012
Dr. Sam C. M. Hui
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Hong Kong
E-mail: cmhui@hku.hk
Fundamentals of HVAC&R Part 2
Contents
Air-side systems
Air duct design
Space air diffusion
Ventilation design
Air-side systems
To better understand HVAC systems, they can
be divided into five subsystems or loops:
Air-side
Chilled water
Refrigeration equipment
Heat rejection
Controls
13
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C 13
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C
12
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C
7
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C 3
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C
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C
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C
35
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C
29
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C
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7
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C
12
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C
29
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C
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C
27
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C
33
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C
25
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C
Control Loop
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Can you describe each component?
Air-side systems
The fluid = AIR
Fluid properties
Air density = 1.204 kg/m
3
Air specific volume = 0.831 m
3
/kg
Specific heat (C
p
) = 1.0 kJ/kg.K
Fluid pressure
Static pressure/head
1 standard atmospheric pressure = 101.325 kPa (1 bar)
Absolute pressure & gauge pressure
It is useful to remember some typical data of air. Velocity profile
What is the difference
between laminar and
turbulent flow?
Air-side systems
Duct pressure changes (c.f. atm pressure)
Static pressure (SP), Pa
Velocity pressure (VP), Pa = V
2
/ 2
Total pressure (TP), Pa = SP + VP
Fan: a pumping device
Fan (total) pressure = pressure difference between
fan inlet and fan discharge
At fan suction/inlet, SP = negative (c.f.
atmospheric); at discharge, SP = positive
Air-side systems
Fans
Fan types
Centrifugal fans: radial, forward curved, air foil
(backward curved), backward inclined, tubular, roof
ventilator
Axial fans: propeller, tube-axial, vane-axial
Arrangement
Motor location, air discharge orientation, drive train
type (direct drive or pulley drive)
Centrifugal: single width single inlet (SWSI), double
width double inlet (DWDI)
Centrifugal and axial fan components
Propeller
Tube-axial
Tube-vane
AXIAL FANS
Can you suggest
where are they
being used?
Tubular centrifugal fan
Centrifugal roof ventilator
Air-side systems
Fan performance
Fan volume flow rate (m
3
/s or l/s), V
f
Fan total pressure p
tf
, fan velocity pressure p
vf
&
fan static pressure p
sf
(Pa)
Fan power & efficiency
Fan power or air power (W) = p
tf
x V
f
Fan power input on the fan shaft (brake horsepower), P
f
Fan total efficiency:
t
= p
tf
x V
f
/ P
f
Combined index of aerodynamic, volumetric & mechanical
efficiencies
Air temp. increase through fan, T
f
= p
tf
/(c
pa

t
)
Typical fan performance curve
Performance
curves for
controllable-
pitch vane-axial
fans
Air-side systems
Fan-duct systems
Flow resistance R, pressure drop p and volume flow
rate V
Duct sections in series:
Duct sections in parallel:
2
V R p


o
n s
R R R R
2 1
n p
R R R R
1 1 1 1
2 1

Air-side systems
Fan Laws
Speed (n)
Volume flow (V)
Total pressure loss (p )
Air density ()
For air systems that are
geometrically &
dynamically similar:
(D = impeller diameter)
Air-side systems
System effect p
ts
Its additional total pressure loss caused by uneven
or non-uniform velocity profile at the fan inlet, or
at duct fittings after fan outlet
Due to the actual inlet and outlet connections as
compared with the total pressure loss of the fan test
unit during laboratory ratings
Inlet Outlet
Inlet swirl
Outlet duct
Inlet
conditions
(Source: Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA))
Simple air-handling unit (AHU)
A typical AHU with unhoused
plug/plenum return fan
Air-side systems
Main components of AHU
Casing
Fans
Coils
Filters
Humidifiers (optional)
Outdoor air intake, mixing & exhaust section
Controls
Water cooling coil
Low efficiency (panel-type) Medium efficiency (bag-type)
HEPA and ULPA filters
Activated carbon filter
Air duct design
Types of air duct
Supply air duct
Return air duct
Outdoor air duct
Exhaust air
Duct sections
Header or main duct (trunk)
Branch duct or runout
Rectangular duct
Round duct w/ spiral seam
Flat oval duct Flexible duct
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Transverse joint reinforcement
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Air duct design
Duct specification
Sheet gauge and thickness of duct material
Traverse joints & longitudinal seam
reinforcements
Duct hangers & their spacing
Tapes & adhesive closures
Fire spread and smoke developed
Site-fabricated or factory-fabricated
Air duct design
Frictional losses: Darcey-Weisbach Equation
H
f
= friction head loss, or p
f
= pressure loss
f = friction factor (dimensionless)
L = length of duct or pipe (m)
D = diameter of duct or pipe (m)
v = mean air velocity in duct (m/s)
g = gravitational constant (m/s
2
)
= density of fluid (kg/m
3
)
g
c
= dimensional constant, for SI unit, g
c
= 1
Friction chart for round duct
(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2001)
Air duct design
Circular equivalent
Hydraulic diameter, D
h
= 4 A / P
A = area (mm
2
); P = perimeter (mm)
Rectangular duct:
Flat oval duct:
Air duct design
Dynamic losses
Result from flow disturbances caused by duct-
mounted equipment and fittings
Change airflow paths direction and/or area
Flow separation & eddies/disturbances
In dynamic similarity (same Reynolds number &
geometrically similar duct fittings), dynamic loss
is proportional to their velocity pressure
Region of eddies and
turbulences in a round elbow
5-piece 90
o
round elbow
(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2001)
Rectangular elbow, smooth radius, 2 splitter vanes
Mitered elbow and its secondary flow
(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2001)
Airflow through a
rectangular converging
or diverging wye
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Abrupt enlargement
Sudden contraction
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Air duct design
Duct layout
Symmetric layout is easier to balance
Smaller main duct & shorter design path
For VAV systems, duct looping allows feed from
opposite direction
Optimise transporting capacity (balance points often
follow the suns position)
Result in smaller main duct
Compare alternative layouts & reduce fittings
For exposed ducts, appearance & integration with
the structure is important
Typical supply duct system with symmetric layout & looping
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Air duct design
Duct sizing methods
Equal-friction method with maximum velocity
Duct friction loss per unit length remains constant
Most widely used in normal HVAC applications
Constant-velocity method
Often for exhaust ventilation system
Minimum velocity to carry dust is important
Limit velocity to reduce noise
Air duct design
Duct sizing methods
Static regain method
Normally used with a computer package for high
velocity systems (e.g. in main duct)
Size air duct so that static pressure nearly offset the
pressure loss of succeeding duct section along main duct
T method
Optimising procedure by minimising life-cycle cost
System condensing (into a single imaginary duct)
Fan selection (optimum system pressure loss)
System expansion (back to original duct system)
Concept of static regain method
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Air duct design
Design information required
Client requirements
Required supply air condition
Type of system supplied
Ambient conditions
Duct material
Duct insulation
Duct system layout
Air duct design
Key design inputs
Design volume flow rate (m
3
/s)
Limiting duct pressure loss (Pa/m)
Limiting flow velocity (m/s)
Design outputs
Schematic of ductwork layout & associated plant
Schedule of duct sizes and lengths, and fittings
Space air diffusion
Objective of space air diffusion
Evenly distribute conditioned & outdoor air to
provide healthy & comfortable indoor environment,
or appropriate environment for process, at
optimum cost
Last process of air conditioning
Take place entirely within conditioned space
Directly affect the occupants, but it is difficult to
trace & quantify
Space air diffusion
Important considerations:
Thermal comfort (temp., humidity, air velocity)
Comfort conditions, local variations
Indoor air quality
Airborne pollutants
Ventilation effects
Noise control
Noise criteria, sound attentuation
Occupied zone: 1.8 m from floor
Occupied
zone
(Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designers Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.)
Space air diffusion
Draft & effective draft temperature
Draft: unwanted local cooling of human body
caused by air movement & lower space air temp.
Turbulence intensity, I
tur
=
v
/ v
m

v
= standard deviation of air velocity fluctuation (m/s)
v
m
= mean air velocity (m/s)
Effective draft temperature: combines effects of
uneven space air temp. & air movement
= T
x
T
r
a (v
x
v
rm
)
Thermal Comfort
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Space air diffusion
Air diffusion performance index (ADPI)
ADPI = (N

x 100) / N
: effective draft temperature
N

: number of points measured in occupied zone in which -1.7

o
C <
<1.1
o
C
N : total number of points measured in occupied zone
Higher the ADPI, higher % of occupants who feel
comfortable
ADPI is useful for cooling mode operation
For heating mode, temperature gradient 2 points may be a
better indicator of thermal comfort (< 2.8
o
C typical)
Space air diffusion
Air exchange rate
= Volume flow rate / interior volume
Unit: L/s or air change per hour (ACH)
May consider outside air, or supply air
Time constant ()
Inverse of air exchange rate
Air diffusion effectiveness
Perfectly mixing, perfectly displacing
Degree of effectiveness of air diffusion
(Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designers Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.)
Surface effect (or Coand effect)
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration) (Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designers Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.)
(Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designers Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.)
Primary
air
Secondary
air
Total air
(Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designers Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.)
(Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designers Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.) (Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designers Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.)
(Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designers Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.)
Space air diffusion
Supply outlets
Grilles and registers
Ceiling diffusers
Slot diffusers
Nozzles
Return & exhaust inlets
Light troffer diffuser & troffer-diffuser slot
Design issues: architectural setup, airflow pattern
needed, indoor requirements, load conditions
Supply grille and register
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Ceiling diffusers
Square & rectangular
Removable inner-core
Perforated ceiling diffuser
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Slot diffusers
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Round nozzle
Nozzle diffuser
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Light troffer, slot diffuser and return slot combination
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Space air diffusion
Five typical airflow patterns
Mixing flow (most common)
Displacement flow
Upward flow
Unidirectional flow
Projecting flow
Principles of mixing flow
Supply air thoroughly mixed with ambient air
Occupied zone is dominated by induced recirculating flow
Creates relatively uniform air velocity, temperature,
humidity, and air quality
Mixing flow using high side outlets
Will the air jet enter the occupied zone?
Will stagnant zone be formed?
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Mixing flow using ceiling diffusers
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Stratified mixing flow in a large indoor stadium using supply nozzles
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Hong Kong International Airport
Displacement flow characteristics
(Source: http://www.price-hvac.com)
Upward flow underfloor air distribution system
Unidirectional flow for clean rooms
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Hospital operating theatre (laminar flow with air curtains)
(Source: http://www.price-hvac.com)
Industrial spot cooling system
Desktop task air conditioning
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
Ventilation design
What is Ventilation ( )?
The process by which fresh air is introduced and
ventilated air is removed
Primary aim: to preserve the qualities of air
May also be used to lower temperature & humidity
Natural ventilation
By means of purpose-provided aperture (such as
openable windows, ventilators and shafts) and the
natural forces of wind and temperature-difference
pressures
Natural ventilation (e.g. cross ventilation )
(Source: Environmental Protection Department)
Ventilation design
Mechanical (or forced) ventilation
By means of mechanical devices, such as fans
May be arranged to provide either supply, extract
or balanced ventilation for an occupied space
Infiltration (air leakage into a building)
Uncontrolled random flow of air through
unintentional openings driven by wind,
temperature-difference pressures and/or appliance-
induced pressures across the building envelope
Mechanical ventilation (extract ventilation)
(Source: Environmental Protection Department)
What will happen if the windows are closed?
1. Outdoor air
2. Supply air
3. Indoor air
4. Transferred air
5. Extract air
6. Recirculation air
7. Exhaust air
8. Secondary air
9. Leakage
10. Infiltration
11. Exfiltration
12. Mixed air
Analysis of air flow
Ventilation design
Ventilation for supporting life
Maintain sufficient oxygen in the air
Prevent high concentration of carbon dioxide
Remove odour, moisture & pollutants
Poor ventilation and indoor air quality
Impact on human health & productivity
CO
2
as an index of air quality
< 1,000 ppm, corresponds to fresh air 7 l/s/person
< 800 ppm, corresponds to fresh air 10 l/s/person
Ventilation to remove pollutants and moisture
(Source: Environmental Protection Department)
* Remember, source control is usually more effective than ventilation
Ventilation system design should avoid intake of vehicle exhaust
(Source: Environmental Protection Department)
* Also ensure outdoor air intake is of adequate quality
Ventilation design
Purposes of ventilation
Maintain human comfort and health
Provide sufficient air/oxygen for human/livestock
Provide sufficient air/oxygen for processes
Remove products of respiration and bodily odour
Remove contaminants or harmful chemicals
Remove heat generated indoor
Create air movement (feeling of
freshness/comfort)
Ventilation design
Ventilation calculations
For general mechanical ventilation:
Ventilation Rate (m
3
/h) = Air Change Rate (/h) x Room
Volume (m
3
)
Ventilation Rate (m
3
/s) = Ventilation Rate (m
3
/h) / 3600
For calculating fresh air ventilation rates
Fresh air rate (m
3
/s) = Fresh air rate per person (l/s/p) x
number of occupants
Ventilation effectiveness
Depend on ventilation strategy, air distribution
method, room load & air filtration
Changes in the minimum ventilation rates in the USA
Current: ASHRAE 62.1-2010 (10 L/s/person)
(Source: ASHRAE)
Ventilation design
Determine the required ventilation rate (Q):
(a) Maximum allowable concentration of
contaminants (C
i
)
C
i
= C
o
+ F / Q
(b) Heat generation inside the space (H)
Q = H / [c
p
x x (T
i
T
o
)]
(c) Air change rates (ACH)
Q = V x ACH / 3.6
Ventilation design
Mechanical ventilation
Movement of air through a building using fan
power
Ability to control the air flows
Two types:
Unbalanced systems
Air is either supplied or extracted
Balanced systems
Air is supplied and extracted simultaneously
Ventilation design
Design principles:
1. Exhaust close to pollutant
generation
2. Effective local extracts
3. Supply to the breathing zone
4. Supply air to clean areas
5. More extract from dirty
areas
6. Transfer air from clean to
dirty areas
Ventilation design
Extract ventilation, e.g.
Commercial kitchens
Toilets and bathrooms
Underground carparks
Factories or industrial buildings
Localised industrial extraction
Supply ventilation
Can be used to ensure adequate supply of outside
air, e.g. in boiler house ventilation
Kitchen
hood
Makeup air
Dinning area
Supply air
Return air
Makeup air unit
HVAC unit
Kitchen exhaust
Kitchen
Example of kitchen ventilation system
Ventilation design
Industrial ventilation
An important method for reducing employee
exposures to airborne contaminants
Dilution systems:
Reduce the concentrations of contaminants released in a
work room by mixing with air flowing through the room
Local exhaust ventilation (LEV):
Capture or contain contaminates at their source before
they escape into the workplace environment
Ventilation design
Supply and extract (balanced) systems
Central air handling unit (AHU) with separate
supply and extract fans
A heat recovery device can also be incorporated
Energy implications & efficient ventilation
Heat recovery
Demand controlled ventilation (DCV)
User control ventilation
Ventilation system balancing
Ventilation design
Hybrid ventilation (or mixed mode ventilation)
= Natural ventilation + Mechanical ventilation
Use them at different time of the day or season of
the year
Usually have a control system to switch between
natural and mechanical modes
Combine the advantages of both to satisfy the
actual ventilation needs and minimise energy
consumption
Hybrid ventilation concepts
Low pressure
mechanical ventilation
Demand-controlled
mechanical ventilation
Constant air flow
mechanical ventilation
Mechanical ventilation Natural ventilation
Air infiltration through
cracks
Openable windows,
supply and exhaust
grilles
Self-regulating supply
and exhaust grilles
Demand-controlled
natural ventilation
Is it feasible to use
Natural Ventilation?
If situation prevents this,
is it feasible to use
Mechanical Ventilation?
If situation prevents this,
is it feasible to use
Hybrid/Mixed Mode Ventilation?
If situation prevents this,
is it feasible to use
Cooling and Heating
(without humidity control)?
If situation prevents this,
is it feasible to use
Full Air Conditioning
(with humidity control)?
Increasing:
energy
consumption
capital cost
running costs
maintenance
complexity
Ventilation design hierarchy