“I Want Muscles like that Guy!

Males and Body Image: The Effects of the Media Reach More than Just Women

Megan Whitehead

Professor Wilkerson

English 103
Images29
left to right:
October “Superman”, “Little Boy Wants Muscles”, “Flexing
2009
Boy"
Megan Whitehead
 Whitehead 1

Professor Wilkerson

English 103

29 October 2009

“I Want Muscles like that Guy!”

Males and Body Image: The Effects of the Media Reach More than Just Women

Many Americans are familiar with the claims that the media play a significant role in

influencing female body image. There has been a noteworthy amount of research which has

investigated the link between media influence and eating disorders among teenage girls, as well

as the link between female celebrities and athletes and the resulting low self-esteem of the

female audience. However, there are also the guys to think about. Men have long been thought to

be free from pressures to shape their bodies in a certain manner because they had other avenues

upon which to base their self-opinion (Crandall). However, while women have been the major

source of concern, male body image is also heavily influenced by the media, from athletes to

clothing advertisements, and from action figures and comic book heroes to “muscle-enhancing”

supplements. In a recent surge of male-directed media, men are becoming more and more aware

of their own bodies.

Numerous articles argue that the media traditionally distorts only the images of female

athletes, degrading women everywhere. One such article presents that, “Photos of successful

male athletes overwhelmingly show them in serious, action poses, while powerhouse women are

often trivialized, romanticized, and sexualized”(Holste, 2000). The article references both

scholars and womens’ sports experts in continuing its argument, claiming that men often find

powerful and athletic women “threatening,” and therefore must portray them in a much more

delicate fashion so as to not be intimidated.

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However, it is possible to read a bit deeper into this supposed “insecurity” of men. Yes,

women are becoming more and more stereotyped by sports media, but aren’t men as well? In

contrast to women, men are shown as being strong, hardy, determined, and tough. Isn’t this a

stereotype that has the potential to negatively influence male body image? Male athletes in the

media are often portrayed as the “epitome of manliness”(Rehberg, 2001). In the report “Boys To

Men: Media Messages about Masculinity,” the authors identify “The Jock” as one of the most

popular stereotypes in the media. The report goes on to define the jock as being willing to

compromise his long-term health for short-term athletic success, feeling a necessity to “fight

other men” in games of sport, avoiding “softness” in favor of being aggressive, and

demonstrating “his power and strength … to win the approval of other men and the adoration of

women” (Children Now). While there is limited research on such stereotypes, it is not

unreasonable to assume that such portrayals in the sports media can and do have a significant

impact on American males. Although most of the focus is still on females and their “unfair”

portrayal in sports, there are subtle suggestions that do point to a potential issue with male
Image 1:as
influences Milk advertisement
well. For example,portraying
ESPN’s website - a prominent sports programming network -
elite soccer athlete and attractive male
model,
has listed David
the topBeckham.
10 hottest male athletes on one of its main pages (“Hottest Male Athletes”).

According to the New York Daily News, “While we admire [male] professional athletes for their

incredible abilities, it doesn't hurt that they also have some of the world's hottest bodies”

(“Hottest Male Athletes”). In a journal article from Evolution and Human Behavior, research

concluded that student athletes claimed to have more sexual partners than non-athletes,

supporting the theory that athlete equals attractive (Faurie, Pontier, and Raymond). Furthermore,

it has been noted that the adolescent male is, just like his female counterpart, vulnerable to

pressures to attain the “ideal” body. The “ideal” male body consists of a masculine physique,

tallness, and muscularity (Parks, McKay and Read). Parks and Read also state that
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in order to achieve such a body, many adolescents opt to participate in athletics. Where could

these boys have learned that being an athlete will help you achieve an “ideal body”? While it is

possible that they could have been taught that regular exercise and physical activity can lower

body fat and boost confidence, it is also highly probable that young males associate the athletes

that they see on TV with attractiveness, and therefore associate attractiveness with being an

athlete. Considering Image 1to the left, David Beckham is the chosen model for a “Got Milk”

ad, which sends the message that male athletes

are healthy, buff, serious, and attractive (Image 1). Nathalie Koivula further confirms the claim

of media influence by concluding her research with the statement that sports coverage

“continues to reinforce … traditional expectations regarding … masculinity.” Even male athletes

themselves feel the need to be more muscular and stronger, as evidenced by the proliferation of

steroid-use in professional male sports (Parssinen and Seppala).

In addition to body image influences from male athletes, there are other forms of

advertisement that also have a negative impact on male body image. According to Tracy Tylka,

the lead psychology researcher at Ohio State University, “Men see these idealized, muscular men

in the media and feel their own bodies don’t measure up (qtd. in Crandall).” In a recently

published study in the North American Journal of Psychology, Amy Baird and Frederick

Grieve’s findings indicated that “exposure to male models in advertisement [did lead] to a

decrease” in male participants’ body satisfaction (Baird and Grieve). In Image 2 shown below,

the advertisement is for a clothing company, Abercrombie and Fitch, but the model is not

wearing any particularly noticeable clothes – other than about an inch of jeans that are shown.

Instead of just selling their product, they are also selling an idealized body image of a male. The

message the billboard is sending is “this body is hot, fierce, attractive, and 100% male.” It is
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evident that seeing such images has the potential to make some men who may be less muscular

and fit feel somewhat depressed about their body image.

According to additional studies, the “value of having a muscular body” has greatly

increased over time (Pope, et al). While

women, on average, claim to want to lose between five and l0 pounds of body weight (Cash,

Antis, & Strachan),

Image 2: Abercrombie menBillboard
Clothing are now claiming to want to gain, on average, 3 times that amount in

muscle mass (Pope et al.). Although the “ideal” body goal for men is to develop a more muscular

and beefed up frame rather than the female’s thin frame, men are still subject to the same

advertisement pressures as women

are. According to Stice, “the

internalization of the ideal body

shape as presented in the media is

well accepted as a causal factor in

the development of eating disorders

(830). This holds true for both

females and males. While it can be

argued that the media pressures on

men are still much less influential than those on women, there is still much need for awareness of

the male situation. It is true that in American society, men have several other ways in which to

promote their masculinity, including income, vehicles, occupation, etc (Baird and Grieve 117).

According to Pope et al. however, the “commercial value of the male body has increased” since

the mid-1980s, and one can only expect this trend to continue (1297). In addition, Baird and

Grieve admit that their results, as well as those of similar studies, produced small differences

between the exposed and non-exposed groups. However, they justify this by reminding the
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audience that the amount of exposure time to the advertisements was very short (115). In reality,

men are exposed to such advertisements on a much more frequent and regular basis, which

actually supports the theory that the total effect of such advertisements on male body satisfaction

is probably much more significant than the study sample results. It can also be argued that many

of the studies have been conducted using college-aged Caucasian males as test subjects, and

therefore lacks diversity which could create skewed results. However, it is noteworthy to

mention that college-aged Caucasion males are the population most likely to be affected by

pressures to obtain a certain body image (Lynch and Zellner). Therefore, the results do apply to

the population in which they are the most representative and important. This holds true as well

for studies and claims surrounding female body image; results are typically only generalizable to

the young female population, but again, “young women are at most risk for dissatisfaction with

their bodies” (Baugh).

Can this be healthy?

Americans recognize the terms “anorexia” and “bulimia” and understand that many

females, both young and adult, often starve themselves in order to appear thinner and, in their

minds, “more attractive.” However, it is becoming more and more evident that men experience

mental disorders associated with low self-esteem as well. There is a new term that has emerged

in the past decade: muscle dysmorphia. According to an article in Psychosomatics, muscle

dysmorphia is a disorder characterized by an individual becoming “pathologically preoccupied

with their degree of muscularity” (Pope, et al. 1297). In other words, these individuals have

developed a compulsive and habitual obsession to how sculpted and toned their bodies are. Pope

et al. add that muscle dysmorphia may lead to serious health issues, including distress, impaired

social functioning, and most importantly, abuse of steroids and other muscle-enhancing

substances. It is noted that all of these consequences of muscle dysmorphia can have serious
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long-term effects. While steroid use is at the extreme end of ways to obtain an ideal image, they

are extremely dangerous and are a probable cause of increased mortality amongst many athletes

and people who power train at intense levels (Parssinen and Seppala). According to an

exploratory study in 2002, male participants reported that they associated muscularity with

“being healthy and fit”, and that being fat was related to “weakness of will and lack of control”

(Grogan and Richards).

Not only do these results demonstrate the shift in American culture towards a more-

concerned-with-body-image male population, but they also demonstrate the skewed mental

assumptions of men that can lead to unhealthy behaviors. In addition, muscle dysmorphia can

lead to damaged muscles, joints, tendons, and ligaments through excessive exercise and weight-

lifting (Mccan). In addition, those with muscle dysmorphia spend up to five hours a day thinking

about the fact that they are “too small” and “not big enough (Pope et al. 1297). This is clearly

mentally unhealthy. In addition, because muscle dysmorphia is very similar to an obsessive

compulsive disorder, there are many unhealthy social side effects. These include missing

important events, risking unemployment by extending lunch breaks at the gym, and missing

exams because they conflict with workout schedules. Also, men with muscle dysmorphia

typically suffer from related depression from their lack of self-confidence, as well as a constant

fear of losing muscle mass and becoming unattractive. Muscle dysmorphia may also lead to

relationship issues. In two extreme examples, one man feared having sex with his wife because

he felt that he would waste energy that could be used in his workouts, and one man refused to

kiss his girlfriend because he feared that calories could be transmitted through saliva (Pope et al.

1298). Excessive dieting associated with muscle dysmorphia can also lead to the more familiar

eating disorders such as bulimia and anorexia.

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Unfortunately, there do not appear to be any current efforts or policy changes in effect

that are working to fight the stereotypical male body image seen in the media. However, there is

promise in that there is evidence for efforts against female representations in the media. Just as

the research and awareness into male issues lagged behind that of women, perhaps the same will

be true for efforts to correct this phenomena. Until then, Jeanne Rust, PhD and CEO of a

treatment program for teens with eating disorders offers the following suggestions:

When an advertisement message makes an individual feel bad about their body image,

they should argue back by writing a letter to the advertiser. Also,

concerned individuals can attempt to “boycott” certain industries and

products that appear to send negative body image messages. Rust

suggests getting friends and students involved as well, and

comments on the power of grassroots movements. Image 3 depicts a

very muscular and strong Superman action figure, which is an

Image 3: Superman Action
example
Figure Toy of an item that could be boycotted due to its association with negative body image and

muscle dysmorphia among males. She reminds Americans that “consumers have much more

influence with corporations than we realize” (Rust).

In conclusion, while there is limited research and opinion at this point on the effects of

the media and advertising on male body image, there is substantial evidence that there is indeed a

need for concern and further investigation. Females are not the only gender suffering from low

self esteem and negative body image, and are also not the only ones who are resorting to

unhealthy behaviors in order to live up to societal standards which are presented through the

media. It is important that we as a nation become less fixated on looking at just one side of the

argument, and become aware of issues on the other side as well. It appears that Americans are

focusing too much on the struggles of women in this masculine, patriarchal society, and are
 Whitehead 2

forgetting that this mindset puts pressures on men as well. Not only are women being feminized

and “put down”, men are being “masculinized” and pressured to be successful, powerful, and

now more than ever, attractive.

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