Vol 1

MESSAGE FROM VICE PRESIDENT SOUTHERN AREA OIL OPERATIONS
It is indeed a great pleasure for me to see this first edition of the Saudi Aramco Production Engineering Manual becoming a reality. Human resource development is the key to our efforts in maintaining Saudi Aramco's position as a global leader in the energy industry. In today's highly competitive and challenging environment only the most capable, the most skilled, and the most motivated will be successful. Saudi Aramco is committed to providing its employees all the resources to help them excel in their career. This manual is one more effort in meeting that goal. Most Petroleum Engineering vendor courses are developed for engineers and students in other parts of the world where the well and reservoir characteristics are significantly different than in Saudi Arabia. This in-house Production Engineering Manual is unique in that it covers all the basic principles of petroleum/production engineering applicable universally and, at the same time, places special emphasis on competencies most needed by our field production engineers. I would like to express my appreciation for the team effort that has gone into compiling this manual. Recognized Subject Matter Experts from virtually all Saudi Aramco's E&P organizations have contributed to the text material and will also be teaching the course. Their hard work and commitment in developing a high quality product deserves the highest commendation. I am confident that this manual will be a valuable source of knowledge to all E&P personnel who have a need to learn about petroleum production engineering functions. F. A. AL-MOOSA, Vice President Southern Area Oil Operations
This manual was created to form the basis of an in-house production engineering training program. It was recognized from the outset that being a successful production engineer involves knowledge of a large number of petroleum related specialties. Although one manual could not provide in-depth coverage of all the topics needed in production engineering, it was considered necessary to enlist the aid of experts in each area so that the finished product, although not comprehensive, is useful and accurate. Most Saudi Aramco petroleum engineering organizations provided assistance in preparing this manual. The following table lists the subject matter experts (SMEs) who led the effort to prepare each lesson in the manual. In many cases these SMEs were assisted by others from their organizations and from services companies. Subject Matter Experts (SMEs)
Volume
Module Title Well Completions Sand Control
Volume 1
Volume 2
Artificial Lift
Volume 3
Reservoir and Well Monitoring
Stimulation and Damage Removal Well Intervention
Volume 4
General Production Engineering Surface Facilities
Lesson Title Well Completions Wellhead Equipment Perforating Tubing Movement Sand Control Introduction to Artificial Lift Electrical Submersible Pumps Gas Lift Reservoir Engineering Production Logging Pressure Transient Testing Well Rate Testing Scale Corrosion Well Integrity Plant Information (PI) and SCADA Systems Acidizing Hydraulic Fracturing Water Shut-off Well Livening Well Control Coiled Tubing General Production Engineering Guidelines Economic Evaluation New Technologies Safety Well Database Surface Facilities
Lead SME O.J. Esmail M.A. Farooqui I. Abbasy A.T. Blanke D.E. Hembling E. P. Lockard E.P. Lockard P.D. Pomeroy A.A. Al Towailib M.H. Al-Hattab F.M. Al Thawad M.A. Farooqui S.K. Gilani I. Abbasy M.M. Saudi S.A. Al Umran K.M. Bartko K.M. Bartko A.J. Al Mubairik A.J. Al Mubairik J.E. Dumville A.A. Al Gamber S.K. Gilani L. Vo A.K. Al Zain S.K. Gilani S.M. Hussaini P. D. Laughlin
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PRODUCTION ENGINEERING SCHOOL
VOLUME 1
WELL COMPLETIONS SAND CONTROL
Saudi Aramco
Southern Area Producing Engineering Department wishes to extend its appreciation to the Saudi Aramco organizations, service companies and individuals who worked on creating this manual for the Production Engineering School. These organizations and individuals have proved that they are committed to the continuous development of our production engineers. Tabulated below are the subject matter experts who led the effort to prepare the lessons in this volume of the Manual.
Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) - Volume 1
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Volume I - Table of Contents

MODULE PE 100 - WELL COMPLETIONS ............................ 1 WELL COMPLETIONS - PE 101 ............................................... 3
LESSON OBJECTIVES ................................................................................... 4
Chapter 1 - Completion Design Criteria ...................................... 5

Introduction .................................................................................................... 5
Completion Objectives ................................................................................... Reservoir Completion Interval ..................................................................... Completion Tubing Design Considerations ................................................ Completion Packer Design Considerations ................................................ Wireline Completion Design Considerations ............................................. Completion Flexibility Considerations ........................................................ 5 5 6 6 7 7
Chapter 2 - Well Completion Types .............................................. 8

Introduction .................................................................................................... 8 Basic Completion Types ................................................................................ 8
Open Hole Completions ................................................................................. 8 Cased Hole Completions ............................................................................... 9
Oil Producer Completions ........................................................................... 11

Packer-Less Completions (Casing Flow) .................................................. 11 Tubing & Packer Completions (Tubing Flow) .......................................... 11 Onshore Oil Producers ................................................................................. 11 Dual Completion - Producer/Observation Well ........................................ 13 Gas Lift Producers ........................................................................................ 13 Electric Submersible Pump (ESP) Producers ........................................... 14
Offshore Oil Producers ................................................................................ 15

Conventional Vertical Producers ................................................................ 15 Deviated Producers ....................................................................................... 15 Horizontal Producers .................................................................................... 16
Water Injector Completions ........................................................................ 17

Packerless Completions (Casing Flow) ..................................................... 17 Tubing & Packer Completions (Tubing Flow) .......................................... 20
Gas Producer Completions .......................................................................... 20

Abqaiq Gas Producers .................................................................................. 20
SAUDI ARAMCO - PRODUCTION ENGINEERING SCHOOL
Khuff Gas Producers ..................................................................................... 20
Water Supply Completions .......................................................................... 21

Wasia Water Supply Wells ............................................................................ 21 UER Water Supply Wells .............................................................................. 22
Chapter 3 - Casing and Tubing ................................................... 23

Introduction .................................................................................................. 23 Types Of Tubulars ....................................................................................... 23
Casing .............................................................................................................. 23 Tubing .............................................................................................................. 23 API Specifications .......................................................................................... 23 API Casing and Tubing Weight Designation ............................................. 24 API Casing Length Specification ................................................................ 24 API Tubing Length Specification ................................................................ 24 Hydrostatic Test Pressure ........................................................................... 25
Properties Of Tubular Material .................................................................. 25

Yield Strength ................................................................................................. 25 Basic Stress-Strain Equations ...................................................................... 25 Hardness of Steel ........................................................................................... 26 Heat Treatments ............................................................................................ 26 Chemical Composition .................................................................................. 27 High Alloy Chrome-13 casing for Saudi Aramco GWI Wells .................. 27
Tubing And Casing Grades .......................................................................... 28

API Tubing and Casing Grades ................................................................... 28 Non-API Tubing and Casing Grades .......................................................... 29 Saudi Aramco Non-API Tubing and Casing Grades ................................. 29
Connections .................................................................................................. 30
API Casing Connections .............................................................................. 30 Saudi Aramco API Casing Connections ..................................................... 30 API Tubing Connections .............................................................................. 32 Proprietary Connections .............................................................................. 32 Saudi Aramco Proprietary Connections ..................................................... 33
Corrosion ...................................................................................................... 35
Corrosion Mitigation .................................................................................... 35 Sulfide Stress Cracking ................................................................................. 35 Saudi Aramco Applications in H2S Service ............................................... 36 Care Of Oilfield Tubulars ............................................................................. 36
Casing Design .............................................................................................. 37 Tubing Design .............................................................................................. 37

Tubing Size Selection .................................................................................... 37
TABLE OF CONTENTS: VOLUME I
Appendix A: Saudi Aramco Tubing and Casing Data Table .... 39 Chapter 4 - Packers ...................................................................... 41
Introduction .................................................................................................... 41 Packer Definition ........................................................................................... 41 Types Of Packers .......................................................................................... 41 Basic Components ........................................................................................ 41
Permanent Packers ...................................................................................... 43

Characteristics of Permanent Packers ....................................................... 43 Electric Wireline Set Packer ....................................................................... 44 Hydraulic Set Packer .................................................................................... 44
Retrievable Packers .................................................................................... 44

Packer Components ...................................................................................... 45
Packer Selection .......................................................................................... 49

Polished Bore Receptacles .......................................................................... 51 Large-Bore Permanent Packers ................................................................. 52 Dual Packers .................................................................................................. 53
Chapter 5 - Surface and Subsurface Safety Valves .................. 54

Introduction .................................................................................................. 54 Surface Controlled Subsurface Safety Valves ........................................... 54
Control Line ................................................................................................... 54 Operation ........................................................................................................ 55 Closures .......................................................................................................... 55 Equalizing ........................................................................................................ 55 Balanced Valves ............................................................................................. 59 Retrieval Methods ........................................................................................ 59 Wireline Retrievable Valves ........................................................................ 59 Tubing Retrievable Valves ........................................................................... 59 Control Pressure ........................................................................................... 59
Surface Safety Valves ................................................................................. 62

Gate Valve And Actuator .............................................................................. 62 Intended Function ......................................................................................... 62 Control Line ................................................................................................... 62 Operation ........................................................................................................ 62 Other Actuators ............................................................................................. 62
WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT - PE 102 ....................................... 67

LESSON OBJECTIVES ................................................................................. 68
Chapter 1 - Wellhead System ...................................................... 69

Wellhead Functions ....................................................................................... 69 Tree Functions ............................................................................................... 69 Tubulars .......................................................................................................... 69 Typical Wellhead ............................................................................................ 70 Casing Head ................................................................................................... 72 Casing Spool ................................................................................................... 73 Tubing Head ................................................................................................... 75 Tubing Bonnet ................................................................................................ 76 Tree Assembly ............................................................................................... 76
Chapter 2 - Trees .......................................................................... 78

Master Valves ................................................................................................ 78 Flow Tee .......................................................................................................... 80 Wing Valve ...................................................................................................... 80 Choke .............................................................................................................. 80 Crown Valve ................................................................................................... 80 Valve Operation ............................................................................................. 80 Testing The Tree ........................................................................................... 80 Fire Resistant Trees ..................................................................................... 80
Chapter 3 - Suspension Methods ................................................ 81

Casing Suspension ........................................................................................ 81 Automatic Type .............................................................................................. 81 Manual Type ................................................................................................... 81 Mandrel Type ................................................................................................. 82
Chapter 4 - Other Wellhead Equipment ..................................... 86

Tubingless Wellheads ................................................................................... 86 Water Supply Wellheads ............................................................................... 86 Injection Wellheads ....................................................................................... 87
Chapter 5 - Flanges and Seal Connections ................................ 88

Flanges ......................................................................................................... 88
Oval and Octagonal Ring Gaskets .............................................................. 88 RX Ring Gasket ............................................................................................. 89 BX Ring Gasket ............................................................................................. 90 Resilient Seals ................................................................................................ 90
Chapter 6 - Wellhead Design Considerations ........................... 91

Pressure Requirements ............................................................................... 92 Double Studded Packoff Flanges ................................................................. 95
Chapter 7 - Equipment Specifications ....................................... 96

Industry Specifications .................................................................................. 96 Saudi Aramco Specifications ........................................................................ 96 Service Environments .................................................................................. 96 Hydrogen Sulfide ........................................................................................... 96
Chapter 8 - Wellhead Valve Lubrication .................................... 97

Purpose Of Valve Lubrication ..................................................................... 97 Common Lubricants ..................................................................................... 97
BTR 555 SS .................................................................................................... 97 Special Sealants .............................................................................................. 97 Recommended Sealants ............................................................................... 98
Lubrication Frequency ................................................................................. 98

General Procedures ...................................................................................... 99
Wellhead Valve Integrity Testing ............................................................... 99
Chapter 9 - Landing Base Inspection Program ...................... 100

Introduction ................................................................................................ 100 Problem Description .................................................................................. 100 Sources Of Corrosion ................................................................................ 101
Water Seepage ............................................................................................. 101 Impediments To Cathodic Protection ...................................................... 101
Corrective Actions ..................................................................................... 102

Standardization Of Procedures .................................................................. 102 Safety Requirements ................................................................................... 103 Excavation Requirements .......................................................................... 103 Inspection Procedures ................................................................................ 103 Damage Assessment ................................................................................... 105
Repair Methods ......................................................................................... 105

Landing Base ............................................................................................... 105 Surface Casing .............................................................................................. 106 Coating .......................................................................................................... 106 Sacrificial Anodes ......................................................................................... 107 Cementing and Other Protective Measures ........................................... 107
PERFORATING - PE 103 ......................................................... 109

LESSON OBJECTIVES ............................................................................... 110
PERFORATING ......................................................................... 111

Description ................................................................................................. 111 Introduction ................................................................................................ 111 Gun Selection ............................................................................................. 111
Shaped Charge ..............................................................................................111 Types Of Gun Carrier Systems ................................................................. 112 Gun and Charge Selection .......................................................................... 115
Perforating Operations .............................................................................. 117

Safety ............................................................................................................. 117 Selective Firing ............................................................................................ 118 Gun Positioning ............................................................................................ 118 Depth Correlation ........................................................................................ 119
EXCERCISE ............................................................................... 120 TUBING MOVEMENT - PE 104 ............................................. 123

Chapter 1 - Introduction to Tubing Movement ....................... 125

Tubing Length Changes ............................................................................. 126
Temperature Effect ..................................................................................... 126 Ballooning Effect ......................................................................................... 127 Piston Effect or Hookes Law .................................................................... 127 Buckling Effect ............................................................................................ 129
EXERCISE 1 ................................................................................................ 131
Chapter 2 - Calculating Length Change .................................. 132

EXERCISE 2 ................................................................................................. 137 Wells With Multiple Sections .................................................................... 139
Effect of Well Depth On Tubing Length Changes .................................. 140 Effect of Well Deviations On Tubing Length Changes .......................... 140
EXERCISE 3 ................................................................................................. 142
Chapter 3 - Calculating Forces Acting on the Tubing and Packer ..................................................................................... 144
Calculating Triaxial Stress ........................................................................ 149
EXERCISE 4 ................................................................................................. 152 References ................................................................................................. 153 Nomenclature: ........................................................................................... 153 EXERCISE ANSWER KEY ......................................................................... 155
MODULE PE 200 - SAND CONTROL ................................... 157 SAND CONTROL - PE 201 ...................................................... 159
Chapter 1 - Introduction............................................................. 161

Local Geological Overview ....................................................................... 161 Radial Flow And Formation Damage ........................................................ 161
Introduction .................................................................................................. 161 Radial Flow ................................................................................................... 163 Near Wellbore Flow Restrictions .............................................................. 164 Potential Formation Damage Mechanisms .............................................. 168 Summary ........................................................................................................ 168 References .................................................................................................... 168
Chapter 2 - Reasons For Sand Control ................................... 169

Introduction ................................................................................................ 169 Causes of Sand Production ........................................................................ 171
Cementation Material ................................................................................. 171 Reduction of Pore Pressure ....................................................................... 171 Production Rate ........................................................................................... 172 Reservoir Fluid Viscosity ........................................................................... 172 Increasing Water Production ..................................................................... 172 Predicting Sand Production ........................................................................ 172 Finite Element Analysis .............................................................................. 174 Multiphase Flow .......................................................................................... 174
Summary .................................................................................................... 175

References .................................................................................................... 175
Chapter 3 - Completion Options and Candidate Selection .... 176

Rate Exclusion ............................................................................................. 176 Plastic Consolidation ................................................................................... 177 Slotted Liners or Screens without Gravel Packing ................................ 179 Gravel Packing ............................................................................................. 179 Frac Pack Method ....................................................................................... 180
Expandable Screens Without Gravel Packing ........................................ 180 Summary ........................................................................................................ 181
Candidate Selection ................................................................................... 181

General Selection Criteria ......................................................................... 181 Considerations for Completion Design .................................................... 182 References .................................................................................................... 184
Chapter 4 - Wellbore Damage ................................................... 185

Damage Removal ......................................................................................... 185 Causes of Skin Damage .............................................................................. 185 Magnitude of Skin Damage ........................................................................ 187 Vertical Wells ............................................................................................... 188 Horizontal Wells ........................................................................................... 191
Chapter 5 - Formation Characterization ................................. 193

In-Situ Stress Around the Wellbore .......................................................... 193
Competent Sands ......................................................................................... 193 Friable Sands ................................................................................................ 193
Failure Mechanisms .................................................................................. 194

Mechanical Failures .................................................................................... 194 Formation Failure from Chemical Effects ................................................ 196
Chapter 6 - Cased Hole Completions ....................................... 197

Gravel Packs .............................................................................................. 197
Gravel Pack Sand Selection ....................................................................... 197 Gravel Pack Sand Sizing ............................................................................. 199 Gravel Pack Sand ......................................................................................... 200 Frac & Pack Designs .................................................................................. 200 Screenless Sand Control Techniques ....................................................... 201 Selection Criteria For Cased Hole Sand Control Completions ........... 202
Chapter 7 - Well Preparation for Gravel Packing ................. 203

Drilling Practices ......................................................................................... 203 Wellbore Stability ......................................................................................... 203 Formation Damage ...................................................................................... 203 Wellbore Cleanout ....................................................................................... 203 Casing ............................................................................................................ 204 Open Hole .................................................................................................... 204 Work string ................................................................................................... 205 Surface Facilities .......................................................................................... 205 Quality Assurance ........................................................................................ 205
Filtration ........................................................................................................ 205 Completion and Gravel Pack Fluids ......................................................... 207 Perforating For Gravel Packing Completion ........................................... 207 Perforation Cleaning ................................................................................... 210 Fluid Loss Control ...................................................................................... 212 Summary ........................................................................................................ 216
Gravel Placement Techniques ................................................................... 217

Carrier Fluids ............................................................................................... 218 Transport Fluid Summary ........................................................................... 219 References .................................................................................................... 221
Chapter 8 - Open Hole Completions ......................................... 222

Introduction .................................................................................................. 222 Advantages of Openhole Completions .................................................... 223 Disadvantages of Openhole Completions ............................................... 223 Critical Issues in Openhole Sand Control Completions ....................... 223 Typical Openhole Sand Control Design ................................................... 224 Hole Cleaning .............................................................................................. 226 Summary ........................................................................................................ 227
Chapter 9 - Gravel Packing Horizontal Wells......................... 229

Introduction ................................................................................................ 229
Cased Hole Completions ........................................................................... 229 Open Hole Completions ............................................................................. 229 Drilling Influence ......................................................................................... 229 Unconsolidated Formations ....................................................................... 230 Slotted Liner or Screen Completions ....................................................... 230 Pre-packed Screen Completions .............................................................. 231 Gravel Packed Completions ...................................................................... 231 Guidelines for Gravel Packing Horizontal Wells .................................... 231 Expandable Sand Control Screens ............................................................ 232 Summary ........................................................................................................ 232 References .................................................................................................... 233
Volume II - Table of Contents

MODULE - PE 300 - ARTIFICIAL LIFT ................................... 1 INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL LIFT - PE 301 ................ 3
Chapter 1 - Introduction................................................................. 5
What Is Artificial Lift? .................................................................................... 5
Artificial Lift Categories ........................................................... 5

Positive Displacement .................................................................................... 5 Types ................................................................................................................. 6 Hydraulic Pumping Jet and Piston Pumps ............................................... 7 Gas Lift .............................................................................................................. 8 Centrifugal ........................................................................................................ 8
Chapter 2 - Well Productivity ...................................................... 10

Productivity Index ......................................................................................... 10 Vogels Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) ....................................... 11
Chapter 3 - Selecting An Artificial Lift Method ........................ 12

Tubing Intake Pressure Curves .................................................................. 12 Limitations ...................................................................................................... 14 Flexibility ........................................................................................................ 15 Economics ....................................................................................................... 16
Sample Lift Method Selections ...................................................................... 20 Example Problems ........................................................................................... 22 Problem Solutions ............................................................................................ 23
ELECTRIC SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS - PE 302 ...................... 27

Chapter 1 - Introduction............................................................... 29 What Is An ESP? ..................................................................... 29 When To Use An ESP? ............................................................ 29 Misnomers And Limitations .................................................... 29
Chapter 2 - Equipment Description ........................................... 32 Downhole Equipment............................................................... 32

The Motor ...................................................................................................... 32 The Seal (Protector) Section ........................................................................ 36 The Pump Intake ........................................................................................... 39 The Pump ........................................................................................................ 42 Pump Discharge Head .................................................................................. 43 Bypass Assembly ........................................................................................... 44 Power Cable ................................................................................................... 44
Surface Equipment ................................................................... 46

The Wellhead ................................................................................................. 46 Junction Box .................................................................................................. 50 Switchboard .................................................................................................... 50 Soft Start Motor Controller .......................................................................... 51 Variable Speed Drives (VSDs) .................................................................... 51 Transformers .................................................................................................. 53
Basic Principles ........................................................................ 54 Chapter 3 - Installation Design ................................................... 54

Electrical Fundamentals ............................................................................... 56 Required Data ................................................................................................ 62
Basic Pump Design .................................................................. 62 VSD Design ............................................................................... 71 Chapter 4 - Troubleshooting ........................................................ 75 Determine The Reason For Shutdown .................................. 75
Field Inspection ............................................................................................. 75
Causes Of Failure .................................................................... 76

Motor Failure ................................................................................................. 76 Pump Failure .................................................................................................. 76 Seal Section Failure ....................................................................................... 77 Cable Failure .................................................................................................. 77 Transformer Failure ...................................................................................... 77 Motor Controller Failure ............................................................................. 77 Surface Cable Failure .................................................................................... 77 Wellhead .......................................................................................................... 77 VSD Failure .................................................................................................... 78
Ammeter Charts ....................................................................... 78

Normal Chart .................................................................................................. 78
TABLE OF CONTENTS: VOLUME II
Power Fluctuations ........................................................................................ 79 Gas Locking ................................................................................................... 80 Pump Off Condition ....................................................................................... 81 Gas Interference ............................................................................................ 82 Underload Set Below Motor Idle Amperage ............................................ 83 Normal Overload Condition ......................................................................... 84 Debris .............................................................................................................. 85 Erratic Loading Conditions .......................................................................... 86
Chapter 5 - Preventive Maintenance .......................................... 87

Daily ................................................................................................................. 87 Weekly ............................................................................................................. 87
Acknowledgement .................................................................... 88 References................................................................................. 88

APPENDIX ...................................................................................................... 89
GAS LIFT - PE 303 .................................................................... 105

Chapter 1 - Introduction............................................................. 107 Basics of Gas Lift Operation ................................................ 107 Gas Lift Advantages .............................................................. 107 Typical Gas Lift Applications ............................................... 108
Strengths And Weaknesses Of Different Gas Lift Installations ........... 108
Exercises -Types of Gas Lift Completions................................................... 111
Chapter 2 - Design And Operation Of Various Types Of Gas Lift Valves ................................................................................ 112 Gas Lift Valves - Types of Valves ........................................ 112 Valve Characteristics ............................................................. 113
Characteristics of Casing Pressure Operated Valves ........................... 113 Influence of Well Temperature on Operating Characteristics ............. 117 Gas Passage Through Valves .................................................................... 119
Gas Lift String Design (Continuous Flow Installations) ... 120

Design Objectives and Considerations .................................................... 120 Example Using Casing Pressure Operated Valves ................................ 124 Example Using Fluid Pressure Operated Valves ................................... 124 Example Using Casing Operated, Pilot Ported Valve ........................... 125 Compression Requirements and Impact on Gas Lift Design ............... 129
Construction of Equilibrium Curves ........................................................ 129
Intermittent Gas Lift .............................................................. 131

Design Types ................................................................................................ 132
Gas Lift Optimization ............................................................ 134

Performance Curve for a Gas Lifted Well ............................................... 134 Gas Lift Optimization Per Field ................................................................. 135
Nomenclature and Units ........................................................ 140

EXERCISES Gas Lift Valve Design And Operation................................ 142
Chapter 3 - Gas Lift System Operation, Analysis and Trouble Shooting ................................................................................... 144 General Considerations ........................................................ 144
Initial Unloading Procedure for Continuous Flow Gas Lift Wells ........ 144 Initial Unloading Procedure for Intermittent Gas Lift Wells ................ 145
Adjustment Procedures ......................................................... 146

Continuous Gas Lift Wells Where Supply Gas Pressure is Constant . 146 Continuous Gas Lift Wells Where Supply Gas Pressure Fluctuates ... 147 Intermittent Wells Equipped with a Time Cycle Controller ................. 147 Adjustment of Intermittent Gas Lift Wells on Choke Control ............. 148
Trouble Shooting .................................................................... 149

Two-Pen Pressure Recorder Charts ........................................................ 149 Flowing Pressure Surveys .......................................................................... 151 Trouble shooting by analyzing gas flow rate and WHP charts .............. 153 Running Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure / Temperature Survey ......... 155 Recommended Practices for Wells That Produce Sand ........................ 156 Location of Gas Lift Problem Areas ......................................................... 156
EXERCISES .................................................................................................. 164 Answers For Exercises.................................................................................. 167

Exercises -Types of Gas Lift Completions .............................................. 167 Exercises - Gas Lift Valve Design And Operation ................................. 167 Exercises - Analysis and Trouble Shooting ............................................. 168
References..................................................................................................... 172
Volume III - Table of Contents

MODULE - PE 400 - RESERVOIR AND WELL MONITORING 1 RESERVOIR ENGINEERING - PE 401 .................................... 3
Chapter 1 - Requirements For Petroleum Accumulation........... 5

Sandstone Reservoirs ..................................................................................... 5 Carbonate Reservoirs .................................................................................... 7 Geologic Interpretations ................................................................................ 7
Chapter 2 - Reservoir Characterization ...................................... 8 Chapter 3 - Reservoir Management ........................................... 10 Reservoir Management Goals................................................ 10 Reservoir Engineering Data Sources .................................... 10
Calculations from Well Logs ........................................................................ 10 Calculations from Well Tests ....................................................................... 10 Core Analyses ................................................................................................ 10 Reservoir Fluids Data ................................................................................... 10 Production Data ............................................................................................. 11
Basic Reservoir Parameters ................................................... 11

Porosity ........................................................................................................... 11 Permeability .................................................................................................... 12 Saturation ........................................................................................................ 13 Capillary Pressure ......................................................................................... 13 Relative Permeability .................................................................................... 14 Mobility Ratio ................................................................................................ 15 Reservoir Pressure ....................................................................................... 15 Reservoir Temperature ................................................................................ 16
Chapter 4 - Characterization Of Reservoir Fluids ................... 17

Reservoir Fluid Behavior ............................................................................ 17 Characteristics of Formation Water ............................................................ 17
Chapter 5 - Reservoir Drive Mechanisms ................................. 20
Solution Gas Drive ........................................................................................ 20 Gas-Cap Drive ................................................................................................ 21 Water Drive .................................................................................................... 22 Gravity Drainage ............................................................................................ 23 Improved Oil Recovery ................................................................................ 24 Gas Reservoirs .............................................................................................. 24
Chapter 6 - Reservoir Engineering Calculations ...................... 25

Darcys Law .................................................................................................... 25 Calculation of Oil in Place ............................................................................ 25 Material Balance ........................................................................................... 26 Waterflooding and Recovery Efficiency ..................................................... 26 Volumetric Sweep Efficiency ........................................................................ 27 Displacement Efficiency ............................................................................... 27
Chapter 7 - Reservoir Performance Prediction ........................ 28 Prediction of Performance Potential ..................................... 28

Selection of the Best Development Plan ................................................... 28 Simulation ....................................................................................................... 28 Reservoir Models ......................................................................................... 29
PRODUCTION LOGGING - PE 402 ........................................ 31

Introduction .............................................................................. 33 The Logging Tools ................................................................... 33 The Pressure Control Equipment .......................................... 34 Operational and Safety Guidelines ........................................ 37 Data Quality Validation ........................................................... 40
Spinner ............................................................................................................ 40 Temperature ................................................................................................... 41 Caliper ............................................................................................................. 41 Density ............................................................................................................ 41 Capacitance .................................................................................................... 41
Quick-Look Interpretation ..................................................... 43

Total Flowrate Calculation ........................................................................... 43
PRESSURE TRANSIENT TESTING - PE 403 ....................... 47

TABLE OF CONTENTS: VOLUME III
Chapter 1 - Introduction to Well Testing ................................... 49

What is a Well Test? ..................................................................................... 49 What is Openhole Testing? ..................................................................... 49 What is Barefoot Testing? ....................................................................... 49 What is Casedhole Testing? .................................................................... 49 Well Test Applications and Objectives ...................................................... 50
Chapter 2 - Analysis of Well Tests .............................................. 51 Basic Concepts ......................................................................... 51

Radius of Investigation ................................................................................. 51 Skin Factor ...................................................................................................... 51 Wellbore Storage ........................................................................................... 52 Steady State ..................................................................................................... 53 Diffusivity Equation ....................................................................................... 53
Semi-Log Plot ........................................................................... 54 Derivative .................................................................................. 54

Derivative Computation ............................................................................... 54 Derivative Plot for Build Up Tests ............................................................. 55
Chapter 3 - Vertical Well Testing ................................................ 56 Build-Up Test ............................................................................ 56

Analysis of Build-up Data ............................................................................. 56 Drawdown Test .............................................................................................. 56 Injection Test ................................................................................................. 57 Fall-Off Test .................................................................................................... 57 Interference Test ........................................................................................... 57
Flow Regimes ........................................................................... 58

Radial flow Regime ........................................................................................ 58 Spherical flow Regime .................................................................................. 58 Linear flow Regime ....................................................................................... 58 Bilinear Flow Regime ................................................................................... 58 Flow Regimes Due to Boundaries .............................................................. 58
Chapter 4 - Special Topics ........................................................... 61 Horizontal Well Testing ........................................................... 61

Horizontal Flow Regimes ............................................................................. 61
Wellbore Dynamics .................................................................. 63 Time Functions ......................................................................... 64

Case 1: Infinite-Acting Reservoir: ............................................................. 64
Case 2: A Well Near a Boundary: ............................................................... 65
Chapter 5 - Field Examples ......................................................... 66

Horizontal Well .............................................................................................. 66 Spherical Flow (-1/2) ..................................................................................... 66 Well Intersecting a Fracture ........................................................................ 67 Well Near a Conductive Fault ...................................................................... 67 Linear Composite Reservoir ....................................................................... 68 Interference Test ........................................................................................... 68
References................................................................................. 69 WELL RATE TESTING - PE 404 .............................................. 71

Purpose of Well Rate Testing ................................................. 73 Chapter 1 - Metering Devices...................................................... 73 Metering Devices ..................................................................... 73
Turbine Meters .............................................................................................. 73 Orifice Meters ............................................................................................... 73 Orifice Meter Components ......................................................................... 75 Net Oil Detectors .......................................................................................... 75 Mass Flowmeters .......................................................................................... 76
Chapter 2 - Standard Testing Procedures .................................. 77

Factors Affecting Test Validity ..................................................................... 77 2-Phase Testing ............................................................................................. 78
Calculating Fluid and Gas Rates from Test Trap Data ...... 78 SCALE - PE 405 ........................................................................... 81
Chapter 1 - Types Of Oil Field Scales ................................... 83

Field And Lab Examination Of Scales ........................................................ 86
Chapter 2 - Scale Inspection, Removal And Inhibition ............ 91

Scale Inspection Guidelines ......................................................................... 91 Scale Data In The Well Data Base .............................................................. 91 Scale Removal Guidelines ............................................................................ 92 Descaling Using Acid .................................................................................... 93
Scale Inhibition Squeeze Treatment ...................................... 95
Introduction To Inhibitors ............................................................................ 95
Theory Of Scale Inhibition...................................................... 95

Introduction .................................................................................................... 95 Adsorption ...................................................................................................... 96 Saudi Aramco Inhibitor Treatment Methods ............................................ 97 Downhole ........................................................................................................ 97 Inhibitor Return Monitoring Guidelines ................................................. 100 Encapsulated Scale Inhibitor Treatment Guidelines ............................. 100
Sample Descaling & SIS Program ...................................... 102 Sample Program: SIS Only ................................................... 109 Sample Encapsulated Scale Inhibitor Program ................. 113 CORROSION - PE 406 ............................................................. 117
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals Of Corrosion Mechanisms .......... 119 Electrochemical Corrosion ................................................... 119
Galvanic Corrosion ...................................................................................... 119 Crevice Corrosion ....................................................................................... 120 Pitting Corrosion ......................................................................................... 121 Intergranular Corrosion ............................................................................. 121
Chemical Corrosion ............................................................... 121

Direct Attack ................................................................................................ 121 H2S Attack .................................................................................................... 121 CO2 Attack ................................................................................................... 122 Hydrogen Attack ......................................................................................... 122 Bacterial Attack ........................................................................................... 123 Effect of Dissolved Oxygen ....................................................................... 124
Mechanical Corrosion ........................................................... 124

Stress ............................................................................................................. 124 Erosion .......................................................................................................... 124
Chapter 2 - Corrosion Protection Methods ............................. 125 Chemical Methods ................................................................. 125
Chemicals ..................................................................................................... 125 Placement Method ...................................................................................... 125
Cathodic Protection ............................................................... 126 Chapter 3 - Corrosion Monitoring Techniques ....................... 128
Caliper Profile Devices ............................................................................... 128 Electromagnetic Devices ........................................................................... 128 Ultrasonic Devices ...................................................................................... 128
EXCERCISE ................................................................................................. 129 References..................................................................................................... 131
WELL INTEGRITY - PE 407 ................................................... 133

Introduction ............................................................................ 135 Temperature Surveys ............................................................. 135

Procedure ..................................................................................................... 135 Interpretation ............................................................................................... 137
Annuli Surveys ........................................................................ 140

Procedure ..................................................................................................... 141 Analysis ......................................................................................................... 141
Static Bottomhole Pressure Surveys (SBHP) ..................... 143

Analysis ......................................................................................................... 144
Surface Sampling ................................................................... 147

Analysis ......................................................................................................... 148
EXERCISES .................................................................................................. 150
(PI and SCADA SYSTEMS - PE 408 ....................................... 153

Chapter 1 - The SCADA System ............................................... 155 Utilization of SCADA ............................................................. 155 SCADA System Functions ..................................................... 155
Field Devices ............................................................................................... 157
Chapter 2 - The PI System ......................................................... 160 How to Create PI-ProcessBook ........................................... 160
Advantages of a Client/Server Environment .......................................... 160 How to Create a ProcessBook .................................................................. 160 How to Create a Trend ............................................................................... 162
Using PI-ProcessBook ........................................................... 165

How to Launch a Display ............................................................................ 165 Using Trends ................................................................................................ 166 Connecting to Other Database .................................................................. 168
MODULE - PE 500 - STIMULATION AND DAMAGE REMOV AL . 169 ACIDIZING - PE 501 ................................................................. 171
Chapter 1 - Introduction............................................................. 173 Chapter 2 - Candidate Selection ............................................... 174

Candidate Selection Chapter 2 Review........................................................ 177
Chapter 3 - Formation Damage ................................................ 178

Fines .............................................................................................................. 179 Non swelling Clays ...................................................................................... 179 Swelling Clays .............................................................................................. 180 Mixed Layer Clays ...................................................................................... 181 Organic Deposits ......................................................................................... 181 Paraffin ........................................................................................................... 181 Asphaltene .................................................................................................... 181 Scale ............................................................................................................... 182 Mixed Deposits ........................................................................................... 182 Induced Solids .............................................................................................. 182 Emulsion Blocks .......................................................................................... 182 Drilling or Completion ................................................................................ 183 Wettability Changes .................................................................................... 183 Water blocks ................................................................................................. 183 Bacteria ......................................................................................................... 183
Formation Damage Chapter 3 Review ......................................................... 184
Chapter 4 - Acid Chemistry ....................................................... 185

Carbonate Acidizing Chemistry ................................................................. 185 Carbonate Acid Chemistry ......................................................................... 185 Carbonate Reaction Rate-Factors ............................................................ 186 Sandstone Acidizing Chemistry ................................................................. 187 Reaction Byproducts ................................................................................... 187 Methods of Controlling Precipitation ....................................................... 189 Reaction Rate-Factors ................................................................................ 190
Acid Chemistry Chapter 4 Review ............................................................... 191
Chapter 5 - Fluid Selection ........................................................ 193

Carbonate Acidizing .................................................................................... 193
Sandstone Acidizing ..................................................................................... 193
Additive Selection ................................................................... 195

Surfactant ...................................................................................................... 195 Iron Control .................................................................................................. 198 Corrosion Inhibitors ................................................................................... 199 Non-emulsifiers ............................................................................................ 200 Anti-sludge Agents ...................................................................................... 200 Clay Control ................................................................................................. 201 Alcohols ........................................................................................................ 201 Mutual Solvents ........................................................................................... 201 Friction Reducers ........................................................................................ 201 Foaming Agents ........................................................................................... 201 Chemical Diverters ..................................................................................... 201
Placement and Diversion....................................................... 202

Fluid Selection Chapter 5 Review ................................................................ 207
Chapter 6 - Treatment Design ................................................... 209

Injection Rate and Pressure limitations .................................................. 209 Acid Volume Requirements ....................................................................... 209 Treatment Design Techniques .................................................................. 210
Treatment Design Chapter 6 Review ........................................................... 211
Chapter 7 - Execution ................................................................. 212

Pre Job Guidelines ...................................................................................... 212 Pumping Guidelines .................................................................................... 212 Pumping Observations ............................................................................... 212 Flowback Guidelines ................................................................................... 212
Execution Chapter 7 Review ........................................................................ 215
Chapter 8 - Treatment Evaluation ............................................ 216

Monitoring Skin Evolution ......................................................................... 216 Treatment Response Diagnosis ................................................................ 218
Treatment Evaluation Chapter 8 Review ..................................................... 221
Chapter 9 - Damage Testing and Diagnosis ............................ 223

Water Analysis .............................................................................................. 224 Emulsion ....................................................................................................... 224 Emulsion Testing ......................................................................................... 224 Sludge Testing .............................................................................................. 225
Damage Testing and Diagnosis Chapter 9 Review ..................................... 226
Glossary........................................................................................ 228 Appendix ....................................................................................... 230 Inhibitor Testing ..................................................................... 230

Metal Loss: .................................................................................................. 230 Pitting: ........................................................................................................... 230 Acid Dilution ................................................................................................. 230 Increasing Acid Concentration .................................................................. 231
Names Or Forms Of Common Minerals ............................ 233 Minerals - Source Halliburton Minerals Handbook ............... 234
References .................................................................................................... 240
Chapter Review Answer Key........................................................................ 241
HYDRAULIC FRACTURING - PE 502 .................................. 247

Chapter 1 - Introduction............................................................. 249 Chapter 2 - Rock Mechanics ..................................................... 250 In-situ Stresses Origin ........................................................... 250
Overburden effect ....................................................................................... 250 Temperature Effects ................................................................................... 251 Stress Barriers Height Confinement .................................................... 251 Secondary Fractures Natural fractures ................................................. 251 In Situ Stress Measurement ...................................................................... 252
Rock Mechanics Chapter 2 Review............................................................. 253
Chapter 3 - Fracturing Fluid Chemistry And Proppant ......... 255 Fluid Chemistry ...................................................................... 255
Fracturing Fluids ......................................................................................... 255 Breakers ....................................................................................................... 256 Crosslinkers ................................................................................................. 256 Buffers ........................................................................................................... 257 Biocides ........................................................................................................ 257 Surfactants .................................................................................................... 257 Fluid Loss Additives ................................................................................... 257 Proppant ........................................................................................................ 257
Conductivity Impairment....................................................... 258
Closure Stress .............................................................................................. 258 Proppant Particle Size ................................................................................. 259 Proppant Concentration ............................................................................. 259 Proppant Crushing ...................................................................................... 259 Fracture Gel Damage .................................................................................. 259
Fracturing Fluid Chemistry and Proppant Chapter 3 Review ..................... 261
Chapter 4 - Basics Of Acid Fracturing..................................... 263 Acid Fracturing Fundamentals ............................................ 263
Acid Penetration Distance ......................................................................... 263 Effect of Acid Fluid Loss Rate ................................................................... 264 Effect of Fracture Width ............................................................................. 264 Effect of Injection Rate ............................................................................... 265 Effect of Temperature ................................................................................. 265 Effect of Formation Type ............................................................................ 266 Effect of Acid and Additives ....................................................................... 266 Fracture Conductivity ................................................................................. 268
Basics of Acid Fracturing Chapter 4 Review ............................................... 270
Chapter 5 - Acid Fracturing Design ......................................... 272

Acid Leakoff ................................................................................................. 272 Acid fracturing Techniques ........................................................................ 272 Acid Fracture Treatment Design .............................................................. 273
Acid fracturing Design Chapter 5 Review ................................................... 275
Chapter 6 - Basics Of Hydraulic Fracturing ........................... 276 Hydraulic Fracturing Fundamentals ................................... 276
Fracture Models .......................................................................................... 276 Fluid Leakoff ................................................................................................ 276 Perforating Requirements .......................................................................... 277 Perforation Interval Effects ....................................................................... 277 Wellbore Orientation Effects on Perforations ......................................... 278 Proppant Slug effects on Perforations ...................................................... 278 Perforating Phasing ..................................................................................... 278
Flowback Strategies .............................................................. 279

Proppant Flowback Control ....................................................................... 279 Flowback Guidelines ................................................................................... 281
Basics of Hydraulic Fracturing Chapter 6 Review ...................................... 282
Chapter 7 - Fracture Treatment Design .................................. 284
Fracture Treatment Design Methodology .......................... 284

General Data Requirements ...................................................................... 284 Reservoir Stress Levels ............................................................................. 284 Mechanical Considerations ....................................................................... 285 Other Design Considerations .................................................................... 286 Fracture Design ........................................................................................... 287
Fracture Treatment Design Chapter 7 Review............................................ 289
Chapter 8 - Fracture Evaluation ............................................... 291 Datafrac Analysis ................................................................... 291 Pressure Interpretation Techniques..................................... 292
Horner Plot ................................................................................................... 292 Step Rate Test .............................................................................................. 292 Pressure Decline ......................................................................................... 292 Shut in Decline Test .................................................................................... 292 Step Down Testing ....................................................................................... 293
Formation Pressure Response ............................................. 293

Treating Pressure Mode ............................................................................ 293 Classification of Treating Pressure Behavior ......................................... 295
Post Fracture Pressure Decline Analysis ............................ 301

Fracture Evaluation Chapter 8 Review ........................................................ 302
Chapter 9 - Fracturing Operations ........................................... 304 Pre-Job Planning and Execution .......................................... 304
Pre Job Guidelines ...................................................................................... 304 Pumping Guidelines .................................................................................... 304 Pumping Observations ............................................................................... 304 Flowback Guidelines ................................................................................... 304
Fracture Equipment ............................................................... 304

Fracturing Equipment on Location ........................................................... 304 Determination of hydraulic horsepower requirements .......................... 305 Calculating proppant stages ....................................................................... 305 Calculating liquid additive rate .................................................................. 306 Calculating dry additive rate ...................................................................... 306
Fracturing Operations Chapter 9 Review .................................................... 310
Appendix ....................................................................................... 311

Sampling procedures ................................................................................... 313 Bulk Density ................................................................................................. 313
Apparent Specific Gravity .......................................................................... 313 Sieve Analysis .............................................................................................. 314 Roundness and Sphericity .......................................................................... 314 Acid Solubility .............................................................................................. 315 Crush Resistance ........................................................................................ 316
Chapter Review Answer Key........................................................................ 317
Rock Mechanics Chapter 2 Review .................................... 317 Fracturing Fluid Chemistry and Proppant Chapter 3 Review ... 317 Basics of Acid fracturing Chapter 4 Review ...................... 318 Acid Fracturing Design Chapter 5 Review......................... 318 Basics of Hydraulic Fracturing Chapter 6 Review ........... 319 Fracture treatment Design Chapter 7 Review ................... 320 Fracture evaluation Chapter 8 Review ............................... 320 Fracturing Operations Chapter 9 Review .......................... 321
References..................................................................................................... 322
Volume IV - Table of Contents

MODULE - PE 600 - WELL INTERVENTION ........................ 1 WATER SHUT-OFF - PE 601 ....................................................... 3
LESSON OBJECTIVES ................................................................................... 4 Introduction .................................................................................................... 5
Problems Associated With Water Production ............................................. 5 Problem Identification .................................................................................... 5 Concept Of Water Production Control ......................................................... 6 Water Problem Identification ......................................................................... 6 Water Diagnostic Plots ................................................................................... 7
Candidate Recognition (Selection Criteria) ................................................. 8

Methodology .................................................................................................. 10
Water Control Solutions .............................................................................. 10 Mechanical Techniques ............................................................................... 10

Through-Tubing Bridge Plug ....................................................................... 11 Cement plugs ................................................................................................. 12
Chemical Techniques ................................................................................... 12

Polymer-based Systems ................................................................................ 12 Inorganic Gel Systems .................................................................................. 13 Resin-Based Systems ................................................................................... 13
Lateral Wells ................................................................................................ 13 Post-Job Evaluation ..................................................................................... 13
WELL LIVENING - PE 602 ........................................................ 15

LESSON OBJECTIVES ................................................................................. 16 Introduction .................................................................................................. 17 Concept Of Well Livening ........................................................................... 17 Methods Of Livening .................................................................................. 17
Lowering HPTT Pressure ............................................................................ 17 Flowing to Flare Pit ....................................................................................... 17 Swabbing ......................................................................................................... 17 Nitrogen Lifting ............................................................................................. 20
Example ........................................................................................................... 21
WELL CONTROL - PE 603 ....................................................... 23

Chapter 1 - Capacity and Displacement .................................... 25

Pipe or Hole Capacity ................................................................................... 25 Annular Capacity ........................................................................................... 25 Displacement .................................................................................................. 26
Review Problems Capacity and Displacement ........................................... 27
Chapter 2 - Fluid Gradient and Hydrostatic Pressure ............. 28

Review Problems Fluid Gradient and Hydrostatic Pressure...................... 29
Chapter 3 - Kick Theory .............................................................. 30

Influx Identification ....................................................................................... 30 Kick Influx Calculations (Length and Density) ........................................ 31 Influx Calculations (Example Problem) ..................................................... 31 The General Gas Law ................................................................................... 32 Gas Expansion ................................................................................................ 33
Review Problems Kick Theory .................................................................... 35
Chapter 4 - Well Control Methods ............................................. 36

Introduction .................................................................................................. 36
Documenting Well Control ........................................................................... 36
Circulating Techniques ................................................................................ 36

Choke Response ........................................................................................... 37 Drillers Method ............................................................................................ 38 Wait and Weight Method .............................................................................. 38 Concurrent Method ...................................................................................... 39
Non-Circulating Techniques ........................................................................ 39

Volumetric Methods of Well Control ......................................................... 39 Lubricate & Bleed Method ......................................................................... 40 Bullheading ..................................................................................................... 40
Review Problems Well Control Methods .................................................... 41
Chapter 5 - Using The Kill Fluid Worksheet ............................. 42 Chapter 6 - Well Control For Coiled Tubing Operations ........ 46 Chapter 7 - Coiled Tubing BOP Operation ............................... 47
Closing and Locking the BOP Rams .......................................................... 47
TABLE OF CONTENTS: VOLUME IV
Unlocking and Opening the BOP Rams .................................................... 47
Chapter 8 - Wellsite Pressure Testing ........................................ 48

Surface Lines .................................................................................................. 48 BOP Bodies and Sealing Rams ................................................................... 48 CT String, BOP Stack, Strippers, and BHA Check Valves ..................... 48 BOP Pipe Rams ............................................................................................. 49
Chapter 9 - CT Pressure Control Equipment Stacks (BOPs) . 50 COILED TUBING - PE 604 ........................................................ 59
Chapter 1 - Introduction............................................................... 61
Coiled Tubing History .................................................................................. 61 CT Advantages and Disadvantages ............................................................ 61 CT Manufacturing ....................................................................................... 63 CTU Equipment ........................................................................................... 64
CT Injector ..................................................................................................... 64 Tubing Guide Arch ........................................................................................ 65 Service Reel ................................................................................................... 65 Control Consol ............................................................................................... 66 Power Pack ..................................................................................................... 66 BOP Stack ....................................................................................................... 66 Strippers .......................................................................................................... 66 BOP Rams ...................................................................................................... 68
CT Downhole Tools ..................................................................................... 69

Primary Tools ................................................................................................. 69 Support Tools ................................................................................................. 70 Functional Tools ............................................................................................. 70
Chapter 2 - Coiled Tubing Functions.......................................... 71

Pumping Applications ................................................................................... 71
Well Kickoff .................................................................................................... 71 Matrix Stimulation Treatment ..................................................................... 72 Plugging and Squeezing with Cement ........................................................ 72 Fill Cleanout ................................................................................................... 73
Mechanical Applications ............................................................................. 73

CT Conveyed Logging ................................................................................. 73 CT Completions ............................................................................................. 74
Fishing ............................................................................................................. 74 CT Drilling ...................................................................................................... 74
Chapter 3 - CT Operational and Safety Considerations ......... 75

CT Operating Limits .................................................................................... 75
Pressure and Tension ................................................................................... 75 Diameter and Ovality .................................................................................... 75 Bend Cycle Fatigue and Stresses ............................................................... 75 CT Drag Analysis ........................................................................................... 76
Pre-Job Planning .......................................................................................... 76

Pre-Job Information ...................................................................................... 76 Pre-Job Meetings .......................................................................................... 76
Safety Consderations During CT Conveyed Logging ............................... 77

CT Deployment .............................................................................................. 77 Cable Slack ..................................................................................................... 77 Injector Head Alignment .............................................................................. 78 Isolation Barriers .......................................................................................... 78 Pressure and Function Tests ....................................................................... 79
MODULE - PE 700 - GENERAL PRODUCTION ENGINEERING . 81 GENERAL PRODUCTION ENGINEERING GUIDELINES - PE 701 . 83
Chapter 1 - Production Engineering Mission ............................ 85

Introduction .................................................................................................. 85
Mission statement ......................................................................................... 85
Mission Objective # 1 .................................................................................. 85 Meeting Production/Injection Targets ........................................................ 85 Plant Capacity Tests (GOSP, WIP & SWD) ............................................... 88
GOSP Capacity Test ...................................................................................... 88 SWD System Capacity Test .......................................................................... 88 WIP Capacity Test ......................................................................................... 89
Mission Objective #2 ................................................................................... 89 Ensure well bore integrity ........................................................................... 89

Static Temperature Profile ........................................................................... 89 Base Temperature Surveys ......................................................................... 90 Routine Temperature Surveys .................................................................... 90 Annuli Surveys ............................................................................................... 90 Wellhead Valve Greasing and Integrity Tests ........................................... 93
Well Safety System Performance Tests ...................................................... 93
Mission Objective # 3 .................................................................................. 94 Data Gathering ............................................................................................ 94

Reservoir Engineering Well Services Requirements ............................. 94 Static Bottom Hole Pressure Surveys ........................................................ 95 SBHP Records and Responsibilities .......................................................... 95 Productivity Index(PI) Tests ....................................................................... 95 Rate Testing ................................................................................................... 96
Chapter 2 - Routine Functions and Responsibilities ................ 97

Guidelines For Writing Well Programs ..................................................... 101
Recommended Format ............................................................................... 101
Non Routine General Procedures ............................................................. 102
Chapter 3 - Interaction With Different Organizations ........... 103

Reservoir Engineering (RMD) ................................................................. 103 Drilling and Workover Engineering (D&WOED) .................................. 103 Producing Operations ................................................................................. 103 Reservoir Description and Simulation Department (RD&SD) ............ 103 Lab Research and Development Center (LR&DC) .............................. 104 Exploration and Producing Facilities and Technology Department (E&PF&TD) ................................................................................................. 104 Exploration Computer Center/Production Engineering Application Services Department (ECC/PEASD) ....................................................... 104 Other Organizations .................................................................................... 104
ECONOMIC EVALUATION - PE 702 .................................... 105

Chapter 1 - The Fundamental Concepts .................................. 107

Definition of Economics ............................................................................. 108
Why is Economic Evaluation Important? ................................................. 108 Basic Steps .................................................................................................... 108
Exercises........................................................................................................ 111
Exercise 1: .....................................................................................................111 Exercise 2: .....................................................................................................111
Chapter 2 - The Critical Components ...................................... 112

Production Scheduling Techniques ........................................................... 112 Price Escalation and Inflation .................................................................... 114
Ownership Interests ................................................................................... 116 Operating Expenses ................................................................................... 117 Economic Limit ............................................................................................ 117 Capital Investments and Depreciation ..................................................... 118
Exercises........................................................................................................ 119
Chapter-3 - The Common Yardsticks ....................................... 120

Yardsticks Associated with Cash Flow ..................................................... 120 Yardsticks Using Time ................................................................................ 121 Discount Methods and Timing .................................................................. 124 Ideal Yardstick .............................................................................................. 125 Selecting Criteria ......................................................................................... 125 Example ........................................................................................................ 127
Exercises........................................................................................................ 130
NEW TECHNOLOGIES - PE 703........................................... 133

Chapter 1 - Remote Data Gathering And Processing ............ 135

Equipment Description ............................................................................... 135 Applications Within Saudi Aramco ............................................................ 136
Exercise ......................................................................................................... 137
Chapter 2 - Permanent Downhole Monitoring ........................ 138

System Description ..................................................................................... 138 Future Applications Within Saudi Aramco ............................................... 139
Exercise ......................................................................................................... 140
Chapter 3 - Intelligent Wells ...................................................... 141

Equipment Description ............................................................................... 141 Future Applications ..................................................................................... 141
Exercise ......................................................................................................... 142
Chapter 4 - Multi-Phase Pumping and Metering .................... 143

Multi-Phase Pumping ................................................................................ 143
Field Testing ................................................................................................. 143 Future Applications ..................................................................................... 143
Multi-Phase Flow Meters (MPFMs) ........................................................ 144

Field Testing ................................................................................................. 144 Future Applications ..................................................................................... 145
Exercise ......................................................................................................... 146
Chapter 5 - Downhole Oil / Water Separation ........................ 147

Equipment Description ............................................................................... 147 Application .................................................................................................... 147 Application Within Saudi Aramco .............................................................. 148
Exercise ......................................................................................................... 149
Chapter 6 - Expandable Tubular Technology .......................... 150

Applications .................................................................................................. 150 Future Development ................................................................................... 150
Exercise ......................................................................................................... 152
Chapter 7 - Corrosion Resistant Tubulars............................... 153

Exercise ......................................................................................................... 154
Chapter 8 - Coiled Tubing Technology ..................................... 155

Coiled Tubing Unit ...................................................................................... 155 Applications .................................................................................................. 155 Future Development ................................................................................... 156
Exercise ......................................................................................................... 157
SAFETY - PE 704 ....................................................................... 159

Chapter 1 - Zero Tolerance Program ....................................... 161

1. 2. 3. 4. Human Resources Development .......................................................... 161 Planning .................................................................................................... 162 Safe and Effective Job Execution ......................................................... 162 Post- Job Evaluation Continued Excellence .................................. 163
Accountability and Compliance ................................................................. 163
Chapter 2 - Field Jobs Safety Manual ...................................... 164

What-If Situations ................................................................................... 164
Situation Situation Situation Situation Situation Situation 1 ..................................................................................................... 164 2 ..................................................................................................... 164 3 ..................................................................................................... 165 4 ..................................................................................................... 165 5 ..................................................................................................... 165 6 ..................................................................................................... 166
Situation Situation Situation Situation Situation Situation Situation
7 ..................................................................................................... 166 8 ..................................................................................................... 167 9 ..................................................................................................... 167 10 ................................................................................................... 167 11 ................................................................................................... 168 12 ................................................................................................... 168 13 ................................................................................................... 169
Chapter-3 - Onshore Wellsite Safety ........................................ 170

Scope ............................................................................................................. 170 Definitions ..................................................................................................... 170
Determination of Rupture Exposure Radius (RER) ................................ 171

Wellsite Location - Populated Area .......................................................... 173 Population Analysis Procedure .................................................................. 175
Well Safety Valves and Wellsite Hardware .............................................. 175

Safety Valves for HP Gas Producing Wells .............................................. 176 Safety Valves on Oil Wells and Low Pressure Gas Wells ...................... 176
Appendix - Determining RER Of Oil And Gas Wells ............. 178

Introduction ................................................................................................ 178
Non-Associated Gas Fields ........................................................................ 178 Oil Fields ....................................................................................................... 178
Procedure for Determining RER of Gas Wells ........................................ 178

Example of RER for Gas Well ................................................................... 179 Procedure for Determining RER of Oil Wells ........................................ 179 Example of Oil Well RER Determination ................................................ 180 Method of Using RER Results ................................................................. 181
Gas Field RER Work Sheet ...................................................................... 184 Oil Field RER Work Sheet ........................................................................ 185
WELL DATABASE - PE 705 .................................................... 187

The Corporate Well Data Base ................................................. 189

Introduction ................................................................................................ 189
Benefits of an Accurate and Up-to-Date Corporate Well Data Base .. 191
Data Entry Responsibility ......................................................................... 192

Well Data Base Coordinators .................................................................... 192
Procedure For Retrieving Data ................................................................ 193
Responsibility Of Production Engineer .................................................... 193
MODULE - PE 800 - SURFACE FACILITIES ...................... 195 SURFACE FACILITIES - PE 801 ............................................ 197
Chapter 1 - Gas Oil Separation Plant (GOSP) ....................... 199

Terminology ............................................................................................... 199 Gas Oil Separation Plant Overview .......................................................... 199 Wet Crude Handling .................................................................................. 200
Flow Lines and Manifolds .......................................................................... 200 Gas/Oil/Water Separation ........................................................................... 201 Dehydration/Desalting Train and Oil Shipping ........................................ 203 Formation Water Collection and Disposal. .............................................. 206 Water Supply and Gas Lift. ......................................................................... 208 Chemical Injection ...................................................................................... 210
Gas Gathering ............................................................................................ 211

Low Pressure Gas Compression .............................................................. 211 High-Pressure Gas Compression. ............................................................ 212 Chemical Injection ...................................................................................... 214 Test Traps and Multi-Phase Flow Meters ............................................... 214
Off Shore Facilities .................................................................................... 216
Chapter 2 - Seawater Injection System ................................... 217

Overview of the Seawater Injection System ............................................ 217 Qurayyah Seawater Treatment Plant (QSWTP) ...................................... 218
Intake System .............................................................................................. 219 Above Grade Canal ..................................................................................... 219 Treatment Modules ..................................................................................... 220 Head Shipping Pump Area ......................................................................... 221 Pipeline System ............................................................................................ 221 Auxiliary Facilities ....................................................................................... 221
Uthmaniyah Water Supply Station (UWSS) and Surge Tanks ................. 222
Surge Tank Facilities .................................................................................. 223 Scraper Receiving Traps ............................................................................ 223 Main Pump Station ...................................................................................... 223 Transmission Lines ..................................................................................... 225 Auxiliary Facilities ....................................................................................... 225
Water Injection Pump Stations (WIPS) ..................................................... 226
Surge Relief Valves ..................................................................................... 226 Main Pump Station ...................................................................................... 227 Flank Headers .............................................................................................. 228 Auxiliary Facilities ....................................................................................... 228
Chapter 3 - Khuff Gas System .................................................. 230

Khuff Gas System Overview ..................................................................... 230 Wellhead Area ............................................................................................ 231 Remote Manifold ....................................................................................... 232 Central Manifold ....................................................................................... 232
Relief Valves and Burn Pit ......................................................................... 233 Production Manifold and Central Control Room ................................... 233 Test Manifold and Test Separator ............................................................. 234 Transmission Lines ..................................................................................... 234
MODULE - PE 100
WELL COMPLETIONS
Production Engineering School WELL COMPLETIONS PE 101
Saudi Aramco
LESSON OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this lesson, the student will understand the following: Well completion objectives, the design criteria for tubing and packers, and various considerations to develop an effective and versatile well completion design. Basic well completion types and typical well completions in Saudi Aramco for oil producers, water injection, and water supply wells. The function and design criteria for various types of tubulars casing and tubing. Various types of packers used in well completions. The function and types of surface and subsurface safety valves installed on a well near populated areas.
Well Completions
MODULE: WELL COMPLETIONS
Chapter 1 - Completion Design Criteria Introduction

The first oil wells were drilled with cable tools and casing was not usually run except near the top of the well. When an oil producing zone was encountered the well would fill with oil. If there was enough pressure, the oil would blow out and be allowed to produce in that manner. Safety and the environment were not considered. Completion decisions were much simpler years ago than they are today. For non-flowing wells the only logging tool available was the bailer. Cuttings were taken and a strip log was prepared from a visual examination of the cuttings. The fluid characteristics were evaluated. If hydrocarbons were present, then a pump would be run. Flowing wells were evaluated, usually some distance away from the rig, by estimating the height of the fluid above the crown after the tools were blown out of the hole. Completion methods have greatly improved since those days. With drilling costs exceeding millions of dollars per well, a good completion design is very important. Operators today are faced with a multitude of completion options and equipment to solve todays problems. Completion Objectives The basic well completion objectives are summarized as follows: Production/Injection: Completion design should enable efficient and cost effective production/injection of the well. Observation wells, which monitor reservoir parameters and do not normally produce, should be designed with the goal of obtaining the required reservoir data at a minimum cost. Completion design flexibility allows wells completed today the option for recompletion in the future, if required. Safety and Environment: Completion design should enable safe production/injection of the well with the least environmental impact as practical. It should be strong enough to withstand all of the forces and movements that occur during the life of the well since the completion string is the primary mechanism for containing the reservoir fluids and pressures. Reservoir Completion Interval The completion interval is decided by the reservoir engineer and reservoir geologist, often in consultation with the drilling/workover completion engineer. The completion engineer will require the following basic information about the completion interval: Interval Depth: Interval depth will affect the tensile properties of the completion string. Deep wells require long tubing strings with high tensile strengths to support the high axial loads near surface. Special weights and/or grades may be required. Premium tubing connections may be required instead of the standard API threads. Shallow wells can normally be accommodated with relatively light weight, low grade tubulars with standard EUE tubing connections. Reservoir Pressure: Reservoir pressure will affect the pressure rating of the completion string. High pressures dictate higher tubing weights and/or grades. Premium connections with metal-to-metal seals may be required. Along with interval pressure, the interval permeability can be used to determine the well producibility. The fluid production rate can be estimated and used to determine the tubing size required.
Well Completions
Reservoir Temperature: Reservoir temperature may require special elastomers for the tubing and packer seals. Deep, hot wells require tubing movement and stretch calculations to determine seal movement, buckling, and tubing-to-packer forces during the different modes of operation. Reservoir Fluid: Reservoir fluid will influence the size of the tubing string. Some oil producers with a high water cut have died due to the low velocity in large tubing strings. A smaller tubing will maintain a higher velocity and carry the water out of the well more effectively. High rate gas wells, such as the Khuff, have required large tubing sizes to stay below the erosional velocity limit. Reservoir Fluid Chemistry: Reservoir fluid may contain corrosive agents or hydrogen sulfide. Completion metallurgy and yield strength may require adjustment for these conditions. Completion Tubing Design Considerations The tubing string provides a conduit between the reservoir and wellhead. Since the tubing string is retrievable, it can be recovered and repaired or replaced as necessary. For oil and gas producers, the tubing string is normally accompanied with a production packer. Most water injectors, on the other hand, do not have any tubing at all. The exceptions are the horizontal injectors that have a tubing string which acts as a coiled tubing guide string. Coiled tubing operations are required on the horizontal water injectors to run logs and perform stimulation work. Calculations show that without this guide string, coiled tubing would buckle and not be able to reach the total depth of the well. When designing a tubing string the following areas are addressed:
Tubing Diameter: Tubing diameter is determined from well deliverability calculations, which show the relationship between reservoir pressure, permeability, flowing bottom hole pressure, flowing wellhead pressure, and production rate. The need for large formation fracture treatments may dictate that larger size tubing be set in a well. The maximum tubing size that can be accommodated is dictated by the size of the production casing. New wells with 9-5/8" casing can accommodate 7" tubing, however older wells, which have had 4-1/2" liners run, are normally restricted to 2-3/8" tubing. Tubing Connection Types: Tubing connection types can be standard API or a premium type connection. Low pressure, shallow wells typically receive inexpensive 8 Round or EUE (external upset end) connections. Although most Saudi Aramco completions that have 3-1/2" (or less) tubing have EUE connections, some Khuff gas completions have a 3-1/2" premium connection to contain the high pressure and axial load. Most oil and gas producers in Saudi Aramco are equipped with 4-1/2" tubing. These wells have standardized on the VAM premium connection due to its superior sealing capability and joint strength. Tubing Metallurgy: Tubing metallurgy is important in corrosive or H2S environments. For Saudi Aramco the L-80 grade is a common tubing grade, which has good corrosion and H2S resistance for typical oil and gas producers. Completion Packer Design Considerations Completion packers isolate the producing reservoir from the casing and allow the tubing casing annulus to be filled with a corrosion resistant packer fluid to prolong the life of the production casing. There are three basic types of packers to choose from:
Well Completions
Permanent Packers: Permanent packers can be set either by drill pipe or wireline and are retrieved from the hole by milling operations. These packers are common in corrosive, deep, or high pressure applications. Retrievable Packers: Retrievable packers can be set with either the tubing or drill pipe and are retrieved with either the tubing or drill pipe. These packers are common in shallow, non-corrosive, light duty applications. Polished Bore Receptacle (PBR): A PBR completion is a specially honed seal nipple that is run as part of a liner or casing string. This type of completion eliminates the need for a production packer. The completion tubing seal assembly is stung into the PBR, which is anchored in the wellbore (usually at the top of the liner hanger). Several Khuff gas completions are equipped with a PBR. Wireline Completion Design Considerations Wireline completion items are common in modern wells. Sliding sleeves, which can be opened or closed by wireline tools, simplify procedures to circulate a well during workovers. Landing nipples in the tubing and tailpipe permit flow control, or accommodate production instruments. Wireline tools can be used to run and land Amerada bombs, which are often required during well testing operations. Subsurface safety valves are used extensively offshore that will safely shut in the well down hole in the event of mechanical problems at the wellhead or on the production platform. Completion Flexibility Considerations It is important to consider well completions options that may be required in the future. Some of these are:
Production Testing: Will production tests be carried out in the future and will landing nipples and a perforated joint be required to accommodate the Amerada pressure bombs? Through-Tubing Operations: As the oil/water contact rises will through-tubing bridge plugs (or other tools) be used and will the completion be able to accommodate them? Will additional perforations be made and is the completion packer and tailpipe positioned so as not to obstruct the perforating operation? Recompletion Flexibility: In many cases a well completed as a producer today may be used as an observation well in the future when the flood front advances. Will the completion be able to satisfy the requirements later as an observation well? Is the tubing, packer and tailpipe large enough to accommodate the future logging tools? Large diameter logging tools (such as the 3-5/8" Carbon-Oxygen log) are run on many of the observation wells. Stimulation: Will the completion accommodate future stimulation pressures and temperature changes? This was a major consideration for Saudi Aramcos Khuff gas completion program. Sand Cleanout: Will the completion accommodate possible coiled tubing and sand cleanout operations? Reservoir Changes: Will the completion account for possible increases in gas/oil or water/oil ratios?
Well Completions
Chapter 2 - Well Completion Types Introduction

Several types of well completions exist in Saudi Aramco oil fields. Completion types can be categorized as to the way the well is completed through the reservoir. This can be either open hole or cased hole. In the cased hole category, several types exist including cemented casing, cemented liner, slotted (or preperforated) liner, screen liner, and gravel pack. Completion types can be further categorized as to the well function. This can be oil producers, gas producers, water supply, power water injectors, gravity water injectors, salt water disposal, and observation wells. Some of these can be further broken down into subcategories such as vertical, deviated, or horizontal producers, and water injectors. Completion types can also be categorized as to the type of production configuration. This can include single completions, dual (or multiple) completions, single packer, or multiple packer configurations. These completions can range in complexity from a simple packer-less completion to a complicated multiple gas lift design with all types of selective and non-selective nipples (and other equipment) above and below the production packer assembly. The above categories can be mixed and matched in several ways to make many different completion combinations. In this chapter many well completion types will be reviewed and the Saudi Aramco completions will be emphasized.
PRODUCTION CASING
CASING SHOE
PAY ZONE
OPEN HOLE
Figure 1: Openhole Completion Advantages: 1. A low cost completion alternative. 2. Elimination of perforating expense and production restriction caused by the perforations. 3. After setting casing above the producing zone, a new non-damaging mud can be made up to drill the pay zone. The mud weight and chemistry may be controlled to minimize formation damage within the zone of interest. 4. Log interpretation is not critical as the entire pay zone is open to production and no perforations are required. 5. Maximum well bore diameter is opposite pay zone. 6. Deepening of well is easily accomplished. 7. Easily converted to other types of completions (i.e. liner completions). Disadvantages: 1. Excessive gas or water production is difficult to control. 2. The production casing is set before the objective horizon is drilled. The extent of the pay zone is not known until the next hole section is drilled. 3. The producing interval cannot be selectively stimulated.
Basic Completion Types

Two basic categories of well completions are open hole and cased hole. Open Hole Completions The open hole completion has the production casing set above the zone of interest. The well is completed with the producing interval open to the well bore (see Figure 1).
Well Completions
4. The open hole section may require frequent cleanout if the formation is unconsolidated. Cased Hole Completions The basic cased hole completions types can be either cemented/perforated casing, cemented/perforated liner or un-cemented/pre-perforated (or screen) liner completions. Perforated Casing Completions: Production casing is cemented through the producing zone and the pay section is selectively perforated (see Figure 2).
2. Log interpretation critical for selecting perforating interval(s). 3. Greater danger of formation damage in pay section since the mud used to drill from the last casing shoe is usually the same mud used to drill the pay zone. 4. More expensive. Perforated Liner Completions: Production casing is set above the producing zone, the pay is drilled, and a liner is cemented across the pay zone. The liner is then selectively perforated for production (see Figure 3).
PRODUCTION CASING
PRODUCTION CASING
LINER HANGER
PRODUCTION LINER
PRODUCTION PERFORATIONS PAY ZONE
PAY ZONE
PRODUCTION PERFS CEMENT
CASED HOLE COMPLETION
Figure 2: Case Hole Completion Advantages: 1. Excessive gas or water production is easier to prevent and control. 2. Formation can be selectively stimulated. 3. Well can be easily deepened. 4. Casing will impede sand influx and is additionally adaptable to special sand control techniques. 5. Full diameter through pay section. 6. Logs can be available to assist decision to set casing. 7. Adaptable to several completion configurations. 8. Minimum rig time required. Disadvantages: 1. Perforating cost can be significant.
Figure 3: Cemented Liner Completion Advantages: 1. Formation damage is minimized since a new nondamaging mud can be made up before drilling the pay zone. 2. Excessive gas or water production is easier to prevent and control. 3. Formation can be selectively stimulated. 4. A liner can impede sand influx, and is additionally adaptable to special sand control techniques. 5. Well can be easily deepened. However if the liner size is 4-1/2", then the well will be limited to a 3-7/8" open hole at the total depth. Liner systems for 3-7/8" hole are not presently available in Saudi Aramco.
Well Completions
10
Disadvantages: 1. Recompletion options for deeper formations are limited if the production liner size is 4-1/2". 2. Log interpretation is critical for the correct perforating intervals. 3. Additional costs are the liner and cementing expense, perforating expense and additional rig time. 4. The production casing is set before the producing zone is drilled. The extent of the pay zone is not known until the end of the next hole section. Screen/Pre-Perforated Liner Completions: Casing is set above the completion zone and an uncemented screen or pre-perforated liner assembly is installed across the pay section (see Figure 4).
Advantages: 1. Formation damage while drilling the pay is minimized since a new non-damaging mud can be made up before drilling the pay zone. 2. There is no wireline perforating expense, however the cost of the pre-perforated/screen liner can be high. 3. Log interpretation is not critical since no wireline perforations are required. 4. Adaptable to special techniques to control sand. A gravel pack or pre-packed liner is an option for this type of completion. 5. Cleanout problems can be avoided if the proper screen/perforation size is used. Disadvantages: 1. Excessive water or gas production is difficult to control since there is no isolation (cement) behind the liner. 2. Production casing is set before the producing horizon is drilled. The extent of the pay zone is not known until the next hole section is drilled. 3. Selective stimulation is not possible. 4. Additional rig time is required to run the screen liner assembly when compared to an open hole completion. 5. Diameter across the pay zone is reduced. 6. The well cannot be easily deepened if the liner size is 4-1/2". The hole size for deepening in this case is limited to 3-7/8" (maximum).
PREPERFORATED LINER
PAY ZONE
Figure 4: Pre-Perforated or Screen liner
Well Completions
11
Oil Producer Completions

Saudi Aramco has completed its oil producers in several ways. The main completions are as follows: Packer-Less Completions (Casing Flow) This is the simplest and most inexpensive completion available (see Figure 5). Flow is up the tubing/casing annulus which has much less restriction than a tubing/packer configuration. This completion is restricted to wells capable of producing extremely high rates at low to medium flowing and shut in wellhead pressures. This approach however, is not the safest since it is vulnerable to underground blowouts. This could occur if the production casing became corroded and a leak developed opposite an aquifer above the producing zone.
kill string used to kill the well if required (i.e. for a workover). The production can be up both the casing and tubing (kill string). During the early 1980s a large workover program to recomplete these wells with packer type completions was undertaken due to rising bottom hole pressures (BHP) and increasing water cuts. As a result, there are almost no casing flow producers today. Tubing & Packer Completions (Tubing Flow) A tubing/packer installation may be required for: 1. Casing protection from high BHP, high water cut, or corrosion. The tubing/casing annulus (TCA) is usually protected with a corrosion resistant packer fluid. 2. Subsurface well control. This is achieved by installing a subsurface safety valve (SSSV) in the tubing string usually 300' below surface. SSSVs are typically installed in all offshore oil producers and some onshore producers that are near major highways, gas/oil separation plants (GOSP), towns or other sensitive area. Disadvantages: 1. A restriction in maximum flow potential when compared to casing or casing/tubing flow. 2. Higher completion costs due to the extra equipment and rig time involved. Onshore Oil Producers
2-3/8" KILL STRING
CASING SHOE
PAY ZONE
Saudi Aramco has several types of oil producing tubing and packer configurations. The outline of the most common configurations are as follows. Conventional vertical producers: These wells are the basic tubing/packer arrangement and are found in most of the major oil and gas fields (see Figure 6).
Figure 5: Casing Flow Producer The majority of Saudi Aramco onshore producing wells were completed this way until the early 1980s. These wells typically had a 2-3/8" or 2-7/8"
Well Completions
12
nent packers, however 4-1/2" and 9-5/8" packers are used in their respective casings.
PRODUCTION TUBING PRODUCTION PACKER 7" SHOE
4-1/2" LINER HGR
PAY ZONE
Figure 6: Cased Hole Completion The production tubing strings are typically 4-1/2" since the wells normally have either a 7" production liner or 7" production casing. In some cases, the production tubing is as small as 2-3/8" (inside 4-1/2" production casing) or as large as 7" (inside 9-5/8" production casing). Combination strings of 2-3/8" x 4-1/2" or 4-1/2" x 7" can also be used in wells that have 4-1/2" or 7" production liners, respectively. The production packers are typically 7" perma-
Horizontal producers: These hi-tech wells are a recent addition to Saudi Aramcos oil wells. The wellbore enters the pay zone at a high angle (about 80 degrees inclination) and a horizontal hole is drilled in the reservoir for a distance of about 2000' (see Figure 7). This type of completion exposes the maximum amount of the reservoir to the wellbore. The wellbore can be located above the oil/water or below the gas/oil contact, thereby reducing the water or gas cut respectively. Saudi Aramco horizontal oil producers are completed in either carbonate or sandstone reservoirs. Carbonate reservoirs are typically open hole completions. Wells with 9-5/8" casing set at the top of the pay zone usually have an 8-1/2" open hole completion. Wells with 7" casing set at the top of the pay zone will have a 6-1/8" open hole completion (see Figure 7). The main onshore fields that have horizontal carbonate producers are Ghawar and Abqaiq. The Berri field also has onshore oil producers drilled from
4-1/2" PRODUCTION TUBING 9-5/8" or 7" PERMANENT PACKER 9-5/8" or 7" CASING SHOE 8-1/2" or 6-1/8" OPEN HOLE
PAY ZONE
Figure 7: Horizontal Carbonate Reservoir Producer
Well Completions
13
pads located on the Berri causeway. Although most of the Safaniya field is offshore, some onshore horizontal sandstone producers have been drilled. Dual Completion - Producer/Observation Well Dual completions are wells with two reservoirs open to the wellbore. The reservoirs are usually separated by a packer. If more than two reservoirs are open to the wellbore, then this is termed a multiple completion. SDGM-169 is one of the few dual completions in Saudi Aramco. This well is completed as both, an Arab-D producer and Hanifa observation well (see Figure 8). A production packer is set between the Arab-D and Hanifa to isolate the reservoirs.
production tubing. When the Hanifa static bottom hole pressure measurement is required, an isolation sleeve is set in the BV nipple isolating the Arab-D reservoir. The PX plug is removed allowing the Hanifa pressure to access the production tubing. Gas Lift Producers One type of artificial lift system used in Saudi Aramco is gas lift. These completions are common in the Khurais, Qirdi, Abu Jifan and Mazalij fields. A gas lift design is also being tested in the Safaniya field. Associated gas is separated, compressed then re-used to provide the gas lift mechanism in the wells. As gas is injected into the production stream, the flowing bottom hole pressure is reduced, which increases the flow potential of the well. The gas is injected into the tubing/casing annulus and fed into the tubing through gas lift valves located in side pocket mandrels. This is referred to as tubing flow since the production is on the tubing side (see Figure 9). Most of the gas lift completions are tubing flow.
POLISHED BORE RECEPTACLE 7" LINER HANGER RETRIEVABLE PACKER PORTED 'BV' LANDING NIPPLE ARAB-D PERFS
9-5/8" CASING SHOE PERMANENT PACKER SEAL BORE ASSEMBLY 'X' LANDING NIPPLE HANIFA PERFS
PRODUCTION UP TUBING
INJECTION GAS DOWN TCA
GAS LIFT VALVES IN SIDE POCKET MANDRELS
Figure 8: Hanifa/Arab-D Dual Completion Another production packer is set above the ArabD to isolate the tubing/casing annulus from the ArabD reservoir. The well is normally produced from the Arab-D. A PX plug is set in the tailpipe below the lower packer to isolate the production tubing from the Hanifa reservoir. The flow of Arab-D oil is through the ported ball valve (BV) nipple into the
PAY ZONE
PRODUCTION PACKER
Figure 9: Tubing Flow Gas Lift Producer
Well Completions
14
An alternate design is the injection of gas into the tubing and then fed to the tubing/casing annulus through the gas lift valves. This is referred to as annular flow since the production is up the tubing/ casing annulus. In this case a perforated joint is required above the packer so the production flow can enter the tubing/casing annulus after passing through the packer (see Figure 10). This completion is common when the production tubing is 2-3/ 8" due to a small casing size of 4-1/2". To maximize flow potential, the tubing/casing annulus is therefore used for the production.
INJECTION GAS DOWN TUBING
PRODUCTION UP TCA
GAS LIFT VALVES IN SIDE POCKET MANDRELS PERFORATED JOINT ABOVE PACKER PAY ZONE
lected for a pilot test to install and run electric submersible pumps. The primary objective of the project was to gain experience and knowledge of ESP operation for application in the Hawtah field. The project would also provide data for evaluating the practicality of using the ESPs for lifting high water cut, low flowing wellhead pressure wells in the Abqaiq and Ghawar fields. The ESP completion consists of a downhole pump and motor assembly. The motors range from 60 HP to 200 HP. Running parallel to this assembly is a tailpipe that can accommodate a blanking plug. The pump/motor assembly is connected with the tailpipe at a Y connection (see Figure 11). This configuration allows the well to produce through the tailpipe (with the pump shutdown) using the reservoir pressure alone. In the future, when the reservoir pressure declines or during periods of high demand, a blanking plug can be installed in the landing nipple. The motor can be turned on and the oil pumped to surface.
PRODUCTION PACKER
ELECTRIC CABLE 3-1/2" TUBING
Figure 10: Casing Flow Gas Lift Producer A recurring problem with gas lift completions is the formation of hydrates in the gas injection line ahead of the wellhead (downstream of the choke) during cold weather operation. The hydrate is a physical combination of water and small hydrocarbon molecules that produce a solid that has an icelike appearance. Hydrate formation can only be eliminated by heating the gas, chemical inhibition, or by dehydrating the gas. Electric Submersible Pump (ESP) Producers In 1992, three high water cut, low flowing wellhead pressure wells in the Abqaiq field were se-
BLANKING PLUG 2-7/8" TAILPIPE
PUMP MOTOR
PAY ZONE
Figure 11: ESP Completion The Hawtah field in the central area is almost entirely equipped with ESPs (see Figure 11). The low bottom hole pressure, low gas/oil ratio, and the lack of a strong natural drive mechanism makes ESPs an attractive completion option in this field.
Well Completions
15
Offshore Oil Producers

Saudi Aramco has a variety of completions offshore. These completions can be categorized as vertical, deviated and horizontal completions. Whereas the onshore oil producers are completed mostly in carbonate reservoirs, the offshore fields are mainly sandstone, except for the Berri and Abu Safa fields. To understand offshore completions it is helpful to understand the types of offshore production platforms. Saudi Aramco has the following types of platforms: 1. Tripods (three well capacity) 2. Four well platforms 3. Six well platforms. These platforms typically have one vertical completion and the rest are either deviated or horizontal completions. Wells offshore can also be completed as a free standing conductor or mud line suspension. These wells usually become future platform locations. Recently, the six well platforms have been redesigned. Whereas the old design was constructed specifically for each field, the new modular design is not field specific and can be used in any field, regardless of water depth. As a bonus, the new design is approximately 1/3 the cost of the old design. Offshore oil producers have a mixture of up-hole packer and downhole packer completions. In the early 1980s, most offshore oil producers were equipped with up-hole packers (see Figure 12) to maximize flow potential. Packers were typically located 300' from surface. This allowed both casing and tubing flow below the packer, and tubing flow above the packer. A subsurface safety valve is located above the packer which could shut the well in if a problem occurred on the production platform.
SSSV UPHOLE PACKER PORTED NIPPLE
KILL TUBING
PAY ZONE
Figure 12: Uphole Completion Saudi Aramco has the following types of offshore oil producers: Conventional Vertical Producers These wells are the basic up-hole or downhole tubing/packer design and are found in all of the major offshore fields. Since the mid 1980s the up-hole packer completions are being gradually converted to downhole packers. Besides being a safer mode of production, this also allows the tubing/casing annulus to be filled with a corrosion resistant packer fluid, thereby extending the life of the production casing. The production tubing and packer configurations for the downhole completions are similar to the onshore producers described earlier, except that all offshore producers are equipped with subsurface safety valves. Deviated Producers These wells are commonly referred to as directional wells. They are drilled to intersect the reservoir at a specified distance and direction away from
Well Completions
16
the surface production platform. Their completions are similar to the vertical producers mentioned above, however the degree of wellbore inclination may have a bearing on the type of completion used. The wellbores typically have inclinations that range from about 10 degrees up to a maximum of 60 degrees This 60 degree limit is recognized as an approximate limit for wireline tools. Any inclination above this requires coiled tubing assisted tools. Hydraulic set liner hangers and production packers are normally used in these completions. Mechanical (or rotation) set equipment may have problems due to the drag associated with the high inclination. Horizontal Producers In 1992, a major horizontal drilling campaign began both onshore and offshore. Most of this activity took place offshore in the Zuluf, Marjan, Safaniya
(sandstone) and Berri (carbonate) fields. These wells were drilled using long radius build assemblies that provided 0 - 10 degree/100' build rates. A long radius design allowed conventional (Aramco stock) completion tubulars to be used. The Berri wells are typically open hole completions in either the Hanifa or Hadriya reservoirs. As with the onshore horizontal carbonate wells, the open hole is either 8-1/2" with 9-5/8" casing set at the top of the producing zone or 6-1/8" with 7" casing set above (see Figure 7). Slight variations to the standard open hole completions were made in Berri. Berri #302, for example had a short 7" liner cemented off bottom to cover a highly permeable section near the top of the Hadriya reservoir (see Figure 13). This would allow the less permeable lower part of the reservoir to be produced with the option of perforating and producing the highly permeable upper section at a later date.
4-1/2" TAILPIPE INSIDE 7" LINER TOP 9-5/8" CASING SHOE 7" SHORT LINER 8-1/2" OPEN HOLE HI-PERM STREAK
HADRIYA RES
Figure 13: Horizontal Carbonate Reservoir Producer
Well Completions
17
Almost all Marjan, Zuluf, and Safaniya horizontal producers are completed with a cemented 7" liner (see Figure14). These horizontal liners are equipped with special solid body aluminum centralizers which help in providing a positive standoff of the liner in the horizontal hole. A special liner running tool is used which allows the liner to be rotated, pushed or worked to bottom. Once on bottom, the liner can be rotated and/or reciprocated during the cement job, provided torque and drag limitations are not exceeded. The liners are perforated with drill pipe conveyed perforating guns. More than 1500' of perforations have been made per well in some cases. An alternate completion to the cemented liner has been tested. Maharah #35 is an example of a pre-perforated (non-cemented) horizontal liner completion. Without the drill pipe conveyed perforating expense, the completion cost was reduced. This type of completion however, limits future workover options to shut off gas or water production. This makes it unattractive as a long term completion alternative in areas where these problems exist.
Water Injector Completions

Reservoir pressure is maintained in most of the Saudi Aramco oil fields through water injection systems. These wells typically line the perimeter of the oil fields. Packerless Completions (Casing Flow) The power water injectors (PWI) and gravity water injectors (GWI) are casing flow, packerless completions. These wells can be either open hole, perforated cased hole, or perforated liner completions. Power Water Injectors: PWI wells inject water under high pressure (up to 3000 psi well head pressure) through flowlines from nearby water injection plants (WIPs). They are occasionally stimulated to improve injectivity and reduce the injection wellhead pressure (IWHP).
TAILPIPE INSIDE 7" LINER TOP 9-5/8" CASING SHOE 7" PRODUCTION LINER 8-1/2" HORIZONTAL HOLE SELECTIVE PERFS
KHAFJI RES
Figure 14: Horizontal Sandstone Reservoir Producer
Well Completions
18
Vertical power water injectors: These wells are most common in the Ghawar field (see Figure 15). They are typically open hole, however cemented/perforated liners have been run in wells where selective injection is required.
FLOWLINE FROM WIP
7" LINER HANGER
9-5/8" SHOE 7" SHOE PAY ZONE
Figure 15: Power Water Injector
Horizontal power water injectors: Most of the horizontal PWI wells are located in the Ghawar and Berri fields. Whereas vertical PWI wells can be logged with conventional wireline, the horizontal wells require coiled tubing conveyed logging tools. Because of this, some horizontal PWI completions differ from their vertical counterparts in that a coil tubing guide string is run to assist coiled tubing operations. These guide strings are normally 4-1/2" or 3-1/2" tubing inside 9-5/8" production casing (see Figure16). This is typical of the Ghawar Arab-D high capacity injectors. Computer simulations have shown that the coiled tubing is susceptible to buckling and lock-up inside the 9-5/8" casing and 8-1/2" open hole without the guide string. Low permeability tar stringers are occasionally encountered in the Ghawar PWI wells. UTMN-1013 is an example of a horizontal PWI completion which was drilled near a tar zone. The well path was steered above the tar zone and into the more permeable part of the reservoir (see Figure16). This improved the injectivity of well.
4-1/2" TUBING GUIDE STRING 9-5/8" CASING 9-5/8" CASING SHOE 8-1/2" HOLE
ARAB-D RES TAR ZONE

Figure 16: Horizontal Power Water Injector HORIZONTAL POWER
WATER INJECTOR
Well Completions
19
Many horizontal PWI wells in the Berri field have a long 7" production liner and a 6-1/8" open hole completion (see Figure 17). The 7" liner is run from approximately 3500' to below the high permeability streak near the top of the Hadriya reservoir. Computer simulations have shown that with this long 7" liner and 6-1/8" open hole configuration the well does not require the 4-1/2" guide string necessary as in the 9-5/8" casing completions. This provides a less costly completion option. Gravity Water Injectors: GWI wells are stand-alone wells (without flowlines) and are located only in the Abqaiq field. These wells are perforated in the Wasia formation which dumps water into the lower Arab-D producing formation to help maintain reservoir pressure. The casings in these wells are susceptible to corrosion and erosion from the hot, corrosive Wasia water and have required expensive workovers in the past. As a result, alloy type 13-Chrome casing strings have been run recently in an effort to minimize corrosion and reduce workover cost. Vertical gravity water injectors: A typical GWI well is shown in Figure18. These wells are normally completed with 9-5/8" casing opposite the Wasia water aquifer. A 7" liner is run
from below the Wasia to the top of the Arab-D. When the well is in operation corrosion occurs from the Wasia perforations to the 7" shoe. Workovers to repair this corrosion involve tying the 7" liner back above the perforations and running a 4-1/2" liner to lap the new 7" liner. In order to minimize corrosion new wells are completed with 7" 13-Chrome liner from the top of the Arab-D reservoir to above the 13-3/8" casing shoe.
GROUND
LEVEL
WATER ZONE
PERFS 7" LINER HANGER
9-5/8" SHOE 7" SHOE PAY ZONE OPEN HOLE
Figure 18: Gravity Water Injector
7" LINER HANGER @ 3500' 9-5/8" CASING 9-5/8" CASING SHOE HIGH PERM STREAK 7" LINER SHOE 6-1/8" OPEN HOLE
HADRIYA RES
Figure 17: Berri Horizontal Power Water Injector
Well Completions
20
Horizontal gravity water injector: One well, ABQQ-331, has been completed as a horizontal gravity water injector in the Hanifa reservoir. Corrosion resistant 13-Chrome 7" liner and 9-5/8" casing strings were used. The well was completed with a 6-1/8" open hole. Tubing & Packer Completions (Tubing Flow) Salt Water Disposal Wells: Several salt water disposal wells (SWD) are completed with tubing and packer. The salt water disposal fluids can be both corrosive and pumped at pressures up to 3000 psi. The salt effluent is a by-product of the desalting process of waste water in the gas oil separation plants. An SWD well may have initially been a PWI well that had low injectivity, high tar saturation, or is located down structure, away from the oil/water contact. Many SWD wells have had their tubing and packer removed to maximize their disposal capacity. These wells dispose of salt water that has been treated to minimize corrosion. Wells without this corrosion protection treatment continue to have the tubing and packer completions. Vertical salt water disposal wells: Figure 19 shows an SWD well with a tubing and packer completion. SWD wells without tubing and packer are similar to the PWI completions mentioned earlier.
Horizontal salt water disposal well: One well, UTMN-1060, has been completed as a horizontal SWD well. Its completion differs from the vertical SWD wells in that the 9-5/8" casing was run to the top of the Arab-D reservoir and an 81/2" open hole drilled to TD. There is no packer in this completion, rather a 4-1/2" guide string was run to assist in coiled tubing (CTU) operations similar to the horizontal PWI wells.
Gas Producer Completions

Abqaiq Gas Producers Abqaiq field has several Arab-D gas cap producers. The wells are a back up source of gas supply whenever the demand exceeds the associated gas and Khuff gas production capabilities. As a result, the wells are shutdown for extended periods of time. These wells have standard tubing/packer configurations. Khuff Gas Producers The Khuff gas program began in the early 1980s due to a decline in oil production which reduced the supply of associated gas. These non-associated gas wells are as deep as 16,000', have bottom hole temperatures up to 320 degrees F and high levels of H2S. The high bottom hole and wellhead pressures required that the completions be designed with 10,000 psi rated equipment. Almost all of these wells are located in the Shedgum and Uthmaniyah areas of the Ghawar field. Some of the wells have tubing/packer arrangements, while others have their tubing string stung into a polished bore receptacle (PBR) assembly located above the liner hanger (see Figure 20). The completion tubing is either 7", 4-1/2" or a combination of 4-1/2" X 7" or 5-1/2" X 7" tubing. A premium tubing connection with a metal to metal seal to contain the high well pressures, such as VAM, is used. To control H2S embrittlement, an L-80 grade of tubing is used.
9-5/8" CASING SHOE TUBING & PACKER 7" LINER SHOE
PAY ZONE
OPEN HOLE
Figure 19: Salt Water Disposal
Well Completions
21
7" TUBING
string is determined to prevent the tubing from being unstung from the packer or PBR, or buckled beyond the elastic limit while in any of its operating modes.
7" HANGER 9-5/8" SHOE
4-1/2" X 7" CROSSOVER
Water Supply Completions

Wasia Water Supply Wells
4-1/2" TUBING 4-1/2" PBR 4-1/2" HANGER 7" SHOE
PAY ZONE
4-1/2" SHOE
Figure 20: Khuff Gas Producer Thermal elongation and contraction of the production tubing on these wells can be significant. Several modes of operation such as producing, shutin hot, shut-in cold and acidize are studied for each well. As part of the completion program, the optimum space out or landing procedure of the tubing
Wasia water is required for wash water supply at the GOSPs and injection water at the WIPs. These wells are either free flowing, equipped with Byron Jackson (BJ) electric submersible pumps (ESPs) or gas lift mandrels. The wells are completed with large diameter casing strings near surface to accommodate the large diameter, high capacity water pumps if required. Many wells are completed initially without pumps, however, they have the provision for future pump installation. The older wells have had their liners tied back to repair corrosion on these large diameter casings. As a result smaller pumps are run whenever the liners are tied back for the pump driven wells.
30" CONDUCTOR CASING LARGE DIAMETER CASING TO ACCOMODATE BIG PUMP 16" MQ 600 HP PUMP 7" MQ 30 HP PUMP 18-5/8" CASING SHOE 24" CASING SHOE @ 600'+LINER TIEBACKS RUN DURING WORKOVERS TO REPAIR CSG CORROSION RESTRICT THE DIAMETER AVAILABLE FOR WATER PUMP
13-3/8" INTERMEDIATE LINER
9-5/8" PRODUCTION LINER 8-1/2" OPEN HOLE ACROSS WASIA SAND (APPROX 4000' TD) NEW WELL WITH LARGE PUMP AFTER LINER TIE-BACKS & SMALL PUMP
Figure 21: Typical Wasia Water Supply Wells Equipped With ESPs
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Pump Driven Wasia Water Supply Wells: Figure 21 shows a new water supply well on the left. The production casing is 18-5/8", which is required to accommodate the large 16" 600 HP BJ ESP. As the well grows older, the 18-5/8" and 24" casings may corrode requiring a liner tieback to cover the damaged casing. The first workover will involve tying the 13-3/8" casing back to surface. The 13-3/8" casing will not accept a 16" pump, therefore an 11" pump will be run. Later, if corrosion damages the 13-3/8" casing, the option exists to tie the 9-5/8" casing back to surface as shown by the well configuration on the right side of Figure 20. In this case the 9-5/8" casing will not accept an 11" pump, therefore the smallest pump, the 7" can be run. Saudi Aramco maintains a wide selection of water pump sizes to accommodate the different casing strings. Pumps as small as 7", 30 HP up to 16", 600 HP are available. The 600 HP pump is capable of 3000 gpm capacity. A list of available pump sizes are shown below. Pump size 7" 10" 11" 15" 16" Table 1: Pump Sizes Gas Lift Wasia Water Supply Wells Several Wasia wash water supply wells in the Uthmaniyah area are gas lifted rather than pump driven. The advantages of gas lift over a pump design are lower installation and maintenance costs. The completion typically includes 7" (or 7" X 9-5/8" combination) production tubing, a 9-5/8" type PW production packer and a 7" gas lift valve at approximately 500' (see Figure 22). To reduce sand production, a 7" screen liner is normally run across the sandstone reservoir. Maximum stages 24 15 12 5 6
CONDUCTOR
7 X 9-5/8 PROD TBG 7" GAS LIFT VALVE 18-5/8" CSG
13-3/8" CSG 9-5/8" PROD PKR 9-5/8" PROD CSG 7" SCREEN LINER
Figure 22: Typical Gas Lift Wasia Water Supply Well UER Water Supply Wells The UER (Umm Er Radhuma) reservoir is a large fresh water aquifer often used for drinking water supply, drilling rig water supply, or other services requiring fresh water. The depth of this formation is relatively shallow, ranging from 700' to 1200'. The Khobar aquifer, another fresh water zone above the UER exists in many areas and can be used for the same purpose. The UER water supply wells are normally completed with an 18-5/8" conductor casing, 13-3/8" production casing and 12-1/4" open hole. Since the static fluid level is usually below ground level, a submersible pump driven by a diesel engine on surface is used. Total dissolved solids (TDS) are monitored for water quality. If for some reason the UER TDS value is high, the option is available to perforate and recomplete the well as a Khobar water supply well. In this case the UER is plugged with cement and the Khobar is perforated.
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Chapter 3 - Casing and Tubing Introduction

Casing and tubing perform important functions during the life of the well. The main functions are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. To prevent wellbore collapse To prevent leaks to subsurface aquifers To isolate the produced fluids To restrict production to the flow string To confine well pressure To facilitate installation of artificial lift equipment. during the drilling operation. Casing that does not extend to the surface is generally referred to as a liner. The casing protects against wellbore collapse and separates the various aquifers encountered while drilling. American Petroleum Institute (API) casing is available in sizes ranging from 4-1/2" to 20" (see API section later). Casing sizes above 20" diameter are available, and are defined by the API Line Pipe Specification. Saudi Aramco uses 24", 26", 30" and 36" casings in these larger sizes. Tubing Tubing is a pipe used as a flow string for transmission of fluids from the production zone to the surface. Whereas casing is usually a permanent, cemented fixture in the well, the tubing is usually the working string, and is run or removed from the wellbore to facilitate well servicing operations. API tubing is available in sizes ranging from 1.050" to 4-1/2". API Specifications Prior to 1920, oilfield tubulars had no standards for dimensions, lengths, weights, threads and other properties. Casing and tubing were merely whatever type of pipe might be available from any particular mill in any locality. Threaded connections had varying diameters and tapers. Thread density included 8, 10, 11-1/2, and 14 threads per inch. This caused considerable frustration and required widespread use of crossover joints to get from one thread type to another. Tubing and casing failures were common since there was no control of the tube material or manufacturing procedure. During the 1920s, the American Petroleum Institute (API) achieved standardization for casing sizes and threads. Outside diameter became the standard reference for size, and grading of the material according to strength was introduced. Thread taper was standardized at 3/4 inches per foot with 8 threads per inch. The round thread crests and roots were adopted in 1939. A great many other standards were made over time.
The cost of casing and tubing is often the greatest single item of expense on the well. In addition, an improperly designed casing or tubing program, and/or incorrect handling can result in the loss of equipment, production, and human lives. This chapter will examine the types of tubular goods required in the oil and gas industry, and will focus on the applications in Saudi Aramco.
Types Of Tubulars
In general, there are four types of thread-connected tubular goods commonly used in the oilfield. These general types are:
Casing Tubing Drill pipe Sucker rods.
Since drill pipe is not part of the completion string, it will not be covered in this chapter. Although sucker rods are a thread-connected tubular used as part of a completion in many parts of the world, they are not used in Saudi Aramco and therefore will not be covered. Casing Casing is a pipe used to protect the wellbore during drilling and production. Each well may have two or more strings of casing cemented in place
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Today, the API identifies, assesses, and develops standards for oil and gas industry manufactured products. API specifications which deal with oil country tubular goods are shown in Table 1.
API Spec 5A 5AC 5AX Description Casing, Tubing & Drill Pipe (i.e. Grades H-40, J-55, N-80*) Restricted yield Strength Casing & Tubing (i.e. Grades C-75, L-80, C-95*) High Strength Casing, Tubing & Drill Pipe (i.e. Grades P-105, P-110*)
API Casing and Tubing Weight Designation Casing and tubing weights are expressed in pounds per linear foot and are designated as either plain-end weights or nominal weights.
Plain-end weight is the weight of non threaded,

square-cut pipe. Nominal weight is the weight of the pipe with API connections, including upsets, threads, and couplings. Nominal weight is usually used for design purposes since most of Saudi Aramcos tubulars are threaded and coupled. API Casing Length Specification API specifications for casing and tubing designate the length range of each joint. There are three length ranges for casing:
Table 1: API Specifications * Tubing and casing grades will be covered in a subsequent chapter. Most casing and tubing are manufactured to specifications set out by the API. Tubulars which are manufactured outside of API specifications are known as proprietary designs. Casing and tubing are considered API if they meet certain specifications. Among the properties defined by the API specifications are:
Range 1 (R-1) includes pipe sections from 16 to

25 feet long. Range 2 (R-2) is the 25 to 34 feet range. Range 3 (R-3) is 34 feet and longer. Casing is mostly run in R-3 lengths. These longer lengths reduce the total number of threaded connections needed for the casing string. Since casing is usually run in single joints (instead of doubles or triples), the longer R-3 lengths are easier to handle. API Tubing Length Specification Tubing falls into one of two length ranges:
Weight per foot Length ranges Outside diameter (OD) Wall thickness Drift mandrel length and diameter Pipe steel grade Hydrostatic test pressure Methods of steel manufacture Physical dimensions of API threaded connections and their related upsets.
In addition, the API sets performance ratings for API pipe and API connections such as:
Range 1 (R-1) is 20 to 24 feet per joint. Range 2 (R-2) is 28 to 34 foot range.

Tubing is often racked in the derrick during workovers and frequently run in double or triple joint stands. For this reason, most tubing is run in R-2 lengths, which corresponds with the common drill pipe length. The short R-1 tubing is often found in shallow wells. During workover, small inexpensive
Internal yield pressure Collapse pressure Tensile strengths.
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workover rigs with short derricks are used and the short pipe is more easily handled. The tubing in some cases takes the place of the drill pipe and is used as the work string during workover operations. Hydrostatic Test Pressure API specifies that each length of casing shall be tested for leakage to a given hydrostatic pressure at the mill. The test pressure on casing up to 10-3/4" diameter must be sufficient to produce a stress equal to 80% of the minimum yield strength of the material. For 10-3/4" and larger pipe, the test pressure is 60% of the minimum yield strength.
force) is applied to a test sample cross-sectional area, then the tensile (or axial) stress is found by: Stress = Force / Area Axial strain is defined as the ratio of the test sample axial elongation to the original length of the sample: Axial Strain = Axial Elongation / Original Length Hookes Law defines stress as the product of the elastic constant or Youngs modulus of elasticity (YME) and strain: Stress = YME x strain
Properties Of Tubular Material

In order to understand strengths of tubular materials, it important to understand the basic terminology and process of manufacture of these materials. Yield Strength The strength of a steel is usually indicated by its minimum yield strength or ultimate tensile strength. Casing and tubing are manufactured mostly from ductile steels. Whereas brittle steels fracture without appreciable deformation, ductile steels can withstand significant plastic deformation prior to fracture. Basic Stress-Strain Equations Stress and strain are common terms used in describing strengths of materials. If a tensile load (or
For steels the Youngs Modulus is typically 30x106 psi. Figure 1 is a stress-strain diagram for a typical ductile steel. Point A represents the yield strength or elastic limit of the steel. If the steel is stressed below the elastic limit, it will return to its original shape upon unstressing or unloading the test sample. Below the elastic limit, the stress-strain curve is linear. The API specifies that the yield stress is the tensile stress required to produce a total elongation of 0.5% of the tensile test sample length. This is shown by point B in the diagram. Stresses greater than the elastic limit cause permanent deformation of the steel and the steel will not return to its original shape when the load is taken away. If a steel is stressed beyond its yield strength, it will deform plastically until its ultimate strength is reached as shown by point C. The ultimate strength
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is the maximum stress that the steel can sustain before it begins to fail. Beyond this point the material will continue to deform plastically (with a reducing stress) until complete failure (breakage) occurs as shown by point D. Hardness of Steel Hardness is the measure of a steels yield point in compression. When a material is required to resist wear, corrosion, erosion or plastic deformation, it may be necessary to specify a high hardness. Hardness generally increases with increasing material ultimate tensile strength. Very hard materials are brittle and will crack or fracture easily. Hardness is determined by a test where a load is applied with a small ball or pointed object. The hardness of the material is then expressed by the depth of the indentation caused by the pointed object. The Rockwell C or Brinell hardness scales are used to quantify the degree of hardness of an oilfield tubular material.
Heat Treatments Mechanical properties in steel such as yield stress, ultimate tensile strength, ductility, or hardness can be achieved by controlling the heat treating portion of the manufacturing process and chemical composition of the steel. Heat treating affects changes in the microstructure, or grain structure of the steel, which directly affects its mechanical properties. Heat treating is an operation involving heating and/or cooling the solid steel tubular to develop the desired steel microstructures. The five basic heat treatments are: Quenched and Tempered: The steel is heated to 1500-1600 oF. It is then rapidly quenched (or cooled) in water or oil to produce a desired microstructure. It is then tempered (or re-heated) at 1000-1300 oF to produce a desired combination of strength and ductility. This is the preferred method of producing high strength casing and tubing.
STRESS (psi)
A - Elastic Limit B - API Specified Minimum Yield
C - Ultimate Strength D - Failure
STRAIN (%) 0.5%

Figure 1: Stress-Strain Diagram for Ductile Steel
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Normalizing: The steel is heated to 1600-1700 oF and then cooled in air to produce a uniform microstructure and to alter mechanical properties. Normalized and Tempered: The steel is first normalized (as above) and then tempered and air cooled. This tempering process slightly lowers the strength from the normalized condition but improves ductility and helps to relieve residual stresses. Cold Drawn and Tempered: The tubing or casing is shaped or rolled to the desired OD at room temperature. This process causes a high residual stresses in the tube and increases the hardness due to plastic deformation. The tubular is then tempered to reform the microstructure from the cold drawn state. Tempering reduces the hardness and relieves the residual stresses. Hot Rolled: The tubing or casing is shaped or rolled to the desired OD at a very high temperature. Hot rolling does not cause changes in the microstructure as in the cold rolling process above. Hot rolling produces a steel similar to the normalized condition. Chemical Composition The chemical composition of a steel directly affects all of its mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. Steels can be classified according to chemical composition as follows: Carbon Steels: These steels are considered to be a mixture of iron and carbon with up to 2% carbon content. The high carbon steels contain up to 2% carbon while the low carbon steels contain as low as 0.25% carbon. Carbon steels can contain other elements such as manganese or silicon in small quantities. Alloy Steels: These steels contain significant quantities of alloying elements other than carbon. A steel is con-
sidered an alloy steel when the content of either manganese, silicon or copper exceeds 1.65%, 0.6% and 0.6%, respectively. A steel is also considered an alloy if there is a minimum content specified for aluminum, boron, cobalt, chromium, niobium, molybdenum or nickel. High Alloy Steels: High-alloy steels contain more than 5% alloy elements, in particular, high concentrations of chromium, molybdenum, and nickel are used for highalloy tubulars. High-alloy steels that contain greater than 12% chromium are often called stainless steels. Low-Alloy Steels: Low-alloy steels contain less than 5% metallic alloying elements. High Alloy Chrome-13 casing for Saudi Aramco GWI Wells Gravity Water Injection (GWI) wells are ArabD reservoir pressure maintenance wells commonly found in the Abqaiq field (see the Well Completion Types chapter of this training manual for a detailed description of GWI wells). Hot, corrosive and erosive Wasia water flows through perforations opposite the Wasia formation and is gravity dumped into the Arab-D formation below. This hostile environment caused severe corrosion and erosion on the steel 9-5/8" casing and 7" liner between the Wasia and Arab-D formations. Workover costs were very high and the life expectancy of these wells was low. In 1989 a feasibility study was conducted into the use of a high alloy casing for these wells to replace the standard steel casing. The economics were balanced between the high cost of the alloy casing and the expected increase in useful well life and lower workover costs. As a result of the study Saudi Aramco specified and began using Chrome-13 L-80 steel for its gravity water injector (GWI) casing program in 1990.
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Tubing And Casing Grades

Steel pipe grades are identified by letters and numbers which indicate various characteristics of the pipe steel. It is a specification according to its yield stress, ultimate tensile strength, chemical composition, heat treatment or other characteristics. There are many grades of steel that make up oilfield tubulars. API Tubing and Casing Grades To understand API tubing and casing grades, it is important to understand the terms minimum yield stress, maximum yield stress, and minimum ultimate strength. To explain these terms, two popular grades of oilfield tubulars will be used as an example: L-80 and N-80. The grade of steel is denoted by a letter of the alphabet followed by the minimum yield stress of
the particular steel. For example, the API grade L-80, which is a common grade used by Saudi Aramco, has a minimum yield stress of 80,000 psi as shown by point A in Figure 2. In other words, it can support a stress of 80,000 psi with an elongation of 0.5%. The L is a distinguishing prefix to avoid confusion between different steel grades. The letter in conjunction with the number designates such parameters as the maximum yield strength and minimum ultimate yield strength. In L-80 the maximum yield strength is shown by point B as 95,000 psi which is 15,000 psi higher than the minimum yield stress. The minimum ultimate strength is shown by point C as 95,000 psi. Note that there is no maximum ultimate strength specified. N-80, another API grade (see Figure 3), also has a minimum yield stress of 80,000 psi, but is different from L-80 in that the former has a greater
STRESS (psi) B - API Specified Maximum Yield
95,000 80,000
C - API Minimum Ultimate Strength
A - API Specified Minimum Yield
STRAIN (%) 0.5%
Figure 2: Stress-Strain Diagram For L-80 Steel
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maximum yield stress of 110,000 psi (shown by point B). This is 30,000 psi higher than the minimum yield stress and twice the tolerance of L-80. The minimum ultimate strength of 100,000 psi is also higher as shown by point C. Whereas N-80 has no hardness specification, L-80 has a hardness specification of 23 HRC. The tight tolerance on yield strength and hardness allow the L-80 to be more suitable for H2S service than N-80 grade tubulars. Table 2 lists the API tubing and casing grades and flags the ones common to Saudi Aramco. Casing sizes 24" and larger commonly have grade designations such as X-42, X-56, X-60, and B. These are API designations specified under the Line Pipe Specifications. A complete listing of the sizes, grades, weights and connections used by Saudi Aramco is given in the appendix. Non-API Tubing and Casing Grades In addition to API grades, there are many proprietary steel grades that may not conform to the API specifications, but are used in the industry. These extensively used special grades are often run
STRESS (psi)
for various applications requiring such properties as very high tensile strength, high collapse strength, or steels resistant to sulfide stress cracking. This pipe is manufactured to many, but not all of the API specifications, with such variations as steel grade, wall thickness, OD, threaded connection, and related upset. As a result of these changes, the ratings of internal yield, collapse, and tension for both the pipe and the connection are non-API. The rating of these proprietary products are generally calculated using API formulas or are consistent with API methods. Also, such parameters as drift diameter, wall thickness tolerance, length range, and weight tolerance are kept the same as, or are consistent with API specifications. Saudi Aramco Non-API Tubing and Casing Grades Several non-API tubing and casing grades are used in Saudi Aramco drilling and workover operations. These proprietary grades have different lettering designations than the familiar API standard. The two most common proprietary grades stocked
B - API Specified Maximum Yield
110,000 100,000 80,000
C - API Minimum Ultimate Strength
A - API Specified Minimum Yield
STRAIN (%) 0.5%
Figure 3: Stress-Strain Diagram for N-80 Steel
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by Saudi Aramco are KO (Kawasaki Steel) and NT (Nippon Steel) and are shown in the Casing and Tubing Data Table in Appendix A.
Short thread and coupling (STC)* Long thread and coupling (LTC) * Buttress thread and coupling (BTC) Extreme-Line thread (X-line) for casing. * With 8 round threads per inch (8 RD)
Connections
Oilfield tubulars may be equipped with plain ends (no threads), have API specified threaded connections or proprietary (non-API) threaded connections. API Casing Connections Oilfield casing conforming to API standards may be obtained with plain ends, but ends are usually threaded and furnished with couplings such as:
With the exception of Extreme-Line, male (or pin) threads are machined on plain-end pipe and later made up with a coupling. A reduced OD (special clearance) coupling is offered on some sizes and weights to allow for additional clearance between pipe and hole. Special clearance couplings often reduce the rating of the connection, usually in tension or internal yield and test pressure. Saudi Aramco API Casing Connections
yield Max yield Min ultimate Common Designation Min psi psi psi to Aramco Tubing Grades H-40 J-55 C-75 L-80 N-80 P-105 40,000 55,000 75,000 80,000 80,000 105,000 80,000 80,000 90,000 95,000 110,000 135,000 Casing Grades H-40 J-55 K-55 C-75 L-80 N-80 C-95 P-110 40,000 55,000 55,000 75,000 80,000 80,000 95,000 110,000 80,000 80,000 80,000 90,000 95,000 110,000 110,000 140,000 60,000 75,000 95,000 95,000 95,000 100,000 105,000 125,000 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 60,000 75,000 95,000 95,000 100,000 120,000 Yes Yes
Several API connections are used in Saudi Aramco drilling and workover operations. A brief description of the most popular connections used are as follows: API Short/Long Thread and Coupling: The API Short Thread and Coupling (STC) and API Long Thread and Coupling (LTC) are used in several pipe sizes ranging from 4-1/2" through 13-3/8". Figure 4 shows the LTC design. The STC design is the same except that the coupling and the threaded pins are shorter.
Table 2: API Tubing and Casing Grades
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EXTERNALLY THREADED PIN INTERNALLY THREADED COUPLING (BOX)
EXTERNALLY THREADED PIN INTERNALLY THREADED COUPLING
ROUND CRESTS AND ROOTS
60 deg
FLAT CRESTS AND ROOTS
API LONG THREAD & COUPLING (LTC)
FIGURE 4
BUTTRESS THREAD & COUPLING (BTC)
FIGURE 5
This design is externally threaded on both ends of a non-upset pipe. The single lengths are joined with an internally threaded coupling. The thread profile has rounded threads and roots with a 60 angle between the thread flanks as shown in the figure. The thread density is 8 threads per inch (8 RD) on a 0.0625 inch per inch taper. API Buttress Thread and Coupling: The API Buttress Thread and Coupling (BTC) is a popular thread design used by Saudi Aramco in several casing sizes ranging from 9-5/8" through 185/8". Figure 5 shows the BTC design. This design is externally threaded on both ends of a non-upset pipe (as in the STC and LTC). The single lengths are joined with an internally threaded coupling.
The thread profile has flat crests and roots parallel to the taper cone. The thread density is 5 threads per inch on a 0.0625 inch per inch taper for sizes 13-3/8" and smaller, and 0.0833 inch per inch taper for sizes 16" and larger. The BTC thread has higher joint and bending strengths compared to LTC (or STC). As a result, this thread is used often in deeper wells where higher hook loads are experienced. It is also run in horizontal wells where doglegs can cause high bending loads on the larger size casings.
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API Tubing Connections API tubing is usually threaded and furnished with the following connections:
Externally upset ends (EUE) Non-upset ends (NU) Integral joint.

API External Upset End (EUE) Tubing: The API EUE connection for tubing is a popular thread design used by Saudi Aramco. It is common in sizes 2-3/8", 2-7/8" and 3-1/2". The tubing is purchased with eight-round (8 RND) threads machined on an external upset end (see Figure 6). An upset is the metal gathered at the end of the tube using a hot forging process prior to heat treatment. This method of manufacture helps to maintain both the metallurgical and the mechanical properties in the upset that are present in the pipe body.
The upset is used to increase the tensile strength of the connection to a value equal to, or greater than that of the pipe body. In addition, a connection machined on an upset can provide both bending and compression strengths in excess of the pipe body. Proprietary Connections Proprietary connections are available that offer premium features not available on API connections. Among the special features for proprietary connections are:
Clearance ODs for slimhole completions Metal-to-metal seals for improved high pressure
seal integrity High bending strength for deviated holes Multiple shoulders for high torque strength A streamlined connection OD for easy running in multiple completions. Recess-free bores through the connection ID for improved flow characteristics Higher tensile strength for deep holes An integral connection to reduce the number of potential leak paths Resilient seal rings for continuous corrosion protection High compressive strength for compressive loading situations.
PIPE BODY
EXTERNAL UPSET END
ROUND CRESTS AND ROOTS
60 deg
API EXTERNAL UPSET END (EUE) TUBING
FIGURE 6
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Saudi Aramco Proprietary Connections Several proprietary connections are used in Saudi Aramco drilling and workover operations. A brief description of the most popular connections used are as follows: VAM Connection: A proprietary connection which is very popular with Saudi Aramco is the VAM connection and is stocked in 4-1/2" and 7" sizes. This connection has a metal to metal seal for superior leak resistance. An internally threaded coupling with internal shoulders provide positive make up torque and a non-turbulent bore (see Figure 7).
hoop stress, high joint strength (equivalent to API buttress thread), high collapse strength and easy stabbing design. Its two step pin nose which incorporate a primary and reserve torque shoulder and metal to metal seal make it a good candidate for the deep, high temperature, high pressure Khuff gas service.
TWO-STEP PIN NOSE DESIGN
RESERVE SHOULDER METAL TO METAL SEAL
PRIMARY SHOULDER
API BUTTRESS
FLUSH BORE DIAMETER TORQUE SHOULDER METAL TO METAL SEAL FACE
PROPRIETARY NS-CC CONNECTION
FIGURE 8
FLAT CRESTS AND ROOTS
NS-CT (Nippon Steel Connection for Tubing) is a similar connection used for tubing applications. It is stocked by Saudi Aramco in the 2-7/8" size. Hydril PH-6 Connection The Hydril PH-6 proprietary connection is an integral connection stocked by Saudi Aramco in the 2-7/8" and 3-1/2" sizes. Advantages of the PH-6 design are metal to metal seals, high internal and external pressure integrity, and a rugged two step thread design (see Figure 9). The torque shoulders allow make-up to the same point every time (like a drill pipe tool joint) The connection also exceeds API pipe body ratings and can be used as a work string (instead of regular drill pipe) for operations such as drilling, milling, and other work string applications.
PROPRIETARY VAM CONNECTION
FIGURE 7
It has become a standard completion tubing for the Khuff gas wells and most of the oil producers. Also, due to its superior joint and bending strength, it is used as the completion liner for the horizontal wells. NS-CC Connection The NS-CC (Nippon Steel Connection for Casing) is a proprietary connection used by Saudi Aramco in the Khuff gas wells (see Figure 8). It is stocked in 7", 9-5/8" and 13-3/8" sizes. This connection is noteworthy for its gas leak tightness, low
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ing at the pin/box interface during periods of high internal pressure and large bending moments.
0 DEG. TORQUE SHOULDER & SEAL
THREADS CUT ON TWO DIFFERENT DIAMETERS
SECONDARY SHOULDER
REVERSE SHOULDER "O" RING SEAL ON PIN
COARSE THREE PITCH THREAD DESIGN
PIN TO BOX SEAL
PROPRIETARY HYDRIL PH-6 CONNECTION
ELEVATOR SHOULDER
FIGURE 9
Vetco LS, RL-4S, and Dril-quip S-60 Connections for Large Casing Sizes The Vetco LS, RL-4S and Dril-quip S-60 connections are proprietary connections used by Saudi Aramco in the 24" casing size. The Vetco LS connection is a high strength integral design which accommodates high internal operating pressures, bending moments and tensile loads. The pin/box mating shoulder has a 30 degree taper (see Figure 10). This results in the open end of the box being captured by the tapered shoulder of the pin, and prevents the box from balloon-
PROPRIETARY VETCO LS CONNECTION FOR LARGE CASING SIZES
FIGURE 10
The Vetco RL-4S connection features dual stabbing guides and a high stab angle for easy stabbing. Self locking, four start thread forms allow fast quarter-turn makeup. The Dril-quip S-60 connection features easy stabbing, no cross-threading, fast makeup, low torque and high pressure sealing.
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Corrosion
The presence of CO2 and H2S accompanied by water, can cause corrosion of exposed tubulars. In addition, H2S can cause stress corrosion cracking. Corrosion Mitigation When CO2 or H2S are dissolved in water, they create an acidic solution. These solutions react with the iron in the pipe causing local pitting, which can eventually eat a hole in the pipe. Some of the ways of combating this corrosion are as follows: Plastic Coatings: Plastic coating on pipe exposed to produced fluids is one method of corrosion prevention. There are a variety of coating materials and thicknesses for the different chemical components and temperatures of the produced fluid. The application of a coating to the inside of the pipe can reduce its effective drift diameter. This will make it necessary to coordinate the plastic coating thickness with the proposed through-tubing work. Plastic coating is difficult to apply to all exposed surfaces. This is particularly true of coupling recesses and accessories such as packers, seating nipples and safety valves. In order to maintain continuity of the plastic coatings corrosion barrier, some connections provide a teflon ring on the ID between the pin end and the box recess. Saudi Aramco carries a stock of internally plastic coated (IPC) tubulars in the 4-1/2" and 7" sizes. Several salt water disposal wells use these IPC tubulars to prevent corrosion due to the salt water effluent pumped into these wells. High Alloy Carbon, Stainless Steel or Chromium Tubulars: Where plastic coating is impractical, corrosion control can be achieved through these alloy steels. This is not a common method since alloy steel tubulars usually cost much more than a conventional steel string. Saudi Aramco maintains a stock of 4-1/2", 7"
and 9-5/8" high alloy Chrome-13 tubulars for use in the gravity water injection wells (see the section entitled Properties of Tubular Materials for more information about CR-13 casing). Chemical Inhibition: An inhibitor may periodically be pumped into a well to form a film on the pipe. If there is no means to circulate the inhibitor while producing the well, it will be necessary to shut in the well and pump down the tubing. In a gas lift installation, the inhibitor may be pumped into the gas system. Where wells are completed with concentric strings, the inhibitor can be continuously pumped down one string, with the produced fluid carrying the inhibitor into the other string. Sulfide Stress Cracking Sulfide stress cracking is a type of corrosion caused by H2S that creates a severe hazard because it can lead to gross failure of steel equipment. Stress corrosion cracking attacks areas subjected to high tension stress. Once the stress crack is initiated, the tensile stress may increase due to the reduced steel cross sectional area, thus leading to accelerated stress cracking. This process continues until the stress increases to the ultimate strength of the steel, at which point failure occurs. In order to prevent stress corrosion cracking in tubulars due to the presence of H2S, certain design criteria can be applied. Steel Properties: One of the principal factors governing the resistance of tubulars to stress corrosion cracking is the physical properties of the steel. Through extensive testing it has been determined that the higher strength carbon steels are more susceptible to sulfide stress cracking than lower strength steels. The API Specification 5AC lists three steel grades, C-75, L-80, and C-95 which have a restricted yield strength range of 15,000 psi. This restricted range has the net effect of holding down the maximum strength of the steel while maintaining an ad-
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equate minimum yield strength. In addition to the narrower yield strength range, these grades have additional chemical and heat treatment controls not required on other API steel grades. These three have been widely used in H2S environments. With experimental work on the effect of the heat treatment methods on resistance to sulfide stress cracking, there has been an increased use of the quenched and tempered L-80 grade. In addition to the API grades, there are proprietary grades used in H2S service. Most of these have a minimum yield strength from 80,000 psi to 90,000 psi, with a controlled yield strength range of 15,000 psi. This is the same range as API restricted yield grades. Temperature Susceptibility: Another factor in susceptibility of tubulars to sulfide stress cracking is the temperature of the steel when it is exposed. It has been shown that at elevated temperatures, the higher strength steels are not susceptible to sulfide stress cracking. NACE Specification MR-10-75 refers to the use of API grades P-105, P-110 and proprietary grades to a maximum 140,000 psi yield strength in an H2S environment where the temperature during exposure is not less than 175 F. The use of API grades N-80, C-95 and proprietary grades up to a maximum yield strength of 110,000 psi can be used in temperatures above 150 F. Other Factors: Other factors effecting sulfide stress cracking are the level of stress in the steel and the time of exposure. Lower stress levels reduce the chance of sulfide cracking. The steel chemical and mechanical properties, in addition to the time and temperature at exposure and the tensile stress level, determine the susceptibility of the steel to sulfide stress cracking. Design Considerations: In deep, high pressure gas wells where both internal pressure and tension would normally require high strength steels, design of casing and tubing strings becomes difficult with the restriction of the
minimum yield strength to 90,000-95,000 psi in an H2S environment. Application of restricted yield strength steel grades dictates thicker-wall pipe to handle the high tension and internal pressure loads. A well with a high bottom hole temperature can use P-110 and/or X-125 casing and P-105 tubing in the lower section of the hole up to a point where the static temperature is no longer high enough. At this crossover temperature, it is then necessary to run the sulfide stress cracking resistant grades to the surface. By using high strength steel on the bottom, the wall thickness can generally be reduced, thus decreasing the total weight of the string. This is particularly important with the upper section of the string requiring lower strength steel, the reduced weight on the bottom sections will further reduce the weight required at the surface. Saudi Aramco Applications in H2S Service Associated gas and non-associated (Khuff) gas can contain high levels of H2S. The L-80 grade has become a standard specification for several Saudi Aramco oil and gas fields that have high levels of H2S. Saudi Aramco stocks several sizes of L-80 tubing and casing such as 4-1/2", 7" and 9-5/8". Proprietary (non-API) grades such as S-95, and NT-90HS are also used in Saudi Aramco high pressure sour Khuff gas applications where a high yield strength is required. Care Of Oilfield Tubulars With the large expense of tubular products to drill and complete an oil or gas well, it is important that the proper shipping, handling, storage, and running practices be followed to ensure that the investment made in tubulars yields its maximum benefit. Leaky joints are one cause of trouble that can be attributed to many forms of improper care. API Recommended Practice for Care and Use of Casing and Tubing (RP 5C1) lists common causes of trouble for casing and tubing. Of these, over half are related to poor shipping, handling, and running practices.
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Casing Design
Generally, the most economic casing string is the lightest weight, lowest grade string that will accommodate the stresses and environmental conditions to which it is exposed so that it will not:
Anticipated Production Rate: The tubing must be of sufficient size to accommodate the expected production rate. Small tubing may cause high erosional velocities, a high pressure drop and low production rates. This is an important design considerations in high capacity reservoirs like those in Saudi Aramco. Nature of Produced Fluids: In practice, oil wells produce fluids in either twophase (oil/water or oil/gas) or three phase (oil/water/gas) flow. Gas wells can also carry liquid in the flow stream. These multi-phase flow regimes complicate the modeling of fluid flow in tubing strings. When wells become water-cut for example, the water may break out and load up in the tubing string if the fluid velocity is too low. A smaller tubing string may be required to maintain a higher fluid velocity to carry the water to surface. Tubing size selection requires several reservoir and production parameters as input to the calculations. Saudi Aramco uses a computer program called Pipe-Flow to accurately model these complicated production streams. It is extensively used by Saudi Aramco Production Engineering Departments to determine tubing sizes required for new wells and workover wells. To accurately calculate tubing size, it is recommended to review the Pipe-Flow program. Accommodation of Through Tubing Tools: Another consideration is the minimum acceptable through-bore for survey, servicing, production logging and coiled tubing unit (CTU) operations. Slim logging tools are typically 1-11/16" in diameter and can be accommodated with 2-3/8" production tubing. However wells with special logging requirements, such as the 3-5/8" Carbon-Oxygen log or Induction log, need tubing strings sized large enough to accommodate these logs. Some wells may require landing nipples with no-go profiles which may further restrict through-bore diameter. It is therefore important to communicate with the production engineer to determine the size of tools that will be run in the well after the completion operation.
Rupture or burst under internal pressure Collapse under external pressure Pull apart under axial tensile stress Lose pressure or leak Fail due to compression effects Fail due to bending effects Fail due to torsional effects Fail prematurely due to wear Fail prematurely due to corrosion or other chemical/metallurgical phenomenon such as sulfide stress cracking.
The first four considerations - tension, burst, collapse, and pressure integrity are considered without exception in all casing designs. The latter loads or phenomena are unusual or special conditions that may exist in certain wells and should be considered to develop a perspective of all the stresses and conditions involved.
Tubing Design
Tubing, like casing, must fulfill the design requirements dictated by the internal and external pressure loading conditions the tubing will be subjected to. In addition to satisfying the internal yield, collapse and tensile requirements, the design must meet additional criteria. Tubing Size Selection Since the tubing usually contains the production stream, it must be sized accurately. Several factors are considered when selecting the correct tubing size for a well. Some of the main factors are:
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Economic Considerations: Larger tubing sizes typically cost more. An incentive toward smaller diameter tubing is the savings in tubular costs. Tubing sizes should be as small as practical, yet still fulfill the production requirements of the well. Tubular Availability: Once the accurate tubing size is determined (4" tubing for example), it may be found that the particular tubing size is not available. Saudi Aramco maintains a stock of tubulars of standard sizes as listed in Appendix A. Some tubulars may have been discontinued (at the time of this printing) and new ones may appear that are not on the list. An up-todate Aramco Material Supply (AMS) list should be reviewed when checking tubular availability. If the exact size tubing is not available, then either one size smaller or larger must be chosen. Since 4" tub-
ing is not an Aramco stock item, then either 3-1/2" or 4-1/2" must be chosen. The 3-1/2" or 4-1/2" tubing may also be out of stock, further restricting the choice of tubulars available. It is therefore important to determine the size of tubulars required (and what tubulars are available) well in advance of any drilling or workover project. For new wells, once the tubing size is selected, the outer casing sizes may then be determined to accommodate the tubing. For existing wells, the casing size frequently dictates the maximum tubing size that can be run in the well. Wells completed with 4-1/2" casings are very limited as to the size of tubing that can be run.
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Appendix A: Saudi Aramco Tubing and Casing Data Table

SIZE inches WEIGHT #/ft GRADE CONN name ID inches DRIFT inches CON.OD inches CAPAC cuft/ft BURST psi COLLAP psi JT.STR lbs x 1000
2-3/8 2-3/8 2-7/8 2-7/8 2-7/8 3-1/2 3-1/2 4-1/2 4-1/2 4-1/2 4-1/2 4-1/2 4-1/2 5 5 5-1/2 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 9-5/8 9-5/8 9-5/8 9-5/8 9-5/8 9-5/8 9-5/8 9-5/8 9-5/8 9-5/8 9-5/8 9-5/8 13-3/8 13-3/8 13-3/8
4.70 4.70 6.40 6.50 8.70 9.30 12.95 11.60 11.60 11.60 12.60 13.50 13.50 15.00 15.00 20.00 23.00 23.00 26.00 26.00 26.00 29.00 35.00 35.00 35.00 35.00 35.00 36.00 36.00 40.00 40.00 40.00 43.50 47.00 53.50 53.50 53.50 53.50 58.40 61.00 68.00 68.00
J-55 L-80 J-55 J-55 L-80 J-55 L-80 J-55 J-55 13CR L-80 J-55 L-80 KO-105T1 K-55 13CR L-80 L-80 J-55 J-55 J-55 J-55 13CR L-80 N-80 L-80 L-80 L-80 L-80 L-80 J-55 J-55 J-55 J-55 L-80 L-80 L-80 L-80 NT-90HSS2 SM-90 S-95 NT-105HSS2 J-55 J-55 J-55
EUE CS NS-CT EUE PH6 EUE PH6 STC LTC LTC VAM VAM HTS SC BTC SC BTC VAM STC LTC STC LTC LTC LTC LTC VAM SUPER-EU NS-CC IJ-4S STC LTC STC LTC 13CR L-80 LTC LTC LTC NS-CC BTC BTC NS-CC STC STC BTC
1.995 1.945*
1.901 1.901
3.063 2.705
0.02171 0.02171
7700 11200
8100 11780
71.7 104.0
2.441 2.200* 2.992 2.687* 4.000 4.000 4.000 3.958 3.920 3.920
2.347 2.165 2.867 2.625 3.875 3.875 3.875 3.833 3.795 3.795
3.668 3.500 4.500 4.313 5.000 5.000 5.000 4.892 4.862
0.03250 0.02783 0.04883 0.04125 0.08727 0.08727 0.08727 0.08544 0.08381 0.08381
7260 15000 6980 13007 5350 5350 5790 8540 10710
7680 15300 7400 15310 4960 4960 5720 9020 11280
99.6 199.0 142.5 295.0 154.0 162.0 198.0 307.0
4.778 6.366 6.366 6.276 6.276 6.184 6.004 5.924 6.004 8.921 8.921 8.835 8.835
4.653 6.241 6.241 6.151 6.151 6.059 5.879 5.879 5.879 8.765 8.765 8.679 8.679
6.075 7.656 7.656 7.656 7.656 7.656 7.681 7.572
0.1245 0.2210 0.2210 0.2148 0.2148 0.2086 0.1966 0.1966 0.1966
9190 4360 4360 4980 4980 8160 9960 9960 9960 3520 3520 3950 3950
8840 3270 3270 4320 4320 7020 10190 10180 10180 2020 2020 2570 2570
466.0 284.0 313.0 334.0 367.0 597.0 725.0 957.0 740.0 394.0 453.0 452.0 520.0
10.625 10.625 10.625 10.625
0.4341 0.4341 0.4257 0.4257
8.535 8.535 8.535 8.535 8.435 12.515 12.415
8.279 8.379 8.379 8.379 8.400 12.359 12.259
10.625 10.625 10.625 10.625 10.625 14.375 14.375
0.3973 0.3973 0.3973 0.3973 0.3881 0.8543 0.8407
7930 8920 8920 9410 11360 3090 3450
6620 7110 7110 8840 13420 1540 1950
1062.0 1386.0 1399.0 1477.0 1739.0 595.0 675.0
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SIZE inches
WEIGHT #/ft
GRADE
CONN name
ID inches
DRIFT inches
CON.OD inches
CAPAC cuft/ft
BURST psi
COLLAP psi
JT.STR lbs x 1000
13-3/8 13-3/8 13-3/8 13-3/8 13-3/8 18-5/8 18-5/8 18-5/8 18-5/8 18-5/8 20 20 24 24 24 24 26 26 26 30 30 36 36 36
72.00 72.00 72.00 86.00 86.00 85.50 87.50 87.50 88.70 115.00 94.00 94.00 174.00 176.00 176.00 176.00 105.00 105.12 136.00 233.00 233.00 190.00 282.00 236.00
L-80 NT-95HS2 S-95 NT-95HS2 S-95 J-55 K-55 J-55 H-40 K-55 H-40 J-55 K-55 X-42 X-42 X-56 H-40 X-42 H-40 X-42 X-42 B B X-60
STC NS-CC BTC NS-CC BTC BTC BTC BTC SJ BTC SJ SF BIG-OMEGA VETCO-LS VETCO-RL4 RL-4S SF SJ SJ SJ VET-RL4FB BW BW BW
12.347 12.347 12.347 12.125 12.125 17.755
12.191 12.191 12.191 11.969 11.939 17.567
14.375 14.375 14.375 14.375 14.375 19.625
0.8315 0.8315 0.8315 0.8018 0L8018 17.194
5380 6390 6390 7750 7750 2250
2670 3680 3470 6260 6240 630
1040.0 1935.0 1935.0 2333.0 2333.0 1329.0
17.755 17.437 19.124 19.124 22.624 22.624 22.624
17.249 18.936 18.936 22.327 22.250 22.250
19.625
17.194 1.6583 1.9947 1.9947 2.7917 2.7917 2.7001
3070 1530 520 2680 2107 2107
1511 520 2110 1160 1083 1083
1850.0 1077.0 1480.0 2405.0 2116.0 2060.0
25.250 25.000 28.500 28.120 35.000 34.500 34.750
3.4774 3.4088 4.4301 4.3128 36.000 36.000 36.000 6.6813 6.4918 6.5862 1838 1838 851 1458 1822 768 768 129 443 254 2895.0 2895.0 1952.0 2910.0 4000.0
28.094
Notes: 1. KO-105T: KO (Kawasaki Steel Corporation) 105 (minimum yield strength, psi) T (high collapse resistance) 2. NT-90HSS: NT (Nippon Steel Special Service) 90, 95, 105 (minimum yield strength, psi) HS (high collapse resistance) S (sour service)
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Chapter 4 - Packers Introduction

Packer Definition A production packer can be defined as a subsurface tool used to provide a seal between the tubing and casing to prevent vertical movement of fluids past the sealing point. Packers serve a vital role in well completions and have a marked effect on subsequent operations performed in a well. Major functions of a packer are: Basic Components A permanent Otis WB packer is shown in Figure 1, and in Figure 2 is a retrievable Otis Versa Trieve packer. They have the following components in common:
Seal element Slips Cone Setting and releasing mechanism Flow mandrel.
Protect casing from bursting under conditions of

high production or injection pressures Protect casing from corrosive fluids Provide better well control Prevent fluid movement between productive zones Isolate zones or bad casing Keep gas lift pressure off the formation for more efficient gas lift production operation.
Types Of Packers Production packers are generally classified as either retrievable or permanent. By definition, a retrievable packer is one that can be removed from a well by tubing manipulation or some other means not involving destruction of the packer. A permanent packer, on the other hand, must be destroyed for removal. For this reason, permanent packers are often referred to as drillable packers. The primary function of any packer is to provide a seal - the crucial prerequisite to be met in selecting any packer. All other considerations are of secondary importance, and quite rightly so. The functions expected of the packer, the environmental conditions under which it will be used, and its mechanical design must be known before selection is made for a particular application.
Sealing Elements: Sealing elements are normally constructed of nitrile-rubber, except in such special applications as thermal-injection or sour-service operations. Nitrile-rubber seals have proved superior for use in moderate temperatures under normal service conditions. The compound characteristics required for a particular job can be achieved through control of the constituents in the compound and the degree of vulcanization. Slips: Slips are serrated or tooth-like parts of the packer. Once forced outward by the setting action, the slips bite into the casing wall preventing the packer from moving when pressure differentials exist across the packer. Some packers have two sets of opposing mechanical slips. The top set of slips prevent the packer from moving uphole while the bottom slips prevent downward motion. Some packers incorporate bi-directional slips, that is, one set of slips which prevent motion in either direction. There are a few packer designs with a set of lower slips and a set of hydraulically activated hold-down button slips.
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Fig. 1 Otis PERMA-SERIES
Fig. 2 Otis Versa-Trieve Packer

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Cone: The cone is simply that part of the packer that forces the slips to move outward and bite into the casing during the setting of the packer. The cone is known by several other names such as the wedge, expander, or expander cone. Mandrel: The flow mandrel (sometimes called the packer mandrel) is the tube part of the packer that allows production to enter the tubing and, in turn, on to the surface. It can be generally stated that a packer consists of external components built around the flow mandrel. In many instances, the pressure differential rating of a packer is dependent on the strength of the flow mandrel. Down hole conditions will dictate the type of alloy used to make the flow mandrel. Setting and Releasing Elements: The setting mechanism on retrievable packers generally consists of a J-latch, a shear pin, or some other clutch arrangement to allow the packer to be engaged. The various mechanisms employed are actuated by a number of different methods, including upward or downward movement, placing weight on the packer, pulling tension in the tubing, or rotating to the right or left. Hydraulically actuated retrievable packers are set with pressure inside the tubing using pump-out plugs, wireline plugs, or flow-out balls. The releasing mechanisms on a retrievable packer involve another wide range of actuation methods - straight pickup, rotating to the right or left, slacking off and then picking up, or picking up to shear pins. Releasing a packer by rotation is difficult to achieve in highly deviated wells. Tubing movement due to changes of pressure and temperature should be evaluated when selecting setting and releasing mechanisms of a retrievable packer. To select a particular type of setting or releasing mechanism, it is necessary to know the conditions existing in the particular wellbore when the packer is set and the operations anticipated during its stay in the hole.
Permanent Packers
Most of the production packers used by Saudi Aramco are of the permanent type. Figure 1 shows an Otis WB permanent packer, which is frequently used by Saudi Aramco. The packer can be run and set on wireline or drill pipe. Selection of the setting procedure depends on cost (rig cost and service company charges) and wellbore conditions. When the packer is run on drill pipe a hydraulic setting tool is attached to the top of the packer. Once the packer is on depth, a ball is dropped into the setting tool. Pump pressure activates the setting tool which forces the upper slips, upper cone and lower cone to move downward thus compressing the seal element between the cones against the casing. As the slips slide over the cones they are forced to move outward and bite into the casing preventing movement of the packer. When the packer is run on wireline, setting is accomplished by firing an explosive charge to create the necessary pressure required to set the packer. Permanent packers cannot be retrieved from the well. A flat bottom mill is used to mill the top slips and part of the sealing element. The packer is then pushed to the bottom and retrieved by using a taper tap or a spear. The packer may also be retrieved by using a milling-retrieving tool. The tool consists of a burn shoe and a collet or spear. The collet or spear engages the inside of the packer while the top slips are milled by the burn shoe. Once the top slips are milled the packer is pulled to the surface. Characteristics of Permanent Packers General characteristics common to permanent packers are:
Permanently set. Once set, no tubing weight or

tension is required to keep it in set position. Economical. Permanent packers have, by design, very few components. As a result, these packers are less costly than other packers of comparable size.
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Highest pressure rating. Permanent packers due

to simple design can be built sturdier than other types of packers. Pressure differential ratings as high as 15,000 psi are possible. High temperature rating. Element packages are available to withstand temperatures in excess of 500 oF. Popularity. Worldwide, permanent packers are the most frequently used of all packer types. Floating seal assembly can be used to accommodate tubing movement. Disadvantages: The main objection to the permanent packer is the necessity for milling and destroying the packer for removal. A permanent packer can be milled and retrieved in 12 hours by using a milling-retrieving tool or in 24 hours by using a flat bottom mill. Permanent packers can be subdivided according to the method required to set the packer. Electric wireline, hydraulic and tubing rotation are the three setting methods available. The electric wireline and hydraulic are by far the most common methods used to set permanent packers. Tubing rotation is so rarely used it is beyond the scope of this course. Electric Wireline Set Packer The electric wireline set packer is the most commonly used of any type of packer. It can be run and set quickly and accurately at a pre-determined depth. After the packer is set, a production seal assembly and production tubing is then run into the well. Once the seal assembly seals into the packer, tubing length is adjusted at the surface (spaced out) and the well is then completed. Hydraulic Set Packer There are instances when it is desirable to run a wireline set packer, however, hole conditions prevent using electric line. To accommodate the running of an electric wireline set packer, a hydraulic
setting tool may be used. The hydraulic setting tool takes the place of the electric line setting tool when conditions dictate. The packer is attached to the hydraulic setting tool and run in the well on drill pipe or a tubing work string. Once on depth, a ball is dropped through the pipe into the setting tool. Hydraulic pump pressure activates the setting tool causing the packer to set. The hydraulic setting tool and work string are then pulled out of the well and production seals and tubing are run to complete the well. Some conditions that may require using a hydraulic setting tool are:
Assembly weight. If the packer and attached

equipment weighs more than the electric wireline can support, the assembly may be run and set on pipe using the hydraulic setting tool. Seal assembly on the bottom of the packer assembly. If a previously set lower packer is in place, the seals for the lower packer may have to be pushed into that packer using the work string weight. High angle of deviation. As the angle of deviation becomes greater, a point is reached where the packer will no longer slide down the well. This condition requires running the packer on pipe. Heavy mud in the well. A thick, viscous mud may prevent the packer assembly from falling on its own. Pipe weight may be required to push the packer assembly down hole.
Retrievable Packers
An Otis Versa-Trieve retrievable packer is shown in Figure 2. The packer is designed to be set on wireline or tubing. It has bi-directional slips located below the packer elements to prevent debris from settling on them. During the setting sequence, the packers guide tube is forced downward while the packers mandrel is pulled upward. This motion drives the top and bottom wedges under the slips to
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force them out into the casing wall. Additional setting stroke compresses the packers elements to form a seal against the casing wall. The packer is maintained in the set position until a shear piston located in the lower end of the packer is moved up to release the packers mandrel from the packers shear sleeve. An Otis VRT retrieving tool is used for this operation. Once the packers mandrel is free to move, a set of shear pins in the Otis VRT tool is sheared, allowing the pulling forces to be transmitted to the packers mandrel. As the packers mandrel is moved upward, a snap ring catches the lower end of the element mandrel to release the compression in the packers elements. Additional upward movement pulls the top wedge from under the slips allowing the slips to move in and release their bite in the casing wall. The main advantage of retrievable packers is that they can be retrieved without destroying the packer. This saves rig time and the cost of replacing the packer. If the old packer is in satisfactory mechanical condition and is not corroded it can be redressed and rerun in the well. Retrievable packers, however, cost more than permanent packers. Sometimes retrievable packers get stuck and cannot be retrieved by conventional retrieving tools. In this case they have to be milled and retrieved by taper tap. Retrievable packers generally take a longer time to mill than permanent packers because their slips are made of harder metal. Packer Components Packer seal assembly: Since permanent packers cannot be pulled out of the well, the tubing cannot be attached directly to a permanent packer. Occasionally, the tubing may have to be retrieved and repaired or replaced. A pressure tight seal must exist between the tubing and the packer bore forcing the production into the tubing. This is accomplished by using a seal assembly that attaches to the tubing and seals in the packer. The seal assembly is designed such that it can move in the packer to accommodate tubing elongation or contraction which can result from changes in tem-
peratures and pressures in the tubing and tubingcasing annulus. The basic seal assembly used in Saudi Aramco wells consists of a locator, a spacer bar, a seal unit and a mule shoe guide. Locator: The locator is attached at the top of the seal assembly and at the bottom of the tubing. It is designed to prevent any further downward travel of the seal assembly once the locator encounters the top of the packer. An Otis straight slot locator used by Saudi Aramco is shown in Figure 3. It is used when free-to-move seal assembly is required. The jay-slot locator shown in Figure 3 is used when small tubing movement or forces are expected. The jay slots of the locator latch onto the lugs in the packers head preventing tubing movement. Spacer Bar: A spacer bar is a length of pipe without seals attached to the bottom of the locator and above the seals. It is used as an extension to space out the locator above the packer and at the same time keep the seals inside the bore of the packer and sealbore extension. Seals: The seal unit forms a seal in the bores of the packer and sealbore extension. An Otis standard molded seal unit used in Saudi Aramcos completions is shown in Figure 3. The seal is made of nitrile rubber and is used in wells where the pressure is less than 10,000 psi and temperatures are less than 275 oF. Each seal unit is 1 foot long and longer seal assemblies can be made by simply attaching the seal units together. Premium seals are used for harsh conditions of high temperatures, high pressures and in severe environments such as hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide and amine inhibitors. Mule Shoe: An Otis mule shoe is shown in Figure 3. It is installed at the bottom of the seal assembly to facilitate entry into the packer bore. The shape of the mule shoe is designed such that if the seal assembly
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Figure 3: Straight-Slot Locator, J-Slot Locator, Molded Seal Unit & Muleshoe Guide
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hangs up at the top of the packer or liner hanger a simple rotation of the assembly will allow it to pass through. Packer tail pipe assembly: The tailpipe assembly is the part of the tubing that is connected to the bottom of the packer. It serves the following functions:
Provides a seal bore for the seal assembly. Contains landing nipples for setting wireline
plugs used for well control and pressure testing tubing. Contains no-go landing nipples used for hanging bottom hole pressure gauges. Facilitates re-entry of wireline tools. The standard tailpipe assembly used in Saudi Aramco oil producers consists of the following components:
Sealbore extension Millout extension Selective landing nipples No-go landing nipples Re-entry guide.
Sealbore Extension: A sealbore extension is a length of pipe with polished bore that is connected at the bottom of the packer. It is designed to extend the polished surface of the packer bore to permit use of longer sealing units to compensate for the contraction and elongation of the tubing. An Otis sealbore extension used by Saudi Aramco is shown in Figure 4. It is 12' long and has the same bore ID as the packer. Millout Extension: A millout extension is a length of pipe 5' long connected to the bottom of the sealbore extension. The purpose of the millout extension is to facilitate the retrieval of the packer and tailpipe assembly after the packer is milled. It has a larger inside di-
Figure 4: Otis Sealbore Extension
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ameter than the sealbore extension. The difference in the diameters provides a shoulder where a special plucking tool can engage and retrieve the packer and tailpipe assembly. The use of a millout extension is optional. When not used the packer can be milled out and then retrieved by taper tap or spear. Landing Nipples: A landing nipple is a device connected to the tubing or tailpipe assembly used for setting wireline plugs or flow control devices. Otis selective nipples are used in Saudi Aramcos well completions. Type X nipple shown in Figure 5 is used for standard weight tubing, type R nipple is used for heavy weight tubing. The bore size of the nipple should be compatible with the size and weight of the tubing. The first X nipple in the tailpipe assembly is installed at the bottom of a tubing pup joint, which is connected to the sealbore extension or millout extension. The nipple is used for setting wireline tubing plugs to stop
the flow into the tubing. This is normally done during workovers before the tree is removed or when Well Services replaces a damaged tubing master valve. In Southern Area well completions two 10' perforated tubing pup joints are connected below the X nipple. During flow tests pressure gauges are hung inside the tailpipe below the X nipples which partially block the flow into the tailpipe. The purpose of the perforated pup joint is to allow the fluids to enter the tubing during the flow test. A second X nipple is installed at the bottom of the perforated joints. This nipple is used by Wireline Services for hanging bottom hole pressure gauges (normally X nipples are not designed for hanging pressure gauges). No-Go Landing Nipples: The no-go or XN landing nipple is installed on a 10' tubing pup joint below the bottom X
Figure 5: Landing Nipples used in Saudi Aramcos Well Completions
Well Completions
49
nipple. Like the X nipple it has a polished bore for setting wireline tubing PXN plugs. In addition, the XN nipple has a no-go ID at the bottom to prevent pressure gauge hangers from dropping to the bottom of the well. The nipple is used for hanging pressure gauges and other flow control devices. Re-entry Guide: The re-entry guide is installed at the bottom of the tailpipe assembly. Its bell shaped design facilitates re-entry of wireline tools into the tailpipe. An Otis re-entry guide is shown in Figure 6. A schematic diagram of the seal and tailpipe assemblies is shown in Figure 7.
Packer Selection
The best approach for selecting a packer is to first examine well conditions and desired operational capabilities and then determine which packer features meet those well conditions and best fulfill those operational requirements. Some of the factors that should be considered in selecting a packer are: Cost: The packer of minimum cost that will accomplish the objective should be selected. Initial packer price should not be used as the only criterion. Rig time cost for running and retrieving the packer should also be taken into consideration.
Figure 6: Otis Re-entry Guide
Well Completions
50
Well Conditions: 1. The packer should be selected to withstand the pressure differentials between the tubing-casing annulus and wellbore below packer during producing and acidizing. 2. The packer should be made of alloys that will withstand the corrosiveness of well fluids. Running and Setting Considerations: Packer setting mechanisms are tubing-set, electric-line-set or hydraulic-set. Tubing-set packers should not be used in deep wells because of increased possibility of tubing manipulation problems with increased depth. Electric-line-set packers should not be used in highly deviated holes (greater than 5055o) because it is not possible to run the packer to the required depth. Retrieving Considerations: Retrievable packers can be retrieved by a rotational release mechanism or straight pickup release mechanism. A rotation release packer should be avoided in deviated wells because of difficulty in transmitting rotation downhole. Production and Treating Considerations: Packers must be able to accommodate tubing movements (elongation and contraction) as a result of changes in temperatures and pressures. Packers set in tension allow for tubing movement due to expansion whereas packers set in compression accommodate tubing contraction. Tubing movement due to both expansion and contraction can be accommodated using a floating seal assembly with sealbore extension. Compatibility with other Downhole Equipment: If wireline equipment or perforating guns are to be run in the tubing, it is desirable to use packers that do not require weight to keep them set. Wireline operations can be more successfully completed if tubing is kept straight by landing it in tension or neutral. Furthermore, the bore of the packer or the seal assembly should be large enough to allow for running through-tubing, perforating guns, production logs and tubing plugs.
Figure 7: Packer Seal and Tailpipe Assemlies
Well Completions
51
Polished Bore Receptacles A polished bore receptacle (PBR) is another type of packer system that can be used in place of a permanent packer. The PBR accepts an inner seal assembly that seals off between the tubing and the PBR Figures 8 and 9. The PBR is commonly used in a liner completion, where it is installed as an integral part of the liner hanger. When the completion string is run, the seal assembly, similar to that used on a permanent packer, is run on the end of the tubing string. The seal assembly is either latched onto the PBR, or left floating to allow tubing movement. The bore of the seal assembly is equal to the
ID of the liner below, which will provide free passage of wireline tools. Normally, the PBR diameter is larger than the diameter of the liner below it. Most workover tools and procedures can be run through the PBR with ease. In a completion, the sealing characteristics and capabilities between the tubing and PBR are the same as between the tubing and packer body of a permanent packer completion. The PBR has a disadvantage that the permanent packer does not. The position of the PBR is fixed in the hole, generally in the liner hanger, which may be several hundred feet above the zone of in-
Figure 8: PBR installed in Liner Completion
Figure 9: PBR and Seal Assembly
Well Completions
52
terest. As stated previously, one of the functions of the packer system is to protect the casing string from the corrosiveness of wellbore fluids by sealing off the tubing annulus. Since the PBR is set at the top of the liner, the entire length of the liner is exposed to potentially corrosive fluids when the well is produced. For example, in a well with a 500 foot liner and a producing interval 50 feet in length, the entire liner is exposed to the effect of the production fluids, as opposed to a typical installation in which the packer would be located just above the pay. Large-Bore Permanent Packers Large-bore packers provide full bore packer ID to facilitate running large OD logging tools. A schematic diagram of an Otis HC packer is shown in Figure 10. The large bore is achieved by placing the overshot seal unit above the packer bore. The seal unit provides a seal around the polished rod which is latched into the top of the packer. The packer is run on tubing or drill pipe with overshot seal unit attached to the polished rod with shear pins. The packer is set hydraulically and the tubing is picked up to shear the pins and release the overshot from the polished rod. The tubing is then spaced out to allow for tubing movement. The HC packer is retrieved by pulling out the tubing and the overshot seal unit. The polished rod is unlatched from the packer and retrieved by using a special J latch retrieving tool. The packer is then milled and retrieved by using a taper tap or spear.
Figure 10: Otis HC Packer
Well Completions
53
Dual Packers A conventional dual completion is shown in Figure 11. This type of completion system allows producing from two zones through separate tubing strings. The bottom packer is run with the tailpipe assembly and set above the bottom producing zone. The top dual retrievable packer is made up on the long tubing string with the lower seal assembly and tail pipe assembly attached to the bottom. The packer is run and the seal assembly stung into the bottom packer as shown in Figure 11. The packer is then set and pressure tested. The long tubing string is permanently attached to the top packer. A traveling joint is normally run on the tubing to allow for tubing movement. The short tubing string is run with a traveling joint and latched into the second outlet of the top packer. The tubing strings are hung on a special dual tubing hanger. A dual production tree is installed on top of the tubing spool, which allows producing the two zones separately.
Figure 11: A Conventional Dual Completion
Well Completions
54
Chapter 5 - Surface and Subsurface Safety Valves Introduction

Subsurface Safety Valve: A subsurface safety valve is a device installed in the tubing of a well below the wellhead that can be actuated to prevent uncontrolled well flow. This device can be installed and retrieved by wireline (wireline retrievable) or it can be an integral part of the tubing string (tubing retrievable). They can be subsurface controlled or surface controlled. Surface Safety Valve: The surface safety valve (an automatic valve) is an integral part of the wellhead which prevents uncontrolled well flow. The valve consists of two parts; the surface valve and an actuator. Safety Valve Status: The safety valves can be installed alone or together in a well. They are designed to shut when a production facility malfunction or well condition is sensed that indicates a wellhead problem. Table 1 depicts a possible status of either valve under various conditions. Specifications: Specifications that control the manufacture and usage of subsurface safety valves are issued by the American Petroleum Institute. They include: Spec 14: A Specification for Subsurface Safety Valve Equipment. RP 14B: Recommended Practice for Design, Installation and Operation of Subsurface Safety Valve Systems. RP T2: Recommended Practice for Qualifications Programs for Personnel who work with anti pollution devices.
Surface Controlled Subsurface Safety Valves

Surface controlled subsurface safety valves (SCSSVs) are designed to operate independent of well conditions. These valves are connected to the surface with a control line that provides external opening energy, usually hydraulic or electric. These surface safety valves actuate on loss of the external energy. Control Line The control line is generally a stainless steel tube spooled, filled with hydraulic fluid, pressure tested
Subsurface Safety Valve Open Open Open Open Closed Closed Closed
Alarm High Flow Line Pressure Low Flow Line Pressure High Separator Level Low Separator Level Fire Wellhead Damage Emergency Shutdown
Surface Safety Valve Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Inoperable Closed
Table 1: Safety Valve Status
Well Completions
55
and delivered to the location on reels. For installations in hostile environments, monel tubing is used. The line is fastened to the tubing with stainless steel bands. The line is run directly to a tubing retrievable valve or to a lug on a hydraulic landing nipple required for a wireline retrievable valve. The line connects the landing nipple or tubing retrievable valve to a special exit bushing at the tubing spool in the wellhead. In older Aramco wells the control line exited from the tubing bonnet. Operation SCSSVs are normally closed valves (Figure 1). A spring holds a flow tube (Figures 2 & 3) in an upward position allowing the closure mechanism to form a seal on the valve seat. When hydraulic fluid pressure enters the hydraulic chamber area of the valve the flow tube is forced down compressing the power spring and opening the valve. When hydraulic pressure is released, the spring forces the flow tube up and allows the valve to close. A hydraulic surface control panel is usually used to open the valve and maintain it in the open position. The control panel also connects to an emergency shut down loop, which usually contains all of the emergency control devices. The valves used by Aramco are controlled by the system on the actuator of the surface safety valve. Advantages: 1. Always controllable by the operator regardless of changes in well conditions. 2. The valves can be tubing retrievable to provide virtually unrestricted flow. 3. They are more reliable than subsurface controlled valves. 4. Unique calculations based on well characteristics are not necessary to calibrate the valve for a particular flow rate. 5. High flow rates are not required for periodic tests. (formations may be rate sensitive) 6. They have no severe restrictions to be eroded by flow. 7. Changing well characteristics have no effect on
valve operation. 8. The valve can be closed easily in threatening situations. 9. If part of the system fails the valve is designed to close (fail safe). Disadvantages: 1. Requires a control system on the surface. 2. An actuating line must be run to the valve with the tubing. 3. Hydraulic controlled valves have depth limitations. Closures The two popular types of closures mechanisms for subsurface safety valves are the ball (Figure 1) and the flapper (Figures 2 & 3). Aramco uses the ball valve, however flapper valve closures are being tested with favorable results. There are advantages to utilizing the flapper. 1. Ball closures are a linkage type mechanism and historically have a poor performance in a solids type environment. Flappers are not directly attached to the flow tube, but are free to move and pivot around a single point (hinge pin). 2. The linkage on the sides of the balls are subject to shearing when being forced open against a differential. The flapper has had some problems when being forced open against differentials in that there were random shearing of the hinges. This problem has been primarily eliminated by reducing the size of the hydraulic chamber so that the hydraulic forces are less than the yield strength of the hinge pin. 3. Flapper valves are easier to pump through than ball valves. Equalizing Many surface controlled valves have an equalizing feature in which the shut in well pressure is equalized across the valve by the application of control line pressure to the piston. This pressure
Well Completions
56
SPRING
FLOW TUBE UPPER SEAL
HYDRAULIC PORT PISTON
LOWER SEAL
BALL
VALVE CLOSED
VALVE OPEN
Figure 1: Otis Wireline Retrievable Subsurface Safety Valve Nominal 4 Ball Type
Well Completions
57
DIMENSIONAL DATA (INCHES) A

Adapter To Suit Otis Lock 710-YX-012
3.812 3.802 2.122 41 (APP.)
B C D
O-Ring Material: Packing Sub For H2S/Mild CO2 Service 9 Cr 1 Mo Flow path
See Detail "A" See Detail "B" Back-Up Ring A Chevron Packing Unit Set Screw O-Ring
DETAIL "A" DYNAMIC SEAL ASSEMBLY
T-Seal Back-Up Ring
Spring Washer
D
Spring Housing
B Back-Up Ring
Power Spring
T-Seal C Back-Up Ring
Flow Tube
Spring Stop C-Ring O-Ring Set Screw Intermediate Sub Set Screw Equalizing Plunger Flapper Plunger Spring
DETAIL "B"
DYNAMIC SEAL ASSEMBLY
Set Screw Flapper Pin Torsion Spring See Detail "C" Flapper Housing
DETAIL "C" EQUALIZING FLAPPER ASSEMBLY
To Fit In Otis Nipples

711 MXO 38141 11 XES 38101 11 XES 38105
Figure 2: Wireline Retrievable Subsurface Safety Valve - Flapper (Baker)
Well Completions
58
C
DIMENSIONAL DATA (INCHES)
4-1/2" O.D. 12.6 lb/ft Vam Box Nipple Adapter w/ "B" Nipple Profile Set Screw D Top Sub O-Ring & Back-Up Rings Jam Nut Sub-assembly (See Detail "A") O-Ring & Back-Up Rings Lock Open Ring E Set Screw O-Ring & Back-Up Rings Brass Shear Screw See Detail "B" Upper Housing
A B C D E F
7.750 6.870 4.862 3.812 3.870 126
MATERIAL: For Standard & H S Service

Control Line Jam Nut
Back Ferrule Front Ferrule
DETAIL "A" JAM NUT SUB-ASSEMBLY

Wide Back-Up Ring Dynamic T-Seal Wide Back-Up Ring
Locking Mandrel
DETAIL "B" DYNAMIC SEAL ASSEMBLY
Wide Back-Up Ring
Piston O-Ring & Back-Up Rings See Detail "C" Set Screw Intermediate Sub Set Screw O-Ring & Back-Up Rings Set Screw Piston Coupling Split Ring Flow Tube Power Spring Spring Housing Spring Stop O-Ring & Back-Up Ring Set Screw O-Ring & Back-Up Ring Flapper Seat Flapper Base Resilient Seal Flapper Pin Torsion Spring See Detail "D" Flapper Housing Flapper Hinge Support O-Ring & Back-Up Rings Set Screw Bottom Sub 4-1/2" O.D. 12.6 lb/ft Vam Pin
Dynamic T-Seal Wide Back-Up Ring
DETAIL "C" DYNAMIC SEAL ASSEMBLY
Flapper
Equalizing Plunger
Equalizing Plunger Spring
DETAIL "D" EQUALIZING FLAPPER ASSEMBLY
Figure 3: Tubing Retrievable Subsurface Safety Valve (Baker)
Well Completions
59
causes an equalizing seat to open so that the pressure above and below the valve are equalized before the primary valve mechanism is opened fully. Low pressure wells, extremely high pressure wells and wells with sanding problems are not usually equipped with an equalizing feature. In all cases, the pressure differential across a closed valve should be equalized to prevent damage to the closure mechanism during opening. API does not recommend any type of equalizing features in a valve. Balanced Valves In a balanced valve, a second control line is run to the valve and filled with the same control line fluid. The hydrostatic pressure applied to the underside of the piston balances the pressure on top of the piston regardless of the valve setting depth. Theoretically, a balanced valve has an unlimited setting depth; however, the closing time required to displace the control line fluid to the surface limits the depth. Retrieval Methods The first subsurface safety valves designed were wireline retrievable (Figure 1 & 2). Then the tubing retrievable subsurface safety valve was designed (Figure 3) to remove the flow restriction of the wireline retrievable valve. Aramco uses wireline retrievable subsurface safety valves but tubing retrievable valves are being evaluated. Wireline Retrievable Valves Advantages: 1. Accessibility: wireline retrievable valves can be installed in hydraulic landing nipples, communication nipples or locked out tubing retrievable subsurface safety valves. 2. Wireline valves are easily installed and removed for repair or replacement. 3. Situations requiring a valve with internal equalizing capabilities can utilize a sacrificial wireline retrievable valve with confidence. If the equalizing area is flow cut the valve may be easily and
inexpensively retrieved and repaired. 4. Wireline valves can be removed during severe workover operations such as acidizing or fracturing. Disadvantages: 1. During wireline operations, the valve must be removed. Hence, a downhole safety valve is not available. 2. Flow rates can be restricted because of the ID that is smaller than the tubing ID. 3. Installation errors or faulty locks can cause the valve to come loose when it is closed. 4. Before the valve is landed in the nipple the control line fluid is exposed to contaminating fluids in the tubing. Tubing Retrievable Valves Advantages: 1. Flow rates through valve are the same as for the tubing because the two IDs are the same. 2. Wireline operations can carried out through the tubing valve. 3. The tubing retrievable SCSSV is made up in the tubing string. 4. If the tubing valve should malfunction a wireline SCSSV can be located inside of it. 5. The valve is always in the well. It is not removed for any wireline work. 6. Control line fluid is not exposed to well fluids during installation or retrieval. 7. The valve can usually be bridged during severe workover operations, such as acidizing or fracturing. Disadvantages: 1. To retrieve a tubing retrievable SCSSV the tubing must be pulled. Control Pressure Safety valve problems vary with each individual application and valve. Since these valves are linked to the surface by the control line, the operation and condition of the valve can be determined by observ-
Well Completions
60
TUBING RETRIEVABLE
FLAPPER
BALL
WIRELINE RETRIEVABLE
FLAPPER
Figure 4: Retrievable Subsurface Safety Valves
BALL
Well Completions
61
ing the control line pressure characteristics (Figure 5). To determine if the valve piston is moving down, hand pump the control manifold at a constant rate. By observing the control line pressure, an increase in opening pressure (A) should be notice as illustrated in Figure 5. The pressure should increase slower than before time A, indicating the piston is travelling, until time B is reached; then the pressure should increase sharply, indicating the valve is fully
100%
open. To determine if the valve is closing (the valve piston is moving up), exhaust the control line fluid at a constant rate and observe the pressure. It should decrease to pressure A (Figure 6), after which the rate of pressure decrease is much less than before time A. At this point the valve spring pressure exceeds the control line hydraulic pressure and initiates upward piston motion. The lower rate of pres-
TEMPORARY PRESSURE INCREASE DUE TO STATIC FRICTION
B CONTROL LINE PRESSURE A PISTON TRAVEL
VALVE FULL OPEN
0%
TIME---WITH CONTROL LINE FLUID PUMPED AT A CONSTANT RATE
100%
Figure 5: Control pressure haracteristics - opening cycle

100%
PISTON TRAVEL VALVE FULL CLOSED B TEMPORARY PRESSURE DECREASE DUE TO STATIC FRICTION
A CONTROL LINE PRESSURE
0%
TIME---WITH CONTROL LINE FLUID EXHAUSTED AT A CONSTANT RATE
100%
Figure 6: Control pressure characteristics - closing cycle
Well Completions
62
sure decline in control line pressure will continue until the piston bottoms out or ceases motion (pressure B on Figure 6). The pressure decrease should continue at the same rate as when the fluid was first bled to the atmosphere.
Surface Safety Valves

Gate Valve And Actuator The SSV comprises the gate valve and an actuator assembly. The actuator may be installed by the manufacturer on almost any reverse acting gate valve or may be installed in the field on existing gate valves. Figure 12 is a schematic with parts list to install on a Cameron 6-1/8" FL valve which Aramco uses. Figure 8 shows a valve with a hydraulic actuator in the closed position. Figure 9 is the same valve in the open position. The position of the stem indicates the status of the valve. The valve may be mechanically locked open by a screw on lockout cap shown in Figure 10 Item 21. Fusible caps are available that will melt in the event of a fire and will allow the valve to close if the valve is inadvertently left locked open. This is a fail close valve, since in the absence of control line pressure the spring (Figure 10) is the closing force. Figure 11 is the parts list that is referenced to Figure 10 by the item numbers. Figures 10, 11, and 12 are the drawings and parts lists of the Baker equipment that Aramco uses. Intended Function The surface safety valve is an integral part of the tree and it is designed to shut in the well when a problem occurs downstream of the wellhead. This design eliminates the repeated use of the SCSSV valve by subjecting it to differential pressures and improves the SCSSV reliability should an emergency occur at the wellhead. Control Line The automatic surface safety valve closes upon loss of control pressure. In a simple application (Fig-
ure 7) the control lines are connected from the control panel to the flow line monitor, from the control panel to the hydraulic actuator and from the control panel to the subsurface safety valve. The control fluid in the monitor line is nitrogen (100-150 psi) and the other two control lines have hydraulic fluid (20003000 psi). Operation There is a pilot monitor on the flow line to which the monitor line is connected. The pilot monitor has a high setting, to guard against the line being closed, and a low setting to guard against line breaks. If either condition happens, the pilot monitor vents the nitrogen, which reduces the pressure in the monitor line causing the control panel to take the hydraulic control pressure away from the surface safety valve. The surface safety valve closes. Once the surface safety valve control pressure is released a timing mechanism is set in motion that will release the pressure on the subsuface safety valve allowing it to close. There are two emergency shut down capabilities usually incorporated into the system. One is a remote location manually operated switch and the other is a fusible plug that will melt if fire is present. The surface safety valve can be closed without the subsurface safety valve closing if the control panel and pilot monitors are designed to have separate closings. An example of this situation might be that on high pressure the surface safety valve closes to protect the flow line but the subsurface safety valve does not need to close therefore it is not activated. Other Actuators There are other types surface safety valves actuators. There is the pneumatic actuator that works on low pressure (100 psi) and the non external control that uses flow line pressure to hold the valve open. The pneumatic actuator works the same as the hydraulic actuator other than control pressure.
Well Completions
63
FLOW LINE
SURFACE SAFETY VALVE FUSIBLE PLUG
GATE VALVE
TO CONTROL PANEL TO HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR
VALVE BONNET CLOSED
TO SUBSURFACE SAFETY VALVE
HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR
Figure 8: Hydraulic actuated valve in the closed position
GATE VALVE
SUBSURFACE SAFETY VALVE
VALVE BONNET OPEN
HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR
Figure 9: Hydraulic actuated valve in the open position Figure 7: Safety valve control lines
Well Completions
64
4 2.75 O.D.-8N THRD. SEE NOTE 7 .50 O.D.-20N THRD. 23 24 2.00
25
9 10 11
13
27 14 27 15
12
16
17
7 25 18 26
19
1.75
20 THRD. PROTECTOR IS PART OF CYLINDER SUB-ASSY. OR HEAD WELDMENT.
FIGURE 1
C 3 22 28 6 28 B
21
UP
OFF
FIGURE 2
REMOVE PLASTIC THRD. PROTECTOR AND INSTALL METAL LOCK-OUT CAP AFTER PRODUCTION TESTING. PLASTIC THRD. PROTECTOR ALSO TO BE SHIPPED W/ACTUATOR.
8/ /12/ /91 DRAWN BY
FIGURE 3
7-8-91
CHECKED BY
PLOT SCALE: 1/2

TITLE MATERIAL
APPROVED BY
RS
BY CK.
6945
REVISIONS NO.
D
LTR. APP.
Q.A. APPROVAL
CHARTED
PRODUCT NUMBER
COMMODITY NUMBER DATE
MODEL-C HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR ASSEMBLY F/H2S-CO2 SERVICE (CLASS-1-2-3S-4)
CHARTED
885-11
804 1 400 6
Figure 10: Hydraulic Actuator (Baker)
Well Completions
65
ITEM NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
DESCRIPTION SHAFT WIPER RING HEAD PIPE PLUG HOUSING T-SEAL O-RING LOCK RING RETAINING RING LOCK RING UPPER SPRING RETAINER SPRING HEX HEAD BOLT T-SEAL PISTON PISTON CYLINDER LOWER SPRING RETAINER O-RING BASE THREAD PROTECTOR LOCK-OUT CAP SAFETY HEAD I.D. TAG DRIVE SCREW O-RING BACK UP O-RING BACK UP WIDE T-SEAL BACK UP WIDE T-SEAL BACK UP
QTY. 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 1 2 2
COMM. NO. 08-00260-00 WY-P594-919 08-00262-00 WV-S10D-03P 08-00259-00 WK-R025-ADX WW-B429-V30 08-00264-00 WO-RRTS-300 08-00267-00 08-00257-00 08-00469-00 WA-H118-OM1 WK-P034-ADX 08-00263-01 08-00258-00 08-00265-00 WW-B345-V30 08-00261-00 08-06969-00 08-06937-00 WH-S775-B1M 08-00406-01 WA-U004-OD1 WW-A429-12H WW-A345-12H 08-06094-00 08-05932-00
MATERIAL 316 S.S. FLOUROMYTE AISI 4140/4142 POLYETHYLENE AISI 4140/4142 VITON VITON 316 S.S. 302 S.S. 316 S.S. AISI 4140/4142 INCONEL X-750 304,316 S.S. VITON 17-4 PH S.S. AISI 4140/4142 AISI 4140/4142 VITON AISI 4140/4142 POLYETHYLENE CARBON STEEL S.S. AND MONEL 302,304,316 S.S. 302,304,316 S.S. NITRILE NITRILE NYLATRON NYLATRON
HEAT TREAT Rc 22 MAX. N/A Rc 18-22 N/A Rc 18-22 N/A N/A Rc 22 MAX. COMMERCIAL Rc 22 MAX. Rc 18-22 Rc 50 MAX. SOL. ANLD. N/A Rc 29-33 Rc 18-22 Rc 18-22 N/A Rc 18-22 N/A N/A COMMERCIAL COLD WORKED COLD WORKED N/A N/A N/A N/A
ENG. FILE NO. 6J1105 ACTUATOR PRODUCT COMMODITY NO. 885-11-0304 REFERENCE TECHNICAL UNIT NO. 885-11-0304D
NOT ES: 1) FOR GENERAL PART LUBR ICAT ION USE BAKER SSS GREASE C OM MO DIT Y No . 0 8- 004 14 -00 . 2) AL IGN ARROWS ON SHAF T WIT H CONTR OL P ORT S AS SHOW N ON F IG. 3. 3) ST AMP I.D. TAG AND ACT UATOR PER SSS- 79 -21 02 -40 .1 -6. 13. 4) TEST ACT UATOR PER SSS- 79 -23 29 -00 AND ASSEMB LE PER SSS- 80- 23 30 -00 . 5) AF T ER TEST COAT PER SSS-7 9- 210 2- 60. 4. 6) T ECH UNIT MUST BE SHIPPED WIT H EACH A CT UAT OR. 7) ST AMP A CT UAT OR SERIAL No . AND "BOT SSS" 2. 0" F RO M T OP OF CYLI NDER AS SH OWN W HEN REQ UIRED. 8) (+ ) IN DICAT ES THAT T HESE PART S ARE CRIT ICA L PER SSS- 80 -21 07 -03 . 9) REPAIR KIT CO NSIST S OF IT EMS & GREASE 0 8-0 04 14- 00. 10) CAN SUBSTITUT E SAF ET Y HEAD 08 -03 53 9-8 0 W /REDUCER WV-BRBO -6 41.
I.D. TAG IN FORMATION

PRODUCT C OM M. NO. 885 -11 -0 304 , VALVE NO M. SIZ E , SERVICE H2S-CO , 2 4"
INDICATES ITEM 20 IS PART OF HEAD DRWG. 08-00262-00 REPAIR KIT ACTUATOR DIMENSIONS
A-1 (S HAFT UP REM OVED F RO M VALVE) A-2 (S HAFT UP VALVE CL OSED) A-3 (S HAF T DOWN VALVE OPEN) A-4 (S HAF T DOWN DISCON NECT POS. ) B C D E F VOLU ME DISPLACE MENT A- 1 T O A -4 PRODUCT WEI GHT: 158 LBS.
8/ /12/ /91 DAT E
08-00318-00
ITEMS
NOM INAL PIST O N DIA . T EST PRESSURE 116 25
PSI , API CLASS 1-2 -3S- 4 750 0 .827 PSI X VALVE PRESSURE + 140 ) PSI
MAX. OPERAT IN G PRESSURE 32.6 8.4 2 A-3 + VALVE ST ROKE T EMP. RANGE 26.4 3.4 3 26.1 1.2 8 23.5 4.1 5 .99 . 076 1.25 5.0 05 6.05 .02 0 6.75 .03 1 38.5 IN
3
D RA W N BY C HE CK E DB Y AP PR O VE DB Y 7-8-91
CONT ROL PRESSURE= ( -20 F TO
T EMP. RANGE +15 0 F. 775 0
F . SAF ETY HEAD SET POINT EST ABLISHED AT 75 PSI.
SAFET Y HEAD SET AT MAX. WORKIN G PRESSURE
TI T LE MA TE R IA L
RS
BY CK .
6945
RE VI SI O NS NO.
G
LT R . AP P.
Q.A . A P P RO V AL
CHART ED
PR O DU C T NU M BER
C OMMOD ITY N UMB ER
ASSEMBLY F/0304 MO DEL 'C' HYD. ACTUATO R F/H2S- CO 2 SERVICE CLASS 1-2-3S-4
CHART ED
885 -11
804 3 400 6
Figure 11: Hydraulic Actuator Parts List (Baker)
Well Completions
66
ITEM NO.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
DESCRIPTION
COLLAR STEM WEAR RING O-RING
HEX HD. CAPSCREW
QTY.
1 1 1 1 6 1 1 1 CHTD. 1 1 2 1
COMM. NO.
08-04630-00 08-08137-03 WU-NW22-755 WW-B333-V30 08-00184-00 08-04896-00 08-08107-00 08-08150-00 08-00178-00 08-08136-00 WU-0410-103 WA-U004-091 08-03193-01
MATERIAL
PLASTIC 718 INCONEL MOLYGARD VITON ALLOY STEEL AISI 4140-4142 17-4 PH S/S TURCITE CARBON STEEL AISI 4140-42 AISI 4130 S/S S/S
10
12.62 O.D.
BONNET RING
PACKING CARTRIDGE
VARIPAK SEAL SPACER BONNET GREASE FITTING DRIVE SCREW I.D. PLATE
NOTES:
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
NOM. No. 0F SPACERS
ASSEMBLY PROCEDURE PER SSS-80-2315-00. ASSEMBLE BONNET WITH NOMINAL No. OF SPACERS, PUSH STEM TO DOWN POSITION, ADJUST GATE TO À' DIMENSION, PIN GATE IF APPLICABLE, ADJUST DRIFT WITH SPACERS , ATTACH EXTRA SPACERS TO ITEM 5. HAND TIGHTEN BONNET RING , ITEM 6 , AT ASSEMBLY , UPON INSTALLATION OF BONNET ASSEMBLY ON VALVE , TORQUE BONNET RING , ITEM 6 , TO 300 FT. LBS. AFTER ADJUSTING DRIFT. STAMP PER SSS-79-2102-40.1-6.4, 6.5, 6.6 WHEN REQUIRED. STAMP I.D. TAG PER SSS-79-2102-40.1-6.14. TECHNICAL UNITS MUST BE INCLUDED WITH EACH SHIPMENT. (+) THESE PARTS ARE CRITICAL PER SSS-80-2107-01. TEST PER SSS-79-2305-00. REPAIR KIT 08-08151-00
TOTAL No. OF SPACERS STROKE REF.
13 12
14D 6A
TEMP.: U
CLASS : 1-2-3S MAT'L. EE
11
BONNET PRODUCT COMMODITY NO.
879-27-8080
CONSISTS OF (*) ITEMS AND GREASE 08-00414-00.
ADJ. + or FROM NOM.
À' DIM.
3
ENGR. FILE No. CUST. VENDOR DWG. No. TEST RING & FLG. No. TEMPERATURE TECH. UNIT NO.
6.750
6F - 1115 -VI X-48500-01 REV. C1 TF-82 -20F. TO +250-20F. 879-27-8080
COMMODIT Y NUMBER T IT LE MAT ERIAL DRAWN BY
6/11/91
BONNET ASSEMBLY
CHARTED
PRODUCT NUMBER
F/ CAMERON MODEL `FL' 6-1/8" - 3K W.P. SPEC. SERV. W/ 718 STEM & VARIPAK SEAL
808 080
1 1
Figure 12: Hydraulic Actuator Bonnet Assembly (Baker)
Well Completions
Production Engineering School WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT PE 102
Saudi Aramco
68
LESSON OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to understand the following: Function of various components of the wellhead system Function of various components of the tree, including the wellhead valves Methods used to suspend casing and tubing in the casing/tubing head Wellhead flanges and connections Wellhead design considerations Wellhead valve testing and lubrication procedures Procedures for protecting below-grade wellhead equipment against external corrosion.
Wellhead Equipment
69
Chapter 1 - Wellhead System

Every type of oil or gas well has some type of wellhead. Conventional wellhead assemblies include the casing head, casing hangers, casing spool sections, tubing bonnet, tubing hanger, valves and fittings (see Figure 1).
Provides a sealed connection and support for each

tubular string
Provides a connection and support for the tree.

Tree Functions The tree, in turn, performs several important functions:
Controls the flow of fluids from the wellbore Provides a means of shutting in the well Provides a means of entering the well for servicing and workover.
TREE
Tubulars The wellhead is divided into sections. Each section of the wellhead will be used to suspend and/or seal off a separate string of casing or tubing. Therefore, the number of wellhead sections will vary with the number of tubular strings. The tubular strings in a well are the conductor pipe, the surface casing, the protective (intermediate) casing, the production casing and the production tubing (see Figure 2). In some wells, where formation conditions do not place extreme loads on the surface casing, the protective string may not be required. In other wells, usually where abnormally pressured formations are encountered, additional strings of casing may be necessary. In a tubingless well, the production tubing is omitted. A common wellbore configuration, sometimes called a three string well, will make use of each of the above strings. The three strings referred to are the surface casing, protective casing, and the production casing. Each of these strings will be attached to and supported by a section of the wellhead. These connections must be effectively sealed to contain pressures within each string. The conductor pipe, which may be set or driven, maintains the integrity of the walls of the shallow, unconsolidated formations. It is not normally attached to the wellhead because it is exposed to minimal pressure. However, in some cases, a base plate may be welded onto the casing head and placed on
WELLHEAD
Figure 1: The Wellhead
Wellhead Functions
The wellhead performs three important functions:
Provides connection and support for blowout

preventers and other well control equipment
Wellhead Equipment
70
top of the conductor pipe in order to distribute the weight of the casing and wellhead (Figure 4). When extreme loading conditions are expected, the plate provides additional support and stability.
Typical Wellhead The typical wellhead for a three string well will consist of (Figure 3):
Casing head (sometimes referred to as the land

ing base or bradenhead) Intermediate casing head (or casing spool) Tubing head (or tubing spool) Tubing bonnet Tree.
CONDUCTOR PIPE
TREE
SURFACE CASING
INTERMEDIATE CASING
TUBING BONNET
PRODUCTION CASING
TUBING SPOOL
PRODUCTION TUBING
INTERMEDIATE CASING HEAD
CASING HEAD
PRODUCING FORMATION
Figure 2: The Tubular Strings Figure 3: A Three String Wellhead
Wellhead Equipment
71
CASING HEAD
WELD BASE PLATE
WELD GUSSET SURFACE CASING
WELD
WELD
SURFACE CASING
CONDUCTOR PIPE
Figure 4: The Casing Head with a Base Plate
Wellhead Equipment
72
Casing Head The casing head is attached to the top of the surface casing (Figure 5). Since the other tubular strings are tied to the casing head, the surface casing must support the weight of all the subsequent casing strings, and the entire wellhead system. The casing head is screwed or welded onto the surface casing. The base plate is welded to the con-
ductor pipe and to the casing head. The casing head accepts the next string of casing; either a protective string or the production string depending on the needs of the well. The next string of pipe is hung by means of a casing hanger in the casing head. The intermediate string is hung in the casing head with a casing hanger and cemented in place. The casing hanger not only holds the intermediate casing but it seals the casing - casing annulus. Hang-
CASING STUB CASING HANGER
CASING HEAD
BASE PLATE
CONDUCTOR PIPE
SURFACE CASING
CASING - HOLE ANNULUS
CEMENT
INTERMEDIATE CASING
Figure 5: The Casing Head
Wellhead Equipment
73
ers are discussed in more detail later in this chapter. The space between any two strings of pipe is called an annulus. The space between the surface casing and the wall of the hole is designated as the casing - hole annulus (Figure 5). When the surface casing is set, the casing - hole annulus is filled with cement, which eliminates potential contamination of fresh water zones behind the surface casing, prevents flow between pressured formations behind the surface casing and provides additional stability of the casing string.
Casing Spool The casing spool, is bolted onto the casing head (Figure 6). It can be used to suspend either the production casing string, as shown, or an additional string of protective casing. For each additional protective string, an additional casing spool is required. The casing spool consists of a lower flange for connection to the casing head and an upper flange for connection to the subsequent wellhead section. A cylindrical bore with shoulders is milled into the upper half to receive the casing hanger. The casing spool contains a primary seal (the casing hanger)
CASING STUB
CASING SPOOL
CASING HEAD
SURFACE CASING
INTERMEDIATE CASING
PRODUCTION CASING
Figure 6: The Casing Spool
Wellhead Equipment
74
inside the top flange and a secondary seal (the packoff bushing) located inside the lower flange (Figure 7). The names primary seal and secondary seal was derived from a pressure change situation. If the casing spool has a 3000 psi bottom flange and a 5000 psi top flange, the casing hanger seal is the first seal to prevent the 5000 psi fluid from getting to the 3000 psi flange face. The packoff bushing is the second preventive seal. The secondary seal performs essentially the same function as the primary seal of the casing head. Aramco has two wellhead manufacturers supplying wellhead material. Each system has its own secondary seals. Cooper (makes Cameron and McEvoy) supplies an X-bushing and Vetco Gray supplies an AK bushing. The AK bushing is redesigned from the original CWC bushing so that regardless of which spool is installed, the casing stub
(Figure 6) is cut to the same height for the Vetco Gray spool as for the Cameron or McEvoy spool. A ring gasket, made of a special metal alloy, is placed between all flanged connections. The ring gasket fits into specially machined grooves in the upper flange of the casing head and the lower flange of the intermediate casing head. The gasket serves to contain pressures in the wellhead in the event that either or both the primary and secondary seals should fail. Each ring gasket is designed to withstand a maximum pressure that the tubulars will be exposed to during the life of the well. A further explanation of ring gaskets and pressure ratings is discussed later. The side outlets on the casing spool are used to check and relieve pressure inside the casing - casing annulus.
RING GASKET
RING GASKET GROOVE CASING HANGER
TEST PORT
INJECTION PORT
RING GASKET GROOVE SECONDARY SEAL
Figure 7: The Casing Spool with Secondary Seal
Wellhead Equipment
75
Tubing Head The tubing head suspends the production tubing and seals off the tubing-casing annulus (Figure 8). Like the casing spool, the tubing head includes a secondary seal and side outlets. The top flange of the tubing head is used to connect blowout preventers during conventional workover operations; that is, workovers that require pulling the tubing. The lower flange connects to the top flange of the section below it. A ring gasket is also used between the flanged connections. The tubing hanger assembly (Figure 8) performs essentially the same function as the casing hanger; i.e., it suspends the tubing and seals off the tubing casing annulus. Virtually the full weight of the tubing string is supported by the tubing hanger. The tubing hanger is usually equipped with a polished
nipple to seal inside the tubing bonnet (Figure 10). However, sometimes the tubing hanger is equipped with an extended neck which is an integral part of the hanger. The polished nipple is a separate item threaded into the tubing hanger. The side outlets of the tubing head can be accessed to (1) inject a fluid into the tubing-casing annulus, as in a gas lift operation; (2) monitor annulus pressure; (3) test annulus for leaks; (4) relieve pressure in the tubing - casing annulus; and (5) supply an exit for the sub surface safety valve control line. The tie down pins serve to secure the tubing hanger in the spool. If the tubing is attached to a downhole packer, there is a possibility that the tubing will expand under flowing conditions causing a force large enough to break the seal between the hanger and the spool. For a more detailed view of a tubing hanger refer to figure 17.
POLISHED NIPPLE
TUBING HEAD TIE DOWN PIN TUBING HANGER
PRODUCTION CASING TUBING
Figure 8: The Tubing Head
Wellhead Equipment
76
Tubing Bonnet The tubing bonnet is the equipment that allows the tree to be attached to the wellhead. It has a mechanism that seals on the extended neck or polished nipple, which keeps wellbore fluid from coming in contact with the tubing head or the tubing hanger. The tubing bonnet is usually equipped with studs on top and a flange on the bottom although it can be supplied flange by flange or stud by stud. Ring gaskets are installed on top and on the bottom.
Tree Assembly The tree is a system of gate valves that regulates the flow of fluids from the well, opens or shuts production from the well, and provides entry into the well for servicing. The tree is connected to the uppermost flange of the wellhead, which typically is the upper tubing head flange. A typical tree includes several gate valves, a flow tee and a tubing bonnet (Figure 11). This system routes well production into the flow line. The flow line then conducts the fluids from the tree to sur-
TUBING BONNET
TUBING HEAD TUBING HANGER

WITH POLISH NIPPLE
PRODUCTION CASING TUBING

Figure 10: Tubing Bonnet and Polish Nipple
Wellhead Equipment
77
face treating facilities. Figure 11 illustrates an Aramco offshore tree and an onshore tree. The only difference is the onshore tree does not have the hydraulic master valve. The gate valves are technically the same but are referred to by different names. They include the
master valve, the wing valve and the crown valve. Each valve can have a backup and the valves can operate manually or hydraulically. Each valve has only two operating positions; fully open or fully closed. They are used to open or shut the flow from the well.
OTIS QUICK CONNECT TREE CAP
CROWN OR SWAB VALVE

OTIS QUICK CONNECT TREE CAP
FLOW TEE
WING VALVE
CROWN OR SWAB VALVE
UPPER MASTER VALVE HYDRAULIC

FLOW TEE WING VALVE
MASTER VALVE
MASTER VALVE
BONNET CONNECTION BONNET
BONNET CONNECTION BONNET
Offshore Tree
Onshore Tree
Figure 11: The Tree Assembly
Wellhead Equipment
78
Chapter 2 - Trees
Trees are available as either composite (Figure 11) or block (Figure 12) construction. Composite trees are valves and flow tees that are bolted together. A block tree is machined out of a single piece of metal. Aramco Khuff trees are a composite block system (Figure 13). Master Valves The master valves are used to close in the well to allow servicing the wing valves and crown valve, or to allow connection of treatment lines, lubricators and wireline blowout preventers. Two master valves are installed in high pressure (5000 psi and above), offshore and populated area wells. The lower master valve is a backup for the upper master valve. Valves used on trees and wellheads are subject to special requirements. Master valves and other valves in the vertical flow path of the tree must have full bore, round openings to allow passage of tools. As a result, wellhead master valves are gate valves. Round opening gate valves are specified for this service with API flanged end connections. Various types of valve operating mechanisms are available and individual well requirements will determine this need. Location and safety aspects of well operation should be considered when selecting
TREE CAP
WING VALVE
UPPER MASTER VALVE
LOWER MASTER VALVE BLOCK WITH VALVES
Figure 12: Block Tree Assembly
Wellhead Equipment
79
TREE CAP
MANUAL CROWN VALVE
HYDRAULIC WING VALVE WYE BLOCK
WING VALVE
BLOCK WITH TWO(2) HYDRAULIC VALVES
BONNET WITH MANUAL LOWER MASTER VALVE
Figure 13: The Khuff Tree Assembly
Wellhead Equipment
80
valve operators (i.e. manual, hydraulic or pneumatic). Flow Tee The flow tee or flow wye is immediately above the upper master valve. It connects the upper master valve to the crown and wing valves. Wing Valve The wing valve, like the master valve, is used to close in the well. Located between the tee and the choke, it is the first valve closed when shutting in the well and the last one opened when production is restarted. Choke Connected between the wing valve and the flow line, the choke regulates the flow of fluids from the wellbore. Chokes come in adjustable or fixed type. Adjustable chokes can alter the flow rate without shutting in the well. The fixed choke can only be altered after the well has been shut in. Crown Valve The crown valve (also a gate valve), connected to the top of the flow tee, is sometimes referred to as the swab or wireline valve. A threaded tree cap is flanged to the top of the crown valve. In wireline or swabbing operations, a wireline lubricator is connected to the top of the tree cap. The lubricator provides a hydraulic seal around the wireline which prevents the escape of pressured liquids while the wireline is in the well. The crown valve is closed while installing the lubricator and then opened to allow wireline entry into the well. Frequently a pressure gauge will be attached to the tree cap (Figure 13). This pressure gauge is used to monitor either the flowing wellhead pressure or the static wellhead pressure with the wing valve closed.
Valve Operation The tree is operated by opening or closing the valves in a specific order. When shutting in the well the first valve closed is the wing valve. The upper master valve is then closed, followed by the lower master valve. The lower master valve is closed last to ensure that it is not closed against differential pressure; thus saving the valve seats from excessive wear. In a well control situation, this valve may be the last available valve to shut in the well so its integrity should be preserved until the valve is needed. To reopen the flow stream, the procedure is reversed, starting from the lower master valve and ending with the wing valve. Testing The Tree The tree is pressure tested for leaks after it has been flanged on the tubing head or the casing head. The tree is normally assembled and pressure tested as a complete unit prior to being flanged onto the wellhead and pressure tested again after installation. Each connection is tested to the specified rating of the tree. In the field, a small hydraulic pump is used to test the connection between the tubing bonnet and the tubing head. A light oil is injected into a port on the upper flange of the tubing head. The pressure is increased until the desired maximum is reached. If the pressure does not hold steady after waiting a few minutes, flange bolts are retightened and the test is repeated. Fire Resistant Trees Fire resistant trees are sometimes required and are of the block type. However, they differ from the normal block tree in that clamps are used instead of stud bolts to secure the tree and the seals are metal to metal to prevent deterioration in the event of a fire.
Wellhead Equipment
81
Chapter 3 - Suspension Methods

Suspension or hanger assemblies are used to suspend the casing or tubing in a particular casing or tubing head as is shown in Figures 6, 8 and 10. Casing Suspension The casing hangers used in Aramco operations are the slip pack type of which there are two general categories: (1) those that may be set and sealed without removing blowout preventers (the automatic type), and (2) those that may be set through preventers but require removal of the preventers to establish a seal (manual type). The type chosen depends upon operating conditions. The automatic type need a minimum amount of weight to energize the seals. If that weight is not available, a manual hanger must be used. Either of these categories of hangers will permit setting casing at desired depths without the use of spacer nipples. Examples of the two types are shown in Figures 14, 15 and 16. Automatic Type The automatic seal, wrap-around controlled suspension hanger is hinged and may be installed on the casing landing joint by wrapping around the pipe and lowering or dropping through the blowout preventers into the casing head. When the weight of the casing to be suspended is transferred to the hanger slips and to the casing head, the seal is expanded. These hangers are designed for heavy casing loads. Manual Type The manual seal with wrap around slips are lowered through the preventers to suspend the pipe, but the seals are energized only after removing the preventers. The seal is expanded by set screws on the top of the packing. This type, which is generally the lowest cost slip pack hanger, is recommended for short casing strings that do not have enough weight to energize automatic hanger seals.
GUIDE STRAPS SLIPS ALIGNMENT PINS SLIP BOWL
SLIP RETAINING SCREW SEAL ELEMENTS COMPRESSION RING
HANDLE
Figure 14: Automatic Casing Slips
Wellhead Equipment
82
Mandrel Type The threaded mandrel hanger is commonly called a boll weevil hanger. It can be used on casing but Aramco uses it primarily with tubing. An example is shown in Figure 17. Refer to Figure 10 for the example of an assembled tubing hanger in the tubing spool. The hanger is sent to the field with a pup joint screwed into the bottom. The hanger and pup joint are assembled to the tubing string and then landed with a landing joint. Since the weight of the tubing bears down on the hanger seals no other energizing method is necessary. Lock screws or tie-down screws are tightened to secure the seal. After the tubing is suspended and sealed off, the
landing joint is backed off, a back pressure valve (BPV) is installed (the hanger has an internally machined profile designed to accept a back pressure valve) and the blow out preventers are removed. A polished nipple is screwed into the hanger and the bonnet, which will pack off on the polished nipple, is bolted to the tubing spool and then the tree is bolted to the bonnet. The reason for the polished nipple is to keep the well pressure and production fluids away from the ring gasket. Once the tree has been flanged up and pressure tested the BPV is removed. The BPV is used as a well control backup on wells that have been killed prior to workover or completion. The use of the BPV assures that pressure in the
CAP SCREW
GUIDE STRAPS
COMPRESSION RING SEAL CAP SCREW SLIP BODY SLIPS
Figure 15: Manual Casing Slips
Wellhead Equipment
83
tubing is safely contained while nippling up or nippling down the tree and workover BOPs. On Khuff gas wells the tubing hanger does not have a polished nipple screwed into it. The tubing hanger has a metal to metal seal extension referred to as an extended neck. Therefore the whole unit (Figure 18) is called an extended neck hanger.
There are other methods of suspending tubulars, in particular tubing, but they are not practiced by Aramco. There is the threaded tubing head adapter, the threaded tubing head adapter with a mandrel sealing element and the double box method.
PRODUCTS
EST. WT. 172 LBS ÀLL DIMNS REF. ONLY'
Casing Hanger, 12.00-9.5/8" Casing SB-3A

A SECTION B-B 11
ITEM QTY
6 9 13.47" 9.72" 7 1 2 3 10.62" 5 8 B B 4 SECTION ON A-A 10
DESCRIPTION Casing Hanger Top Casing Hanger Packing Packing Retainer Ring Slip Bowl Casing Hanger Slips Casting, Casing Hanger Handle Cap Screw, 0.625" UNC-3.25" Steel Csk Screw, 0.312" UNC-1.00" Steel Csk Screw, 0.375" UNC-0.75" Steel Slip Retainer Pin 0.316" O.D.-1.00 Latch, Stain Wrench, 3/16" Hexagon Wrench, 7/32" Hexagon Wrench, 1/2" Hexagon
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 1 1 1 1 2 12 4 4 4 2 1 1 1
CASING HANGER, TYPE 'SB-3-A', 12" BOWL X 9.5/8" OD CASING,NACE.
ARAMCO STOCK NUMBER:

REV. DATE JAN.'92 API. 6A LATEST EDITION

REV. DATE JAN.'92 API. 6A LATEST EDITION
Figure 16: Automatic/Manual Casing Hanger
Wellhead Equipment
84
CAMERON IRON WORKS LTD.

10.898" 4.1/2" API Casing Threads.
LEEDS, ENGLAND. EST. WT 180 LBS.
Body. Part Number 218084-08. (1 Required.)
12.312" Seal. Part Number 641179-01 (2 Required.)
4.3/32" O.D. Left Hand Type `H' B.P.V. Threads. 2.75"
4.005" Min Bore 6.00"
4.1/2" VAM Casing Threads.
`FBB' TUBING HANGER (PART NUMBER 23486-08.) 11" NOMINAL x 4.1/2" O.D. CASING. WITH 4.1/2"I TUBING THREADS: API TOP & VAM BOTTOM. & 4.3/32" TYPE `H' BACK PRESSURE VALVE THREADS.

REV. DATE APR.'90
45-829-148
Figure 17: Mandrel Tubing Hanger
Wellhead Equipment
85
1 Tubing Bonnet 3-1/16" x 11" 10M 2 Extended Neck Hanger 3-1/2" 3 Tubing Spool 11" 10m x 13-5/8" 10m
1 2
Figure 18: Extended Neck Hanger
Wellhead Equipment
86
Chapter 4 - Other Wellhead Equipment

In addition to the onshore tree and the offshore tree (Figure 11), there are other configurations that Aramco uses. Tubingless Wellheads In a tubingless completion, the oil or gas is produced through the production casing without the production tubing being installed. The casing is packed off in the bottom of the bonnet. Unless there is a kill string installed, these type of completions can only be killed by bull heading kill fluid or by stripping through BOPs, therefore they should not have very much shut in pressure. Water Supply Wellheads The water supply wells are used to produce water from the Wasia formation to be used in other formations to keep formation pressure constant. The water supply wellhead consists of a casing head, tubing hanger, bonnet valve combination and an elbow (Figure 19). The elbow has a riser and valve attached to allow entry to measure fluid level, if the well does not flow. If it does not flow at a high enough rate or does not flow at all, an electric submersible pump (ESP) is installed. These wells will normally deliver 60,000 to 80,000 barrels per day. There are a few wells that deliver more than 100,000 barrels per day.
3" 3M UNIBOLT TREE CAP
48" 3" 3M API GATE VALVE 3" RISER W/3M FLANGE
18"
ELBOW 2MSP, 12" X 12" W/3" RISER
B.J. JUNCTION BOX 44" 12" ANSI 600 GATE VALVE 3-1/2" OD JUNCTION BOX CONNECTOR W/BRACKET 20 SW X 21-1/4 CSG HD W/ 20" CASING STUB
41-1/2" 3" ANSI 600 GATE VALVE
WH-8A.DWG 92/10/26.mek
18-5/8" CASING
Figure 19: Wasia Water Supply Wellhead (Wellhead No. 8A)
Wellhead Equipment
87
Injection Wellheads Injection wells in Saudi Arabia are used for reservoir pressure maintenance and for the disposal of salt water from water - oil separators. There are two types of injection wellheads used in Aramco. The first is illustrated in Figure 20 and the second is similar to a production wellhead in Figure 1.
The injection water line is connected to the wing valve and water is pumped down the casing to the required formation. In wellheads similar to Figure 1 there used to be a tubing string with internal plastic coating (IPC), because this type of well is used for salt water injection, which was thought to be highly corrosive to normal steel. However, time has shown that steel does not corrode to any extent therefore the tubing string has been discontinued in these wells.
3" 3M UNIBOLT
10" 3M BALL VALVE TREE
8" 3M BALL VALVE

86.28"
10" 3M BALL VALVE
2" 3M BALL VALVE
13-3/8" X 13-5/8" CASING HEAD

25.25"
2" 3M BALL VALVE
13-3/8" CASING
WHNO-6.DWG 92\03\31.RLL
9-5/8" CASING
Figure 20: Power Water Injection Wellhead (Wellhead No. 6)
Wellhead Equipment
88
Chapter 5 - Flanges and Seal Connections Flanges

The most common end connections used in the oil industry aside from welds and threads are flanges (Figure 21). API has standardized flanges which are covered in API Spec 6A and ASME/ANSI has standardized flanges which are covered by ASME/ANSI Spec 16.5. Because Aramco uses both API and ANSI flanges a knowledge of the similarities and differences is required. Some ANSI ring joint flanges will mate with API flanges but the pressure ratings are different. Oval and Octagonal Ring Gaskets The oval ring and octagonal ring are both API type R ring gaskets shown in Figure 22. Stud bolts used with type R gaskets must perform the double duty of holding pressure while keeping the gasket compressed. When making up the flanges, the curved surface of the relatively soft oval ring is mated with the flat surfaces of the hard flange groove. A small flat is pressed on the curved section of the oval ring. The size of this flat depends on the bolting makeup tightness. As normal tightening proceeds, forces accumulate and deform the ring to produce a seal. By the time all bolts around the flange have been tightened, the first bolt is loose again. In most API flanged connections with type R gaskets, it is necessary to tighten bolts around the flange several times to reach a stable condition. The octagonal R does not have to deform as much as the oval R to create a seal. When internal pressure forces become great enough to cause flexing in an API connection with either one of the type R gaskets, the bolting contact force on the seal ring begins to decrease. If flange
ANSI Class 600 flanges will mate to API 2000 psi ANSI Class 900 flanges will mate to API 3000 psi ANSI Class 1500 flanges will mate to API 5000 psi.
If an ANSI flange is connected to an API flange, the connection takes the rating of the ANSI flange because of the lower pressure rating. Only API flanges are used on producing wellheads, trees and drilling through equipment such as blowout preventers. ANSI flanges, fittings and valves are used on water wells, pipelines, gas plants and some surface production units.
Working Pressure by ANSI Class - psig

Temperature F -20 to 100 200 300 400 500 150 285 260 230 200 170 300 740 675 655 635 600 400 990 900 875 845 800 600 1,480 1,350 1,315 1,270 1,200 900 2,220 2,025 1,970 1,900 1,795 1500 3,705 3,375 3,280 3,170 2,995 2500 6,170 5,625 5,470 5,280 4,990 4500 11,110 10,120 9,845 9,505 8,980
Table 1: Ratings For Group 1.1 Materials
Wellhead Equipment
89
separation exceeds the limited resilience of the seal, leakage will occur. External shock loads, such as drilling vibration, add to the compressive loading of the stud bolts further deforming the gaskets, causing leaks, and make repeated tightening necessary. The two basic faults of both oval and octagonal type R API seal ring designs is that they cannot withstand external loads properly and that internal pressure does not assist their sealing ability.
RX Ring Gasket The RX gasket (Figure 22) is a pressure energized ring which fits the standard API flange ring groove. The RX ring evolved during the development of 15,000 psi working pressure flanges. It was determined that when the ratio of the height of the ring to height of the sealing surfaces was 3 to 1 or greater, the seal was energized by pressure.
24.0000
1.500" X 20 BOLT HOLES
21.000
R OVAL
R OCTAGONAL
15.47 14.53 13.66
3.44
RING GROOVE
RX
BX
Figure 21: API13-5/8" 3000 psi Flange
Figure 22: API Ring Gaskets
Wellhead Equipment
90
Specifically, the internal pressure expands the ring against the outer sides of the ring groove with sufficient force to form a seal. To insure the initial contact is made between the sealing surfaces of the ring and the outer surfaces of the ring groove, the pitch diameter of the ring is made slightly larger than the groove. The advantages of the RX gasket are (1) less bolt load is required since the ring does not have to be crushed to effect a seal and (2) it is pressure energized. Stud bolts need to be tightened only once around to preload the gasket and start the self sealing effect. Vibration during drilling operations does not cause the RX to leak. BX Ring Gasket The API type BX ring gasket has been adopted for use in 10,000 psi and greater working pressure equipment. This pressure energized ring joint gasket is for use with type BX flanges only and are not
interchangeable with type R or RX gaskets. The BX flanges are designed to make up face to face at the raised face portion of the flanges. Figure 22 illustrates the BX flanges at initial contact. Resilient Seals Resilient seals used with wellheads in hangers and auxiliary seals are good to about 300F. Use of O-ring seals to seal against the OD of casing and tubing is not acceptable because the OD tolerances of tubular goods are too great to obtain a dependable seal. Also, if a leak should develop, no outside means is available for additional makeup. Small clearances and dimensions between tubulars and spools have necessitated the development of lip type resilient seals that can be expanded or re-energized by injecting plastic packing. Metalto-metal seals, which are better seals, are beginning to be more economical than elastomers.
Metal Temperature Degrees F -20o to 250o 2000 psi 3000 psi 5000 psi 300o 1995 2930 *4880 350o 1905 2860 5765 400o 1860 2785 4645 450o 1810 2715 4525 500o 1735 2605 4340 550o 1635 2455 4090 600o 1540 2310 3850 650o 1430 2145 3575
* Does not apply to 5000 psi 6BX flanges.

Table 2: Pressure - Temperature Ratings of Metalic Parts of API Wellheads, Valves and Flanges
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Chapter 6 - Wellhead Design Considerations

Selecting the appropriate size, type and pressure rating for each wellhead flange and seal is a critical task performed in planning the well completion. The design specifications for a particular wellhead vary widely from area to area and sometimes from well to well. However, Saudi Arabia is blessed with consistent requirements throughout the country. There are two major wellhead considerations. One for the Khuff completion (10,000 psi) and the other (3,000 psi) for the remainder of the completions. 2000 psi completions are possible but the 2000 psi equipment costs the same as the 3000 psi equipment, therefore Saudi Aramco has standardized on 3000 psi equipment. The weight, size, number and metallurgy of the wellhead components will depend upon the following considerations. Casing Program: The number of wellhead sections required is dependent upon the number of casing strings in the well. The casing head accommodates the surface and first protective casing string. Each casing diameter will influence the size of the casing hanger and casing head and casing spools required. Metallurgical: The conditions in Saudi Arabia require hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide and amine inhibitor protection for production wells. Special Applications: The installation of artificial lift equipment or the conversion of a producing well into an injection well may require special equipment or connections to be installed in the wellhead. A gas lift system, for ex-
BONNET
SPECIAL CONDUIT
TUBING HANGER
Figure 23: Submersible Pump Tubing Bonnet & Hanger
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ample, requires the injection of gas into the tubingcasing annulus. For a submersible pump system, the power cable passes through a special conduit in the wellhead to the downhole motor of the pump (Figure 23). Installation of a surface controlled subsurface safety valve (SCSSSV or SSSV) usually requires a hydraulic line that is run from the surface to the downhole valve. Like the submersible pump, the SSSV requires a special hookup to allow passage of the hydraulic line through the wellhead. API Pressure Rating: Standard working pressures for flanged wellhead equipment are: 2,000, 3,000, 5,000, 10,000, 15,000 and 20,000 psi. Each flange less than 10,000 psi is tested to twice its working pressure and each flange greater than 5,000 psi is tested to 1.5 times its working pressure (Table 1).
pressure the equipment will be subjected to). Formation pressures normally increase as drill depth increases and each subsequent casing string is subjected to higher bottom hole pressures. To match these pressure increases the pressure rating of the wellhead components must also increase (Figure 24). The wellhead rating should be higher than the maximum pressure it is expected to see during the life of the well.
10,000 PSI RATING
Test Test Working Pressure Pressure Pressure psi psi Rating <16 inch >14 inch psi 2,000 3,000 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 4,000 6,000 10,000 15,000 22,500 30,000 3,000 4,500 10,000 15,000 --3,000 PSI RATING 5,000 PSI RATING
Table 1: API Working Pressure Ratings (API Spec 6A Table 605.10 - Hydrostatic Body Test Pressure Sixteenth Edition, October 1 1989 p. 50) Pressure Requirements Figure 24: Wellhead Working Pressure Ratings The pressure rating of each section of the wellhead must be sufficient to control the maximum working pressure that is expected to be encountered (that is, the maximum shut in, injection or treating Essentially, each wellhead section has its own built in safety factor. In all wells, the pressure rating
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of the uppermost section of the wellhead is used to categorize the wellhead. Casing head sections are normally rated at 3,000 psi because surface strings are normally set to shallow depths and are exposed to minimal pressures. As previously mentioned, a 2,000 psi casing head section used to be the normal starting pressure. Wellhead sections rated at 10,000 psi are found on Khuff wells in Saudi Arabia and 5,000 psi equipment is only found on Khuff trees to transition from 3,000 psi to 10,000 psi. As noted previously, each casing head contains
a casing hanger assembly (Figure 25). The casing hanger assembly consists of a set of slips with built in seals. The primary seal is contained in the assembly and seals off the annulus of the string suspended in it. These seals may be automatically compressed by the weight of the string or they may be compressed by tightening lock screws in the top of the slips. Secondary seals (Figure 26) contained in the lower flange of casing spools and tubing spools serve as a pack off. They fit around the end of the casing
DOUBLE STUDDED PACKOFF SECONDARY SEAL CASING SPOOL PRIMARY SEAL
CASING SPOOL SECONDARY SEAL DOUBLE STUDDED PACKOFF SECONDARY SEAL CASING HEAD PRIMARY SEAL
Figure 25: Primary and Secondary Seals
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joint suspended in the hanger immediately below. As such, the secondary seal performs essentially the same function as the primary seal located in the flange below. As previously mentioned, Cooper supplies the X Bushing and Vetco Gray supplies the AK Bushing. The method of sealing is the same for both of them. The elastomer seal is energized with plastic packing material. The X bushing will fit in an AK bushing profile and vise versa but the Cooper plastic does not readily flow through the ports of the Gray AK bushing, which sometimes results in seal failure. A plastic packing gun is attached to the injection port (Figure 7) and the plastic is squeezed in behind the bushing. The O-ring seals stop the plastic from going anywhere except through the ports in the bushing. The plastic then forces the elastomer against the casing, creating a seal.
The pressure rating of flanges that are bolted together should be the same. For example, if the top flange of a casing spool is rated at 3,000 psi, the lower flange of the next spool should also be rated at 3,000 psi. However, one pressure jump is allowed. i.e. 3,000 psi to 5,000 psi or 5,000 psi to 10,000 psi. If the upper flange of a spool will be potentially exposed to pressure greater than 5,000 psi, it should be rated to 10,000 psi. If the upper flange of the spool below is rated to 3,000 psi then the two spools should not be connected together because the jump from 3,000 psi to 10,000 psi constitutes a double jump. A double jump is unsafe because the upper flange of the lower spool would be exposed to pressures well in excess of its rated maximum if the secondary seals of the upper spool should fail.
PORT FOR PLASTIC
BUSHING METAL ELASTOMER SEAL "O" RING SEALS WIRE SNAP RING
2 4-1/8" 3 & 4
11-3/8"
AK Bushing without Elastomers
11-3/8"
1 3
4-1/8"
AK Bushing with Elastomers
Figure 26: Secondary Seal
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Double Studded Packoff Flanges Changing pressure ratings at the flanges of two spools can be remedied by means of a double studded packoff flange (Figure 27). The double studded packoff flange is inserted between the upper flange of the lower spool and the lower flange of the upper
spool. A 3,000 psi flange cannot be directly bolted to a 5,000 psi flange because the bolt patterns and ring gasket groove are not the same. Double studded packoff flanges can also be used to have another seal between the casing hanger and the bushing if the casing hanger leaks. The ring gasket, however, remains exposed to the leaking fluid.
SEAL ACTUATING INJECTION PORTS
5000 PSI TEST PORTS 3000 PSI
Figure 27: The Double Studded Packoff Flange
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Chapter 7 - Equipment Specifications

Five wellhead specifications are often referenced within Aramco in the design of wellhead and tree components. They are: 6A. Aramco Standard 45-AMSS-005 is a publication that clarifies those points which are not addressed in the API specification. The Aramco Material Supply number includes a complete description of the material required when an order is placed. Service Environments The worst case environment within a pressure rating is used to specify equipment. For example, the differences in Saudi Arabian wells is not enough to confuse the issue with H2S and non H2S equipment. A great percentage of wells have hydrogen sulfide, therefore all wells are equipped for sour service. Hydrogen Sulfide A sour service or H2S well is identified according to NACE MR-01-75. In general, if the partial pressure of H2S is greater than or equal to .05 psi, the material is susceptible to sulfide stress cracking. All parts used under these conditions must be heat treated as recommended in NACE Standard MR-01-75 to have not more than a specified maximum material hardness. Material hardness is defined as the resistance of metal to plastic deformation, usually by indentation. In H2S tests, the common unit for material hardness is Rockwell C, which is obtained by applying a cone shaped diamond indentor with a load of 150 kg to the material and measuring the depth of indention. NACE Standard MR-01-75 specifies that all wellhead and tree components subjected to H2S must have controlled hardness. The hardness maximum depends on the materials used for the components. Rockwell C-22 is the maximum for AISI 410 stainless steel and low alloy steel. Rockwell hardness numbers may be converted to other units of material hardness by referencing appropriate tables in two other documents: ASTM E140 and Federal Standard N 151 Method 241.1.
API 6A API 6D NACE Standard MR-01-75 Saudi Aramco 45-AMSS-005 The AMS number.
Industry Specifications The American Petroleum Institute has published standard specifications for oil industry wellhead equipment. This publication, called API Spec 6A, Specification for Wellhead Equipment, specifies material and physical properties for wellheads. It also specifies test requirements for equipment components. The API Spec 6A is accepted world wide, and is routinely followed by all major wellhead manufacturers. API designates wellhead equipment by the following working pressures: 2,000 psi, 3,000 psi, 5,000 psi, 10,000 psi, 15,000 psi and 20,000 psi (30,000 psi is covered in API Spec 6AB). Generally speaking, the rating of any unit of wellhead equipment is governed by the working pressure of its flanged connections. For hydrogen sulfide environments, the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) has developed the NACE Standard MR-01-75 specification. It is compatible with API Spec 6A and it is intended to aid oil companies and wellhead manufacturers to select materials resistant to sulfide stress cracking. It specifies the materials, heat treatments, and metal property requirements for components exposed to hydrogen sulfide. Saudi Aramco Specifications Saudi Aramco standards specify that wellheads and trees shall be made in accordance with API Spec
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Chapter 8 - Wellhead Valve Lubrication Purpose Of Valve Lubrication

Frequent and proper valve body lubrication not only protects against leaks by lubricating the valve sealing surfaces, but also reduces corrosion induced damage by minimizing direct contact of the valve components with the produced fluids. In addition, the debris, sludge, and other foreign material that accumulate in the valve body as a consequence of production, is displaced and flushed away when fresh grease is injected into the valve. Frequent and regular lubrication of the valve body is necessary because grease is gradually removed from the valve body as a result of a combination of exposure to high flowing velocities and produced fluids. Proper valve lubrication has operational implications. Lubrication of valves on a regular basis minimizes the occurrence of operational problems, thus reducing maintenance and repair needs and extending the useful service life of the valve. In addition, proper lubrication reduces friction, thus facilitating ease of valve operation. Frequent and proper valve lubrication also helps ensure that the well is operated in a safe manner. Valve lubrication not only helps maintain valve sealing integrity, but also ensures operational reliability and acceptable wellhead surface safety valve closure times. It is important that the surface safety valves close quickly, to minimize the potential for cutting out and damaging the valves. A damaged valve jeopardizes the ESD system integrity. ing aliphatic hydrocarbon liquids and gases including sour gas and water. The suffix letter SS indicate a special soft consistency formula for easier pumping. All Purpose Grease: The following All Purpose Grease, all of which are available through AMS, is recommended to be used for lubrication of the stem bearings on manual gate, ball and choke valves.
26-004-330 Ball Bearing Grease 2 26-004-130 All Purpose Grease EP-1 26-004-230 All Purpose Grease EP-3 26-004-240 All Purpose Grease EP-3.
Special Sealants Applications: Special sealants are required in certain applications. The first involves use of these sealants in McEvoy gate valves. The McEvoy gate valve design incorporates a unique self-sealing system which makes the valve different from most other valves. The gates and seats are constantly sealed against leakage while in the closed position with a gasketing compound. The gasketing compound is not a lubricant and conventional greases cannot be used for this purpose. Special sealants should be used to replenish the sealing system which provides, in effect, a replaceable gasket between the gate and seat. The gasket is replaced automatically by the sealing system from a reservoir of specially prepared sealing compound that is contained in each of the two valve seats. Use of a sealant also has application in cases where a valve fails to provide tight shut-off, even after being lubricated with a suitable body cavity grease. In such cases, it may be necessary to inject a sealant into the valve body to effect a temporary seal until the valve can be repaired or replaced. The sealant should be flushed out of the valve body when there is no longer a need to provide tight shut-off.
Common Lubricants
BTR 555 SS BTR 555 SS grease is recommended as the standard lubricant for body lubrication of the wellhead and manifold valves used in oil and water services. Description: BTR 555 SS is a high temperature inorganic base lubricant. It is formulated for use in service contain-
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Recommended Sealants Formasil CO2 Heavy Duty: Formasil CO2 Heavy Duty, a sealant manufactured by Lubchem Inc., should be used as the standard sealant for McEvoy Model E-2 valves. Formasil CO2 can also be used to effect a temporary seal in cases where a valve fails to provide tight shut off. McEvoy 195 Special: McEvoy 195 Special, a sealant packaged and distributed by McEvoy for use in their valves, can be used as a substitute sealant only in the event Formasil CO2 Heavy Duty, the preferred sealant, is not available. BTR - 1033: For passing valves, BTR-1033 lubricant can be used to rectify some of the problems.
Lubrication Frequency
The frequency at which a valve should be greased is dependent on the service and operating conditions of the system in which the valve is installed. Valves that are exposed to severe service and operating conditions such as H2S, CO2, high gas or liquid flow rates, frequent cycling or combinations thereof, require lubrication on a more frequent basis than valves that are installed in non dynamic, less harsh operating systems. Most lubricants are affected when exposed to H2S and/or CO2 and lose their effectiveness over time. Therefore, lubrication frequency guidelines must take into consideration the ability of the lubricant to withstand exposure to H2S and/or CO2. Exposure to high gas and/or liquid flow rates can cause lubricants to be flushed out of the valve body as a result of high flowing velocities. In addition, some lubricants degrade and lose their effectiveness when
Field crew preparing to lubricate a valve using a truck-mounted unit.
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exposed to high volume liquid production. Each time a valve is cycled, a portion of the lubricant contained in the valve body is displaced into the valve bore. As a consequence, frequent cycling can rapidly deplete the lubricant contained in the valve body. Arab-D oil wells contain both H2S and CO2, placing them in the severe service category straight away. The wells are also operated at high flow rates. Therefore, it is important that the lubrication frequencies specified are strictly adhered to. The frequencies given are based on the service applications for the lubricant used, the degree of exposure to oil and water services and operating conditions, and past experience. Failure to comply with the recommended frequencies will result in inadequate lubrication, which could lead to unsafe operations and valve operating problems. All wellhead and manifold valves should be lubricated as per the Well Database report OP-49. The valves may also be greased before and/or after wireline work, workovers and any other work during which the valves are cycled open and closed several times. The related valves must be greased just before and right after any descaling or acid treatment jobs. General Procedures Saudi Aramco has developed detailed greasing procedures for common valves used on the wellhead and well flowlines. These procedures specify the volume of grease to be used based on the type of valve and its size.
Wellhead Valve Integrity Testing

Wellhead integrity tests are conducted on all wells on a one year frequency, except wells equipped with SSSE, which are tested 3 times a year. The valves are tested against the shut-in wellhead pressure in a sequential manner by closing each valve and monitoring the downstream pressure. General guidelines related to this work are presented below: 1. Grease the wellhead valves, conduct wellhead integrity test (WHIT), and regrease the passing valve on the same day. 2. If all attempts to eliminate the passing by greasing or other methods have failed, the valve will be replaced as follows: For oil wells, the tubing master valve and the crown valve should be replaced if they record a pressure buildup of 100 psig or more in 10 minutes. All other valves on oil and water wells (including the casing master valve on PWI and WS wells) should be replaced on an asneeded basis (if a 100% shut-off is required for a specific job) or if they are stuck in an open or close position. 3. Wellhead greasing should be performed before any acid pumping job.
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Chapter 9 - Landing Base Inspection Program Introduction

Occurrence of corrosion damage in the buried wellhead equipment and surface casing immediately below the landing base is a major concern in onshore fields in Saudi Arabia. Initial random inspections of the below grade wellhead equipment in the mid-eighties showed corrosion damage to the buried landing base, casing spools and surface casing. The damage was occurring in spite of an apparently successful cathodic protection program that has reduced the number of casing leaks due to external corrosion damage. The possible causes of the corrosion damage are: leakage of water from surface piping and wellhead valves during various operations on water related wells, presence of highly saline and corrosive water close to surface in subkha terrain, and, impediments to effective cathodic protection at shallow depths. In view of the safety and environmental hazards associated with possible shallow leaks from corroded casing or failure of wellhead equipment, a number of steps have been taken to control the damage. These include inspection and repairs at regular intervals, protection with field-applied corrosion resistant coatings and a requirement to coat all new wells immediately after the rig release. Regular inspection and protection of the below grade wellhead equipment has reduced potential hazards associated with casing failures at shallow depths. Repair and renovation costs have been reduced by establishing guidelines for safe acceptable thickness limits and by adopting rigless repair procedures.
Problem Description
Typical landing base and surface casing equipment for onshore wells is depicted in Figure 1. The 13-3/8 casing is either welded or screwed on to the 13-3/8x13-5/8 landing base. The 18-5/8 conductor pipe is cemented at a distance ranging from a few inches to 2-3 feet below the landing base. A typical landing base inspection operation involves excavating the cellar to below the landing base to expose three to six feet of the surface casing or until hard cement is encountered below the landing base. The exposed section is sand blasted
Ground Level
Landing Base
Surface Casing
Annulus Outlet Cement
Conductor Pipe Cellar
Figure 1: Typical Landing Base and Surface Casing Configuration
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and then inspected for evidence of corrosion. Figures 2 through 4 illustrate some cases of severe corrosion damage on the landing base and surface casing on oil as well as water wells.
Water dripping from the wellhead during wireline

operations, annuli bleed-offs and other operations. The spilled water will seep down into the loosely packed sand in the well cellar and provide an environment conducive to corrosion attack on the casing and the landing base. The higher occurrence of corrosion problems on water-related wells suggests that this may be a significant source of corrosion in these wells. The Subkha terrain, typically found in some areas of the desert, has a highly saline water table very close to surface and unprotected wellhead equipment in such terrain is exposed to a highly corrosive environment. Accumulation of rain water in the cellar and in the voids in the casing-casing annuli. Impediments To Cathodic Protection As noted in the Introduction, corrosion damage is occurring in spite of an apparently successful well casing cathodic protection program. It must be em-
Sources Of Corrosion
Water Seepage The following sources of water and moisture have been identified as possible causes of corrosive environment in the well cellar area:
Presence of a static water column from shallow

aquifers in the conductor-casing and/or casingcasing annuli that do not have a good cement job near the surface. A review of the annuli pressure history of corroded wells showed that 18% of the wells with corrosion had a history of water effluent from one or more of the casing-casing annuli.
H o le in S u r fa c e C a sin g
Figure 2: Damaged Surface Casing on an oil well Figure 3: Pitted surface casing on a water injection well
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phasized that the a dramatic decline in well casing leaks due to external corrosion in the deeper sections of the wellbore since the commissioning of the CP system has firmly established its effectiveness. The presence of steel cellars around the wellhead/landing base area has been identified as a possible barrier to the flow of CP current and thus impeding effective protection in this critical area. In one field survey of cathodic protection potential around the wellheads of 55 wells in Northern Area onshore wells, showed an average difference of 316 millivolts in potential inside and outside the cellars. Figure 5 illustrates this phenomenon.
A standard procedure was developed that defines the following:
Responsibilities Safety Standards Excavation Requirements Inspection Procedures Damage Assessment Repair Procedures Coating standards.
Corrective Actions
Standardization Of Procedures The objectives of durable landing base protection, and safe inspection and repair procedures at optimum costs could only be achieved by a multidisciplinary team.
Responsibilities: Production Engineers spearhead the landing base inspection and protection program. In general, the following personnel form a team to tackle the work.
Production Engineers identify wells to be inspected in yearly campaigns.
Field crews excavate the cellar area. Production

and Inspection Engineers inspect the exposed equipment to ensure that it is safe to proceed with further inspection. Maintenance crews sand-blast the exposed sec-
W a ter L eak
Figure 4: Water leaking from a water supply well casing
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tion and Inspection Engineers take UT measurements to determine the extent of corrosion and metal loss. Production Engineers and Metallurgists review the findings to determine the safest and most costeffective procedure to repair the damage. The repair work is carried out by a workover rig, or Maintenance crews, as required. Minor maintenance work such as replacement of corroded annuli riser pipes, valves and fittings are carried out by Field Crews. After the necessary repairs are completed, Maintenance crews coat the landing base and the exposed section of the casing per established standards. The coating is inspected by Inspection Engineers before the cellar is back-filled with clean sand. Safety Requirements General steps to ensure the safety of the inspection and repair procedures include:
Measure the pressures in all casing-casing and

tubing-casing annuli, bleeding the pressures, if any, and record effluent as well as the rate of pressure buildup before all inspection or repair operations. Strict compliance with Work Permit procedures Test for flammable or toxic gases Take precautions to avoid caving-in of the excavation. Excavation Requirements The cellar is normally excavated to expose up to 6 feet of the surface casing or until top of cement is reached above the 18-5/8 conductor pipe, whichever is earlier. Normally, the cement is not chipped away unless required to reach an uncorroded section of the casing for attaching a sleeve. Inspection Procedures After excavating the cellar to the required depth,
ANODE BED
C ellar W all
18-5/8 C ond uctor
13-3/8 C asing
9-5/8 C asin g
7 L iner
Figure-5 CP current shielded by the steel cellar wall
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a visual inspection is carried out to determine if it is safe to sand blast the exposed equipment. The exposed section is sand blasted and then a thorough visual inspection is carried out to check for leaks or corroded fittings, bolts valves, annuli risers, etc. UT (Ultrasonic Thickness) surveys are
then carried out to determine the remaining wall thickness of all corroded sections. Corrosion mapping, illustrated in Figures 6A & B is also carried out if the wall thickness is below the minimum acceptable requirements.
12
11
10
7 6 5
12
S c a le
S c a le
Figure 6A: Establishing grid-lines on the landing base

5 4 3 2
7 .1 4
C L -1 6.70
.2 5 0
.2 0 0
.2 5 0 .3 0 0
.1 9 0
C L -3
3 .3 2 5 .3 0 0 .3 0 0 .2 5 0 .3 2 5 .3 0 0
5.80
.2 0 0 .3 0 0 .3 2 5
.2 5 0
6.25
.3 0 0 .3 2 5
.2 5 0
C L -2
8 .0 4
5 .8 0
Figure 6B: Grid-mapping of corrosion lakes
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Damage Assessment The landing base will be replaced if the remaining wall thickness in any section is below the minimum acceptable limits. Refer to Figure 7 for the minimum acceptable criteria for the landing base. Replacement of the landing base requires a workover rig. The surface casing is replaced or sleeved if the metal loss exceeds 80% of the nominal wall thickness. The minimum acceptable thickness of the casing is calculated as follows: t = PD / 2S Where: P = Maximum allowable operating pressure (psi) D = OD of the surface casing (inches) S = Specified minimum yield strength of the casing (psi)
Repair Methods
Landing Base Severely corroded landing bases are normally replaced with a workover rig. Welding work on the landing base is minimized, although welding is often performed on the bottom edge when required for installing a repair sleeve on the surface casing. In certain instances, the landing base with minimum thickness violations can be repaired by weld-metal buildup. Holed-through corrosion in the landing base may be repaired by tapping the hole and plugging it with threaded plug, as long as the hole size does not exceed 3/4. The plug is seal-welded to the landing base body.
V endor
A B
L B S iz e
1 3 .3 7 5 1 3 .3 7 5 1 8 .6 2 5
R a ti n g
A Pi 3000 A Pi 3000 A Pi 3000
M in i m u m A c c e p t a b le T h i c k n e s s ( i n ) A B C
1 .2 7 5 0 .5 6 0 .8 9 1 .0 5 0 0 .5 3 0 .8 6 0 .4 7 1 0 .5 3 0 .8 6
Figure 7: Illustration of landing base minimum acceptable thickness criteria
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Surface Casing A welded sleeve may be used to repair surface casings with either holed-through corrosion or with a wall thickness below the minimum acceptable limits. The ends of the sleeve have to extend beyond the damaged section of the casing to provide a sound girth weld. Multiple sleeves may be used on the same well casing. Weld patches and weld metal build-up may also be used isolated corroded or pitted sections. It should be noted that in the past, repairs of the corroded sections of the surface casing was done with a workover rig, which would cut the corroded section and weld a new stub. Safe sleeving procedures have been developed to perform this work without the rig, resulting in considerable savings. Figure 8 shows a sleeve installed around the cor-
roded section of a well casing by Field Maintenance crews. Coating The exposed section of the casing, the landing base and other casing spools to be coated are grit blasted to near-white metal. Coating is applied to produce a 70 micron (3 mil) coating with a high solids amine-adduct epoxy material. This provides a hard, impact and abrasion resistant coating with excellent properties in temperature, chemical and cathodic protection disbondment resistance. The coating is checked to ensure that it is 100% holidayfree. Coating procedures applied in the early phase of the landing base protection program used desert sand for surface preparation and utilized a mastic type coating. However, it was found that this type of coating degraded rapidly and did not provide the required protection from corrosion attack. Two water injection wells in one field had to be worked over to replace corroded landing base equipment within three years after being coated with this type of material. Follow up inspection on wells protected after grit blasting the surface and using epoxy coating showed no damage after 2 years. Figure 9 shows a coated surface casing and landing base.
Figure 8: Sleeved Surface Casing
Figure 9: Coated Surface Casing & Landing Base
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Sacrificial Anodes Two pre-packed sacrificial magnesium anodes are installed in the cellar of all new wells as a part of the well CP system installation. The anodes are also installed in all wells where steel cellars are found during the inspection campaigns.
Cementing and Other Protective Measures Any voids in the casing-casing or casing-conductor annuli are filled with cement to minimize water entry into the gaps that could cause localized corrosion damage. Also, holes or windows in the conductor pipe are sealed off to prevent water entry and accumulation in the conductor-surface casing annulus.
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Wellhead Equipment
Production Engineering School PERFORATING PE 103
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110
LESSON OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to understand the following: Perforation selection procedures Types of perforating charges, carriers and guns Selection of perforating charges and perforation program design Field execution of peforation jobs Safety precautions to be taken during perforation jobs.
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111
PERFORATING Description
This lesson will cover all aspects of well perforation operations including: such as porosity and water saturation. Permeability is then estimated using correlations developed for the field. High permeability zones are usually perforated for better well productivity. Water saturation logs provide a means of identifying oil-water contacts, which have a bearing on the selection of intervals that need to be perforated. Perforation intervals are then chosen based on the reservoir management strategy for that particular part of the field. In general, wells are perforated from the bottom up to ensure effective reservoir sweep.
Selection of the perforation intervals from open

hole logs. Using various reservoir markers such as oil/water contact, permeability barriers and other factors to ensure the perforation design offers maximum recompletion flexibility in the future. Introduction to shaped charges and various types of perforation guns. Selection of the right gun, perforation charge, orientation and perforation density to obtain maximum deliverability. Depth correlation techniques. Safety procedures and precautions to be taken during the job. New SAFE/GUARDIAN perforating systems.
Gun Selection
Important factors to consider during the gun selection process are the charge type and its performance, and the conveying mechanism into the wellbore. Shaped Charge The shaped charge is composed of only four basic components; the liner, main charge, primer and case as shown in Figure 1. Despite its simple design, the shaped charge is a highly refined piece of engineering.
Introduction
Perforating is often a primary goal of a completion and is one of the most important completion and workover operations performed. In cased hole completions, perforations provide the means of communication between the reservoir and the wellbore. Achieving good communication (productivity or injectivity) requires:
Selecting the appropriate equipment for the type

of completion. Providing wellbore conditions (e.g. wellbore fluid and differential pressure) to safely optimize the performance of the equipment selected. Perforation intervals are usually provided to the production engineer by Reservoir Management after analyzing open hole logs. Pay zones are identified based on the FAL, which calculates parameters
Figure 1: Typical Shaped Charge.
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Figure 2 illustrates the effect of charge shape on penetration. Figure 2a shows the small indentation resulting from a flat-ended charge. In Figure 2b, a conical void in the charge helps to direct the force of the explosion outward more efficiently. The resulting indentation has increased to about one-half of the diameter of the conical void. Figure 2c places a thin metallic liner into this conical void. The penetration has now increased to four or five times the diameter of the liner. It is the liner that is responsible for the great penetrations produced with shaped charges.
tion plugging it. To mitigate this problem, considerable efforts have been made to reduce the size of the slug or eliminate it entirely. The casing, cement and formation plastically yield under the extreme jet impingement pressures. There is considerable crushing and compression, as might be expected, but no fusing of the perforated material occurs. Types Of Gun Carrier Systems Modern perforating guns can be grouped into three classes: the retrievable hollow carrier, the expendable guns and the tubing conveyed guns. Tubing conveyed guns are used with the rig and are beyond the scope of this lesson. Retrievable Hollow Carrier Guns: Hollow carrier guns can be re-used and are commonly available in sizes ranging from 3-1/8 up to 5 for general casing operations. There are also slim hole guns that can be used in small casing sizes or through tubing. The carriers are available with a normal shot density of four or six shots-per-foot at 90 or 120 phasing. They are typically used when a well is to be perforated before the production string has been run. Figure 4 shows a 120 phased hollow carrier gun. A variation of the hollow carrier gun is the high shot density (HSD) gun. HSD guns are not reusable but they can be recovered from the well. Advantages of the hollow carrier gun include: 1. High reliability since the blasting caps, detonating cord and charges are all contained within the gun. 2. Rugged design. The weight of the steel carrier plus the fact that all fragile parts are protected within often makes it easier to get to perforating depth and minimizes rig time by allowing higher running speeds. 3. The operator has the advantage of perforating at any desired shot density, one or two shots-perfoot being the most common alternatives to four shots-per-foot. High-density carriers typically have shot densities up to 12 shots-per-foot. 4. The gun is retrieved, leaving essentially no debris
Figure 2: Shaped Charge Effect. Most shaped charges use RDX or HMX explosives; HMX is for high temperature applications. These are explosives similar to TNT or nitroglycerin. The reaction is so fast that the time required to perforate is only 100 to 300 microseconds. Figure 3 illustrates the detonation process. As the explosive detonates, a wave sweeps through the charge collapsing the liner. As it reaches the axis, the inner portion of the liner material is forced forward forming the perforating jet. While the outer portion, that was in contact with the explosive, slides back forming the slower moving slug. This all takes place in less than 20 microseconds. Since the jet moves faster than the slug, the slug can follow the jet into the newly created perfora-
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Figure 3: Phases of Detonation. in the hole. 5. The carrier provides protection for the charges from high wellbore temperature and pressure. Standard guns are rated to 340F at 15 to 20,000 psi. High-temperature guns are rated for 25,000 psi at 470F with some decrease in performance. 6. Since the carrier absorbs the reactive forces produced during detonation, the gun produces no casing deformation. Disadvantages of the hollow carrier gun include: 1. The weight of the carrier limits the length of gun that can be run in one trip.
Figure 4: Hollow Carrier Gun with 120 Phasing.
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2. The rigidity of the carrier may prevent the slimhole hollow carrier guns from passing through crooked production tubing. 3. There are difficulties perforating under balanced. The first interval to be perforated may be done under balanced but this presents well control problems. Applications of hollow carrier guns include: 1. In Saudi Aramco, the 3-1/8, 3-3/8 and 4 guns are the most commonly used hollow carrier sizes. 2. HSD guns have been used to test an exploration well. 3. HSD guns are used for perforating highly productive sandstone reservoirs where sand control is an issue and high shot densities are desired. Hawtah wells are a good example of this application. Expendable Guns: When more flexibility than a ported hollow carrier can provide is required or it is desired to perforate very long intervals in one trip, one of the expendable designs can be used. There are two basic classes of expendable guns: wireline and tubing conveyed. Wireline conveyed expendable guns consist of individual pressure sealed aluminum, glass, ceramic, or cast iron cases wired together with the detonating cord. These can be further divided into two groups, the fully expendable and the semi-expendable guns. The fully expendable gun is designed to shatter when fired. The debris falls to bottom and is left in the well. Only the perforator casings of a semi-expendable gun are destroyed when the gun is fired. The carrier remains intact and is removed from the wellbore. Figure 5 shows both types of wireline conveyed expendable guns.
Figure 5: Wireline Conveyed Expendable Gun Types. Fully expendable gun types are rarely used in Saudi Aramco and will therefore not be discussed in this lesson. Semi-expendable charges are either attached to a carrier strip or wire carrier, which makes using glass or ceramic cases more practical. Wire type carriers are seldom used, the tougher strips being preferred. An angled variation on the strip gun has been developed and is now available in Saudi Aramco. This enables consecutive charges to be fired 90 apart. This phasing places the perforations at +/-45 on either side of the magnetic positioning tools central axis. By providing some phasing, the angled strip gun is believed to limit a wells tendency to produce sand by reducing the delta P across the perforations. Semi-expendable guns offer the following advantages over fully expendable guns: 1. The amount of debris left in the hole is greatly reduced as the strips and wiring are recovered. 2. In the case of glass or ceramic cases, the type of debris left is more like sand and less apt to cause problems. 3. The ability to use ceramic cases allows improve-
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ments in wear resistance, gas and chemical resistance, durability, and pressure integrity. 4. Semi-expendable guns are usually magnetically positioned, maximizing penetration in through tubing applications. 5. Strip type semi-expendables are less apt to cause casing damage than their fully expendable counterparts. 6. The modular nature of the strip carriers facilitates spacing out the charges in the field. This is of particular importance in Saudi Aramco where logistics often require guns to be transported offshore or to remote locations long before the actual intervals to be perforated are known. Disadvantages of semi-expendable guns include: 1. Verification of charges fired may be a problem. 2. Pressure and temperature ratings are lower than hollow carrier guns. Most are good for 5000 psi at 200F but some can have ratings as high as 15,000 psi at 300F. 3. Strip guns, while sturdier than fully expendable guns, still cannot be pushed or spudded as they may ball up or break causing a fishing job. 4. In old wells or where the casing has been corroded, strip guns may damage or deform the casing when fired, and their use is not recommended
under these conditions. Application of semi-expendable guns: 1. Semi-expendable guns are used extensively in Saudi Aramco, the most common being the 2-1/ 8 and the 1-11/16 guns that are run through tubing to perforate a liner or casing. Gun and Charge Selection Several factors affect the performance of a perforated zones productivity. Increases in entrance hole size and depth of the perforations tend to enhance productivity while casing and formation damage can restrict it. Factors affecting the deliverability of the well are discussed below. Charge Geometry and Placement: Figure 6 summarizes some of the factors that influence the performance of a shaped charge. Theoretically, the optimum standoff would be where the tip of the jet touches the target material when the liner has just finished collapsing. At this point the jet has reached its maximum potential energy. If the jet is required to travel further before encountering the target material, it will have lost some of its effectiveness. An extreme example of this
Figure 6: Summary of factors that influence the performance of a shaped charge
Figure 7: Charge Geometry and Orientation.
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scenario is seen in multi-phase perforating with eccentric gun placement. The charges adjacent to the casing produce much deeper penetrations than their counterparts on the opposite side of the gun. Gun clearance is defined as the distance along the axis of the jet from the outside diameter of the gun to the inside wall of the casing. For most designs, optimum standoff occurs when the perforator is at or near the casing wall. Therefore, it is desirable to keep gun clearance to a minimum. As with most of our real-world experiences, this ideal is difficult to obtain. There are a large number of factors that increase gun clearance but very little that we can do to minimize it. Variable clearance is common since most perforating is done with phase angles other than 0 and the guns tend to lie on the low side of the hole due to wellbore deviation. As gun clearance varies, so does entrance hole diameter and penetration. The problem is compounded when through-tubing guns are used. These guns are very small in diameter relative to the casing. Centralizing the gun under these circumstances will not provide satisfactory results, as the clearance will be high on all sides of the gun. For through-tubing applications, the only thing that we can realistically do to improve gun performance is to intentionally decentralize. This practice, known as positioning, and will be discussed in detail later. The manufacturers of shaped charges have done considerable research into the effects of changing the parameters shown in Figure 6 & 7. Perforating service companies take much of the guesswork out of planning a perforating job by publishing catalogs containing technical data such as maximum shotsper-foot, phasing possibilities, explosive characteristics, pressure and temperature limitations. These tables also include the API RP-43 Certification Data of their charges (e.g. length of perforation, entrance hole diameter and others). Some are able to provide information on perforation performance with regard to phasing, gun clearance and centralization. Charge size affects only the length of the penetration. The materials used and the geometry of the shaped charge is the controlling factors for pen-
etration. Assuming the perforation reaches beyond filtration damage done during drilling, the length and the entrance hole size of the perforation have little effect on the flow characteristics. Flow Characteristics: The flow characteristics of a single perforation are more dependent on our ability to provide a clean perforation tunnel than any other factor. For this reason, perforation clean up is very important. The type and quality of the charge used will have a significant effect on clean up. High quality charges provide a jet that is more uniform, has better velocity distribution and will tend not to plug the perforation with slug material. Indications are that it is the quality of the charges that produce perforations that are easier to clean up. The only other way to increase flow is to add more perforations. High shot densities increase the flow by increasing the surface area on the reservoir exposed to the wellbore. Increasing the number of perforations also reduces the pressure drop across the perforations. High shot densities can make stimulation and workover operations more difficult therefore, good flow characteristics are a result of using high quality charges and high shot densities rather than the size of the charges used. Formation Damage: Formation damage is the most significant factor limiting perforation productivity. Causes of formation damage include: 1. Debris left in the perforation tunnel, such as explosion by-products and liner residue. 2. Compaction of the reservoir rock in the vicinity of the perforation. 3. Solids deposited in the perforation by the filtration of borehole fluids. Anything that restricts production, by definition, limits productivity. Damaged casing can cause sanding, water intrusion or collapse entirely. Formation damage can keep all fluids from entering the well. By selecting the proper guns, by providing proper
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wellbore conditions and by using clean completion fluids, we can significantly reduce casing and formation damage. Some of the issues here and their remedies are outlined below. Casing damage whilst perforating can be prevented or reduced, as follows: 1. Use hollow carrier guns whenever possible. 2. When perforating with expendable guns, use the minimum charge size that will provide reliable results. 3. Avoid the use of fully expendable guns in older wells, where corrosion may have weakened the casing. Plugged perforations can be prevented or reduced, as follows: 1. Using high quality charges (high-order explosives such as RDX or HMX with properly designed liners) will reduce the amount of explosion byproducts and liner residue. 2. Using hollow carrier guns will eliminate the debris associated with expendable cases that could find its way into the perforation tunnels. 3. Perforating with negative differential pressure will surge the perforation tunnels. This acts to clean much of the debris before it has a chance to plug the perforations and to restore some of the permeability in the compacted zone around the perforations. Formation damage can be prevented or reduced, as follows: 1. Perforating with a clean completion fluid is essential. Fluids high in particulates such as unfiltered brines or drilling mud shouldnt be used. 2. Clean brine is the preferred fluid for perforating. Fresh water can cause hydratable clays to swell, reducing the effective permeability. 3. Avoid perforating with positive differential pressure. This is more critical in sandstone reservoirs where there may be hydratable clays present.
Perforating Operations
A number of operational considerations are as follows: Safety This is the most important part of the perforating operation. Shaped charges are dangerous and can kill, so utmost care is necessary while handling this equipment. Some of the critical items listed below are common sense, but are emphasized here nevertheless. 1. Hold spot Safety Meeting and discuss all aspects of the job. 2. If a thunderstorm is expected within the next 30 minutes, postpone the operation. 3. Ensure that warning signs are posted in prominent positions. 4. No smoking, except in designated areas. 5. Turn off cathodic protection. 6. Stop all welding operations. 7. Isolate all electrical instruments from the wellhead and where they may contact the logging cable. 8. Check voltage between logging cable, ground and casing. If voltage is not zero, attempt to eliminate this residual voltage. Maximum allowable voltage is 0.25 V. Do not arm the guns if this condition is not met. 9. Install grounding clamps between casing, logging truck and ground. Turn off all radio transmitters before arming the guns. Do not switch these transmitters on until the gun is 300 below ground. This condition also applies on the way out. Guns must be visually checked for detonation before the radios are switched on again. 10.Only authorized personnel should be on location during arming. Only the logging engineer is authorized to connect the detonator to the primacord. All unauthorized persons should be clear of the site. Ensure that the logging engineer is in possession of the Safety Key.
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In certain cases, the residual voltage cannot be eliminated. In this situation, perforating guns can be armed and run using the flapper activated firing equipment, or SAFE/GUARDIAN system. This system requires a lot more current to activate as compared to the conventional electrical firing system. Other safety exceptions are listed below. 1. No radio silence is required. 2. Cathodic protection can be left on. 3. Electrical welding can continue in designated areas, away from explosives. 4. Residual limit for voltage is 40V. Do not attempt the job, if this level is not achieved. Selective Firing Most selective firing is done using retrievable guns on a carrier-by-carrier basis from the bottom up. This is achieved by assembling perforation gun segments and spacer elements on the surface in accordance with perforation criteria obtained from open hole logs. The guns are then run in the hole and the first segment to be shot is placed on depth opposite the first interval to be perforated. Once the first segment is fired, the second segment is
placed on depth and the process is repeated until all the segments are fired. The primary advantage of shooting in this manner is to reduce the number of runs while perforating multiple intervals. Gun Positioning Positioning is defined as the intentional de-centralization of the perforating gun to a specific orientation. This is achieved by using a magnetic or mechanical decentralizing device to hold the gun against the wall of the casing. The result, for tools with a 0 phase angle, is that all the charges are fired in or close to the direction of minimum clearance. In deviated wells, this is usually the low side of the hole, where cement thickness is typically at a minimum due to the casings tendency to decentralize. This combination will provide the deepest possible penetration into the formation. Figure 8 shows two examples of eccentric perforating, one random and one intentional. In Saudi Aramco, magnetic positioning is the preferred method as it avoids the possibility of jamming the mechanical type kick-out tools in the packertailpipe assembly.
Figure 8: Eccentric Perforating.
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Depth Correlation There are two methods used to convey perforating guns. They are either run on wireline or on tubulars, this lesson will only address the former method. To perforate at the correct depth, both conveyance methods rely on a Gamma Ray-Collar Locator Log (GR-CCL). To insure that the perforating guns are on depth before firing, a Gamma Ray, Saturation or Neutron log is run in conjunction with a Casing Collar Locator (CCL) to establish a relationship between the casing collars and the formation, as seen with the open hole logs. When the perforating guns are run in the hole, a CCL is placed on top of the guns and the distance from the CCL to the top perforating charge is measured. Next, with the gun in the hole, the casing collar locations are logged and the two logs placed side by side. With the collar depths and the distance from the top charge to the CCL sensor known, the charges can be placed on depth with
confidence. Figure 9 shows an example of the two logs and the perforating gun schematic in the on depth position. Before attempting to inject into new perforations, it is a good practice to flow them first to remove debris from the perforation tunnels. Otherwise, the injectivity may be impaired. Finally, there is commercial software available that can predict the performance of a perforation job, based on the guns to be used and the wellbore conditions. These packages also estimate the well productivity and usually have a module built-in to estimate Skin.
Figure 9: Perforating Depth Correlation.
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EXCERCISE
1. Perforating intervals are chosen based on? a. Mud logs that identify pay zones. b. Analysis of porosity and density logs. c. Analysis of resistivity logs. d. Based on offset well information. 2. What is not true? a. The liner in a shaped charge forms a bullet that punches a hole in the casing. b. The perforating tip of a shaped charge travels at +/- 20,000 ft/sec. c. A shaped charge will not detonate when exposed to a flame. d. Inner portion of the liner forms the perforating jet. 3. In terms of penetration, the best performing charge is ? a. 2-1/8 semi-expendable enerjet gun. b. 2-1/8 expendable unijet gun. c. 5 HSD TCP gun. d. 2-7/8 hollow carrier gun. 4. Enerjet strip guns have the following advantage over hollow carrier guns? a. Can be run deccentralized for better performance, whereas hollow carrier guns cannot. b. Deeper penetration. c. They can be run at 60 phasing for better coverage. d. None of the above. 5. Which of the following is not true for enerjet strip guns? a. They can be shot selectively. b. They are run with a magnetic positioning device. c. There can be significant perforation debris. d. The strips can be deformed if not loaded properly. 6. Perforating-induced formation damage can be minimized by? a. Use clean, solid-free completion fluids. b. Perforate under-balanced so that the perforations immediately clean themselves. c. Choose the deepest penetrating charge possible. d. All of the above.
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7.
To achieve deeper penetration, which of the following needs to be done to the shaped charge? a. Increase the angle of the liner. b. Decrease liner thickness. c. Increase charge density and distribution. d. Increase standoff to the maximum possible.
8.
A perforating gun should be armed in the following manner? a. Electrically first and then to the detonating chord. b. The detonator should be in the Safety Tube at all times. c. No sparks should be generated while cutting detonating chord and wires. d. All of the above.
9.
Before perforating, which of the following exceptions to the safety requirement are acceptable? a. Residual casing to ground voltage is slightly above 0.25V. Use SAFE/ GUARDIAN system. b. Thunderstorm expected within 30 minutes, but no rain. c. Logging engineer is ill, qualified service company senior operator arms the gun. d. Safety Key can be secured in the logging cabin in a locked drawer while arming the gun.
10.
Which of the following is not true? a. Saturation logs, such as RST, can be used for depth correlation. b. GR-CCL log can be used for depth correlation. c. Open hole Resistivity logs can be used for depth correlation. d. Open hole Neutron logs can be used for depth correlation along with a GR-CCL.
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Perforating
Production Engineering School TUBING MOVEMENT PE 104
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LESSON OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to understand the following: Explain why tubing movement and stress analysis is important in well completions. Understand the sequence of events on a rig when tubing and packer are installed in a well, and how these events impact tubing movement calculations. Calculate tubing length changes due to changes in wellbore temperature and pressure. Understand packer-to-tubing force, axial force and triaxial stress. Know how to collect the data required to calculate tubing movement and stresses using a computer program.
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Chapter 1 - Introduction to Tubing Movement

A wells tubing string is essentially a long pressure vessel connecting the packer and the wellhead. It is critical that the integrity of this pressure vessel be maintained throughout the life of the well. Only by understanding all the forces acting on the tubing string and designing the string to withstand these forces can the tubing be expected to provide years of trouble free service. The packer is a crucial part of this system. It must survive the forces to which it is subjected, and care must be taken to ensure that the sealing mechanism maintains its integrity. There are many failure mechanisms that engineers must account for when designing a wells tubing string. The most obvious design criteria are that the string must support its own weight and survive the expected pressure regimes to avoid burst and collapse. In addition, the material must survive the corrosive downhole environment. In this lesson we will learn that interaction between pressures, temperature and fluid density will change the length of the tubing string, and subject the tubing and packer to potentially damaging forces. Ignoring the tubing length changes and the resulting forces can lead to packer leaks, wireline and coiled tubing problems due to buckled tubing, and permanently deformed tubing, referred to as corkscrewed tubing. The ideal time to complete a tubing movement and stress analysis is during the design of the well completion, before equipment is purchased and before the drilling rig has finished drilling the well. In this ideal scenario, the engineer will estimate or calculate all the pressure, temperature and fluid weights that the wells tubing and packer will be subjected to during the life of the well. Using this information the engineer will select the ideal size, weight and strength of the tubing and the ideal coupling type. The correct packer can be selected based on strength, expected seal movements, metallurgy and sealing materials. Finally, the rig crew can be provided with the correct space out length based on the selected equipment and the future well activities. Since this lesson is part of a Production Engineering School, we will concentrate on analyzing existing well completions prior to performing typical remedial well operations designed by Saudi Aramco production engineers. These operations involve pumping fluids into the wellbore and include stimulation, well killing, mothballing and scale inhibitor jobs. The parameters that effect tubing movement, and that can be controlled when designing these jobs, are maximum pump pressure, tubing-casing annulus pressure and fluid temperature. Listed below is a summary of the steps that a production engineer needs to follow when doing a tubing movement and stress analysis as part of planning a stimulation job or other pumping job on a well. 1. Collect the details of the wells tubing and packer, the casing ID and the density of the packer fluid. Besides the dimensions of the tubing and packer, you will need to know the load limits of the packer, yield stress of the tubing, and any compression or tension limitations on the tubing connections. 2. Review the drilling reports to determine the sequence of events and the wellbore conditions when the packer was set and the tubing was spaced out. The temperature regime and fluid density in the well at the time the tubing was spaced out is critical information. 3. Determine the density and temperature of the fluids to be pumped during the proposed job. 4. Work out the maximum allowed and expected wellhead and tubing-casing annulus pressures during the pumping job. These limits may be due to wellhead pressure ratings, formation fracture limitations, and pipe burst or collapse strength. 5. Calculate the tubing length change between the space out condition and the conditions expected in the proposed pumping job. Check that these length changes are within the range permitted by the downhole packer and seal assembly. 6. Determine the design factors to be used for tubing collapse and burst pressure ratings, and axial and triaxial stresses. The design factor (or safety factor) is divided into the pipe rating to determine
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the maximum allowed design pressure or stress. 7. Calculate the forces acting on the packer and tubing. Check that these forces are within the load limits of the downhole equipment. 8. Calculate the triaxial stress on the tubing. Check that this stress is within the yield stress of the tubing. 9. If any design limits are exceeded, rerun the calculations with reduced pump pressure, different fluid temperature or with various TCA pressures. Steps 6, 7 & 8 above are usually done with a computer program. Instructions on the correct use of these programs are beyond the scope of this lesson. However, the formulae used in these programs will be presented here and an example will be worked out.
Temperature Effect Heated metal expands, and cooled metal contracts. In a long string of tubing with a temperature change over its entire length, this contraction or elongation can be considerable. The change in length of a tubing string due to temperature change is:
L4 = LT.
(1)
L4 = length change of the tubing due to temperature change L = length of tubing = coefficient of thermal expansion (for steel, =6.9x10-6/degree F) T = change in average tubing temperature Temperature change has the most important effect on tubing movement. If the tubing, casing and packer are suitably matched (Ai<Ap<Ao and r is small), the temperature changes can account for over 90% of the tubing movement. Ai = area corresponding to tubing ID Ap = area corresponding to seal diameter Ao = area corresponding to tubing OD r = tubing to casing radial clearance In these cases pressures can be safely ignored when calculating length changes. This implies, however, that the most critical input data when doing tubing movement calculations is the average tubing temperature under the various well operating conditions.
Tubing Length Changes

We will now look at the tubing length changes and the methods used to calculate them. The equations and variable names are from a JPT paper1 by Hammerlindl, but the equations are presented here in a different order. It should be noted that other authors might use different terminology when discussing tubing movement and stress calculations. The sign conventions used are consistent in all the equations. A negative length change means the tubing gets shorter, a positive length change means the tubing gets longer. A positive axial force means the tubing is in compression, and a negative force is tension. For the packer-to-tubing force, a negative force is tensile and the packer is resisting a pull up the hole, a positive force is compressive and the packer is resisting being pushed down the hole.
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Ballooning Effect
Figure 1: Ballooning tubing shortens. Reverse ballooning tubing lengthens. The length change that occurs due to a change in differential pressure between the inside and outside of the tubing is
L3 = -
R -1 2 pis - R 2 p os L. 2 E R -1
i - R2 o 2
1 + 2 2
(2)
L3 = length change of the tubing due to ballooning = Poissons ratio (for steel, ~0.3) E = Youngs modulus (for steel, E=30x106 psi) i = change in density of liquid in the tubing R = OD/ID ratio of tubing o = change in density of liquid in the annulus = pressure drop in tubing per unit length due to fluid flow L = length of tubing pis = change in surface tubing pressure pos = change in surface annulus pressure Ballooning due to changes in surface pressure and changes in fluid density are both accounted for
in Equation 2. Inspection of Equation 2 shows that even without a packer, circulating a well to a fluid of a different density will cause a ballooning length change. This is in addition to the length change that will occur due to buoyancy effects. If a well is circulated to a heavier fluid, buoyancy will decrease the axial tension in the tubing thereby shortening it. Because the circumference of the OD is larger than the circumference of the ID, the area per unit length of the tubing is greater on the outside than on the inside. Since pressure times area equals force, an equal pressure increase on the inside and outside of the pipe will increase the force acting on the outside more than on the inside. This will tend to make the tubing longer; Equation 2 takes this effect into account. The term in Equation 2 (pressure drop per unit length) is used to account for flowing friction. The effect of friction is usually small and is always in the less conservative direction. When producing, the temperature effect makes the tubing longer and friction makes the tubing shorter. When acidizing, the temperature effect makes the tubing shorter and the friction effect makes the tubing longer. The friction is usually small when compared to the other effects and it is counter to a worst-case analysis, therefore it is usually not included. When including fluid friction in Equation 2, the sign of is positive for an injecting condition and negative for a flowing condition. Piston Effect or Hookes Law To calculate length changes due to Hookes law:
L1 = -
L F a , E As
(3)
L1 = length change of the tubing due to Hookes law L = length of tubing Fa = actual pressure force at lower end of the tubing E = Youngs modulus (for steel, E=30x106 psi) As = cross-sectional area of the tubing wall
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Piston effect is an appropriate name for this effect because Fa (actual force) is created by pressure induced piston forces, where
F a = ( A p - Ai ) pi - ( A p - Ao ) p o . (4)
Fa = change in actual force at the lower end of the tubing Ap = area corresponding to seal diameter Ai = area corresponding to tubing ID pi = change in tubing pressure at the packer Ao = area corresponding to tubing OD po = change in annulus pressure at the packer
One of the complications of the piston force is that, at first glance, Equation 4 looks like it is not applicable to all possible packer configurations. If you keep in mind that Ap refers to the diameter of the seals, then Equation 4 will work for all completions. For PBRs and packers such as the Otis WB, the Ap term refers to the ID of the seal bore, which, in the case of an Otis WB, this is the packer ID. For a Baker FAB-1 and similar packers with overshot seal assembly the Ap term refers to the OD of the polished bore or slick joint. In Equation 4 it can be seen that for a given combination of external and internal pressures and a particular tubing size, Fa is dependent on the seal diameter. This implies that to minimize the piston effect there is an optimum tubing size for a particular well, and for given pressure regime there is an optimum packer type and size. A combination completion can have two or more sizes of tubing. Calculating the tubing length change for a combination completion is done by summing the length changes for each section. Temperature and ballooning effects are easily calculated for each section using Equations 1 and 2. Hookes law holds for each section but Fa must be calculated at the bottom of each section in which there is a change in tubing ID or OD.
F 'a 2 = ( Ai1 - Ai 2 ) pi 2 - ( Ao1 - Ao 2 ) po 2
(5)
Fa2 = actual pressure force at the lower end of section 2 uncorrected for tubing weight Ai1 = area corresponding to tubing ID in section 1 Ao1 = area corresponding to tubing OD in section 1 Ai2 = area corresponding to tubing ID in section 2 Ao2 = area corresponding to tubing OD in section 2 pi2 = pressure in the tubing at the bottom of section 2 po2 = pressure in the annulus at the bottom of section 2 Figure 2: Terms in piston force calculation
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Buckling Effect
W = apparent weight of tubing Ws = average weight of tubing per unit length (including couplings) i = density of liquid in the tubing Ai = area corresponding to tubing ID o = density of liquid in the annulus Ao = area corresponding to tubing OD and
F f = A p ( pi - po ) .
Ff = fictitious force Ap = area corresponding to seal diameter pi = pressure in the tubing at the packer po = pressure in the annulus at the packer
(8)
Figure 3: Helical buckling Before we calculate the length change due to buckling we need to find the neutral point. For tubing movement analysis, the definition of the neutral point is where the axial stress is equal to the average of the radial and tangential stresses. From this definition it is easy to see that there does not necessarily have to be a neutral point in a tubing string. The neutral point is important because if it is below the packer then the tubing is not buckled, if the neutral point is above the wellhead then the tubing is buckled throughout its length. If the neutral point is in the tubing, the tubing string is buckled below the neutral point but not above it. Depending on the location of the neutral point, different buckling equations are used. The neutral point for a particular well condition is
n=
Ff W
(6)
n = distance from the lower end of the tubing to the neutral point Ff = fictitious force W = apparent weight of tubing where
W = W s + i Ai - o Ao
(7)
In Equation 7, W is called the apparent buoyed tubing weight. In Equation 8, Ff is usually called the fictitious force or effective buckling force. A quick look at equation 8 would suggest that it is simply a pressure differential acting on the packer bore. However, the derivation of Equation 8 not only accounts for axial forces on the tubing but also takes into account radial forces acting on the tubing walls. Note that in Equations 6, 7 and 8 the force, pressure and density values are measured at the final condition only. When calculating ballooning and piston effects, we always use changes in pressure and density to calculate changes in force and length. For the neutral point and for buckling, only the pressures and densities for the final condition are used. When a compressive axial force is applied to tubing that is inside casing, the tubing buckles into a helix. For tubing sealed in a packer and in the presence of fluid, the fictitious force (Equation 8) is the pressure force that causes the tubing to buckle or prevents it from buckling. The fictitious force is partly a pressure force acting on the area of the packer bore and partly a pressure force acting radially on the tubing walls. A buckling length change can only be negative, that is, it can only shorten the tubing. If the fictitious force is negative than there is no buckling effect. If Equation 8 shows that the fictitious force is
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positive and Equation 6 gives a neutral point within the tubing string (n < L), then
L2 = -
r Ff . 8EIW
(9)
L2 = length change of the tubing due to helical buckling r = tubing to casing radial clearance Ff = fictitious force E = Youngs modulus (for steel, E=30x106 psi) I = moment of inertia of tubing cross-section: I=/64(OD4-ID4) W = apparent weight of tubing If Equation 6 indicates that the tubing is totally buckled (n >= L) then
These equations are conservative with respect to length change because there are effects that are ignored which tend to decrease the magnitude of the buckling. The derivation of Equations 9 and 10 assume that the tubing forms a helix starting at the packer. However, the packer anchors the tubing in the center of the wellbore and the first helix must form some distance above the packer. Friction between the tubing and the casing is an even more important effect that is ignored by Equations 9 and 10. As the tubing buckles into a helix, contact between the tubing and casing creates friction that tends to limit further shortening by buckling.
L2 = -
r Ff 8EIW
LW Ff
LW (10) 2 . F f
L2 = length change of the tubing due to helical buckling r = tubing to casing radial clearance Ff = fictitious force E = Youngs modulus (for steel, E=30x106 psi) I = moment of inertia of tubing cross-section: I=/64(OD4-ID4) W = apparent weight of tubing L = length of tubing
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EXERCISE 1
1. Of the four effects causing tubing length change, ________ is usually the most important. a. Temperature b. Ballooning c. Hookes law (piston effect) d. Buckling 2. Of the four effects causing tubing length change, ________ is/are caused by pressure. a. Temperature b. Ballooning c. Hookes law (piston effect) d. Buckling e. b & c f. b, c & d 3. Of the four effects causing tubing length change, ________ depends only on the final well conditions. a. Temperature b. Ballooning c. Hookes law (piston effect) d. Buckling e. All of the above f. None of the above 4. Of the four effects causing tubing length change, ________ can only shorten the tubing. a. Temperature b. Ballooning c. Hookes law (piston effect) d. Buckling e. All of the above f. None of the above 5. (TRUE/FALSE) If the neutral point falls within the tubing string and the fictitious force is negative, the tubing will be buckled from the packer up to the neutral point.
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Chapter 2 - Calculating Length Change

Now that we know the formulae used for calculating length changes we will work through an example of an Arab-D well that is planned for a scale inhibitor squeeze job. The first step in calculating length change is to collect the mechanical details of the well. Table 1 lists the mechanical data for the example well. The only casing information required is the ID. Since this lesson is concerned only with movement, stresses and forces in the tubing, the problems of casing strength will not be addressed. Packer ........... Dresser Oil Tools Type Magnum Packer Depth ............................................... 6,579' Packer Load Limit: Compression ....................................... 200,000 lbs Total Load ........................................... 200,000 lbs Packer Seal Diameter ................................. 4.000" Casing ID .................................................... 6.276" Tubing OD ...................................................... 4.5" Tubing ID .................................................... 3.958" Tubing Weight ...................................... 12.8 lbs/ft Tubing Grade .................................................. J-55 Landing Mode ..................................... 36" pickup Length of Seals ................................................... 3' Length of Spacer Bar ........................................ 10' Table 1: Shedgum wet producer mechanical data Table 2 presents the temperature, pressure and fluid weight data for the landing, scale inhibitor job and producing conditions. Selecting the pressure, temperature and fluid weight data is the most critical, and can be the most difficult, part of calculating the tubing length change. If you are not sure of the values for temperature or fluid weight during the landing condition you should try the calculations at the minimum and maximum of the probable range of values. LANDING CONDITION TCAP ............................................................. 0 psi WHP .............................................................. 0 psi Packer Temperature ..................................... 215 F WHT .............................................................. 80 F TCA Fluid Weight ...................................... 63 pcf Tubing Fluid Weight ................................... 63 pcf SCALE INHIBITOR SQUEEZE TCAP ............................................................. 0 psi WHP ....................................................... 1,500 psi Packer Temperature ....................................... 80 F WHT .............................................................. 80 F TCA Fluid Weight ...................................... 53 pcf Tubing Fluid Weight ................................... 63 pcf PRODUCTION TCAP ............................................................. 0 psi FWHP ........................................................ 300 psi Packer Temperature ..................................... 215 F WHT ............................................................ 200 F TCA Fluid Weight ...................................... 53 pcf FBHP ...................................................... 1,200 psi Table 2: Shedgum wet producer landing condition and inhibitor squeeze condition data Since we are calculating length changes there has to be a reference point that is the condition from which the changes are measured. Examination of equations 1 through 5 show that you can calculate the length change between any two well conditions. However, the equations for calculating the buckling length change assume that the pressures inside and outside the tubing at the packer are equal during the reference condition. Therefore, it is necessary, for the sake of the buckling calculations, to reference all length change calculations to the land-
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ing condition. The landing condition is the only well condition that is guaranteed to meet the requirement that the pressures in the tubing and annulus at the packer are equal. It is easy to visualize what is meant by shut-in, producing and the other operating well conditions, but the landing condition can cause problems. Knowing exactly what the landing condition means is critical, since well conditions at that time are so important to the calculations. For tubing movement calculations, the definition of the landing condition is the well condition when the tubing space out is measured. The tubing may not actually be landed at that time. Determining the fluid and the temperature in the well at the time of space out from the drilling morning reports can be very difficult or impossible. If the proper procedures at the rig are not followed, the exact landing condition temperature cannot be determined precisely and must be estimated. The most critical input data is the average tubing temperature under the various well operating conditions. Since tubing movement is referenced to the landing condition, the most important temperatures are those in the wellbore during landing. The temperatures during the other conditions can be measured or the estimates can be refined, but the landing condition only happens once. In Table 2, the assumption is that the well is at a stable geothermal temperature. Lets look at what is happening in the well prior to landing the tubing on a well in which perforations are open and the well is killed with mud. Some operation has been completed (cleaning out fill, for example) and before pulling out of the hole (POH) with drill pipe the hole is circulated to condition the mud. After POH, a packer is run on wireline or drillpipe and set. Tubing is then run in until the packer is tagged, the tubing space out is calculated (based on tubing movement calculations) and appropriate pup joints are installed. The TCA is circulated to packer fluid and the tubing is landed.
If the TCA is circulated to packer fluid and then the space out is calculated, it is difficult to know the exact wellbore temperature conditions. Also, how do we know the well had time to stabilize to geothermal conditions in the time it took to POH with drill pipe, set the packer, RIH with the tubing and space out? By experience it was found that circulating increases the average wellbore temperature. The bottom of the hole is cooled off, but the top of the hole is heated. The longer the circulating lasts, and the smaller the surface mud reserve, the higher the average wellbore temperature will get. If a correction has to be applied to the landing condition temperature, at least the sign of the correction is known. Under most circumstances the best estimate of the landing condition temperature is the geothermal static temperature. Tubing movement computer programs usually expect the user to enter the wellhead temperature and the packer temperature. Given these values the program calculates the average tubing temperature. The correct wellhead temperature is not the ambient temperature on the day the tubing was run, but is the temperature in the soil deep enough not to be effected by changes in air temperature. If there is a temperature log of the well under stabilized shut-in conditions, integrate the temperature curve to get the average temperature of the wellbore, or extrapolate the near surface portion of the curve to determine the wellhead temperature. With the well on production the average wellbore temperature will stabilize at a value that is somewhat greater than the average of the wellhead and reservoir temperatures. During pumping jobs, the worst case is that the entire tubing string will be cooled down to the temperature of the fluid being pumped. The larger the volume of fluid pumped, the closer this assumption will match reality.
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In Equation 1: L = 12 x 6579 = 78948" The temperature change between the landing and inhibitor squeeze conditions: T = (80 + 80)/2 - (215 + 80)/2 = -67.5 degrees F L4 = 78948 x 6.9x10-6 x -67.5 = -36.77" Temperature Calculations Inhibitor Squeeze Job The formulae in this lesson require a consistent set of units. If we use PSI for pressure and inches for ID and OD of the tubing, casing and packer then we need to convert the tubing length from feet to inches, fluid density from PCF to pounds per cubic inch, and tubing weight from pounds per foot to pounds per inch. Whenever there is a change in the temperature, pressure or fluid density the calculation proceeds by subtracting the initial condition from the final condition so reductions in temperature or pressure are negative and increases in temperature or pressure are positive. In Equation 2: /E = 0.3/30x106 = 1x10-8 R = 4.5/3.958 = 1.1369 (tubing OD / ID) R2 = 1.2926 = 0 (ignore flowing friction) For the landing condition: (tubing landed with water in hole) i = o = 63/1728 = 0.0365 lbs/in3 pis = pos = 0 psi (atmospheric pressure) For the inhibitor squeeze condition: o = 53/1728 0.0365 (packer fluid is diesel and tubing was landed in water) = 0.0307 0.0365 = -0.0058 i = 0 (tubing was landed in water and the fluid being pumped is water) pos = 0 (tubing was landed with atmospheric pressure on the TCA, zero TCA pressure during job) pis = 1500 0 (tubing landed with atmospheric pressure on the tubing, pumping at 1500 psi during job)
L3 = -(1x10-8 x ((0 - 1.2926 x -0.0058 )/0.2926) x 789482 ) -(2x10-8 x ((1500 - 1.2926 x 0)/ 0.2926) x 78948) = - (1.60) - (8.09) = -9.69" Ballooning Calculations Inhibitor Squeeze Job In Equations 3 and 4: Ai = ( x 3.9582)/4 = 12.3042 inches Ao = ( x 4.52)/4 = 15.9042 inches As = 15.904 - 12.304 = 3.6002 inches Ap = ( x 4.02)/4 = 12.5662 inches Ap - Ai = 12.566 - 12.304 = 0.262 Ap - Ao = 12.566 - 15.904 = -3.338 L/(E x As) = 78948/(30x106 x 3.600) = 7.31x10-4 For the landing condition: pi = po = 63/144 x 6579 = 2878 psi (zero TCA pressure during landing, water in hole) For the inhibitor squeeze condition: pi = 63/144 x 6579 + 1500 = 4378 psi (pumping water with 1500 psi wellhead pressure) po = 53/144 x 6579 + 0 = 2421 psi (diesel packer fluid with zero TCA pressure) pi = 4378 2878 = 1500 psi po = 2421 2878 = -457 Fa = 0.262 x 1500 - -3.338 x -457 = -1132 lbs L1 = -7.31x10-4 x -1132 = +0.83" Piston effect calculations Inhibitor Squeeze Job In Equations 6, 7 and 8 for the inhibitor squeeze condition: Ws = 12.8/12 = 1.067 lb/inch Ai = ( x 3.9582)/4 = 12.3042 inches Ao = ( x 4.52)/4 = 15.9042 inches W = 1.067 + (0.0365 x 12.304) - (0.0307 x 15.904) = 1.028 lbs/inch Ap = ( x 4.02)/4 = 12.5662 inches pi = 63/144 x 6579 + 1500 = 4378 psi (pumping water with 1500 psi wellhead pressure) po = 53/144 x 6579 + 0 = 2421 psi (diesel packer fluid with zero TCA pressure)
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Ff = 12.566 x (4378 - 2421) = 24592 lbs (Ff is positive, there is buckling) n = 24592 / 1.028 = 23922" (neutral point is 23,922 inches above the packer) n = 23922 < L = 78948 (the neutral point is within the tubing, therefore Equation 9 applies) In Equation 9: r = (6.276 - 4.5)/2 = 0.888" I = /64 x (4.54 - 3.9584) = 8.082 L2 = - (0.8882 x 245922) / (8 x 30x106 x 8.082 x 1.028) = - 4.77x108/1.99x109 = -0.24" Neutral point and bucking calculations Inhibitor Squeeze Job To summarize the calculations so far we add the length changes together to find the total tubing length change between the landing condition and the inhibitor squeeze job. Whenever we do complex calculations it is easy to make a mistake, especially when there are negative signs to keep track of. To reduce the chance of error, it is very helpful to use simple logic and an understanding of the calculations to check that the answer makes sense. This exercise is also very helpful when using a computer program to do the calculations. From the proceeding calculations: L1 = +0.83" (piston) L2 = -0.24" (buckling) L3 = -9.69" (ballooning) L4 = -36.77" (temperature) L = -45.9" (total length change is negative tubing is shortened) Total Length Change Inhibitor Squeeze Job Result: The piston effect is small and is positive (it lengthens the tubing). Explanation: The packer seal diameter is 4.00" and the tubing is 4.5" OD with 3.958" ID. This is the ideal situation for minimizing piston effect, since the seal diameter is between the tubing ID and OD. In our example the TCA pressure at the packer is reduced because we land in water and later circu-
late to a diesel packer fluid; also there is no TCA pressure at surface in either condition. The tubing pressure at the packer increases by 1500 psi because we land in water and are pumping water at 1500 psi in the example. The area changes at the packer have the tubing pressure acting upward on a small area represented by 4.00" 3.958". The TCA pressure will act upward on a slightly larger area (4.5" 4.00"). Since the TCA pressure at the packer is reduced during the pumping job, the force acting on this area is lower than at landing leading to a positive length change. When visualizing the piston areas at the packer it is best to ignore all the changes in ID and OD associated with the locator sub and other equipment. These play no part in determining the tubing length change, however there may be strength issues to consider when we do the packerto-tubing force calculations. Result: Buckling is small and is negative. Explanation: Whenever the pressure in the tubing at the packer is greater than the pressure in the TCA, buckling can be expected. The 4.50" tubing is stiff and leaves little radial clearance inside of 7" casing. Buckling is always going to be minimal in such a completion, especially with the relatively low pumping pressure. As mentioned earlier, buckling is always negative or zero. Result: Ballooning is negative and is large compared to piston and buckling. Explanation: In a completion with the packer seal diameter matched well with the tubing size, and 4-1/2" tubing inside 7" casing to restrict buckling, ballooning will always be the largest pressure induced length change. The change in TCA density from water to diesel causes a ballooning effect, which is added to the ballooning effect of increasing the wellhead pressure. Result: Temperature has a large effect and is negative. Explanation: It is easy to explain changes in length due to temperature changes; steel expands when heated and shrinks when cooled. There are two reasons for calculating the tubing length change. Firstly, the expected length change
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is needed to check that the packer will maintain its seal during the inhibitor squeeze job, and secondly the length change is used to calculate the forces acting on the tubing and packer. In the inhibitor squeeze example we need to ensure that the shortening of the tubing will not pull the seal assembly out of the packer. The spacer bar (the length of pipe between the no-go or locator sub and the top of the seals) in this well is 10' and the well was landed with a space out of 3'. This means that the tubing can shorten by 7' before the top seal reaches the top of the seal bore. It is preferable that none of the seals ever are pulled out of the seal bore during well operations. Therefore, it is best to apply a safety factor to account for errors made during the space
out and inaccuracies in the temperature assumptions. For the example well a realistic safety factor is 10% of the length of the spacer bar or 1'. Using this factor we can safely shorten the tubing by 6', which is more than the nearly 4' of shortening expected during the planned pumping job. From well data and the proceeding calculations: Tubing space out = 3' Spacer bar length = 10' Safety factor 10% of spacer bar = 1' Maximum allowed tubing shortening = 10 3 1 = 6' L = -45.9" total length change is less than 6' Checking for seal pull out Inhibitor Squeeze Job
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EXERCISE 2
1. The landing condition is usually used as reference when calculating tubing length changes because ________? a. Temperature and pressure data is easy to determine for the landing condition b. All the length change equations must be referenced to a time when the tubing is new c. This is a requirement of the buckling equations d. None of the above 2. For a typical Arab-D well, what is the crucial rig operation that occurs as part of or during the landing mode? a. The well is circulated to packer fluid b. The packer is set c. The tubing is spaced out d. The tubing is landed 3. To minimize tubing length changes due to the piston effect the relationship between tubing size and packer ID should be __________? a. Packer ID should smaller than the tubing ID b. Packer ID should be larger than the tubing OD c. Packer ID should be between the OD and ID of the tubing 4. Ideally, what portion of the seals elements can be allowed to pull out of the packer bore during a well operation? a. 10% of the seal length b. All of the seals c. None of the seals
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To illustrate the tubing movement calculations further, we will calculate the length changes that occur when the example well is on production. In Equation 1: L = 12 x 6579 = 78948" The temperature change between the landing and production conditions: T = (215 + 200)/2 - (215 + 80)/2 = 60.0 + 5 = 65.0 degrees F L4 = 78948 x 6.9x10-6 x 65.0 = 35.41" Temperature Calculations Production Output from a computer program that models temperature and pressure profiles of producing oil or gas wells will show that the temperature drop in the tubing is not linear. The average tubing temperature is higher than the arithmetic average of the wellhead and reservoir temperatures. This effect is modeled in the example by adding 5 degrees to the average temperature calculated using the reservoir temperature and FWHT. Another complication in modeling a producing well is that the density of the tubing fluid decreases as it nears surface. An effective way to model this behavior is to use the FWHP, FBHP and the well depth to calculate an average fluid density in the well. This method gives a density that is accurate enough for these calculations. In Equation 2: /E = 0.3/30x106 = 1x10-8 R = 4.5/3.958 = 1.1369 (tubing OD / ID) R2 = 1.2926 = 0 (ignore flowing friction) For the landing condition: (tubing landed with water in hole) i = o = 63/1728 = 0.0365 lbs/in3 pis = pos = 0 psi (atmospheric pressure) For the producing condition: o = 53/1728 0.0365 (packer fluid is diesel and tubing was landed in water) = 0.0307 0.0365 = -0.0058
Average tubing fluid density = (1200 300) / 6579 = 0.137 psi/ft x 144 = 19.7 pcf i = 19.7/1728 0.0365 (tubing was landed in water and produced fluid is 19.7 pcf) = -0.0251 pos = 0 (tubing was landed with atmospheric pressure on the TCA, zero TCA pressure during production) pis = 300 0 (tubing landed with atmospheric pressure on the tubing, producing at 300 psi FWHP) L3 = -(1x10-8 x ((-0.0251 - 1.2926 x -0.0058 )/ 0.2926) x 789482) -(2x10-8 x ((300 - 1.2926 x 0)/0.2926) x 78948) = (3.75) - (1.62) = +2.13" Ballooning Calculations Production In Equations 3 and 4: Ai = ( x 3.9582)/4 = 12.3042 inches Ao = ( x 4.52)/4 = 15.9042 inches As = 15.904 - 12.304 = 3.6002 inches Ap = ( x 4.02)/4 = 12.5662 inches Ap - Ai = 12.566 - 12.304 = 0.262 Ap - Ao = 12.566 - 15.904 = -3.338 L/(E x As) = 78948/(30x106 x 3.600) = 7.31x10-4 For the landing condition: pi = po = 63/144 x 6579 = 2878 psi (zero TCA pressure during landing, water in hole) For the producing condition: pi = 19.7/144 x 6579 + 300 = 1200 psi (use 19.7 pcf fluid with 300 psi FWHP) po = 53/144 x 6579 + 0 = 2421 psi (diesel packer fluid with zero TCA pressure) pi = 1200 2878 = -1678 psi po = 2421 2878 = -457 Fa = 0.262 x -1678 - -3.338 x -457 = -1965 lbs L1 = -7.31x10-4 x -1965 = +1.44" Piston effect calculations Production In Equations 6, 7 and 8 for the producing condition: Ws = 12.8/12 = 1.067 lb/inch Ai = ( x 3.9582)/4 = 12.3042 inches
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Ao = ( x 4.52)/4 = 15.9042 inches W = 1.067 + 0.0114 x 12.304 - 0.0307 x 15.904 = 0.719 lbs/inch Ap = ( x 4.02)/4 = 12.5662 inches pi = 19.7/144 x 6579 + 300 = 1200 psi (use 19.7 pcf fluid with 300 psi FWHP) po = 53/144 x 6579 + 0 = 2421 psi (diesel packer fluid with zero TCA pressure) Ff = 12.566 x (1200 - 2421) = -15343 lbs (Ff is negative, there is no buckling) n = -15343 / 0.719 = -21339" (neutral point is negative, i.e. below the packer) The neutral point is below the packer, and the fictitious force is negative there is no buckling. Neutral point and bucking calculations Production From the proceeding calculations: L1 = +1.44" (piston) L2 = 0 (buckling) L3 = +2.13" (reverse ballooning) L4 = +35.41" (temperature) L = +39.0 (total length change is positive tubing is lengthened) Total Length Change Producing Result: The piston effect is small and is positive (it lengthens the tubing). Explanation: The pressures acting in the annulus while producing are identical to the scale inhibitor squeeze. The reduced pressure in the tubing during producing also causes a tubing lengthening so the piston effect, although still small, is larger now than during the scale inhibitor job. Result: Buckling is zero. Explanation: Whenever the pressure in the annulus at the packer is greater than the pressure in the tubing, no buckling is expected. Result: Ballooning is positive. Explanation: Reduced pressure in the tubing leads to reverse ballooning, which causes the tubing
to lengthen. Result: Temperature has a large effect and is positive. Explanation: Once again it is easy to explain the change in length due to temperature; steel expands when heated. The calculations show that tubing will lengthen by 39" when the well is on production, but the tubing space out is only 36". The packer will prevent the tubing from lengthening more than 36" and the 3" of calculated growth will be converted into a packer-to-tubing force. In the next section we will discuss how to calculate this force.
Wells With Multiple Sections

In the example well there is one size of tubing and one size of casing, but many wells have more than one size of tubing and casing. For these wells the length change equations have to be applied to each section separately and the total length change is the sum of the length change for each section. A change in casing size has to be considered a separate section because the buckling equation includes the term for radial clearance between the tubing OD and the casing ID. In most Arab-D wells with 4-1/2" tubing there are a few joints of 3-1/2" tubing just above the packer. In addition, the 7" casing in many Arab-D wells is not extended to surface so there is a 7" liner top and then 9-5/8" casing to surface. In such a well, section 1 is 3-1/2" tubing in 7" casing, section 2 is 4-1/2" tubing in 7" casing, and section 3 is 4-1/2" tubing in 9-5/8" casing. When calculating length changes in multiple section wells, the following rules apply: 1. The temperature and ballooning effects in one section of the well do not influence the other sections. Average temperature is calculated for each section and equation 1 is applied. For ballooning, equation 2 is applied to each section using the density change in the annulus and in the tubing
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for each section and the pressure at the top of each section. 2. Calculating the length change due to the piston effect must start from the packer and proceed upward. Equation 3 is applied to each section using the piston force at the bottom of the section. Equation 4 is used to calculate the piston force at the packer. At the bottom of each subsequent section the piston force is equal to the piston force at the bottom of the previous section minus the air weight of the tubing in the previous section. If there is a change in tubing size, equation 5 is used to calculate the piston force associated with the tubing crossover. The result of equation 5 is added to the piston force left over from the previous section. 3. Calculating the length change due to buckling also starts from the packer and proceeds upward. Equation 8 is used to calculate the fictitious force at the packer. The fictitious force at the bottom of each subsequent section is calculated by subtracting the apparent tubing weight (equation 7) from fictitious force left over from the previous section. For each section equation 6 is used to determine the position of the neutral point, then the appropriate buckling equation (9 or 10) is used to calculate the buckling in the section. The calculated length changes for short sections of tubing are insignificant, especially when you consider that the major length change is due to temperature, for which tubing or casing size are not a factor. If you are only concerned with calculating length change, then a few joints of tubing or a short length of a different casing ID can be safely ignored. This is not true when you calculate the forces and stresses acting on the tubing. When this kind of analysis is being done, then all changes in tubing size need to be accounted for.
Effect of Well Depth On Tubing Length Changes It is evident from equations 1, 2 and 3 that tubing length change is more significant in deeper wells because the length change is proportional to the length of the tubing string. Buckling calculated using equation 9 (neutral point is within the string) is not proportional to tubing length, whereas when the tubing is wholly buckled, length change in equation 10 is proportional to tubing length. The piston and fictitious forces are a function of the pressure differential between the annulus and the tubing. Therefore, these forces are not a direct function of depth. However, if there is a difference in density between the annulus and the tubing, which there usually is, this leads to increased pressure differential between the annulus and the tubing with greater depths, leading to larger piston and fictitious forces. Reservoir pressure and temperature are a function of depth, which leads to higher wellhead pressure and temperature, respectively. Taking all these factors into consideration, engineers must do a more careful tubing analysis when dealing with deeper wells. Effect of Well Deviations On Tubing Length Changes Every year more of Saudi Aramcos wells are drilled as horizontal or highly deviated wells. The sample calculations presented so far have assumed the well being analyzed is vertical. Examination of the equations for the temperature, ballooning and piston length changes indicate that these equations could be used as is for deviated wells. Care would need to be taken to use the true vertical depth (TVD) for calculating pressures, while the measured depth would be used for the length of the tubing.
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In a deviated well the buckling equations presented here are not applicable. In a vertical well the tubing will buckle into a helix when a force is applied to the lower end or the fictitious force is applied due to an increase in tubing pressure. In a deviated well, gravity will force the tubing to buckle into a sinusoidal shape first, then as the force applied becomes greater the tubing will buckle into a helix. In a multiple section well the fictitious and piston forces at the packer are the same as for a vertical
well (taking into account that pressure is a function of TVD). As stated earlier, the fictitious and piston forces are reduced for subsequent sections by subtracting the apparent tubing weight and air weight, respectively (the piston force will also include forces generated at tubing crossovers). In a deviated well the reduction in the fictitious and piston forces has to include the effect of hole angle on the gravity induced forces and friction between the tubing and casing. Detailed analysis of these factors is beyond the scope of this lesson.
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EXERCISE 3
1. Which statements are usually true about tubing length changes during an oil production condition? a. The temperature effect is positive (causes an increase in tubing length) b. The ballooning effect is positive (causes an increase in tubing length) c. Piston effect can be positive or negative d. Buckling is zero e. All of the above f. None of the above 2. (TRUE/FALSE) When a well is producing oil or gas the average temperature of the tubing can be accurately calculated by taking the average of the reservoir temperature and the flowing wellhead temperature? Why can the FBHP (at the packer) and the FWHP be used to calculate the tubing fluid density during the production case? a. Piston effect is insignificant when the well is on production b. Buckling is usually zero when the well is on production c. The average fluid density in the tubing is an accurate enough estimate for tubing movement calculations 4. Which tubing length change effects need special attention in multiple section wells (wells with more than one tubing or casing size)? a. Temperature and ballooning b. Piston and buckling c. All of the above d. None of the above 5. In a multiple section well, the fictitious force at the top of section 1 is _______? a. The fictitious force at the packer less the air weight of the tubing in section 1 b. The piston force at the packer less the air weight of the tubing in section 1 c. The fictitious force at the packer less the apparent weight of the tubing in section 1
3.
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6.
Length changes in deep wells are greater than for more shallow wells because? a. Tubing length change is a function of tubing length for temperature, ballooning and piston effects b. Bottom hole pressures are higher in deeper wells c. The density difference between the tubing-casing annulus and the tubing leads to higher differential pressures at greater depths d. Higher reservoir pressures and temperatures lead to higher wellhead pressures and temperatures e. a, c and d
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Chapter 3 - Calculating Forces Acting on the Tubing and Packer

So far the discussion has been about tubing length changes due to changes in temperature and pressure between the tubing landing condition and a well operating condition such as producing or pumping a scale inhibitor job. If the well you are dealing with is equipped with a long enough spacer bar and the tubing was landed with enough pick up, then we could proceed to calculate the stresses in the tubing based on the forces induced by the applied pressure. In many well completions the calculated length changes do not actually occur because the packer limits the tubing motion by applying an axial force to the tubing. Instead of thinking about real length changes we have to think about length changes that would have occurred had the packer not been there. We must also keep in mind that without the packer the length change calculations are meaningless. The equations used for calculating the buckling and piston effects assume the tubing is sealed in a packer. and is a compressive force (Figure 4, b). Now lets flow a hot fluid through the tubing, the increase in temperature will cause the tubing to lengthen. Suppose that the tubing was landed on a packer, which did not allow any tubing length increase. To prevent the length increase, the packer must apply an axial force to the tubing (Figure 4, c) that will shorten the tubing (by Hookes law and buckling) the same amount that the temperature change lengthened the tubing. Axial force is also created in the tubing by differential pressures acting on tubing cross-sectional area changes. Even in a simple well with only one tubing size, there is always a change in tubing ID and OD at the packer. In summary, to determine the axial forces in the tubing requires calculating the effects of gravity, buoyancy, pressure and the packer-to-tubing force. The first thing you may wonder is why it is called the packer-to-tubing rather than the tubing-to-packer force. After all, the packer is fixed while the tubing is changing length, so wouldnt it make more sense to say the tubing is acting on the packer? Yes it would, except that to explain how to calculate the force it is much better to call it the packer-to-tubing force. For packers that are not latched, if the tubing is landed in the neutral position (no force on the packer and no pickup above the packer) and the tubing becomes shorter, there is no packer-to-tubing force. Packers with a latch mechanism, however, will apply a tensile force to the tubing in this case. Again assume that the tubing is landed in neutral, but now the tubing is heated up so it tries to elongate. The tubing cannot lengthen because the packer is a restraint. Now pretend that the packer is moved down the hole so the tubing is allowed to lengthen and it is not touching the packer. Next, move the packer back up the hole to its original position. To move the packer a force will be exerted on the tubing that will cause the tubing to shorten according to Hookes law (Equation 4) and the appropriate buckling equation (either Equation 9 or 10 depending on the location of the neutral point). The mechanical
Figure 4: Axial forces in the tubing string. To understand the axial forces acting on the tubing lets assume that tubing is run into a perfectly vertical well with the well bore empty. The only force acting on the tubing is gravity. At the bottom of the tubing the axial force is zero. At the top of the tubing the axial force is equal to the weight of the tubing string and the force is a tensile force (Figure 4, a). Circulating the well to fluid will decrease the axial force at surface by an amount equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the tubing. This same buoyant force now acts on the bottom of the tubing
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force required to shorten the tubing is called the packer-to-tubing force. As you may suspect, equations 4, 9 and 10 can be rearranged to calculate the force required to create the length change. When calculating the packer-to-tubing force the landing mode (L5) must be accounted for. If the tubing is landed with weight on the packer the tubing is shortened by buckling and Hookes law (Equations 9 and 4, with signs reversed). The slack-off force, FL, is used in place of Fa in Equation 4 and Ff in Equation 9. If the tubing is picked up above the packer, then L5 is set equal to the pickup distance and is negative. For the case of a slack-off landing mode
L5 =
L F L r2 F 2 L + . E As 8EIW
(11)
L5 = landing mode length As = cross-sectional area of the tubing wall E = Youngs modulus (for steel, E=30x106 psi) FL = landing mode force I = moment of inertia of tubing cross-section: I=/64(OD4-ID4) L = length of tubing r = tubing to casing radial clearance W = apparent weight of tubing When using a latched packer and landing the tubing in tension, the buckling term (second term) of Equation 11 can be ignored. The rig crew may report the slack-off as a length not a force, in which case Equation 11 is not needed. The landing mode, L5, is added to the sum of the four length changes, L, (L=L1+L2+L3+L4) to get the final length change L6. If L6 is 0 then there is no packer-to-tubing force. If L6 is positive then the movement cannot take place, so a packerto-tubing force, Fp, develops. If L6 is negative and the seals are not stuck and the packer is not a latch type, then there is no packer-to-tubing force; L6 is the distance from the locator sub to the packer or PBR. The packer-to-tubing force, Fp, is the force required to induce a length change equal in magni-
tude to L6 and opposite in sign. This length change is denoted as Lp. If no buckling is involved Fp can be calculated with Hookes law. If the tubing is buckled then a more complex analysis is required. To be on the safe side, Hammerlindl recommends using the complex method for all cases. I will present the method from Hammerlindl1 without going into detail about why it works. Suffice to say that this method is called superposition, which means that to calculate what we really want we first calculate something else. In this case the something else is the fictitious length change Lf. This fictitious number, appropriately enough, is calculated using the fictitious force Ff.. Lf has no physical meaning, it is simply a means to calculate the packer-to-tubing force. Three different equations are used depending on the following rules: if Ff > 0 and n < L then
Lf =-
L F f r 2 F 2f , E As 8EIW
(12)
if Ff > 0 and n >= L then
Lf =-
LFf E As
2 2 f
r F LW 8EIW Ff
if Ff <= 0 then
LW , 2 F f
(13)
Lf =-
LFf . E As
(14)
Lf = hypothetical length change due to fictitious force As = cross-sectional area of the tubing wall E = Youngs modulus (for steel, E=30x106 psi) Ff = fictitious force I = moment of inertia of tubing cross-section: I=/64(OD4-ID4) L = length of tubing r = tubing to casing radial clearance
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W = apparent weight of tubing Equation 6 is used to calculate n. After obtaining Lf another fictitious number must be determined, which is
n=
Ff W
(18)
L*f = L f + L p .
(15)
to calculate n. If n L (the entire tubing string is buckled) then you have the wrong Ff* and
Lf* = hypothetical length change due to mechanical force Lf = hypothetical length change due to fictitious force Lp = length change needed to bring the tubing end to the packer The next step is to calculate Ff*, which is the buckling force in the tubing immediately above the packer and includes the packer-to-tubing force as well as the Ff calculated with Equation 8. Ff* is calculated using Equations 12, 13 and 14 rearranged to solve for force. To use the equations apply these rules: if Lf* is positive
L*f - r L 8EI . * Ff= L r2 L E As 4EI
(19)
With Ff* in hand, Fp can be easily calculated because Ff*=Ff + Fp. Also, Fa*=Fa + Fp so now we can calculate Fa*, which is the axial force in the tubing just above the packer. Fa is calculated for the final condition using Equation 4 rewritten as
F a = ( A p - Ai ) pi - ( A p - Ao ) p o . (20)
Fa = actual pressure force at lower end of the tubing pi = pressure in the tubing at the packer po = pressure in the annulus at the packer Fa* and Ff* are used to calculate the triaxial stresses in the tubing as will be shown in the next section. The total force on the packer, Ftp, is the sum of Fp and the pressure differential force acting on the packer, that is
F =-
* f
L*f E As , L
(16)
Ff* = fictitious force with packer restraint if L * is negative

f
L L r 2 L*f E As E As 2EIW * . (17) Ff= 2 r 4EIW

Hammerlindl makes no comment concerning the use of the sign in Equation 17. However, I have found that using the negative sign always gives a value for Ff* that is too large to be reasonable. I recommend doing the calculations with both signs and choosing the more realistic value. If you used Equation 17, then plug Ff* into
F tp = F p + ( po - pi ) ( Ac - A p ) .
Ftp = total packer load Fp = packer-to-tubing force Ac = area corresponding to casing ID
(21)
In a PBR completion there is no pressure differential force so Equation 21 does not apply. Since the PBR is part of a liner cemented in the well the PBR is always at least as strong as the tubing that is stung into it. For PBR completions the packer-totubing force is only required for calculating the axial and buckling forces (Fa* and Ff*) and the triaxial stresses.
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Most tubing movement analysis includes the possibility that the packer seals would stick. If a length change calculation determined that the tubing was above the packer (L6 < 0) during some condition, then the force required to pull the tubing down to the packer was calculated. The packer-to-tubing force presents a problem in combination completions because the method used for the simple wells is not applicable. Since Lp is counteracted by Fp, equations similar to Equations 12, 13 and 14 can be used to calculate a trial Lp (replace Lf with Lp) from a guess of Fp. The estimates of Lp are compared to the actual value and Fp is adjusted, if necessary, to bring the estimated Lp in line with the actual value. Triaxial stresses are calculated in combination completions the same as in simple wells. Stresses are calculated at the bottom of each section and at the wellhead. As an example of packer-to-tubing force we will continue our analysis of the scale inhibitor squeeze on the Arab-D well. When we calculated the tubing movement during the production case we found that the tubing lengthened by 39" but the tubing space out was 36". Therefore, that last 3" of elongation could not actually occur, but was converted into a packer-to-tubing force. With only 3" of movement converted to force that would be a very small force and would certainly not cause any concern. Lets assume that the well was on production for several months. During that time the no-go or locator sub was bottomed out on top of the packer. It is possible that the seals could stick in that position. We will calculate the packer-to-tubing force during the scale inhibitor squeeze, assuming that the seals are stuck with the no-go on the packer. There are two ways that the seals can stick in a packer completion. One way is that the seals can be welded into place in the seal bore through heat and chemical reaction. With continuously improving polymers used as seal elements this problem has been reduced over the years, but it is still a possibility especially if the completion is quite old. The other way that seals can stick is that debris in the tubing-casing annulus can settle out on top of the packer.
It is possible to determine if the packer seals on an oil producer are stuck or free. After a well has been on production for some period of time, shut in the well and run a casing collar locator (CCL) from the bottom of the packer tailpipe through the packer and into the tubing. Make a number of passes and compare them to ensure that all the bottom hole equipment is indicated on the CCL strip. Leave the well shut in for several hours and rerun the CCL. During the shut-in period the tubing will cool off and become shorter. By overlaying the CCL strips from the hot well and the cooler well any changes in the relative position of the bottom hole equipment will be apparent. If there is no change in the positions than the seals are stuck. The landing mode for the example wells is: L5 = -36" L = (+0.8) + (-0.2) + (-9.7) + (-36.8) = -45.9" (from scale inhibitor squeeze example) L6 = -36 + (-45.9) = -81.9" (distance from tubing bottom to packer) Assume the seals are stuck with the locator sub on the packer: Lp = - (-81.9) = 81.9" (packer-to-tubing force must lengthen tubing) Since n < L and Ff > 0 Equation 12 applies: (n from buckling calculation Equation 6, and Ff from Equation 8) Lf = - (78948 x 24592)/(30x106 x 3.600) (0.8882 x 245922)/(8 x 30x106 x 8.082 x 1.028) = - 17.98 - 0.239 = -18.22 In Equation 15: Lf* = -18.22 + 81.9 = 63.68 Since Lf* > 0 Equation 16 applies: Ff* = - (63.68 x 30x106 x 3.600)/78948 = -87114 lbs Since Ff* = Ff + Fp Fp = -87114 - 24592 = -111706 lbs Now we calculate the axial force in the tubing. In Equation 20: Fa = (12.566 12.304) x 4378 (12.566 15.904) x 2421= 9228 lbs Since Fa* = Fa + Fp
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Fa* = -111706 + 9228 = -102478 lbs Use Equation 21 to calculate the total packer load: Ac = x 6.2762 / 4 = 30.935 in2 Ftp = -111706 + (2421 - 4378) (30.935 12.566) = -147654 lbs Packer-to-tubing force calculations Inhibitor Squeeze Job It is useful to explain the results of the calculations to check that the answers are realistic. Result: Lp is positive. Lp is the length change needed to bring the tubing end to the packer. Explanation: Positive L p means that the packer-to-tubing force will have to lengthen the tubing (tubing lengthening is positive). The tubing was spaced out with the locator sub 36" above the packer. During the scale inhibitor squeeze job the tubing is shortened (mostly due to cooling the tubing). This means that the locator sub will move further above the packer ensuring that Lp is positive. Result: Fp (the packer-to-tubing force) is negative. In our sign convention a negative force is a tensile force, which will cause a tubing elongation. Explanation: The packer slips are resisting a force trying to move the packer up the hole. Result: Fa* (the axial force in the tubing just above the packer) is negative, but is smaller than the packer-to-tubing force. Explanation: The force applied to the tubing by the packer with stuck seals can be considered as acting in the spacer bar. There is always a change in ID and OD going from the seals (packer ID) to the tubing. This change in dimensions provides a piston area for fluid pressure to act on. In our example, the piston area creates a compressive force at the bottom of the tubing, which when added to the tensile packer-to-tubing force reduces the tensile axial force. Result: Ftp (the total packer load) is negative
and is larger than the packer-to-tubing force. Explanation: During a pumping operation on a well the tubing pressure will usually be higher than the annulus pressure, as it is in our example. The lower pressure above the packer (TCA pressure) and the higher pressure below the packer (tubing pressure) causes an upward force on the packer. The above discussion should highlight one important point. When we did the tubing movement calculations we could safely ignore the length changes in the jewelry between the seals and the tubing. Even if this equipment includes a few joints of tubing of a different size, the length changes are insignificant compared to the length change in 6000' of tubing. When examining the forces acting on the tubing and packer, we cannot ignore the equipment below the tubing. As in our example, axial force can be higher in the spacer bar than in the tubing just above the spacer bar. In the next section we calculate stresses in the tubing, which will tell us whether our planned operation will exceed the yield strength of the tubing. If the tubing being analyzed has a joint yield strength equal to the tubing body yield strength then the triaxial stress calculation will tell us what we need to know. Some Arab-D wells were completed with ST&C 4-1/2" pipe. This pipe does not have a joint yield equal to body yield strength. For J-55, ST&C, 4-1/2", 12.8 lb/ft the joint yield is 143,500 lbs whereas the body yield is 198,000 lbs (55,000 x cross sectional area of steel). In our example the axial force in the tubing above the packer is -102,478 lbs. At the wellhead this tension will be increased by the air weight of the tubing string (6,579 x 12.8 = 84,211) and will be -186,689 lbs, which is over the joint yield strength.
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Calculating Triaxial Stress

o=
The combination of axial force and pressure force generates axial stress, radial stress and tangential stress in the tubing. Triaxial stress refers to these three stresses combined. The triaxial tubing stress at the outer wall during the final well conditions is
F L + Dr F L . 4I As
(24)
FL = landing mode force In the reference papers these three equations are written as inequalities with respect to the tubing yield strength. This is because the equations are only valid for elastic deformations. When the yield strength is exceeded, the tubing will deform as a plastic and will not return to its original shape. In that case, the tubing will burst, stretch or corkscrew. The stress equations need some explanations for their use. Due to the sign before the final term in Equations 22 and 23, there are actually four stresses calculated at each point in the well. They are at the inner and outer wall (some references call this inner and outer fiber) of the tube and at the inner and outer radius of a bend. If the tubing is not buckled (Ff*<=0) then of course there is no bend. In that case, Ff* is set to zero and the term disappears. If Ff*>0 then the correct stress is the maximum of the o and i values. In Equation 24, if a latched packer is used and the tubing is landed in tension (FL<0) the second term disappears. The Fa* and Ff* terms discussed above are for the tubing immediately above the packer. For a simple completion the only other point of interest for stress calculations is at the wellhead. The axial force in the tubing at surface, Fas, is calculated by subtracting the air weight of the tubing from Fa*, that is
* F as = F a - L W s .
o=
pi - p o 3 2-1 R
2
(22)
* a 2
pi - R po F Dr * + + Ff 2 As 4I R -1
and at the inner wall
R 2 ( pi - p o ) 3 2 R -1
i=
2 Dr * . (23) p - 2p Ff R o F* + i 2 + a 4I R R -1 As
i = stress at inner wall of tubing o = stress at outer wall of tubing As = cross-sectional area of the tubing wall D = OD of the tubing Fa* = actual force with packer restraint Ff* = fictitious force with packer restraint I = moment of inertia of tubing cross-section: I=/64(OD4-ID4) pi = pressure in the tubing at the packer po = pressure in the annulus at the packer R = OD/ID ratio of tubing r = tubing to casing radial clearance During the landing condition, when pressures inside and outside the tubing are equal, only the stress at the outer wall is relevant so
(25)
Fas = axial force in tubing at surface Fa* = actual force with packer restraint Ws = average weight of tubing per unit length (including couplings) If, from Equation 18, n >= L then the tubing is buckled at the wellhead and the fictitious force at surface is
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* F fs = F f - LW .
(26)
Ffs = fictitious force at surface Ff* = fictitious force with packer restraint W = apparent weight of tubing To calculate the stress at the wellhead use Equations 22 and 23 replacing Fa* with Fas, Ff* with Ffs, pi with the WHP and po with the TCAP. The triaxial stress calculated with these equations will give an indication whether the tubing will fail due to burst, tension or buckling, but the equations are optimistic with respect to collapse. Also, for non-upset API tubing, such as 4, ST&C, the joint yield strength is less than the strength calculated from the minimum yield. For this type of tubing the value of Fas must be compared to the joint yield strength in a Halliburton handbook or other similar reference. The last term in both equations shows that stress is directly proportional to the tubing-casing radial clearance and the fictitious and actual forces. Small tubing in large casing will be subjected to higher bending stresses than if the tubing is a closer fit in the casing. If small tubing must be used in large casing it is imperative to minimize the pressureinduced forces by choosing a packer with a bore (or seal diameter) that is close to the ID and OD of the tubing. All the equations and discussions in this lesson assume a vertical well. In a deviated or horizontal well stress due to tubing bending at well doglegs needs to be accounted for. In modern computer programs such as WellCat, a directional survey can be included as part of the input data. The program will use the directional survey to calculate the bending stresses. Triaxial stresses are calculated in combination completions the same as in simple wells. Stresses are calculated at the bottom of each section and at the wellhead. To continue with the analysis of the scale inhibitor squeeze job we will calculate the triaxial stress in the tubing above the packer and at the wellhead.
Since Ff* < 0 the tubing is not buckled. Use Equations 22 and 23 ignoring the final term: R2 - 1 = 1.293 - 1 = 0.293 o = (3 x ((4378 - 2421)/0.293)2 + ((4378 1.293 x 2421)/0.293 + -102478/3.600)2) = (3 x 66792 + (4258 + -28466)2) = 26830 psi i = (3 x ((1.293 x (4378 - 2421))/0.293)2 + (24208)2) = (3 x (8636)2 + (-24208)2) = 28456 psi (maximum stress at bottom) In Equation 25: Fas = -102478 - 6579 x 12.8 = -186689 lbs Use Equations 22 and 23 ignoring the final term: o = (3 x ((1500 - 0)/0.293)2 + ((1500 - 1.293 x 0)/0.293 + -186689/3.600)2) = (3 x 51192 + (5119 + -51858)2) = 47573 psi i = (3 x ((1.293 x (1500 - 0))/0.293)2 + (5119 + -51858)2) = (3 x (6619)2 + (-46739)2) = 48125 psi (maximum stress at top) Calculate triaxial stress Inhibitor Squeeze Job Now that we have values for triaxial stress in the tubing, what decision can be made? Is it safe to perform the scale inhibitor job as planned, if the seals are stuck? To make this decision we need to know what design factors to use. The design factor is a value that is divided into the pipe rating to determine the actual operating limit of the pipe. The purpose of design factors is to ensure that tubing is selected and used in a way that prevents failure. Selection of the design factor values must: 1. Ensure that service loads do not exceed mill test loads 2. Allow for unexpected events 3. Allow for features not included in the analysis, such as corrosion 4. Account for the consequences of failure. In Saudi Aramco when designing well tubulars
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the following design factors are used: burst 1.1, collapse 1.0, axial force 1.3, and triaxial stress 1.25. For the J-55 tubing in our example the yield rating of 55,000 psi is reduced to 55,000 / 1.25 = 44,000 psi. At surface while pumping the scale inhibitor the triaxial stress in the tubing is 48,125 psi, exceeding the limit. The axial force rating for the tubing is 198,000 lbs. Applying the axial force design factor give 198,000 / 1.3 = 152,308 lbs, which is less than the axial force in the tubing at the wellhead where Fas = -186,689 lbs. The design of the scale inhibitor job must be reconsidered, if the
packer seals are stuck. One possible solution would be to heat the treating fluid, which would reduce length changes in the tubing. Although a triaxial stress analysis theoretically accounts for all modes of tubing failure, before doing the detailed analysis the pressure differentials across the various sizes of pipe in the well should be determined. Using these values and the published burst and collapse ratings, adjusted with applicable design factors, the pressure assumptions are checked to ensure that the tubing and casing will not burst or collapse.
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EXERCISE 4
1. (TRUE/FALSE) In a vertical well, tubing buoyancy is a concentrated compressive force acting on the bottom of the tubing? Which statement describes the packer-to-tubing force? a. Force applied to the casing through the packer slips that resists movement of the packer. b. Force that holds the tubing from falling to the bottom of the well. c. Force that causes tubing to lengthen or shorten. d. Force that the packer applies to the tubing to prevent elongation or shortening when the packer configuration prevents this change of length. e. Force caused by the pressure differential across the packer. 3. What type of Arab-D completion could be in danger of having stuck seals? a. Open hole completions b. Power water injectors c. Recently completed wells d. Older completions 4. One source of confusion when analyzing forces on the tubing and packer is that the packer-to-tubing force and the axial force in the tubing immediately above the packer are not the same. What accounts for this difference _____? a. Gravity b. Pressure forces acting on changes in diameter between the tubing and the seal diameter c. Force equations are only approximate 5. (TRUE/FALSE) If you calculate the triaxial stress in the tubing, you have checked all possible failure modes?
2.
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References
1. Hammerlindl, D.J.: Movement, Forces and Stresses Associated With Combination Tubing Strings Sealed in Packers, J. Pet Tech. (Feb. 1977) 195-208. 2. Hammerlindl, D.J.: Basic Fluid and Pressure Forces on Oil Well Tubulars, J. Pet. Tech. (Jan. 1980) 153-159.
Nomenclature:
= coefficient of thermal expansion (for steel, =6.9x10-6/degree F) = pressure drop in tubing per unit length due to fluid flow = Poissons ratio (for steel, ~0.3) i = density of liquid in the tubing o = density of liquid in the annulus i = stress at inner wall of tubing o = stress at outer wall of tubing i = change in density of liquid in the tubing o = change in density of liquid in the annulus Fa = change in actual force at the lower end of the tubing L = length change of the tubing due to changes in temperature and pressure L1 = length change of the tubing due to Hookes law L2 = length change of the tubing due to helical buckling L3 = length change of the tubing due to ballooning L4 = length change of the tubing due to temperature change L5 = landing mode length L6 = landing mode length plus total length change due to temperature and pressure Lf = hypothetical length change due to fictitious force Lf* = hypothetical length change due to mechanical force Lp = length change needed to bring the tubing end to the packer pi = change in tubing pressure at the packer pis = change in surface tubing pressure po = change in annulus pressure at the packer pos = change in surface annulus pressure T = change in average tubing temperature Ac = area corresponding to casing ID Ai = area corresponding to tubing ID Ai1 = area corresponding to tubing ID in section 1 Ao = area corresponding to tubing OD Ao1 = area corresponding to tubing OD in section 1 Ap = area corresponding to seal diameter As = cross-sectional area of the tubing wall D = OD of the tubing E = Youngs modulus (for steel, E=30x106 psi) Fa = actual pressure force at lower end of the tubing / F a2 = actual pressure force at the lower end of section 2 uncorrected for tubing weight Fa* = actual force with packer restraint Fas = axial force in tubing at surface Ff = fictitious force Ff* = fictitious force with packer restraint Ffs = fictitious force at surface FL = landing mode force Fp = packer-to-tubing force Ftp = total packer load
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I = moment of inertia of tubing cross-section: I=/64(OD4-ID4) L = length of tubing pi = pressure in the tubing at the packer pi1 = pressure in the tubing at the bottom of section 1 pis = pressure in the tubing at surface po = pressure in the annulus at the packer po1 = pressure in the annulus at the bottom of section 1 pos = pressure in the annulus at surface
R = OD/ID ratio of tubing r = tubing to casing radial clearance Tf = temperature of treating fluids Ttf = average final tubing temperature Tti = average initial tubing temperature W = apparent weight of tubing Wf = total mass of treating fluids Ws = average weight of tubing per unit length (including couplings) Wt = total mass of tubing
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EXERCISE ANSWER KEY

Exercise 1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Exercise 2 1. 2. 3. 4. Exercise 3 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Exercise 4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. TRUE d. d. b. FALSE e. FALSE c. c. c. e. c. c. c. c. a. f. d. d. FALSE (If the fictitious force is negative there will be no buckling.)
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Tubing Movement
MODULE - PE 200
SAND CONTROL
Production Engineering School SAND CONTROL PE 201
Saudi Aramco
160
LESSON OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to understand the following: The source and causes of sand production in sandstone reservoirs The various sand control techniques, and candidate selection factors to be considered when developing sand control completion designs Wellbore damage and its impact on sand production tendencies Sand control in cased hole completions, gravel packing, screen selection, frac & packs, and screenless sand control Importance of perforation techniques, carrier fluids and fluid loss control Open hole sand control techniques Horizontal well gravel packing and advanced screen systems for horizontal wells.
Sand Control
MODULE: SAND CONTROL
161
Chapter 1 - Introduction Local Geological Overview

Saudi Aramco produces oil and gas from many different reservoirs. Currently, six reservoirs are known to have some sand production tendencies: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Wara Safaniya (Safaniya, Zuluf, Marjan, Khafji) Zubair Minjur Unayzah A (Hawtah, South Ghawar, Tinat, Waqr,) Jauf (Ghawar)
The stratigraphic column Figure 1 and the hydrocarbon map Figure 2 (areas enclosed by lines) show the reservoirs and fields that have known sand production problems. In addition, proppant flow back can be a problem in the Unayzah B and Qasim deep gas fracture treatments. Currently, sand control completions are implemented in the Unayzah A sands in the Hawtah field and in the Jauf and Unayzah fields in the South Ghawar field.
Radial Flow And Formation Damage

Introduction The completion phase of the well should begin when the drilling bit enters the targeted formation. This is especially true for openhole type completions where drilling and filter cake damage will not be by passed by the perforation process. Typical completion operations include: a) production tubing sizing, b) perforating, c) sand control design, d) acidizing, e) fracturing, f) artificial lift selection and design. The goal of these operations are to obtain a well with productivity that is not limited by the completion itself. While this sounds easy to accomplish, completion techniques are commonly used in many parts of the world that restrict the productivity of the well. A local example is the current completion designs in the Safaniya field where production rates are limited to control sand production.
Figure 1: Stratigraphic Column
Sand Control
162
Figure 2: Area Map
Sand Control
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The issue of productivity and skin damage are especially important in wells requiring sand control. Gravel packed wells are particularly sensitive to problems of extremely poor productivity if improper completion techniques are used. On the other hand, the implementation of recognized best practices will result in high productivity from gravel packed wells. The purpose of this lesson is to provide information on completion techniques for maximizing productivity and longevity of wells completed with sand control techniques. To achieve this purpose, the factors that can have a negative effect on the flow of fluids from a well should be understood. The nature of fluid flow towards a wellbore and a description of the potential restrictions to production are described in this chapter. Radial Flow The flow of fluids towards a well is governed by the principles of fluid flow through porous media. Darcys Law states that the flow of fluids through porous material is controlled by the pressure gradient from the formation to the wellbore, the viscosity of the flowing fluid, and the area available for flow in the formation. The relationship between pressure drop and flow rate is called permeability. The permeability of a formation is a measure of the available flow area within a given cross-sectional area of porous material. In linear flow, the flow area is constant, and therefore the pressure drop required
to induce a given flow rate is constant. However, fluids flowing toward a well are not in linear flow and are usually modeled more accurately as radial flow. Under radial flow conditions the area available for flow continuously decreases as the fluid gets nearer to the wellbore, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. As the flowing fluid approaches the wellbore, the decreasing area available for flow causes an increasing velocity of flow, with a corresponding increase in pressure drop. The equation below is Darcys Law for radial flow expressed in oilfield units. This equation can be used to examine the pressure changes surrounding a flowing well.
SL = SH
T% R UH OQ U NK L
where: pi = pressure at point of interest (psi) pe = pressure at drainage radius of well (psi) q = production rate (stock tank barrels of oil per day) Bo = formation volume factor of produced oil (reservoir barrels per stock tank barrel) = viscosity of produced fluids (centipoises) k = formation permeability (millidarcies) h = thickness of the reservoir (feet) re = drainage radius of well (feet) ri = radial distance from wellbore to the point of interest (feet)
Reservoir Thickness
Figure 1.1: Radial Flow Geometry
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Radial Distance (ft)
Radial Distance (ft)
Figure 1.2: Calculated pressure distribution around a 200 millidarcy oil well flowing at 5000 STB oil per day. Oil viscosity is 1.02 cp. The right hand graph is a detail of the left hand graph. The results of using this formula are illustrated in the graphs of Figure 1.2 for an oil well with a 200 millidarcy formation permeability that is flowing at 5000 stock tank barrels per day. The graph on the right is a detail plot of the left hand graph, and shows that the total pressure drop is equal to the reservoir pressure (approximately 2700 pounds per square inch), minus the pressure at the wellbore (approximately 2070 pounds per square inch), giving a total pressure loss across the area near the wellbore of 630 pounds per square inch. Notice that almost half of the 630 pounds per square inch of total pressure drop occurs within the 10 feet nearest the wellbore, and that more than 100 pounds per square inch of pressure drop occurs within a 1 foot radius of the wellbore. Near Wellbore Flow Restrictions Because most of the pressure drop takes place in the area very near the wellbore, this same area is where any additional restrictions to flow have the most detrimental effect. Two factors that affect the increase of this pressure drop are the amount of the
Figure 1.3: Additional Pressure Drop Associated With Increasing Depth of Damage
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permeability impairment, which is measured as a permeability reduction, and the radial thickness of the impaired or damaged area. Using the equation below to calculate the additional pressure drop associated with a near wellbore flow restriction, Figure 1.3 illustrates the additional pressure drop that is created by reducing the permeability surrounding a wellbore from 1000 millidarcies to 100 millidarcies. The different curves on this figure represent increasing radial distances of permeability damage ranging from 6 inches to 5 feet.
rs = radius of damage (feet) rw = radius of wellbore (feet) This plot indicates that, as expected, the total system pressure drop increases with increasing depth of damage. However, the plot also illustrates that the majority of the increase in pressure drop is within a foot or so of the wellbore. The other factor that determines the magnitude of damage is the permeability of the damaged zone. Figure 1.4 indicates the pressure drop increase associated with a damaged zone which has a radial depth of 2 feet. The damaged zone with a permeability of 100 millidarcies, 50 millidarcies and 25 millidarcies, which is equivalent to 10, 5 and 2.5 percent of the permeability of the virgin formation. Comparison of Figures 1.3 and 1.4 indicate that permeability impairment near the wellbore is more detrimental to well productivity. The impact of permeability impairment can be shown by a calculation of the damaged to non-damaged productivity of a well expressed as a ratio. This ratio is calculated as a function of the radial thickness of the damaged zone and the degree of permeability reduction by the following equation:
VNLQ
U T% N OQ NK N U
R V
where: pskin = pressure drop through damaged zone (psi) q = production rate (stock tank barrels of oil per day) Bo = formation volume factor of produced oil (reservoir barrels per stock tank barrel) = viscosity of produced fluids (centipoises) k = formation permeability (millidarcies) ks = damaged zone permeability (millidarcies) h = thickness of the reservoir (feet)

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Figure 1.4 Effects of near wellbore damage on productivity
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UH NV ORJ U NR -V Z = -R UH UV N V ORJ U + N ORJ U R V Z

where: Js = productivity index of damaged well (produced stock tank barrels per day per psi of drawdown) Jo = productivity index of undamaged well (produced stock tank barrels per day per psi of drawdown) ks = permeability of damaged zone (millidarcies) k o = permeability of undamaged formation (millidarcies) re = drainage radius of well (feet) rw = wellbore radius (feet) rs = damaged zone radius (feet) Figure 1.5 shows the results when this equation is plotted against the damaged zone radius for different degrees of damage. This figure further sup-
ports the critical influence of permeability reductions very close to the wellbore. The permeability impairment surrounding a well is called the skin factor, which is a dimensionless representation of the additional pressure drop across the near wellbore formation associated with the flowing of fluids through a near wellbore damaged zone. The following equation illustrates how the dimensionless skin factor relates to this increased pressure drop.
V=
NK3 T %
R
VNLQ
where: s = skin factor k = formation permeability (millidarcies) h = interval thickness (feet) Pskin = pressure drop through damaged zone (psi) q = flow rate (stock tank barrels per day) = fluid viscosity (centipoises) Bo = formation volume factor of produced oil (reservoir barrels per stock tank barrel) If the calculated skin number is positive, there is
Figure 1.5: Productivity Loss Caused by Formation Damage2
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an increased pressure drop around the well and the well is considered to be damaged. On the other hand, if a negative skin is calculated, there is a zone of increased permeability present, typical of a stimulated well. Skin factors can range from about -6 to any positive number. Skin factors from +25 to +50 in high permeability formations are not uncommon. Figure 1.6 is a good example of a rate impairment associated with positive completion skin for an oil well. The effect of formation damage can be approximated through the concept of flow efficiency. This is a measure of the relative percentage of the theoretical flow rate that can actually flow through a formation. The following equation presents an approximate method for calculating flow efficiency.
OQ UH U TV Z )( = = T V + U R H V + OQ Z

where: FE = flow efficiency (percent) qs = flow rate from damaged well (stock tank barrels per day) qo = hypothetical flow rate possible from undamaged well (stock tank barrels per day) re = drainage radius of well (feet) rw = wellbore radius (feet) s = skin factor
$ 3 , 2 LO * 2 5 : D WH U & X W N L V S H U X V V H U 3 H O R K P R W W R % 6 N LQ 6 N LQ 7 X E LQ J , Q WD N H LQ F K WR I W P G K I W

6 N LQ 6 N LQ
6 N LQ

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Figure 1.6
Production impact due to positive
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The approximation of 8 for the term ln(re/rw) results from the fact that the natural log of a large number divided by a small number is approximately 8. Based on this equation, a well with a skin of +20 will have a flow efficiency of only about 28 percent. Skin factor is only a relative measure of an additional pressure drop in the flowing system. Skin factor does not distinguish between a near wellbore severely damaged zone and a deeper moderately damaged zone. Potential Formation Damage Mechanisms Skin is strictly a measure of an excess pressure drop in the producing formation as fluids flow into a well. This excess pressure drop can occur from any one or several of a wide variety of causes. Various damage mechanisms can be classified in the following general categories:
tion. In addition, avoiding plugging of the sand control screens in a gravel pack completion are critical to a low skin completion. Methods to avoid plugging will be described later in this manual. Beyond taking steps to eliminate severe permeability reduction in the near wellbore area, the next step in a completion is to obtain the best possible communication of the wellbore with the virgin formation. Summary Reducing or eliminating near wellbore reductions in permeability are critical to the success of any well completion. Wells requiring sand control are especially susceptible to near wellbore damage since the primary technique for controlling sand production, gravel packing, requires the introduction of additional fluids and gravel pack sand into the near wellbore area. Furthermore, once a gravel pack is in place, opportunities to clean-up the near wellbore area by flowing the well, acidizing or reperforating are somewhat limited. Therefore, the best approach to a successful gravel pack completion is to ensure that minimal formation damage occurs from the moment the drill bit enters the pay zone until the well is brought on production. References 1. Baker Oil tools Completion Technologies for Unconsolidated Formations 2001. 2. Earlougher, R.C. Jr., Advances in Well Test Analysis, SPE Monograph Series, Volume 5, 1977. 3. Williams, B.B., Gidley, J.L. and Schechter, R.S., Acidizing Fundamental s, SPE Monograph Series,Volume 6, 1979. 4. Lee, W.J., Well Testing, SPE Textbook Series, Volume 1, 1982.
Drilling mud, cement and completion fluid filtrate

invasion Solids invasion Perforating damage Fines migration Swelling clays Asphaltene or paraffin deposition Scale precipitation Emulsions Reservoir compaction Relative permeability effects Effects of stimulation treatments.
The critical factor from a well completions standpoint is to limit, where possible, the creation of damage, especially severe plugging in the near wellbore area. This means avoiding plugging of the perforations in a cased-hole completion and avoiding plugging of the formation face in an open-hole comple-
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Chapter 2 - Reasons For Sand Control Introduction

Chapter 1 addressed radial flow through porous media and showed the nature of the pressure distribution around a producing well. Negative effects on productivity caused by flow restrictions in the near wellbore area have been described. With the concepts of radial flow and formation damage understood, the problems unique to unconsolidated formations can be explored. Reasons for implementing sand control downhole include: Avoiding failures of casing, slotted liners, production tubing, surface flowlines, chokes, and other equipment plus the need to reduce clean-out and disposal costs associated with sand cleanouts of tubing and surface equipment. Unconsolidated sandstones are most common in younger Tertiary sediments of the Miocene epoch. Notable examples of sand production problems exist in the US Gulf Coast, the Los Angeles basin, the Canadian Tar Sands, sandstones reservoirs in Indonesia, Nigeria, Trinidad, and Venezuela. Here in Saudi Arabia, sand production problems exist in much older sediments, as old as the Permian sands of the Unayzah A formation in Hawtah and southern area Ghawar fields. These sediments have become unconsolidated over time due to the low clay content in these reservoirs and because of the high stress contrast relative to overburden pressure. In some cases, early hydrocarbon migration may have prevented the precipitation of cementation materials usually present in sandstone reservoirs of this age. Sand production from unconsolidated formations may result in production loss caused by sand bridges in casing or tubing, casing or liner failures due to buckling and collapse, erosion / abrasion of downhole and surface equipment by sand laden fluids, and the increased cost associated with handing and disposing of produced solids. Surface equipment such as manifolds, separators and flowlines can accumulate sand and require cleaning out on a regular basis if sand production is not controlled downhole or with a surface wellhead de-sander vessel. In addition, if sand falls out in surface pipelines, corrosion inhibitor programs may become ineffective in protecting the bottom of the pipeline as sand will prohibit the inhibitor from contacting the pipeline wall. A worse problem can occur when a well produces at high rates with sand laden fluids. In this case, flowline elbows and surface chokes can be eroded and result in a dangerous surface leak. For Saudi Arabian offshore fields, sand production is kept below 6.5 lbs/1,000BOPD to avoid erosion problems. For the Saudi Aramco gas wells, the sand volume is kept below 0.05 lbs/MMSCFD to avoid erosion / corrosion problems with surface equipment. Sand Bridges A well sands up when bridges form in the casing or tubing and obstructs well flow. Sand can also build up in the casing covering the perforations and restrict flow. In these cases, the sand must be removed to restore well production. This is the case in many of the offshore Safaniya wells. This sand removal is usually performed using coiled tubing.
Figure 2.1: Casing Buckling Caused by Sand Production
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Erosion / Corrosion: Tubulars run across unconsolidated sand stones intervals frequently become eroded by the sand entrained in the produced fluids. Slotted liners can become washed out resulting in complete failure of the completion, blast joint set across perforation intervals become cut out, surface chokes cut out, even surface flowlines failures can occur. Figure 2.3 is a photograph of a section of screen exposed to a perforation that was producing sand. Figure 2.4 shows a choke that failed Figure 2.3: Screen Failure Due to Erosion by Formation Sand due to excessive erosion. If the erosion is severe or occurs over a sufficient length of Accumulation in Surface Equipment: time, complete failure of surface and/or downhole If the production velocity is great enough to carry equipment may occur, resulting in critical safety and sand up the tubing, the sand may become trapped in environmental problems as well as deferred producthe separator, heater treater, or production pipeline. tion. For some equipment failures, a rig workover If a large enough volume of sand becomes trapped may be required to repair the damage. in one of these areas, cleaning will be required to allow for efficient production of the well. To restore production, the well must be shut-in, the surface equipment opened, and the sand manually removed. In addition to the clean out cost, the cost of the deferred production must be considered. If a separator is partially filled with sand, the capacity of the separator to handle oil, gas and water is reduced. Casing and Liner Failures: Production of formation sand can result in casing or slotted liner failure in the production interval. In unconsolidated reservoirs, the production of formation sand may result in compaction of the sand in the near wellbore area subjecting the entire casing string to unusual load conditions.
Figure 2.4: Surface Choke Failure due to Erosion by Formation Sand
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Causes of Sand Production

Sand production is initiated when the forces acting to dislodge sand grains from the formation exceed the strength of the rock. The forces acting to dislodge sand grains included the mechanical stresses in the rock resulting from burial and the drag forces associated with fluid flow. Resisting forces include rock strength and capillary pressure forces. The strength of a sandstone is controlled by:
The amount and type of cementing material hold The frictional forces between grains Fluid pressure within the pores of the rock Capillary pressure forces.
In general, the compressive strength of a rock is primarily controlled by intergranular frictional forces. Therefore, the strength of the rock will increase as the confining stress on the rock increases. So what happens to the well to initiates sand production? The following list summarizes many of the factors that influence the tendency of a well to produce sand: ing the individual grains together
Frictional forces, cementing material, fluid pressure with in the pores, and capillary forces all act to resist grain movement cause the formations cementation materials to deteriorate should not be introduced into the well. Many common oilfield practices result in aggregating or initiating sand production. Examples include: Incompatible completion drilling fluids, brines or kill pills, pumping acid treatments, or bull-heading scale inhibitor squeezes. Sometimes the breakthrough of formation or injection water can cause the dissolution of some cementation material and initiate sand production. Performing SEM and X-ray diffraction analysis on formation core material can help identify the cementation materials present in the target formation. Once identified, lab testing can be performed to select appropriate drill-in, completion and stimulation fluids to minimize the impact on the natural cementation process within the formation. Reduction of Pore Pressure As mentioned previously, the pressure in the reservoir supports some of the weight of the overlying rock. As the reservoir pressure is depleted throughout the producing life of a well, some of the support for the overlying rock is removed. Lowering the reservoir pressure creates an increasing amount of stress on the formation sand grains. At some point, the formation sand grains may break loose from the matrix, or may be crushed, creating fines that are produced along with the well fluids.
Dissolution or swelling of cementation material Reduction in pore pressure throughout the life Production rate changes Reservoir fluid viscosity changes Increasing water production throughout the life
of a well. These factors can be categorized into rock strength effects and fluid flow effects. Each of these factors play a role in the prevention or initiation of sand production. Cementation Material Typical cementation materials include: calcite, dolomite, illite, mixed layer clays, chlorite, quartz over growths, and others. Any chemicals that could of a well
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Production Rate The production of reservoir fluids creates pressure differential and frictional drag forces that can combine to exceed the formations compressive strength resulting in a tensile rock failure. This is the most common failure mechanism in sandstone reservoirs. For most wells, there is a critical flow rate below which pressure differential and frictional drag forces are not great enough to exceed the formation compressive strength and cause sand production. The critical flow rate of a well may be determined by slowly increasing the production rate until sand production is detected. One technique used to minimize the production of sand is to choke the flow rate down to the critical flow rate where sand production does not occur or has an acceptable level. In many cases, this flow rate is significantly below the acceptable production rate for the well. Here in Saudi Aramco, many offshore wells are operated using this technique. Increased production would require the installation of downhole sand control to avoid sand production. Reservoir Fluid Viscosity The frictional drag force exerted on the formation sand grains is created by the flow of reservoir fluid. This frictional drag force is directly related to the velocity of fluid flow and the viscosity of the reservoir fluid being produced. High reservoir fluid viscosity will apply a greater frictional drag force to the formation sand grains than will a reservoir fluid with a low viscosity. The influence of viscous drag causes sand to be produced from heavy oil reservoirs, which contain low gravity, high viscosity oils, even at low flow velocities. Increasing Water Production Sand production may increase or begin as water begins to be produced or as water cut increases. Two possibilities may explain many of these occurrences. First, for a typical water-wet sandstone formation, some grain-to-grain cohesiveness is pro-
vided by the surface tension of the connate water surrounding each sand grain. At the onset of water production, the connate water tends to cohere to the produced water, resulting in a reduction of the surface tension forces and subsequent reduction in the grain-to-grain cohesiveness. Water production has been shown to severely limit the stability of the sand arch around a perforation resulting in the initiation of sand production. A second mechanism by which water production affects sand production is related to the effects of relative permeability. As the water cut increases, the relative permeability to oil decreases. This results in an increasing pressure differential being required to produce oil at the same rate. An increase in pressure differential near the wellbore creates a greater shear force across the formation sand grains. Once again, the higher stresses can lead to instability of the sand arch around each perforation and subsequent sand production. Predicting Sand Production Being able to predict whether a well will flow without producing sand or predicting whether sand control will be required in the future has been the goal of many completion engineers and research projects. Aramco currently uses a Chevron-designed program that incorporates a rock mechanics algorithm to predict rock failure and sand production. The program uses wireline logging data to estimate formation strength and mechanical properties. It works well in harder rocks (UCS values >= 1000), and evaluates shear failure of the perforations. This program does not account for the reduction in surface tension forces and the increase in drag forces associated with water production. To account for these forces, and to estimate both shear and tensile failures, a finite element analysis model is required. Until better prediction techniques are available, the best way of determining the need for sand control in a particular well is to perform an extended production test with a conventional completion and observe if sand production occurs. Offset wells producing in the same formation, in the same field and
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under similar conditions are also a good indicator of the need for sand control. However, this will not say anything about the future of the well, sand production may begin as pressure depletion takes place or when water production starts. Formation Strength: The general procedure followed by most operators considering whether or not sand control is required, is to determine the hardness of the formation rock (i.e. the rocks compressive strength). Since the rocks compressive strength has the same units as the pressure drawdown in the reservoir, the two parameters can be compared on a one to one basis and drawdown limits for specific wells can be determined. Research performed at Exxon in the early 1970s shows that there is a relationship between the compressive strength and the incidence of rock failure. These studies show that the rock failed and began to produce sand when the drawdown pressure is 1.7 times the compressive strength. The Sonic Log can be used as a way of addressing the sand production potential of wells. The sonic log records the time in microseconds required for sound waves to travel through the formation. The
porosity is related to the sonic travel time. Short travel times, (for example, 50 microseconds) are indicative of low porosity and hard, dense rock; while long travel times (for example, 95 microseconds or higher) are associated with softer, lower density, higher porosity rock. A common technique used for determining if sand control is required in a given geologic area is to correlate incidences of sand production with the sonic log readings. This establishes a quick and basic approach to the need for sand control, but the technique can be unreliable and is not strictly applicable in geologic areas other than the one in which it was developed. Formation Properties Log utilizing sonic, density, and neutron readings can be used as indicators of porosity and formation hardness. For a particular formation, a low density reading can indicate high porosity. The neutron logs are primarily an indicator of porosity. A formation properties log is offered by several wireline logging companies that performs a calculation using the results of the sonic, density, and neutron logs to determine the likelihood of whether a formation will or will not produce formation material at certain levels of pressure drawdown. This calculation identifies which intervals are stron-
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ger and which are weaker and more prone to produce formation material. Here in Saudi Aramco, we utilize a Mech Pro Log to help determine formation strength and sanding tendencies. Figure 2.6 shows a Mech Pro log of the Tinit 3 well. Porosity: The porosity of a formation can be used as a guideline for the need for sand control. If the formation porosity is higher than 25 percent, the probability of a requirement for sand control is higher. Conversely, if the porosity is less than 15 percent, the need for sand control will probably be less. Intuitively, porosity is related to the degree of cementation present in a formation; thus, the basis for this technique is understandable. Porosity information can be derived from well logs or laboratory core analysis. Drawdown: The pressure drawdown associated with production may be an indicator of potential formation sand production. No sand production may occur with low pressure drawdown around the well whereas excessive drawdown can cause formation material to be produced at unacceptable levels. The amount of pressure drawdown is normally associated with the formation permeability and the viscosity of the produced fluids. Low viscosity fluids such as gas experience small drawdown pressures as opposed to the drawdown that would be associated with a 1,000 cp fluid produced from the same interval. Hence, higher sand production is usually associated with viscous fluids. The higher the drawdown, the greater the drag force. At some point, the higher drag force will cause a tensile failure of the rock resulting in sand production. Finite Element Analysis Probably the most sophisticated approach to predicting sand production is the use of geomechanical numerical models developed to analyze fluid flow through the reservoir in relation to the formation strength. The effects of formation stress associated
with fluid flow in the immediate region around the wellbore are simultaneously computed with finite element analysis. While this approach is by far the most rigorous, it requires an accurate knowledge of the formations strength both in the elastic and plastic regions where the formation begins to fail. Both of these input data are difficult to determine with a high degree of accuracy under actual downhole conditions; that is the major difficulty with this approach. The finite element analysis method is good from the viewpoint of comparing one interval with another; however, the absolute values calculated may not represent actual formation behavior unless they are tied to actual well data. Multiphase Flow The initiation of multiphase fluid flow, primarily water and oil, can also cause sand production. Many cases can be cited where wells produced sand free until water production began but produced unacceptable amounts of formation material subsequent to the onset of produced water. The reasons for the increased sand production are caused by two primary phenomena. First, the movement of waterwet fines and second, relative permeability effects associated with two phase flow. Most formation fines are water wet and as a consequence are immobile when a hydrocarbon phase is the sole produced fluid because hydrocarbons occupy the majority of the pore space. However, when the water saturation is increased to the point that it becomes mobile, formation fines begin the move with the wetting phase (water) which creates localized plugging in the pore throats of the porous media. Additionally, when two-phase flow occurs, increased pressure drawdown is experienced as a consequence of relative permeability and increases the pressure drop around the well by as much as a factor of 4 to 5. The result of fines migration, plugging, and reduced relative permeability around the well increases the drawdown to the point that it may exceed the strength of the formation. The consequences may be excessive sand production.
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Summary
In some respects predicting the sanding potential of formations may be an academic exercise. Present technology can produce a calculation or other methodology to accurately determine whether sand control will be required in a particular well or reservoir. The irony of this situation is that at the point where the calculation or methodology has been developed and proven, the operator already knows whether sand control is necessary or not due to the producing experience gained while obtaining the necessary data for the calculations. Experience has generally indicated that the best approach to completing wells, particularly in high productivity and high cost developments, is to avoid sand control in situations where the need for sand control is not clearly defined and where economics and risk analysis suggest that conventional (no sand control) alternatives are economically more attractive. Production experience from early wells should indicate whether this approach is correct. The exception to this argument is when water production is anticipated at some later date, which may cause excessive sand production. If this event is anticipated, weighing whether to gravel pack the wells initially or to wait until sand production occurs tends to be more of an economic exercise than a technical issue. To summarize, the best technique for predicting sand control is the performance of the well
in an extended production test. If such a test is not available, then existing technology, as discussed above, should be used to assess the sand producing tendencies of the formation. Saudi Aramco is currently working with Chevron to develop more accurate sand prediction tools for use in the Kingdom to help predict sand production for Southern Area Pre-Kuff gas wells. This effort will involve the use Finite Element Modeling based and Hollow Cylinder Testing on Pre-Kuff Cores. In addition to this effort, KFUPM is working on a sand prediction model for the Pre-Kuff Wells. These efforts will augment current production experiences and help shape the future of this development. References 1. Baker Oil tools Completion Technologies for Unconsolidated Formations 2001. 2. Penberthy, W.L. and Shaughnessy, C.M., Sand Control, SPE Series on Special Topics, Volume 1, 1992. 3. Roberts, A., Geotechnology: An Introductory Text for Students and Engineers, Pergamon Press, New York, New York, 1977. 4. Suman, G.O. Jr., Ellis, R.C., and Snyder, R.E., Sand Control Handbook, Second Edition, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas, 1991. 5. Tixier, M.P., Loveless, G.W., Anderson, R.A., Estimation of Formation Strength From theMechanical-Properties Log, Journal of Petroleum Technology (March 1975), 283-293.
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Chapter 3 - Completion Options and Candidate Selection

Many techniques are available for dealing with sand production form unconsolidated formations. These techniques range from simple changes in operating practices to expensive completions involving gravel packing or the use of expandable sand control screens. The sand control method selected should depend on site specific conditions, required operating practices, and economic conditions. Listed below are some commonly used sand control techniques: object of this sand control technique is to establish a maximum flow rate possible without seeing sand production. This is a trial and error approach that may have to be repeated from time to time as the reservoir pressure, flow rate and water cut change. The problem with rate exclusion as a sand control technique is that the flow rate required to establish and maintain a stable arch will be less than the flow potential of the well and may represent a significant loss in productivity and revenue. For high rate production, this approach will be impractical resulting in poor project economics. As discussed in the section on formation strength in Chapter 2, the pressure drawdown required to produce a well can induce sand production if the magnitude of the drawdown is approximately 1.7 times the compressive strength of the formation. Application of this technique would be to produce only from the sections of the reservoir capable of withstanding the anticipated drawdowns. Perforating only the higher compressive strength sections of the formation allows higher drawdown. The high compressive strength sections will likely have the highest degree of cementation and, unfortunately, the lowest permeability. Therefore, the formation should have good vertical permeability to allow draining of the reservoir (see Figure 3.1).
Maintenance and Workover Rate Control Selective and Oriented Perforating Plastic Consolidation Full Bore Completions: Resin Coated Gravel Screenless Frac-Pack Expanding Screen Stand-Alone Screens Gravel Packing Frac Packing Maintenance and Workover: Maintenance and workover is a passive approach to sand control. This method basically involves tolerating the sand production and dealing with its effects as and when necessary. Such an approach requires production tubing and surface facilities clean outs on a routine basis to maintain well productivity. This is the current operating approach for the Saudi Aramco Safaniya field. The maintenance and workover method is primarily used where sand production is limited, production rates are low, risk of performing some service is low and economically feasible, or in marginal wells where the expense of other sand control techniques cannot be justified. Rate Exclusion Restricting the wells flow rate to reduce sand production is a method used by some independent operators. The procedure is to sequentially reduce the flow rate until sand production subsides. The
Figure 3.1: Sand Control Using Selective Completions Practices
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Plastic Consolidation Plastic consolidation involves the injection of plastic resins, which are chemically attracted to the formation sand grains. The resin hardens and forms a consolidated mass, binding the sand grains together at their contact points. If successful, the increase in formation compressive strength will be sufficient to withstand the drag forces while producing at the desired rates. Three types of resins are commercially available: epoxies, furans (including furan/phenolic blends), and pure phenolics. The resins are in a liquid form when they enter the formation and a catalyst or curing agent is required for hardening. Some systems use internal catalysts that are mixed into the resin solution at the surface and require time and/or temperature to harden the resin. Other systems use external catalysts that are injected after the resin is in place. The internal catalysts have the advantage of positive placement since all resin will be in contact with the catalyst required for efficient curing. A disadvantage associated with internal catalysts is the possibility of premature hardening in the workstring. Epoxy and phenolics can be placed with either internal or external catalysts; however, the rapid curing times of the furans (and furan/phenolic blends) require that external catalysts be used. There are two types of plastic consolidation systems. These are called phase separation systems and overflush systems. Phase separation systems contain only 15 to 25 percent active resin in an otherwise inert solution. The resin is preferentially attracted to the sand grains leaving the inert portion that will not harden to fill the pore spaces. These systems utilize an internal catalyst that is mixed into the solution at the surface. Very accurate control of displacement is required to place the resin through the perforations. Over-displacement will result in unconsolidated sand in the critical near wellbore area. Phase separation systems may be ineffective in formations that contain more than 10 percent clays. Clays, which also attract the resin, have extremely high surface
area in comparison to sands. The clays will attract more resin and because phase separation systems contain only a small percentage of resin, there may not be enough resin to consolidate the sand grains. Overflush systems contain a high percentage of active resin. When first injected, the pore spaces are completely filled with resin, and an overflush is required to push the excess resin away from the wellbore area to reestablish permeability. Only a residual amount of resin saturation, which should be concentrated at the sand contact points, should remain following the overflush. Most overflush systems use an external catalyst, although some include an internal catalyst. All plastic consolidation systems require a good primary cement job to prevent the resin from channeling behind the casing. A clean system is essential for plastic consolidation treatments because all solids that are in the system at the time of treatment will be glued in place. The perforations should be washed or surged, workover rig tanks should be scrubbed and fluids should be filtered to 2 microns. Workstrings should be cleaned with a dilute HCl acid containing sequestering agents, and pipe dope should be used sparingly on the pin only. A matrix acid treatment that includes HF and HCl is recommended for dirty sandstones. Both phase separation and overflush systems require a multistage preflush to remove reservoir fluids and oil wet the sand grains. The first stage, generally diesel oil, serves to displace the reservoir oil. Epoxy resins are incompatible with water, and therefore, isopropyl alcohol follows the diesel to remove formation water. The final stage is a spacer that prevents the isopropyl alcohol from contacting the resin. The main advantage of plastic consolidation is that it leaves the wellbore fully open. This becomes important where large OD downhole completion equipment is required. Also, plastic consolidation is suitable for through tubing applications, and may be applied in wells with small diameter casing. In most cases, the problems associated with plastic consolidation outweigh the possible advantages. The permeability of a formation is always de-
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creased by plastic consolidation. Even in successful treatments, the permeability to oil is reduced because the resin occupies a portion of the original pore space, and because the resin is oil wet. The amount of resin used is based on uniform coverage of all perforations. However, perforation plugging or permeability variations will often cause some perforations to take more plastic than others. The perforations that receive excess plastic may be plugged, and little, if any, strengthening will occur in the perforations not receiving resin. For this reason plastic consolidation is only suitable for interval lengths less than 10-15 feet. Longer intervals can be treated using packers to isolate and treat small sections of the zone at a time, but such operations are difficult and time consuming. Plastic consolidation treatments also do not perform well in formations with permeabilitys less than about 50 millidarcies and/or bottom hole temperatures in excess of 220F. Resin Coated Gravel: Resin coated gravel is high permeability gravel pack sand coated with a thin layer of resin. When exposed to heat, the resin is cured resulting in a consolidated sand mass. The use of resin coated gravel as a sand control technique involves pumping the gravel into the well to completely fill the perforations. The bottomhole temperature of the well or injection of steam causes the resin to cure into a consolidated pack. After curing, the consolidated gravel pack sand can be drilled out of the casing leaving an unobstructed wellbore. The remaining consolidated gravel in the perforations acts as a permeable filter to prevent the production of formation sand. Although simple in concept, using resin coated gravel can be a complex operation. First, a successful job requires that all perforations be completely filled with the resin coated gravel and
the gravel must cure. Complete filling of the perforations becomes increasingly difficult as zone length and deviation increase. Secondly, the resin coated gravel must cure with sufficient compressive strength. The compressive strength of the resin coated gravel is dependent on temperature and time. Currently available systems will cure at temperatures exceeding 180F after about 14 days; however, compressive strength is poor. To achieve high compressive strengths, temperatures in excess of 300F are required for several hours. Such temperatures are difficult to achieve downhole unless the well is in a field utilizing thermal recovery techniques. Here in Saudi Arabia, this technique is being used successfully in the Pre-Kuff gas development. A 30 ft interval is perforated in the highest strength sand stone as identified from the Mach Pro logs. The perforations are oriented in the direction of maximum horizontal stress and shot at 180 degree phasing. This maximizes the chance of getting all the perforations filled with resin coated proppant (RCP) and avoids perforating areas of borehole breakout within the well. A fracture treatment is then placed with RCP attempting to achieve a TIP screenout after gaining at least 1500 psig in net pressure. This process allows all the perforations to be completely packed with RCP and generates fracture thickness to reduce near wellbore drawdown. One concern with this technique and with resin coated gravel treatment in general is, how long will the treatment last. A process known as cycle fatigue will eventually cause a failure in the treatment resulting in sand production. Estimating how long the treatment will last is a difficult process. Laboratory studies may help to understand this process better, but the real understanding will come with operator experience and time.
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Slotted Liners or Screens without Gravel Packing In many cases, slotted liners or screens are used without gravel packing to control the formation sand. If the formation is a well-sorted, clean sand with a large grain size, this type of completion may provide adequate sand control. When used alone as sand exclusion devices, the slotted liners or screens are placed across the productive interval and the formation sand mechanically bridges on the slots or openings in the wire wrap screen. Bridging theory shows that particles will bridge on a slot provided the width of the slot does not exceed two particle diameters. Likewise, particles will bridge against a hole if the hole diameter does not exceed about three particle diameters. Normally, the slot width or the screen gauge should be sized to equal the formation sand grain size at the largest 10 percent level. Since the larger 10 percent of the sand grains will be stopped by the openings of screen, the remaining 90 percent of the formation sand will be stopped by the larger sand. The bridges formed will not be stable and may breakdown from time to time when producing rate is changed or the well is shut-in. Because the bridges can breakdown, resorting of the formation sand can occur which over time tends to result in plugging of the slotted liner or screen. When this technique is used to control formation sand, the slotted liner or screen diameter should be as large as possible to minimize the amount of resorting that can occur. Another potential disadvantage of both slotted liners and screens in high rate wells is the possibility of erosional failure of the slotted liner or screen before a bridge can form.
Gravel Packing Gravel packing relies on the bridging of formation sand against larger sand with the larger sand positively retained by a slotted liner or screen. The larger sand (referred to as gravel pack sand or simply, gravel) is sized to be 6 to 8 times larger than the formation sand. Gravel packing creates a permeable downhole filter that will allow the production of the formation fluids but restrict the entry and production of formation sand. Schematics of an open hole and cased hole gravel pack are shown in Figure 3.2. Because the gravel is tightly packed between the formation and the screen, the bridges formed are stable, which prevents shifting and resorting of the formation sand. If properly designed and executed, a gravel pack will maintain its permeability under a broad range of producing conditions. Gravel packs are performed by running a screen
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in the hole and circulating gravel into position using a carrier fluid. For optimum results, all the space between the screen and formation must be completely packed with high permeability gravel pack sand. Open hole gravel packing is the preferred over cased hole gravel packing because it is easier to get a complete pack. In addition, completion skins will be lower in the range of +0.5 for a good open hole gravel pack. It is difficult to achieve a low completion skin cased hole gravel packs. This is true because it is difficult to remove all the formation sand from the perforation tunnels and place high quality gravel pack sand in all the perforations.
negative completion skins and high production rates. This method has become very popular in US gulf coast completions during the 90s. Frac Packing has been used successfully in both the Hawtah completions and in the Pre-Kuff gas development. Expandable Screens Without Gravel Packing Expandable sand control is a new technology that holds great promise in the industry and here in Saudi Arabia. The concept is to run the sand screen into the hole then expand it out to the formation face. This will completely stabilize the formation and minimize fines migration. This should provide longer lasting completions. In addition, the larger ID of the expanded screens result in a monobore like well completion allowing future well intervention and profile modification possibilities. Profile modifications would include water or gas isolation by running additional expandable isolation liner inside the screen.
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Figure 3.3: Cased Hole Gravel Pack Here in Saudi Arabia, many of the early Hawtah wells were completed as cased hole gravel packs with average completion skins of +10. The preferred completion in Hawtah is now open hole horizontal gravel packs. Frac Pack Method Frac Packing combines cased hole gravel packing with hydraulic fracturing techniques to allow the cased hole gravel pack to bypass near well bore drilling damage and achieve negative completion skins. Screens are sized to retain the gravel or proppant. The gravel or proppant is sized to retain the formation sand. A good frac pack can result in
The expandable screen can be run with an expandable liner section wrapped in elastomers to allow water shutoff after expansion. The screen must be placed on depth with the elastomers wrapped section over lapping the water bearing zone. Finally, as there is no annular area in these sand control completions, production logs can be run to evaluate the production profile of the well. Expandable sand control screens are becoming popular in horizontal wells and in vertical wells where frac packing is not desirable due to bottom water and the need for future water isolation.
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Summary Decisions involving sand control should be made based on specific reservoir conditions and local operating philosophies. The best technical solution to sand control may not be the best economic solution. Whether a well produces formation sand may not be the issue. The real issue is what operating practice is the most economic for a particular field. If periodic sand clean-outs of the production equipment is the most economic approach for an operation, then clean-outs may be the method of choice. On the other hand, if high-rate wells are involved and there is risk of damaging equipment and creating a safety problem, sand production should be controlled in the well. Differences in operating strategy may also apply if the wells are onshore, in remote areas or located offshore. The sand control technique selected depends on the specific operating conditions. As a consequence, sand control management may involve dealing with a small amount of sand production if that approach is the most economically attractive and does not create unsafe operating conditions for personnel. When sand control is required, systems are available for virtually any well temperature, pressure or environment. Gravel packed wells can be produced under high drawdown without concern of sand production. Although the gravel packing process can induce significant formation damage when not correctly performed, adherence to proper practices as
well as advanced installation techniques can limit formation damage to acceptable levels. In the case of frac packing, the well can actually be stimulated in the process of implementing sand control.
Candidate Selection
The candidate selection process for sand control wells should start with the initial evaluation process of the reservoir and be part of the development plan. The decision to implement sand control should involve a full analysis of the reservoir including an understanding of local stress fields. A description of the likely sand failure mechanisms should be offered as part of any sand control solution. Finally, the decision to implement sand control on any well should involve a good economic analysis showing the costs and benefits. General Selection Criteria Solids taken from a formation core representative of the proposed producing interval can provide a good basis for selecting the appropriate sand control completion. The sand grain sorting criteria described in SPE paper 39437 is a good start:
D10/D95<10, D40/D90<3, sub 325 mesh< 2%.

These low sorting values combined with the low fines content may be good bare screen or sized
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slotted liner type completion candidates. D10/D95<10, D40/D90<5, sub 325 mesh< 5%. These low to medium sorting ranges with 5% or less fines indicate stand alone screens with prepacks or new technology woven mesh inter laminate material. They may also be good candidates for expandable screens. D10/D95<20, D40/D90<5, sub 325 mesh< 5%. Medium range sorting with 5% or less fines indicates open hole gravel pack with 8 times D50 gravel sizing. Could consider new technology woven mesh inter laminate material. D10/D95>20, D40/D90>5 sub 325 mesh>10%. These high sorting ratios coupled with high fines are best handled with gravel packing in enlarged well bores, horizontal wells, or frac packing to generate additional surface area to avoid severe completion damage from gravel or screen plugging. In general, cased hole sand control should be limited to frac & pack operations where possible as getting all the perforations filled with gravel pack sand can be a difficult operation. Open hole gravel packing will usually result in lower skin completions. One other good example of cased hole sand control
is fracture treating with resin coated proppant. This technique offers longer fracture intervals and negative skins. The down side is expense and cycle life fatigue issues. Considerations for Completion Design When choosing the appropriate sand control for a well, the future data gathering, isolation and profile modification needs, operational constraints, and costs must all be evaluated. Wells with active water drives or planned water injection, will tend to produce at higher rates and with increasing sanding tendencies as water production begins. If water or gas production handling capabilities are limited, future profile modification work will be required for water or gas shut off. Wells with ESP pumps can handle limited solids production, so higher quality sand control will be required. The table below summarizes the completion skin ranges and operational issues for various sand control methods. Assumption are made that proper drillin fluids and wellbore cleanout techniques are implemented. Remember to think about the wells future needs and design the completion with these in mind.
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Summary Of Sand-Control Methods
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References 1. Resin for Sand Control, SPE Paper 26545, Journal of Petroleum Technology (May 1994), 431435. 2. Baker Sand Control Manual, 2001. 3. Weatherford Completion Systems Presentation, Saudi Aramco, 2001. 4. Sand Control Handbook, Second Edition, 1975.
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Chapter 4 - Wellbore Damage

Productivity of the open or cased hole gravel packed completion is determined in part by the condition of the reservoir behind the filter cake, quality of the filter cake and stability of the wellbore. Given this, it can be said that the completion begins when the bit enters the pay. Therefore, one important goal of drilling should be to maintain wellbore stability and minimize formation damage. Skin can be defined as the damage region around a wellbore caused by drilling, completion, cementing, stimulation or even production. Skin manifests itself as an increase (damaged well) or decrease (stimulated well) in pressure drop required for a given flow rate into the well. Formation Damage starts when filtrate, added solids, and drill cuttings from the drilling fluid penetrate the formation pores. Preservation of reservoir pore throats and rock requires keeping particles out of pores, minimizing filtrate loss, and insuring that the filtrate is compatible with rock and reservoir fluids. The quality of filter cake and the ability to clean it up, is paramount to achieving a low skin completion when gravel packing. The following is a list of some of the concerns with high skin damage completions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Poor quality data from the well More appraisal wells may be required Remedial treatments and lost productivity More production wells may be required Lower average well rates Lower reserve recovery Lower water injectivity For exploration wells, poor rate predictions could result in under sized facilities design. can reduce it or remove it. A good example would be pumping a matrix stimulation because rate declined in an oil well after water breakthrough. The rate loss would be associated with changes in the relative permeability to oil and the increase in hydrostatic head from the added water being produced up the tubing. Causes of Skin Damage Drilling Mud, Cement, and Completion Fluid Invasion: The drilling and completing process of a well will alter the natural state of the reservoir resulting in skin damage. Drilling mud contains many solids and chemicals that can be damaging to the formation. Even the so-called non-damaging drill-in fluids contain polymers, starches, drill cuttings, and in some cases added solids like calcium carbonate. Solids from drilling and completion fluids can penetrate and plug formation pores. Swelling Clays or Scale Precipitation: Filtrate invasion from the drilling process, from lost completion fluid, or from breakthrough of injection water can result in skin damage to the well. If water is introduced into the formation that is incompatible with the formation water, scale precipitation can occur. In addition, natural clays present in the formation can swell if they are contacted with fresh water from drilling or completion brines. The swelling clays would reduce the permeability of the near wellbore formation. Perforating Damage: Will occur when perforating as perforation debris remains in the perforation tunnel. In addition, if formation sand fills the perforation tunnel, it will restrict flow. Fines Migration: Fine migration occurs when the smallest particles within the formation start to migrate towards the well. These small particles usually flow freely through the formation and end up in surface sepa-
These are just some of the reasons formation damage should be avoided when possible. Damage Removal Many acid treatments pumped to remove skin damage are pumped in wells that do not require any remedial work. It is important to understand what causes skin damage in a well and how, if at all, you
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rators or flowlines. It should be noted, that fines are not load bearing sand grains, they flow through the existing pores in the rock. Fines migration is usually associated with water production. This is true because the fines are usually trapped in the pore by surface tension between the sand grains and the connate water. As water production starts, this surface tension bond is broke and the fines are free to flow with the water to the well. Initial completions including sand control completions, should be designed to allow these fines to pass freely. If the sand control screens are designed to small, they will become plugged. Asphaltene or Paraffin Damage: Some crude oils precipitate asphaltenes or paraffin as the temperature and pressure of the crude is lowered during production. These problems are difficult to avoid. Solvents are used to dissolve these solids and return the well to normal production.
Emulsions: Emulsions (droplets inside a fluid) can be caused when incompatible fluids mix with hydrocarbons or formation water. Some emulsion will remain stable and clog the pores resulting in production loss. Some emulsion can be removed using de-emulsifiers. The best practice includes performing lab studies using formation fluids and planned drilling and completion fluids to avoid emulsion from forming. Reservoir Compaction: As fluids are produced, the pressure in the reservoir will be lowered. In some cases, the formation will fail resulting in compaction and reduction of permeability. In addition, formation size fines may be generated under these condition and flow into and plug pores. Geo-mechanical rock studies should be performed to determine if this type of failure is likely. If so, reservoir pressure should be maintained to help support the formation and resist compaction.
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Relative Permeability Effects: The relative permeability of the formation should be determined from core studies. In water wet reservoir (most reservoirs are water wet) the permeability to oil and gas will decrease as water cut increases. In some gas wells, completion brine can invade pore spaces and become trapped due to capillary pressure effects resulting in lost productivity. In addition, a permeability reduction in gas wells will be seen if the flowing bottom hole pressure drops below the dew point and condensate is liberated in the near wellbore area. This will increase the pressure drop to flow gas into the well resulting in a positive completion skin. These effects can be modeled and predicted if the relative permeability data of the reservoir is known. For wells requiring sand control, this effect can also initiate sand production if the near wellbore pressure drop exceeds rock strength. Effects of Stimulation Treatments: Acid stimulation treatment can cause many near wellbore problems resulting in reduced reservoir permeability. Acids can reduce the rock strength and initiate sand production. In some cases acids can cause emulsions, swell clays, precipitate iron or amorphous silica, or reverse reservoir wet-ability. Care must be taken to run lab tests with reservoir core and reservoir fluids to look for compatibility problems and design the acid treatment and overflush appropriately to avoid these problems. Sand Control Treatments: Sand control treatments often end up causing skin damage. The reason is the screens and gravel become contaminated and plugged with solids during the completion or well unloading period. Sand control treatments are also very susceptible to scale plugging. To avoid these problems, the well should be drilled with a properly designed drill-in fluid, utilize a designed well-bore clean out procedure, size the screen and gravel properly, avoid large fluid losses to the formation by using a fluid loss device as part of the completion, and follow best practice for unloading the well. This will be discussed in detail in chapter 9.
Completion Geometry Effect: How the well is placed in the reservoir drainage area and whether the well is fully perforated will impact well productivity and be seen as a skin effect. Deviated wells will have a negative skin effect while wells only perforated in the upper or lower half of a formation to avoid water or gas will have a positive partial penetration skin effect. Horizontal wells drilled near reservoir boundaries will have positive geometric skin effects. Magnitude of Skin Damage Now that we have discussed the causes and locations of formation damage, how do we measure it and determine the magnitude of this damage? What impact on production will this skin damage have? Listed below are a few common methods of determining the presence and magnitude of formation damage: Production Matching With Systems Analysis (NODAL) Program: kh and reservoir pressure must be fairly well known Need a good estimate of reservoir fluid properties. Production Matching With Reservoir Simulator: Need good production data Need good PVT data and reservoir properties Need good estimate of net sand thickness. Pressure Buildup Test: Need BHP data Need good production data prior to shut-in Need sufficient buildup period. Once the presence and magnitude of the damage is known, determine how and where the damage is. The general skin equation:
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rw = radius of the wellbore Gb = from chart (4.1) Will need to be broken down into individual components related to geometry and mechanical effects. b 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Gb 2.337 1.862 1.569 1.621 1.995
6W = 6 JHRP + 6 PHFK
(4.2)
The total skin (St ) will be comprised of skin effects due to both the geometry of the well plus mechanical effects related to well drilling and completion damage. Further breakdown of the total skin equation into individual components will allow the well to be designed to avoid large skin effects and to better understand where the damage is so we can treat it. Note: the total skin value will be measured from a pressure build-up. Component skins will either be calculated from equations or measured in a lab. Vertical Wells St = Spartial+(PPSF)Sdev+Sperf+Sdamage+Sturb+Sscreen+Sann Where: Spartial & (PPSF)Sdev are geometry skin effects Sperf, Sdamage, Sturb, Sscreen & Sann are mechanical skin effects Spartial Pseudo-skin term accounting for the additional pressure losses, not in the Darcy inflow equation associated with flow convergence from reservoir to the perforated interval. This pseudo-skin term can be calculated by the method proposed by Brons and Marting: Spartial = (1-b)/b((ln(h/rw)-Gb)) (4.4) (4.3)
(PPSF)Sdev Pseudo-skin term accounting for pressure loss effects associated with inclined wells that provide more inflow area then predicted by Darcys equation. The skin term is comprised of the traditional deviation skin term multiplied by a partial penetration scaling factor, PPSF, which corrects for flow convergence. Sdev is calculated as shown in the SPE Monograph Advances in Well Test Analysis. The PPSF term is based on the work of Cinco et al in SPE 5589. Equation 4.5 shows the deviation skin term. Equation 4.6 shows the flow convergence term.
6 GHY = ORJ

K U Z
NK
NY
(4.5)
Where: = wellbore inclination in degrees relative to the intersection with the formation. Rw = well bore radius Kh = horizontal permeability (md) Kv = vertical permeability (md)
Where: h = formation height b = height of the perforated interval / total formation height
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336) = ZKHUH K K' = UZ E=
+ E E ORJ K' E NK NY

(4.6)
{ }
spherical flow that is analogous to that near the tip of a perforation. Skin due to fluid flow through holes in the mudcake. Once the flow converges to the little holes/channels in the mudcake, it then has to flow through these holes, for a distance equal to the thickness of the mud filter cake. Sdamage = Smf + Smcconv + Smc (4.8)
K KS FRV = K K
S perf Pseudo-skin term accounting for additional pressure losses associated with flow convergence into the wells perforations. This term includes both perforation geometry and perforation damage effects. Perforation geometry effects can be calculated from lab work of Locke (December, 1981 JPT). Perforation damage effects can be estimated from Mcleods correlations (SPE 10649). Sperf = (Q/n)2 x [SG/(.323(dperf)4)] Where: Q = wells flow rate (BLPD) n = number of perforations SG = specific gravity of produced fluid dperf = diameter of the perforations Sdamage Pseudo skin term accounting for permeability damage or improvement near the wellbore. This term includes: (4.7)
N UHV UPI OQ 6PI = N PI UPFFRQY
(4.9)
Where: Smf = mud filtrate skin kres = permeability of undamaged reservoir (md) kmf = permeability of zone invaded by mud filtrate (md) rmf = depth of invasion of mud filtrate (ft) rmcconv = depth where hemispherical flow convergence into holes in mudcake begins (ft)
/ N 6PFFRQY = UHV 1 U N U PF SPF PFFRQY (4.10) PI 1 PF = PFU Z/ U USPF
The skin due to mud filtrate invasion, which is
the result of formation damage caused by incompatibility of mud filtrate with formation minerals/ fluids and is the classical form of drilling mud damage. The skin arising from flow convergence into the mudcake. In the event that the mud filter cake consists of a semi-porous membrane that allows fluid to pass though a number of little holes, there is a degree of flow convergence due to hemi-
Where: Smcconv = skin due to hemispherical flow convergence into holes in mudcake kres = permeability of undamaged reservoir (md) kmf = permeability of zone invaded by mud filtrate (md) L = length of completed interval (ft) Nmc = number of holes in mudcake (equally spaced) rpmc = radius of individual hole in mudcake (ft) rmcconv = depth where hemispherical flow convergence into holes in mudcake begins (ft) %mcr = percentage of mudcake removed
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rw = wellbore (open hole) radius (ft)
NUHV UZ 6PF = N OQ PFK UPFL
(4.11)
Kh = permeability thickness from PBU n = number of perfs d = perforation diameter (inches) r = viscosity of produced fluid B = formation volume factor Sann Skin arising from the presence of annular fill: this may be gravel from an external (open hole) gravel pack, collapsed formation into what was once an open annulus, or an entirely open annulus between a consolidated borehole and an inner screen.
Where: Smc = skin due flow of fluid through holes in mudcake kres = permeability of undamaged reservoir (md) kmch = permeability of hole in mudcake (md) rmci = distance to inner part of mudcake (i.e. mudcake ID) (ft) rw = wellbore (open hole) radius (ft) Sturb = Pseudo skin term accounting for additional pressure drop associated with non-laminar flow caused by non-Darcy reservoir flow and perforation fraction. Sturb = (D+P)Q (4.12)
N UHV UZ OQ 6DQQ RU 6RKJS = N U DQQ RKJS VFUR

(4.15)
Where Q = wellbore flow rates (STBPD) D = reservoir flow turbulence coefficient (BPD-1) P = perforation flow turbulence coefficient (BPD-1) Note: For reservoir flow of single phase liquids over a large interval in stimulated wells, the turbulent term can usually be neglected. If required, D can be calculated as: D = 9.08 x 10-13 / (42hP2rw ) Where = turbulent velocity coefficient (4.13)
Where: Sann = skin due to radial flow of fluid through annulus Sohgp = skin due to open hole gravel pack kres = permeability of undamaged reservoir (md) kann/ohgp = permeability material in screen/borehole annulus (md) rscro = outer radius of screen (ft) rw = wellbore (open hole) radius (ft) Sscreen Skin arising from flow through a screen (wire wrapped, sintered laminate) or a pre-packed screen.
N UHV UVFUR 6 VFU = N OQ VFU UVFUL
(4.16)
= 2.33 x 1010/ K1.201

h = height of perforated interval rw = wellbore radius P =SG(Kh) / (94.7x 106n2d4rB ) Where SG = oil density at reservoir conditions (4.14)
Where: Sann = skin due to radial flow of fluid through screen or pre-pack kres = permeability of undamaged reservoir (md) kscr = permeability of screen or pre-pack (md) rscro = outer radius of screen (ft) rscri = inner radius of screen (ft) rw = wellbore (open hole) radius (ft) The mechanical skin is the linear sum of the in-
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dividual component skins and has to be corrected for partial penetration and deviation. The result is:
6 PHFK WRWDO

6 PI + 6 PFFRQY + (4.17) = E FRV 6 + 6 6 + PF DQQ RKJS VFU

6 JHRP = OQ
UZ $

K (4.19) VLQ (] Z K )
Where b = hp / h In practice, the total skin and reservoir Kh will be measured from a pressure build-up survey. The individual component skin values will be calculated or measured in a lab. Utilizing the component skin approach will allow the engineer to identify the location and cause of the skin damage and to determine whether the damage can be removed or how to avoid or minimize damage to future wells. Horizontal Wells The following analysis will be based on horizontal wells with open hole type completion. Perforation effects will not be looked at here. The mathematics to analysis perforation skin effects in horizontal wells is too complex and is best left to computer simulations. St = SGeometry + Sdamage +Sscreen + Sann (4.18)
Where: A = anisotropy ratio rw = wellbore radius (ft) h = formation thickness (ft) zw = distance from drainhole to nearest boundary (ft) The above equation is valid for permeability anisotropies in the range 0.1 to 10. Mechanical Skin: In the absence of perforations, the mechanical skin can be broken down into two sectors:
The first is the well entry zone, extending from
the wellbore wall into the formation. Its resistance to flow can be characterised by the mud filter cake, the mud filtrate itself, and flow convergence from the reservoir through holes in the mud filter cake. The second zone is the intra well zone, which lies within the wellbore itself, when there is a gravel pack and or screen completion in place. The mechanical skin formulae outlined above for vertical or deviated wells can be applied to horizontal wells by substituting the effective undamaged permeability, keff in place of the kres where:
Geometric Skin: The geometric skin in a horizontal well consists of two elements:
Skin arising from flow convergence (in the verti Skin arising from the elliptical flow distribution
around the wellbore caused by permeability anisotropy. cal plane) into the wellbore.
N HII = NY NK
The mechanical skins for the horizontal drainhole do not have to be corrected for partial completion, since only the effective length of the drainhole has to be considered in the calculations. It is important to measure the effective length of the horizontal well to help determine the total completion skin of a horizontal well and to help with rate predictions. Figure 4.2 shows the location of the various component skins relative to the wellbore.
These two effects can be represented in the following expression:
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Figure 4.2: Components of Skin
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Chapter 5 - Formation Characterization

Formations that are considered soft or poorly consolidated are often plagued with sand production problems. Formation sand production results in lost production, damage to production facilities or result in safety or environmental concerns. This chapter will focus on rock mechanics and sanding tendencies of soft rock formations. Competent Sands Drilling a wellbore through a competent sand will impact the local stress field around the well. As rock is removed the stresses will act on the new well. The stresses near the wellbore and the reservoir pressure will determine whether or not the borehole will yield in the form of borehole breakout. Borehole Breakout may occur near the wellbore due to stress concentration induced by drilling the wellbore. This breakout zone is created by shear failure of the formation that allows the dilation of the borehole. The breakout is a naturally occurring event that relieves a stress concentration where the tangential stress exceeds the in-situ compressive stress. Although the breakout relieves stress within the near wellbore area, it can evoke sanding when the well is put on production. It is therefore critical to determine if the wellbore has undergone wellbore breakout during drilling. This can be determined by running FMI logs. Here in Saudi Arabia, the Pre-Kuff reservoirs often see borehole breakout during drilling. If borehole breakout is present, 180 degree phased perforating should be used to orient the perforation in the direction of maximum horizontal stress to avoid perforating in the borehole breakout region of the wellbore. This practice is currently being used in the Pre-Kuff gas development. Friable Sands Friable sand are usually cohesionless, and their mechanical properties are stress dependent. A zone may develop around the wellbore that is stressed within plastic yield limits. Formation failure within this plastic zone is the main source of sand production from many friable sand formations. The most important failure mechanisms in friable non-liner sands are:
In-Situ Stress Around the Wellbore

The in-situ stresses within a reservoir are usually in equilibrium, which allows an undisturbed and stable condition to exist. The in-situ stresses within a reservoir can be represented by three principle stress: overburdon or vertical stress (v), minimum horizontal stress ( h ), and maximum horizontal stress( H ). Figure 5.1 represents the in-situ stress relationships. These principle stresses act on the reservoir
Figure 5.1: The principal stresses act in orthogonal directions to one another. This relationship can be expressed on an X, Y, Z coordinate system. The overburden acts along the Z axis parallel to an imaginary line stuck between the center of the wellhead equipment and the center of the earth. The other two principal stresses, known as horizontal stresses act along the X and Y axes.
Dilation effect Capillary effects Cohesive failure
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Once sand production starts from a friable sand, it is difficult to stop it. The plastic zone continues to extend deep within the formation as production of sand continues. Examples of friable sands within Saudi Aramco are the offshore Safaniya, and areas of the Unayzah A sands.
amounts of compressive force but will fail when exposed to even slight tensile forces. Figure 5.2 depicts the four mechanical mechanisms that can cause sand production: tensile failure, shear failure, cohesive failure, and pore collapse. Tensile Failure: A tensile failure condition may occur if the production ate is high enough to create a drawdown in the area local to the wellbore and is high enough to generate tensile forces greater then the tensile strength of the rock. Therefore the production rate must be limited in wells without sand control to limit the drawdown near the wellbore and not exceed the tensile strength of the rock. This is the case in Saudi Aramco when producing the offshore Safaniya wells. Drilling horizontal wells in the direction of maximum horizontal stress or fracture treating the well will reduce the drawdown and therefore reduce the tensile stress and possibly omit the sand production problem from the reservoir. Shear Failure: Once the well is drilled and the stress-concentration field around the wellbore is established, the formation will respond either elastically (strong formation) or it will yield (weak formation). If the for-
Failure Mechanisms
Before a well can be effectively treated for sand production, the failure mechanisms that caused the sand production to start should be understood. Two general types of failures exists: 1) mechanical failure and 2) formation failure due to chemical effects. Mechanical Failures Drilling a wellbore through a formation introduces a new set of stresses to the area around the wellbore. Any combination of vertical, tangential, and radial stress can contribute to sand production. If the bottom hole pressure is decreased by well production, the tangential stress will increase in the wellbore. If this force exceeds the formation strength, sand particles will begin to be produced. Many sedimentary rocks can withstand massive
Figure 5.2: The four mechanisms that cause sand production are tensile failure, shear failure, cohesive failure, and pore collapse. The graph shows shear stress () versus effective normal stress ().
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mation yields, a plastically deformed zone begins to form near the wellbore. This yield is a formation failure caused by the shear stress exerted around the wellbore. Once a shear failure has occurred, solids will be free to move into the wellbore. The shear strength of a formation consists of two components: the contact forces between the grains, and the physical bonds between adjoining grains cohesion. Cohesive Failure: The cohesive strength is the controlling factor of erosion at any free sand face within the formation. These free surfaces occur at the perforation tunnels, wellbore face in openhole completions, and the frac sand face in fracture treated wells. Cohesion is generated by two factors: cementing material and capillary forces among the individual grains of the formation. Sand production and subsequent wellbore instability begin when the drag forces caused by fluid production becomes great enough to exceed the cohesive strength of the formation. Low or reduced cohesive strength is the reason for the start of sand production in many wells. In the near wellbore area, the pressure drop equal to the cohesive strength of the formation defines the critical production rate without sanding until the wells watercut changes.
6 + ( $ 5 6 7 5 ( ( 6 6
As many formations are water wet, they have high capillary forces (and therefore high cohesive strength) when the production is 100% oil or gas. As the water cut increases, the capillary forces holding the sand grains together is reduced. This reduction in capillary pressure can result in sand production and the liberation of any trapped mobile fines in the pore spaces if the drag forces caused by the produced fluids exceed the cohesive strength of the rock. A good example of this theory is building sand castles at the beach. The best sand castles are built using damp sand. The small amount of trapped water has enough capillary force to hold the sand grains together. If more water is applied, the sand simply washes away because the capillary bond is removed. Pore Collapse: When the pore pressure decreases, the effective stress increases. When the effective stress increases, it causes the Mohrs circle to move to the right, which will result in pore collapse if the rock is bounded by a failure limit in the Mohr diagram. Once shear failure occurs, it is impossible to reverse this failure. To bypass a near wellbore area of pore collapse, perform a fracture treatment or Frac & Pack.
6KHDU )DLOXUH (QYHORSH
3RUH &ROODSVH
1RUPDO 6WUHVV
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Formation Failure from Chemical Effects One of the main mechanisms of formation failure may be due to the effects of chemicals that come in contact with the formation while drilling or completing the well. Water adsorption by clays within the formation can cause swelling of the clay breaking the adhesive bond between sand grains and disintegration of the formation matrix. Introducing water into the formation pore spaces can:
have a minimum impact on the formations natural cementation materials. The completion itself should be designed to minimize completion damage and drawdown to avoid tensile rock failures and sand production. Frac & Pack completions and horizontal wells can be effective means to reduce completion drawdown and minimize sand production or plugging of completions from mobile fines generation. From experience with oil and gas wells, the following trends have been seen:
Reduce the magnitude of grain to grain fraction Reduce the capillary pressure in water wet rocks Chemically weaken the internal cementation
material. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction analysis can help to identify the presence of cementation materials within the formation. Materials such as calcite, dolomite, illite, mixed layer clays, chlorite and others act as cementation material in sand stone reservoirs. Any chemicals that could cause the formations cementation to deteriorate should not be introduced into the formation. In general, HCl should not be used if the sandstone formation contains carbonate cementation material. If the formation contains clay, fresh water should never be introduced. In summary, the drilling and completion process will impact the formations sanding tendencies. Both drilling and completion fluids should be designed to
Sand production will increase with increase pro-
duction rates. The increased drawdown and drag forces associated with the increased production will result in increased tensile failure. A sudden change in production rate will cause increased sand production Increased water cut will result in increased sand production Over pressured reservoirs have a higher sanding tendency. As stated in this chapter, sand production can be triggered by either a mechanical failure of the formation or a collapse of the cementing material due to introduced chemicals. Proper drilling and completion practices can help reduce the wells chances of producing sand. Some reservoirs will produce sand regardless of your efforts. These wells will require some form of positive sand control.
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Chapter 6 - Cased Hole Completions

This chapter will focus on two cased hole sand control techniques: gravel packing and frac packing. Gravel and screen sizing will also be reviewed. gravel into position using a carrier fluid. For optimum results, all the space between the screen and formation must be completely packed with high permeability gravel pack sand. Complete packing is relatively simple in open hole completions, but can be challenging in cased hole perforated completions. Although expensive, gravel packs have proven to be the most reliable sand control technique available and are, therefore, the most common approach used. Gravel Pack Sand Selection As discussed previously, a gravel pack is simply a downhole filter designed to prevent the production of unwanted formation sand. The formation sand is held in place by a the gravel pack sand is held in place with a properly sized screen. To determine what size gravel pack sand is required, samples of the formation sand must be evaluated to determine the median grain size diameter and grain size distribution. With this information a gravel pack sand can be selected using the technique outlined by Saucier. The quality of the sand used is as important as the proper sizing. The American Petroleum Institute (API) has set forth the minimum specifications desirable for a gravel pack sand in their Recommended Practices 58 (RP58). Formation Sand Sampling: Improper formation sand sampling techniques can lead to gravel packs which fail due to plugging of the gravel pack or the production of sand. Because the formation sand size is so important, the technique used to obtain a formation sample is also important. With knowledge of the different sampling techniques, compensations can be made in the gravel pack sand size selection if necessary. Produced Samples: In a well producing sand, a sample of the formation sand is easily obtained at the surface. Although such a sample can be analyzed and used for gravel pack sand size determination, produced samples will probably indicate a smaller median
Gravel Packs
Gravel packing relies on the bridging of formation sand against larger gravel pack sand with the larger sand positively retained by a slotted liner or screen. The larger sand (referred to as gravel pack sand or simply, gravel) is sized to be about 6 to 8 times larger than the formation sand. Gravel packing creates a permeable downhole filter that will allow the production of the formation fluids but restricts the entry and production of formation sand. A schematic of a cased hole gravel pack is shown in Figure 6.1 Because the gravel is tightly packed between the formation and the screen, the bridges formed are stable, which prevents shifting and resorting of the formation sand. If properly designed and executed, a gravel pack will maintain its permeability under a broad range of producing conditions.
Figure 6.1: Cased Hole Gravel Pack Gravel packs are performed by running a slotted liner or screen in the hole and circulating the
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grain size than the formation sand. In many cases, the larger sand grains settle to the bottom, resulting in a poor, sorted sample collected at the surface. In addition, the transport of a sand grain through the production tubing and surface flow lines may result in small corners being broken from the sand grains, causing the presence of more fines and smaller grains. The use of produced sand samples may result in the use of smaller gravel pack sand than required, resulting in increased pressure drop across the completion. Bailed Samples: Samples collected from the bottom of a well using wireline bailers are also relatively easy to obtain, but these also are probably not representative of the actual formation sand. Bailed samples will generally consist of the larger size sand grains, assuming that more of the smaller grains are produced to surface. The use of bailed samples may result in the design of larger than required gravel pack sand which can result in sand production or plugging of the gravel pack. Sidewall Core Samples: Sidewall core samples are obtained by shooting hollow projectiles from a gun lowered into the well on an electric line to the desired depth. The projectiles remain attached to the gun via steel cables, so that when pulling the gun out of the well, the projectiles are retrieved with a small formation sample inside. Taking sidewall core samples is generally included in the evaluation stages of wells in unconsolidated formations and these are the most widely used sample type for gravel pack sand design. Although more representative than produced or bailed samples, sidewall core samples can also give misleading results. When the projectiles strike the face of the formation, localized crushing of the sand grains occurs, producing broken sand grains and generating more fine particles. The core sample may also contain drilling mud solids that can be mistaken for formation material. Experienced lab analysts can separate the effects of crushing and mud
solids to some degree prior to evaluating the sample, thus improving the quality of the results. Conventional Core Samples: The most representative formation sample is obtained from conventional cores. In the case of unconsolidated formations, rubber sleeve conventional cores may be required to assure sample recovery. If available, small plugs can be taken under controlled circumstances at various sections of the core for a complete and accurate median formation grain size and grain size distribution determination. This is the recommended method for Saudi Aramco as we have very good core coverage of our wells. Both Hawtah and Southern Area Pre-Kuff developments have screens sized using full bore core material analysis. Sieve analysis consist of placing a formation sample at the top of a series of screens that have progressively smaller mesh sizes. The sand grains in the original well sample will fall through the screens until encountering a screen through which that grain size cannot pass because the openings in the screen are too small. By weighing the screens before and after sieving, the weight of formation sample retained by each size screen can be determined. The cumulative weight percent of each sample retained can be plotted as a comparison of screen mesh size on semi-log coordinates to obtain a sand size distribution plot as shown in Figure 6.2. Reading the graph at the 50 percent cumulative weight gives the median formation grain size diameter. This grain size, often referred to as D50, is the basis of gravel pack sand size selection procedures. The samples used for sieve analysis must be representative of the formation if the analysis data is expected to provide accurate gravel packing sizing information. If possible, a sample should be taken at every lithology change. The minimum size of the formation sample required for sieve analysis is 15 cubic centimeters. Table 6.1 provides a reference for mesh size versus sieve openings.
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100 75
50 25
C D
Figure 6.2: Sand Size Distribution Plot From Sieve Analysis
Table 6.1: Standard Sieve Openings Gravel Pack Sand Sizing There are several techniques for selecting a gravel pack sand size to control the production of formation sand. The technique most widely used today was developed by Saucier. The basic premise of Sauciers work is that optimum sand control is achieved when the median grain size of the gravel pack sand is no more than six times larger than the median grain size of the formation sand. In practice, the proper gravel pack sand size is selected by multiplying the median grain size of the formation sand by four and eight to achieve a gravel pack sand size range whose average is six times larger than the median grain size of the formation sand. This calculated gravel pack sand size range is compared to the available commercial grades of gravel pack sand. The available gravel pack sand that matches the calculated gravel pack size range is selected. In the event that the calculated gravel pack sand size range falls between the size ranges of commercially available gravel pack sand, the smaller gravel pack sand is normally selected. Table 6.2 contains information on commercially available
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gravel pack sand sizes. Gravel Size (U.S. Mesh) 8/12 12/20 20/40 40/60 50/70 Size Range (Inches) .094 - .066 .066 - .033 .033 - .017 .017 - .0098 .012 - .0083
D90 = grain size at the 90% cumulative level from sieve analysis plot If C is greater than five, the sand is considered to be poorly sorted and the next smaller size gravel pack sand than calculated using Sauciers technique may be justified. Gravel Pack Sand Gravel pack well productivity is sensitive to the permeability of the gravel pack sand. To ensure maximum well productivity, only high quality gravel pack sand should be used. The API RP58 establishes rigid specifications for acceptable properties of sands used for gravel packing. These specifications focus on ensuring the maximum permeability and longevity of the sand under typical well production and treatment conditions. The specifications define minimum acceptable standards for the size and shape of the grains, the amount of fines and impurities, acid solubility, and crush resistance. Only a few naturally occurring sands are capable of meeting the API specifications without excessive processing. These sands are characterized by their high quartz content and consistency in grain size. A majority of the gravel pack sand used in the world is mined from the Ottawa formation in the Northern United States. Table 6.3 gives the permeability of common gravel pack sand sizes conforming to the API RP58 specifications.
Table 6.2: Commercially Available Sand Sizes Note that Sauciers technique is based solely on the median grain size of the formation sand with no consideration given to the range of sand grain diameters or degree of sorting, present in the formation. The sieve analysis plot discussed earlier can be used to get an indication of the degree of sorting in a particular formation sample. A near vertical sieve analysis plot represents a high degree of sorting (most of the formation sand is in a very narrow size range) versus a more nearly horizontal plot, which indicates poorer sorting as illustrated by curves A and D, respectively in Figure 6.2. A sorting factor, or uniformity coefficient, can be calculated as follows:
where: C = sorting factor or uniformity coefficient D40 = grain size at the 40% cumulative level from sieve analysis plot
Table 6.3: Permeability of Common Gravel Pack Sand
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Frac & Pack Designs Frac-pack completions have become very popular in the last five years as soft rock fracture techniques have been accepted by the industry. The frac-pack technique combines the stimulation advantages of a highly conductive hydraulic fracture with the sand control of a gravel pack to improve productivity in highly permeable, unconsolidated formations. A frac pack is performed by pumping the gravel or proppant through a special tool with the screen and liner in place covering the perforated interval. The first frac pack was performed by Arco on the North Slope of Alaska in 1985. This technique became more popular in the Gulf coast during the early 90s. Since then, the frac-pack has been the most consistent high-productivity sand control method available for vertical well completions requiring sand control. In a frac pack, the created fracture width connects all productive layers, improving reservoir drainage. And because of the high pump rate and pressure, all the perforation tunnels are completely packed with gravel ensuring good sand control and little perforation pressure drop. In soft formations, additional requirements for proppant selection exist. Proppant concentration must be high enough to offset the fact that about 2 lb/sq ft will be lost to embedment in the formation. The mesh size may be selected using gravel selection criteria to ensure formation sand cannot flow into the fracture. Due to lower sanding tendency of a fractured well a larger proppant size can be used providing high permeability through the perforations to provide better production. A tip screen out is desirable when performing a frac pack. The tip screen out allows all perforations to be fully packed with gravel and insures that the screen-casing annulus is completely filled with gravel as well. Another advantage with frac pack operations is the ability of the fracture to bypass any near wellbore damage. Bypassing near wellbore damage can typically result in increased production (two or three times
greater) compared to cased hole gravel packing operations. A properly performed frac pack should yield a 2 to 3 skin compared to a +0.5 to 3 skin for cased hole gravel packed wells. As with cased hole gravel packing, the proppant is sized to control the formation sand production. The same six times D50 sizing criteria is used to select proppant size. Screens are once again sized to control the formation sand as a back up to the proppant. However, the main role of the screens is to hold the proppant in place. Standard wire wrap screens, pre-pack screens and interlaminate screens are all used in frac pack completions. Screen selections are usually based on sand control needs. If the formations has a high degree (greater then 10%) of small (less then 325 mesh) mobile fines present and is poorly sorted with a C (uniformity index) greater then 5, the use of interlaminate or pre-packed screens is recommended for frac packing. If the formation is well sorted and has a small volume of clays and mobile fines, wire wrapped screen will provide adequate protection. In some cases, voids may appear in the annulus area after frac packing due to over displacement of gravel or slumping when the frac gels break. If voids are present, screen cutting can occur. This problem is more prevalent in high rate gas well completions. The use of Baker Excluder screens may be warranted to protect against screen cutting for high rate gas well completions. These novel type screens are designed to avoid screen cutting from solids impingement against the screen. Screenless Sand Control Techniques If the formation is a stacked series of sediment with some layers having higher rock strength, it may be possible to fracture treat the formation and control both sand production and proppant flow back with out the use of downhole screens. This technique is called Screenless Fracturing for Sand Control and has been used in the Southern Area Pre-
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Kuff development with good success. The basic technique is to identify the more competent sand stone layers using logging data. Once identified, only the strongest layers should be perforated. See the basic recommendations below: 1. Perforate the strongest layer 2. Perforate lower sections; do not perforate top of zone and frac down, the frac may close after the proppant settles. 3. Keep perforated interval below 30 ft. 4. Perforate at 180 degree phasing. Align perforations parallel to maximum horizontal stress, avoiding perforating into areas of borehole breakout. 5. Entrance hole diameters should not be greater then 8 times the diameter of the selected proppant size. 6. Utilize resin coated proppant (RCP) to aid in proppant flowback and keep the proppant in place. 7. Size the proppant no larger then 8 times the D50 size of the formation sand. 8. Design the frac job for a tip screen-out generating at lest 1,000 psig of net pressure during proppant placement. 9. Perform a forced closure to ensure the proppant does not settle out after the frac gel breaks. 10.Follow prescribed unloading procedures to avoid stresses in the placed pack.
General Selection Criteria For Cased Hole Sand Control Completions Gravel Packing: Water or gas contacts are present without good vertical isolation barriers present. Multiple zones present in same wellbore Skin damage is acceptable Oil well where non-Darcy flow effects will not be a problem. Frac Packing: Long intervals w/o significant shale breaks or frac growth limitations Low permeability formations High rate wells with significant non-darcy flow effect Negative completion skins required. Screenless Sand Control: Reduced cost requirements Oil well where non-Darcy flow effects will not be a problem Reduced well life possible due to cycle fatigue failure with resin Reduced flow rate from partial completion skin acceptable.
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Chapter 7 - Well Preparation for Gravel Packing

Careful planning, well preparation, and completion execution are all required for completion success. The omission of any of these steps may account for a completion that falls short of its objectives since many of the completion operations are interdependent. To achieve the completion goals of sand control, productivity and longevity, attention must be given to drilling practices, cleanliness, completion fluids, perforating, perforation cleaning, acidizing, gravel specifications, tool specifications and rig and service company personnel. The proper preparation of a well for gravel packing can be the key to a successful completion. Drilling Practices Productivity of the open or cased hole gravel packed completion is determined in part by the condition of the reservoir behind the filter cake, quality of the filter cake and stability of the wellbore. Given this, it can be said that the completion begins when the bit enters the pay and therefore the goal of drilling is to maintain wellbore stability while minimizing formation damage. For cased hole completions, drilling fluids should be designed to provide wellbore stability and control leak off to less then 15 inches to allow the perforation process to bypass near wellbore damage. Wellbore Stability Wellbore stability in the form of washouts, hole collapse and borehole breakout is an effect of high fluid loss, high PV and YP, inadequate overbalance, regional stresses, and or reaction between filtrate and formation. Whatever the reason, instability effects both open and cased-hole completions and can cause loss of the wellbore. Thick cement sheaths in washed-out sections result in poor to no perforation penetration and the lack of cement can make sand placement difficult. Hole collapse can prevent running either casing or screen to bottom and failure in the form of fracturing or collapse can stop an open-hole gravel pack, should failure occur while the pack is in process. Formation Damage Formation damage is expressed in the form of skin and is an effect of filtrate and particle damage, and filter cake quality in the case of open-hole gravel packs. Skin in turn is reflected in poor productivity and it is expensive to remove or bypass. Preservation of reservoir pore throats requires keeping particles out of pores, minimizing filtrate loss and employing a filtrate that is compatible with rock and reservoir fluids. With open-hole completions filtrate requirements seem rather obvious, but they are generally over looked in cased-hole completions. Frequently it is assumed that any damage caused by filtrate will be bypassed with perforating. Looking at the times reservoirs are exposed and the moderate to high fluid losses, it is easy to have filtrate invade 1 to 3 ft. from the wellbore. If this filtrate is incompatible with reservoir rock and fluid, then there is a damaged ring past the range possible to perforate past. Proper selection of a filtrate brine base along with polymers and fluid loss agents containing a properly sized bridging agent will usually meet these needs. Wellbore Cleanout Cleanliness may be one of the most important considerations when implementing a completion involving gravel packing. Since a gravel pack represents the installation of a downhole filter, any action that promotes plugging the filter (i.e. the gravel pack sand or screens) is detrimental to well productivity. However, in spite of the fact that clean completion fluids are used, the lack of cleanliness in the casing, work string, lines, pits and other equipment is a source of potential formation damage and lost productivity. While cleaning the well and rig equipment can be expensive, it is not as expensive as lost productivity or having to rework the entire completion because proper cleaning was neglected in the beginning. It requires only one cubic foot of solids to completely fill 495 average gravel pack perforations. At a typical shot density of 12 shots per foot, this
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amounts to 41 feet of perforated interval. In completing high permeability, unconsolidated formations, the formation should normally be experiencing fluid loss. If this is the case, all solids entering the well will most likely end up in the perforations. Casing Reverse circulation is the preferred method of circulation for cleaning the casing and the recommended annular velocity is 150 ft/min for casing shoe deviations less than 60 degrees and 300 ft/min for deviations greater than 60 degrees. Reverse circulation is more effective than circulating the long way as material is moved down hole with gravity; all material not recovered is pushed to the bottom of the hole. Work string scale and pipe dope, provided the connection is wiped off, does not enter the casing. Planning for a work string that will permit reverse circulation is required. Mechanical, hydraulic, and chemical cleaning agents should be employed to clean the casing. Mechanical agents are usually in the form of casing scrapers and most hydraulic agents are push pills and filtered brine. Casing sweeps provide a chemical wash to address polymers, oil and/or solids adhering to the casing wall. As a mechanical agent, scrapers will remove cement and scale that a bit will miss but unfortunately a packer may not. It is prudent to run casing scrapers to bottom or at least through the interval to be perforated. For open-hole completions, the scraper should be run to within 100 ft of the shoe or at least past the proposed packer seat. In displacing the drill-in fluid, a push pill is pumped first followed by a casing sweep which is followed by filtered brine (See Figure 7.1). Push pills serve as a hydraulic piston by creating a sharp interface between mud and casing sweep. The casing sweep removes polymers and solids adhering to the casing wall and the filtered brine provides turbulence to help remove and wash material out of the casing.
Figure 7.1: Reverse Circulation Push pill volumes should at least be equal to the volume of 300 feet of the work string-casing annulus, have the same density as the drill-in fluid, and have a yield point that is 1.5 to 2.0 times that of the drill-in fluid. Thus they are easily made from a portion of the drill-in mud by the addition of a viscosifier to raise the yield point. Casing sweeps depend on the chemical employed to remove solids and polymer and, to be effective, will require some contact time at turbulent rates (300 ft/min). For XC polymer drill-in fluids, calcium hypochlorite (65% active) at 1.5 ppb and a 5 minute contact time will effectively remove polymers and fluid loss agents. Open Hole As with the casing, reverse circulation is the preferred method of circulation. With the casing cleaned as previously discussed, now all attention can be focused on cleaning the open hole. Well bore losses and stability can be easily detected and repaired if necessary, and any unrecovered material will be pushed to bottom out of the way. Recommended annular velocity is 300 ft/min at any deviation to scour the filter cake in preparation for gravel packing and to clean the hole. Push pills
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should be used to displace the drill-in fluid from the open hole. The pill should be spotted in the casing and work string annulus above the open hole using forward circulation, then the work string is run to bottom and the pill and drill-in fluid displaced from the open hole with filtered brine using reverse circulation (See Figure 7.2). Push pills are formulated and sized as previously discussed under casing clean up.
tamination of the gravel pack is thread dope lubricant. Recommendations are to use thread dope lubricant sparingly only on the pin ends during the completion phase, and to eliminate the use of thread dope completely on the final run in the hole just prior to gravel packing the well. Pickling the work string with a pipe dope solvent and 10% HCl before starting a gravel pack is a must. As with any solvent, there is a required contact time and wash rate to dissolve lubricant and carry material out the work string. The use of a dedicated clean work string strictly for gravel packing should be considered if a number of wells are to be completed. Surface Facilities Tanks and lines are sometimes ignored but are a common cause of damaging materials, particularly when the rig that drilled the well is used for completing the well. Tanks must be thoroughly scraped and jetted to ensure any residual solids from the drilling fluids are removed. When possible, tanks should be dedicated to completion fluids when a drilling program involves drilling numerous wells requiring gravel packs. Casing sweep chemicals and seawater are recommended for removing debris from rig lines. Quality Assurance If properly filtered brine is used as per following discussion on filtration, the hole displaced as recommended and surface facilities cleaned, then it is easy to obtain brine returns less than 20 NTUs on cleaning the cased and open hole and through out the entire gravel pack operation. Again this is only possible if all of the steps are followed and there are no short cuts. Filtration As mentioned previously, gravel-pack completion fluids must be sufficiently clean in order that suspended particles do not plug or reduce the permeability of the formation, perforations gravel-pack
Figure 7.2: Reverse Circulation Work string The work string should be sized to permit reverse circulation and always be run in open ended to minimize back pressure on the formation. The work string will contain the same types of debris associated with the casing. However, unlike the casing, both the inner and outer surfaces must be clean because completion fluid will be circulated along both surfaces. Scraping the work string is usually not an option as with the casing, but visual inspections of the tubing before it is run into the well are encouraged to ensure that the tubing is in good mechanical condition and clean. As a minimum, a rabbit with a diameter equal to the drift diameter of the work string will help to loosen scale and other debris, as well as providing assurance of the internal diameter of the work string. Once the work string is clean every effort must be made to keep it clean. A common source of con-
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sand, or screens. To achieve a clean fluid requires filtration. Completion fluids are typically filtered to at least 2 microns. The fluid can be filtered by either a diatomaceous earth (DE) filter upstream in combination with a cartridge filter unit downstream, or with a cartridge filter unit alone. A schematic of the diatomaceous earth unit is shown in Figure 7.3. The diatomaceous earth filter unit does a majority of the filtration before the fluid arrives at the cartridge filter unit. Since diatomaceous earth is less expensive than cartridges, the use of a DE filter with a cartridge filter downstream will be more economical than a cartridge filter unit alone. This is especially true if the completion fluid is very dirty, which is usually true at some point during the completion, or if large volumes of fluid are required, as in the case of gravel packing. DE filters are not absolute type filters, so a wide variety of particle sizes are capable of bleeding through the filter. The diatomaceous earth itself will also bleed through the filter. Diatomaceous earth is very capable of plugging the formation and is not acid soluble; therefore, a DE filter should always incorporate a downstream cartridge filter to stop the diatomaceous earth and provide additional finer fluid filtration. Cartridge filter units can use either nominal or absolute type filter cartridges. The nominal filters are typically wound elements de-
signed for bulk solids removal using depth type filtration. The absolute filters have pleated elements that rely on surface filtration to retain specific size particles. Absolute filters are rated based on their efficiencies indicated by their beta rating. Most completion fluids used for gravel packing are filtered to 2 microns with a removal efficiency of 99 percent or better. Care should be taken while filtering to ensure the pressure differential while flowing through the cartridges does not exceed the cartridge manufacturers recommendation (typically 30 to 50 pounds per square inch) or collapse of the cartridge may occur destroying its efficiency. Filtration of naturally viscous fluids may present a problem due to the increased pressure drop required to flow a viscous fluid through the cartridge. Oil entrained in the completion fluid can also present filtration problems. If viscous polymer gels are used during the completion, the base fluid should be filtered before the polymers are added. After adding the polymers, the gel should be thoroughly sheared to remove unhydrated dry polymer clusters commonly referred to as fish eyes. After shearing, the polymers can be filtered through a cartridge filter unit. The cartridge filters used for gels are generally rated to 10 microns with a minimum 98 percent removal efficiency. Attempting to filter viscous polymer gels prior to shearing tends to plug the fil-
Figure 7.3: Diatomaceous Earth Filtration System for Completion or Workover
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ter unit and removes the polymer from the base fluid. To summarize, the technique used to filter the fluid is not the issue, it is the fluid cleanliness that is important. The filtration technique used is based strictly on achieving the desired results in the most economical fashion. All fluids entering the well after the initial casing clean-up should be filtered. Filtration should be performed throughout the entire completion operation, because small amounts of debris are continuously being removed from the well throughout the pumping operations. Completion and Gravel Pack Fluids In addition to being clean, the fluids used in the well completion must be compatible with the formation and formation fluids. Of particular concern is clay swelling and compatibility with formation water to avoid ion precipitation. The candidate completion fluids should be tested in the laboratory to ensure their compatibility with the formation and formation fluids. An incompatible completion fluid can cause permanent formation damage. The normal sources of completion fluids are produced brine, seawater or clear brines. Of course, the overriding design criteria for a completion fluid is the hydrostatic requirements to maintain well control. Fluid density can be controlled by the addition of several soluble salts such as sodium chloride, sodium bromide, potassium chloride, ammonium chloride, calcium chloride, calcium bromide, zinc chloride, zinc bromide and lithium bromide. The densities of these fluids range from 8.33 to as high as about 20 pounds per gallon (ppg). All have their advantages and disadvantages and, depending on the density of the fluid required, their cost can exceed $500 per barrel. The fluids used for gravel packing can be water or oil based. The water based fluids are usually the most desirable and are considered to be more flexible than the oil based systems. Because of this, the water based fluids are more commonly used. The simplest water based fluid used for gravel packing is the completion brine itself. Crude oil is still a valid alternative in extremely water sensitive formations.
Fluid loss control is a common consideration when completing unconsolidated formations with a gravel pack. In addition to the potential formation damage caused by fluid loss, there is particular anxiety when high cost fluids are involved or when completion fluid reserves are low. The amount of fluid loss that can be tolerated tends to be site specific, but when losses exceed about 30 barrels per hour (bph), concern is usually voiced. At this point, it is important to emphasize that the fluid loss control technique selected should be compatible with the formation and any damage caused by the technique should be reversible. Perforating For Gravel Packing Completion This section reviews perforating technology applicable to cased hole gravel packs that focus on achieving high-productivity completions. Operations that aid in cleaning debris from the perforations prior to gravel placement will also be discussed. Cased-hole completions must be perforated to establish communication between the formation and the wellbore. The perforating operation penetrates the casing, cement, damaged zone and, hopefully, into the undamaged formation. Perforating guns are configured to provide a variety of shot diameters, shot densities, shot penetrations, and entrance-hole phasing. The size, phasing, and shot density can be varied depending on the gun design. Figure 7.4 shows an example of the perforating pattern created by a 90 degree phased gun. Shot densities as high as 21 shots/ft are available, depending on the gun size. Perforating is an effective way of communicating with the formation, but it is extremely violent, and may leave a considerable amount of debris within the perforation tunnel. In non-gravel packed wells, the debris usually can be flowed from the perforation during production. In gravel packed wells, there is a danger of trapping the debris in the perforation tunnel with the gravel pack sand, reducing its permeability, which results in permanent damage to the well and reduced productivity.
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Figure 7.4: Cased Hole Perforating Shaped charges used for perforating are available as deep penetrating (DP) charges and gravel pack (GP) charges. The DP charge creates a perforation that has a small diameter entry hole in the casing and deep penetration into the formation. A GP charge liner is designed with a wide angle to create a larger entrance hole. The GP charge creates a perforation that has a large diameter entry hole in the casing and a relatively shallow depth of penetration. Table 7.1 show the differences between the design and performance of deep penetrating and gravel pack charges. Other factors that affect the performance of the charge include the distance between the shaped charge and the ID of the casing (i.e. stand-off). The engineering design of a gun seeks to optimize the various factors to create the desired type of perforation. In non-gravel packed wells, experience and theory indicate that a perforation density of four shots per foot is sufficient in most wells to equal the theoretical open-hole productivity of the formation.
The perforations in a gravel packed well will be gravel filled. In fact, filling the perforations with gravel pack sand is a critical phase of gravel packing. Since the gravel pack sand has a porosity of about 35 percent, a perforation filled with gravel will have about two-thirds of its cross-sectional flow area occupied by gravel with only a third of the perforation area capable of passing reservoir fluids. Viewed from another perspective, if two-thirds of the perforation cross-sectional area is occupied by gravel, a shot density of twelve shots per foot is required to achieve the effective cross-sectional flow area of four perforations not filled with gravel pack sand. For gravel pack completions, the objective of perforating should be to communicate with the reservoir, have adequate perforation area, and to prepack each perforation with uncontaminated gravel. With this in mind, the perforations should be as large as possible, and must be effective and contribute to flow. Even where the perforation density is 12 shots per foot, if the diameter of the perforations are small, there may be a substantial pressure drop through the perforations that limits the wells flow capacity. Figure 7.5 illustrates a perforation filled with gravel pack sand. This geometry represents ideal conditions and is probably seldom achieved; however, every attempt must be made to place as much gravel as possible into each perforation to provide a defined interface and prevent mixing of formation sand and gravel pack sand. Referring to Figure 7.5, note the area of linear flow through the perforation tunnel. Neglecting compressibility effects and turbulent effects, Darcys equation is applicable to this area of linear flow:
Charge Characteristics Liner Entry Hole Penetration
Deep Penetrating Charge Deep, sharp angle (42o to 45o) 3/8 to 1/2 diameter 13 to 30 deep
Gravel Pack Charge Shallow, rounded liner 1/2 to 1 diameter 6 to 8 deep
Table 7.1: Comparison of Deep Penetrating and Gravel Pack Shaped Charges
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S =
Where: p = flowing pressure drop (psi) = viscosity (centipoise) q = flowrate (barrels per day) L = distance from screen OD to cement sheath OD (inches) k = gravel pack permeability (darcys) d = diameter of perforation (inches) For a given flowrate, the only non-reservoir factors that can be controlled to reduce the pressure drop is increasing the flow area by increasing the perforation diameter and increasing the permeability of the gravel pack sand. Increased perforation size decreases the pressure drop required to maintain a given flowrate (see figure 7.6). In summary, perforating for gravel packed wells
T/ NG
requires large hole diameters and high-shot densities. This point is illustrated by Figure 7.7, which shows the inflow-outflow results for a typical high permeability well requiring a gravel pack. The figure shows five reservoir inflow curves and one tubing outflow curve. The intersection of the inflow curves with the outflow curve indicates the theoretical flow rate possible from the well for that condition. As can be seen, the case of high-shot density with large perforation hole size comes closest to achieving the ideal well productivity. The large entry hole, high-shot density perforations required for gravel packed completions can be created with either wireline or tubing-conveyed guns, but tubing conveyed guns are usually preferred because they can perforate the entire production interval under-balanced in a single gun run. The capability to perforate long intervals in one operation becomes more significant because of the desirability of under-balancing the zone to be perforated.
Figure 7.5: Fluid Flow Pattern in the Vicinity of a Perforation
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Figure 7.6: Pressure Drop (psi) Through Perforation Tunnel as a Function of Perforation Diameter
Tubing Outflow Curve Zero Skin Well 0.75 Diameter Perf, 12 SPF 0.375 Diameter Perf, 12 SPF 0.75 Diameter Perf, 4 SPF 0.375 Diameter Perf, 4 SPF
Figure 7.7: Effect of Perforation Paramaters on Well Productivity Perforation Cleaning As stated previously, when a shaped charge explosive is detonated, a high-pressure jet is formed which can easily reach pressures in excess of 15,000,000 psi at the front of the pressure wave. At these pressures, virtually all materials are plastic and penetrable. The pressure jet literally pushes its way into the material, much the same way that a nail will push a path into a block of wood. When the jet pushes through the casing and cement, and into the formation, it compacts the materials immediately surrounding the perforation. Since the cement and the formation are crystalline in structure, they are compacted to a greater extent than the steel. Because of this, a zone of reduced permeability is created at the boundary of the perforation in the formation as illustrated in Figure 7.8 This compacted zone can be up to 1/2 inch thick and can have a permeability that is substantially less than that of the bulk formation, which can significantly restrict well productivity. The perforating debris and the compacted zone must be removed to maximize well productivity. Failure to remove the debris and compacted zone can reduce the potential production rate. The methods available for perforation cleaning include acidizing, washing, back-surging, and under-balanced perforating. Acidizing perforations involves injecting a predetermined type and volume of acid into the perforations after they have been created to dissolve any acid soluble material. In most cases, perforating debris is not highly soluble in acid, therefore, acidizing
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Figure 7.8: Schematic of a Perforation is more effective and better applied when used on limestone formations or in conjunction with some of the other cleaning techniques discussed in this section. Some critical considerations when acidizing are the compatibility of the acid with the formation, the volume of acid to pump, and uniform placement of the acid into the perforations. Acid solubility tests should be performed on a formation sample to select the most effective acid. This is extremely important, because certain situations exist in which the acid will actually damage the formation instead of providing stimulation and higher productivity. The volume of acid to pump is typically determined by the number of perforations and the length of the perforated interval. Washing perforations involves running an opposing cup type tool into the well after perforating the producing zone. The cup tool seals on the inside of the casing and allows a circulation path through the tool and out ports located between the opposing cups. The tools cups are usually about one foot apart to focus the washing operation over a short interval. The washing consists of pumping filtered completion fluid at as high rate as possible without breaking down the formation. The goal of washing is to establish communication between several sets of perforations to effectively remove the perforation debris and compacted zone from the well. This technique can become expensive and time consuming in wells with large perforation intervals. Under-balanced Tubing Conveyed Perforating has been shown to be an efficient means of cleaning perforations from an operating standpoint because the under-balance can be preset prior to detonating the perforating guns. The goal of underbalanced perforating is to remove all debris and the compacted zone from the perforation tunnels. Under-balanced perforating is similar to back surging in that the formation is exposed to a low pressure in the wellbore and is allowed to surge to clean the perforations. Unlike back surging, which requires a special trip in the hole to execute, under-balanced perforating is done in conjunction with the perforating operation. Under-balanced refers to the condition where the hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore at the guns is lower than the pressure in the formation being perforated. Upon gun detonation, the formation is immediately (within milliseconds) surged by backflow into the well. To effectively surge all the perforations, tubing conveyed perforating guns must be used. If wireline conveyed guns are used, only the first run in the well is surged as mentioned previously. The amount of under-balanced pressure that the formation is exposed to can be adjusted to achieve optimum results. Typically, the under-balanced should surge the formation up to, but no exceeding, the point of formation failure. Excessive formation material surged into the well can stick the guns in the hole. Determining how much under-balance is required is a trial and error proce-
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dure within a specific formation. Normally, a starting under-balance of 500 psi is suggested for oil wells and 1,000 psi for gas wells. Fracturing: A relatively new technique is to bypass perforating damage instead of using a cleaning or removal technique. Extreme overbalance perforating is used to perforate and then fracture the formation. Fracpack completions have been successfully used in unconsolidated formations to bypass perforating damage as well as drilling and cementing damage. Summary The primary objective of perforating for a gravel packed well is to provide large inflow area (12 shots/ ft or higher and 3/4 or larger perforations) through the casing because the subsequent gravel pack will fill about two thirds of the perforations with gravel. The secondary objective is to clean the perforations to remove all debris and formation material prior to packing the perforation tunnels with gravel prior to performing the annular gravel pack. Ways of achieving these objectives is to perforate the well underbalanced in a single operation using large diameter, high-shot density perforating guns. Washing or surging are also alternatives to providing additional perforation cleaning over and above that achieved with under-balanced perforating. Fluid Loss Control Fluid loss should be controlled or managed but not necessarily stopped. As previously mentioned, the amount of fluid loss that can be tolerated during the completion is site specific. Ideally, nothing would be done to stop fluid loss, but when expensive high density brine is being lost, completion fluid reserves are low or the loss rate makes operations unsafe, some type of loss control system must be employed. Also, the formation damage potential of continued fluid loss (even though the fluid is filtered) should be considered in light of the potential damage from employing a fluid loss control system. The normal methods for controlling fluid loss are:
Reduced hydrostatic pressure Viscous polymer gels Graded solid particles Mechanical means.
The type of fluid loss control that is recommended depends upon where in the well completion process you are. Since the completion process should be considered as beginning as soon as the bit enters the pay and continues through the running of production tubing, fluid loss may become an issue at the following times:
While drilling the reservoir During an open hole gravel pack (especially for
a highly deviated hole) Immediately after perforating After pre-packing After gravel packing.
When selecting a fluid loss control technique, the condition of the well at the current time, operations that still must be completed, and available remedial techniques for elimination of the effects of fluid loss pill must all be considered. These considerations will lead to different fluid loss control techniques being utilized throughout the completion process. Hydrostatic Pressure: Fluid loss is a direct result of differential pressure into the formation due to the overbalanced condition created by the hydrostatic pressure of the completion fluid. A reduction in the rate of fluid loss can be accomplished by simply lowering the density of the completion fluid. Some operators have even allowed the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the completion fluid to equalize with the formation pressure by letting the completion fluid seek its own level in the wellbore. Working with a low fluid level in the well would only be acceptable in wells that are not capable of flowing to surface. This has become a common practice for Hawtah gravel pack completions. The rate of fluid loss associated with a given overbalance pressure is controlled by sev-
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eral factors. To estimate the fluid loss rate for a given differential pressure, Darcys Law for radial flow can be examined:
4=
NK3 UH + %R OQ 6 U Z
Where: Q = loss rate (bph) k = permeability (md) P = pressure differential (psi) = viscosity of completion fluid (cp) S = skin h = net sand thickness (feet) Bo = formation volume factor of completion fluid ln(re/rw) = 8 (assume) This equation indicates that the flow of fluids from the wellbore for a given differential pressure is controlled by the formations permeability, the interval thickness, the viscosity of the flowing fluid, the compressibility of the reservoir fluids, as well as the degree of formation damage surrounding the wellbore.
Viscous Polymer Gels: The fluid loss rate is directly affected by the viscosity of the fluid that is lost to the formation. This relationship between loss rate and viscosity has led to the common use of viscous polymer gels to control fluid loss. Viscous gels are very effective at controlling losses provided the permeability of the formation and the overbalance are not too great. In addition, elevated temperatures are detrimental to the ability of gels to control fluid loss. The gels will degrade at high temperatures and often additional gel pills will be required throughout the course of the completion or workover to keep the loss rate at an acceptable level. Figure 7.9 shows the effect of viscous pills on controlling fluid loss. If the temperature is such that the gel degrades too slowly or incompletely, chemical breakers may be required. Breakers are chemicals which act to degrade the polymer and restore the viscosity to the original value of the base brine in which the polymer was mixed. The biggest disadvantage to the use of viscous polymer gels as a fluid loss control technique is a tendency of residual polymer or viscous gel to remain in the near wellbore area where
Figure 7.9: Volumes of HEC Pills Required to Control Losses to 4 bph for Various Reservoir Conditions
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it inhibits flow. HEC is commonly mixed in ratios of 65 to 75 pounds per 1,000 gallons of brine when used as a gravel pack carrier fluid. For fluid loss applications, HEC can be mixed in ratios of 90 to 150 pounds per 1,000 gallons. At 194F, an HEC gel pill without a breaker will probably completely break in a few days. At 185F, approximately 14 days will be required for an HEC gel pill to totally break. Below that 185F, the gel is unlikely to completely break without the use of a chemical breaker. At normal well temperatures, a maximum of 0.15 percent by volume of HEC remains behind as residual solids after complete viscosity reduction with chemical breakers. Crosslinked HEC or other gels systems should be avoided for use in gravel pack operations as fluid loss control additives. Graded Solid Particles: These materials consist of soluble solid particles that have been carefully sized to form a filter cake:
downhole conditions without phase separation and migration of particles. The final density of the material must be heavier than the completion brine to prevent density switching of the fluids after placement. The three most common fluid loss systems using graded solids mixed in viscous carrier fluids are:
Resin particles (soluble in solvents like xylene or

diesel) Salt particles (soluble in under saturated brine) Calcium carbonate particles (soluble in acid). Oil Soluble Resin: These systems consist of:
Brine as a base fluid HEC as a viscosifying agent Graded oil soluble hydrocarbon resins for loss Starch for fluid loss control in the smaller pore Magnesium oxide as a pH buffer at higher temperatures. Oil soluble resins normally have an upper temperature limit of 212F. The most common type of oil soluble resin is made of polymerized hydrocarbons. A new type oil soluble resin made by processing natural pine resin has recently been developed. This resin is stable in temperatures up to 300F and is easier to dissolve. The size of the oil soluble resin pill needed to control fluid loss is normally equal to twice the hole volume of the perforated or open hole interval. The pill should be displaced downhole and squeezed into the formation at the maximum practical rate. The oil soluble resin is removed using a hydrocarbon based resin solvent that is pumped into the well. In the past, xylene at a 25 percent concentration was used because it was very effective in cleaning the resin from the formation. Oil soluble resin systems designed to work in highly permeable formations are much more expensive than graded salt throats control in larger pore throats
On the formation face if used prior to gravel packing. On the inside of the gravel pack screen if placed after gravel packing. To fill the perforation tunnels if placed after perforating and before gravel packing operations.
These solids should be designed to provide fluid loss control by creating a thin filter cake with reduced adhesion to provide better opportunity for complete removal. Particle sizing must be designed so that little invasion of solid particulate occurs. The general assumption is that particles with sizes as small as 1/3 of the pore throat openings of the formation will aid in plugging or bridging of the pore throats to form a thin impermeable filter cake. The square root of the formation permeability in millidarcies can be used as a rough estimate of the size of the pore throat opening. The base fluid used to carry the solids into the well must be compatible with the formation fluids and matrix mineralogy of the formation. The solids and viscous carrier fluids must be stable under
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or graded calcium carbonate. In addition the fluids required for clean-up are more expensive. This makes oil soluble resins unsuitable as a drill-in or underreaming fluid for open-hole gravel packing. Sized Salt Systems: Another widely available system using solid material for fluid loss control is graded salt pills. Graded salt pills contain various sized solid salt particles and starches which act as bridging agents on the face of the formation. The combination of solid salt particles of different sizes and the starch acts as a membrane with a lower permeability than the formation. The overbalance created by the completion fluid hydrostatic pressure holds the particles in place. The graded salt systems are designed for application in completion and workover operations to provide fluid loss control in a wide range of fluid densities and downhole temperatures of up to 300F. The system consists of:
temperatures above 176F the speed at which the filter cake dissolves in under saturated fluid with a breaker is significantly increased compared to lower temperatures. For cased hole applications at 185F, weak organic acids, such as citric and formic, are recommended. The acids attack the polymers in the filter cake prior to using under saturated brine for dissolving the remaining salt. Proper diversion techniques are vital in achieving a uniform dissolution of the filter cake with minimal productivity impairment. Final clean-up is accomplished by circulating under saturated brine, produced brine or acid which dissolve the salt particles. However, prior to dissolving the salt, a breaker such as an oxidizer or enzyme is required to break the polymer and allow the salt to be contacted. Another difficulty in obtaining complete cleanup is that the structure of NaCl leads to a tightly packed and tough filtercake. This strong cake can cause clean up fluids to worm-hole through the cake, and not provide total removal. Calcium Carbonate System: As with graded salt systems, calcium carbonate is pumped into the well and forms an extremely low permeability cake on the face of the formation or on the inside of the gravel pack screen. As with the oil soluble resin and graded salt system, a proper concentration and distribution of the correct size particles is essential to forming a thin, ultra lowpermeability filter cake on the formation face. If the calcium carbonate particles are too large, they will not form an effective filter cake at the formation face and fluid loss will continue. If the calcium carbonate are too small, they will completely or partially invade the formation and are less likely to be removed during clean-up operations. This can result in formation damage and reduced well productivity. The primary breaker for these systems is an acid wash. If the formation will not be damaged by exposure to acid or if an acid treatment is already planned as part of the gravel packing program, the calcium carbonate can be applied and fluid loss control established after perforating. With the gravel pack in place, the acid job is pumped to dis-
Brine as a base fluid Xanvis as a viscosifying agent and suspending

agent Graded salt particles for loss control in larger pore throats Crosslinked starch for fluid loss control in the smaller pore throats Magnesium oxide as a pH buffer at higher temperatures.
Controlling fluid loss in micro-fractures, extremely high permeability sands or on the inside of a slotted liner or wire wrapped screen is possible, but requires coarser salt particles. The optimum blend of salt particle sizes that provide fluid loss control and good clean-up characteristics should be determined from lab testing prior to use in the field. These systems must be placed using a Xanvis pill to suspend the salt, and must be used in fully saturated clean brine systems to keep the salt from dissolving. From laboratory tests and field operations, temperature is seen to have an effect on the dissolving efficiency of the salt particles in the filter cake. At
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solve the calcium carbonate filter cake prior to production. It is critical to specify the type and quality of calcium carbonate needed. Utilizing systems such as Bakers Pre-Flow or MIs Seal & Peel will help to insure a good thin filter cake that will reduce gravel and screen plugging during flow back. Mechanical Fluid Loss Control: Since any type of fluid loss control pill has the potential of damaging the formation, it is advantageous for fluid loss to be controlled through mechanical means whenever possible. The most commonly applied device for this purpose is a flapper type isolation valve. This valve acts as a mechanical fluid loss device that prevents completion fluid losses and subsequent damage to the formation after performing the gravel pack. The downward closing flapper valve is held open by the gravel pack
service tools during the gravel pack. When the service tools are pulled out passed the packer, the flapper closes preventing fluid loss to the formation. The gravel pack service tools can be removed from the well and the completion tubing run. Under producing conditions the flapper will open. Alternatively, the flapper is made of a friable material and can be broken hydraulically or mechanically prior to producing the well. Summary If possible, drill the formation with a designed drill-in fluid to provide a stable hole with a thin filter cake comprised of soluble material. After gravel packing or frac packing operations are completed, utilize a mechanical fluid loss device to control fluid losses while finishing the completion. If reservoir
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Table 7.1: Summary of Recommendations
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pressure is low and local conditions allow, simply let the fluid level fall until the well is equalized with the formation. Table 7.1 should act as a reference for selecting fluids loss control products for wells requiring sand control completions. A distinction should be made between cased hole gravel packing and cased hole frac & pack completions. For cased hole gravel packing, it is essential to keep the perforations open and clean until the perforations can be pre-packed with gravel. This step must be performed prior to pumping any other solids into the hole for controlling fluid loss. Typically, the well is perforated underbalanced, surged to clean the perforations, then an HEC pill is placed to allow the TCP guns to be recovered. In some cases, sized calcium carbonate may need to be added to control fluid losses while recovering the guns and running wash string. In this case, an acid wash will be required prior to pre-packing the perforations with gravel. The pre-packing operations, if performed correctly will fill all the perforations with high quality gravel. After the pre-pack operation, a sized calcium carbonate pill can be placed in the well to allow the work string to be recovered and the screens to be run. Prior to gravel pack operations, a small acid wash can be performed to remove this pill to allow some leakoff into the formation insuring a good clean pack. For Frac & Pack operations, perforation prepacking is not required as the perforation will be completely filled during the fracturing phase of this operation. It is important to keep the perforations clean and open prior to the job. If fluid loss problems arise after perforating, place a solids-free viscoelastic surfactant pill to control losses. This product will work in temperatures up to 300 degrees F. This is the preferred kill pill in Saudi Aramco and has been used in Pre-Khuff frac packs. The annulus will be completely filled during the screen out phase of the operation.
Gravel Placement Techniques

As stated previously, gravel packing consists of installing a down-hole filter in the well to control the entry of formation material but allow the production of reservoir fluids. The gravel packed completion is perhaps the most difficult and complex completion operation performed on a routine basis. The success of a gravel pack is influenced by many factors beginning when the drill bit enters the productive pay and ending when the completion tubing is run in the well. Since the gravel pack is a filter, any operation or procedure that leads to plugging will impair well productivity. Hence, the importance of minimizing near wellbore damage, using compatible completion and stimulation fluids and establishing a clean wellbore environment. Also, perforation requirements and cleaning techniques are critical to gravel placement in the performations. Gravel must be placed in the annulus between the screen and casing. Filling the annulus with the properly sized gravel will ensure that the formation sand is retained downhole and not produced to surface. The second objective is to pack each perforation with gravel. Filling the perforations with gravel is the key to obtaining high productivity from the well. In an unconsolidated formation, any perforation that is unfilled with gravel will fill with formation sand and restrict well productivity. The crossover circulating technique is the most common method used to place the gravel in the perforations and around the screen. The gravel pack equipment and service tools allow circulating the gravel down the workstring above the packer and into the screen/casing annulus below the packer with returns coming back up the washpipe and up the workstring/casing annulus. The fluid used to carry the gravel can either leak-off to the formation or be circulated out of the hole through the wash pipe (as illustrated in Figure 7.10).
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or conventional packs. Gravel packs performed with HEC gel carrier fluids are referred to as slurry packs, gel or viscous packs. Clear completion brine is the most widely used gravel pack carrier fluid in the industry today. Clear Brine Carrier Fluids: The gravel-packing sequence at well deviations from 0 to 45 are controlled by gravity and packed from the bottom of the well upwards as seen in Figure 7.11. As long as fluids leak-off through the perforations, they will be packed with gravel. The gravel will not begin filling the perforation tunnels until the level of the gravel in the annulus has reached the perforation entrance. At this point, the gravel diverts into the perforations (if the perforation is experiencing leak-off) and completely packs the perforation. The end result is a tight annular pack with completely packed perforations. In the 45 to 60 range, the well is also completely packed, but the packing began on the low side of the hole and fills the annulus with a series of dunes propagated up and down the length of the well. At about 60 degrees well deviation, the gravel is in transition between falling to the bottom of the interval or remaining at the top of the interval on the low side of the hole. As a consequence, the packing is random as shown in Figure 7.12. To ensure propagation of the dune, the ratio of the wash-pipe OD to the screen ID must be about 0.70 or larger. The purpose of the large-diameter wash pipe is to divert flow from the annulus between the wash pipe and the screen to the annulus outside the screen. Testing and field experience has shown that the ideal ratio is probably in the range of 0.70 to 0.80. Additionally, the return flow rate to cross sectional area ratio between the screen and the casing should be at least 1 ft/sec to supply sufficient transport velocity. If the ratio of washpipe OD to screen ID is too small, excess fluid will flow in the small annulus and the gravel dune will prematurely stall high in the completion interval, resulting in a premature sandout. A schematic of the gravel packing process in wells greater than 60 when large
Figure 7.10: Gravel Pack Equipment Carrier Fluids A variety of fluids have been used as gravel carrier fluids for gravel packing operations such as brine, oil, diesel, crosslinked gels, clarified xanthum gum (XC) gel, hydroxy-ethyl- celluse (HEC) gel, and foam. The most commonly used fluids have been brine and HEC gel. Gravel packs performed with brine carrier fluids are referred to as water packs
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Packing Sequence
Figure 7.11: Gravel Pack in Vertical Well diameter wash pipe is used is illustrated in Figure 7.13. This figure shows the dune deposited and propagated along the low side of the hole until it reaches the end of the completion interval (alpha wave). At this point a secondary deposition (beta wave) backfills and packs the volume over the top of the alpha wave to complete the gravel pack. Gel Transport Fluids: Simulations with gel carrier fluids were performed at 0 to 45, 45 to 60 and 60 to 80. The packing mechanisms with gel were more complex than with brine. At 0 to 45, the high viscosity of the gel allows radial packing around the gravel pack screen and build-up at the perforations. At screen connections, voids were commonly observed immediately after pumping ceased. But the voids where typically filled by gravel settling after a few hours provided that the well deviation was less than about 60. As with brine, perforation packing was complete but occurred only if the perforation experienced fluid leak-off. At deviations greater than 60, voids persisted in areas where incomplete slurry dehydration occurred (opposite screen joint connections or un-perforated sections of the interval). Unlike the lower deviation simulations, gravel pack settling at
Figure 7.12: Gravel Pack in Deviated Well deviations greater than 60 resulted in voids along the top of the gravel pack. When the voids occurred opposite perforations, gravel pack sand placed in the perforations would be unloaded into the voids when production occurred. Under actual conditions, this phenomena would result in either sand production or localized plugging of the gravel pack as the perforation tunnels filled with formation sand. Transport Fluid Summary Based on the results of laboratory testing and field experience, brine exhibits more complete packing of the perforations and annulus under a wide variety of well conditions and is considered to be a general purpose gravel pack fluid. Gel transport fluids should be limited for use in wells with deviations less than 45 and gross zone lengths less than 70 feet in length for gravel packs. Both HEC gels and XC polymers are acceptable for Frac Pack operations as forced closure and proppant flow back from the fracture into the screen annulus will result in complete annulus and perforation packing. As a general rule, Baker Oil Tools will prefer the brine based carrier fluids utilizing wire wrapped or prepack screens. Dowell Schlumberger will prefer to
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Wash Pipe
Crossover Packer
80 Screen
80 After Settling Figure 7.13: Packing sequence with brine carrier fluid in high angle well using large diameter wash pipe and high pump rate. use HEC or XC polymers as carrier fluids in conjunction with internal breakers. Dowell Schlumbersher will utilize their All-pack screens with external shunt tubes to allow a complete pack in hole angles up to 100 degrees. This will be discussed in Chapter 9. Oil base carrier fluids are also an option as carrier fluids for completions in water sensitive formations that require oil base mud systems as drill-in fluids. These systems are more applicable to openhole completions. Oil base carrier fluids are recommended for all work in the Hawtah field and for completions in the stringer sands of the Zuluf field. Southern Area Pre-Khuff Frac Packs are preferred in water base fluids.
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References 1. Baker Sand Control Manual, Completion Technology for unconsolidated Formations, New Orleans, La. March 14th, 2001 2. Sollee, S.S., Elson, T.D. and Lerma, M.K., Field Application of Clean Completion Fluids, SPE Paper 14318, SPE 60th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Los Vegas, Nevada, September 22-25, 1985. 3. Product Information, Parker Hannifin Corporation, Commercial Filters Division, Lebanon, Indiana, 1992. 4. Bell, W.T., Brieger, E.F. and Harrigan, J.W., Laboratory Flow Characteristics of Gun Perforations, SPE Paper 3444, SPE 46th Annual Fall Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana, October 3-6, 1971. 5. Bonomo, J.M. and Young, W.S., Analysis and Evaluation of Perforating and Perforation Cleanup Methods, SPE Paper 12106, SPE 58th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Francisco, California, October 5-8, 1983. 6. Sparlin, D., Fight Sand With Sand - A Realistic Approach to Gravel Packing, SPE Paper 2649, SPE 44th Annual Fall Meeting, Denver, Colorado, September 28 - October 1, 1969. 7. Lybarger, J.H., Scheuerman, R.F. and Willard, R.O., Water-Base, Viscous Gravel Pack System Results in High Productivity in Gulf Coast Completions, SPE Paper 4774, SPE Symposium on Formation Damage Control, New Orleans, Louisiana, February 7-8, 1974. 8. Novotny, R.J. and Matson, R.P., Laboratory Observations of Gravel Placement Techniques, SPE Paper 5659, SPE 50th Annual Fall Meeting, Dallas, Texas, September 28 - October 1, 1975. 9. Recommended Practices for Testing Sand Used in Gravel Packing Operations, American Petroleum Institute, API Recommended Practice 58 (RP58), March 1986. 10. Roll, D.L., Himes, R., Ewert, D.P. and Doerksen, J., Effects of Pumping Equipment on Sand-Laden Slurries, SPE Paper 15071, SPE Production Engineering (November 1987), 291-296.
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Chapter 8 - Open Hole Completions

This chapter will focus on two open hole sand control techniques, gravel packing and stand alone screen completions. Drill-in fluids, and hole displacements will also be reviewed. Introduction As discussed in Chapter 7, much of the focus of cased hole gravel packing is aimed at completely packing the perforations with high permeability gravel pack sand. Failure to completely pack the perforations jeopardizes well productivity and completion longevity. Open hole gravel packs completely avoid the difficulties and concerns of perforation packing, and reduce the gravel placement operations to the relatively simple task of packing the screen/open hole annulus. As stand alone screens require no gravel at all, they are by far the cheapest and easiest completion to run. Because both open hole gravel packs and stand alone screen completions have no perforation tunnels, formation fluids can converge toward and through the completion radically from 360 eliminating the high pressure drop associated with linear flow through perforation tunnels. The reduced pressure drop virtually guarantees that it will be more productive than a cased hole gravel pack in the same formation. Figure 8.1 illustrates the theoretical pressure drops experienced in an open hole and cased hole gravel pack. As can be seen from the figure 8.1, open hole gravel packs result in virtually no additional pressure drop as the formation fluids converge on the wellbore. Despite their potential for creating high productivity wells, open hole sand control completions are not suitable for all reservoirs conditions. One disadvantage of the open hole completion (including open hole gravel packs), is the inability to isolate unwanted water and/or gas production. Unlike cased hole completions that can be precisely and selectively perforated only in the zones of interest, open hole completions offer less control over which fluids (water, oil and gas), are exposed to the wellbore. Furthermore, remedial operations (such as squeeze cementing, plug-backs or straddle pack-offs) to isolate unwanted fluid production are limited in open hole sand control completions. Newer technology expandable sand control screens offer good promise in this area and will be discussed in chapter 9. With this in mind, open hole completions are best suited for a single reservoir completion rather than multiple completions with water or gas between the completions.
Figure 8.1: Theoretical Pressure Drop in Various Completions
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Advantages of Openhole Completions Openhole Gravel Packs: Low drawdown and high productivity Excellent longevity Lower expense, no casing or perforating expense. Stand Alone Screens: Low drawdown and high productivity Lowest expense, no casing, perforating, or gravel pumping expense. Disadvantages of Openhole Completions Openhole Gravel Packs: Difficult to exclude undesirable fluids such as water and/or gas Not easily performed in shales; they erode or slough when brine is pumped past them. Requires special fluids for drilling the open hole section. Stand Alone Screens: Difficult to exclude undesirable fluids such as water and/or gas Requires blank pipe sections to isolate shales. Requires special fluids for drilling the open hole section. Critical Issues in Openhole Sand Control Completions Borehole Stability: Borehole stability during the drilling and completion phase is an essential requirement for open hole gravel packs. Concern over the lack of borehole stability is a primary reason why open hole gravel packs are not used more often in unconsolidated, dilatant formations. Unstable boreholes will make running of the gravel pack assembly difficult and may prevent proper gravel placement if the for-
mation flows in around the screen. This problem has been encountered in the Hawtah field. Formation Damage: Drill-in fluids and completion brines need to be compatible with both the formation and the formation fluids. Because openhole completions will not involve perforating, any induced drilling damage will remain and be locked in place by the completion process. DIF Filter Cake Removal: Properly designed and maintained drill-in fluids and a planned wellbore cleanout and filter cake removal plan are essential for all openhole sand control completions. If the drill-in fluids are not maintained, they will develop a thick filter cake that will plug the screens or gravel pack upon flowback. It is always a good practice to displace the DIF with a push pill followed by filtered completion brine at 300 ft/min rate to clean out the openhole section and thin out the filter cake. For stand alone screens, a circulation with acid or enzymes to remove the filter cake material prior to producing is best practice. For openhole gravel packs, the carrier fluid can contain a breaker to help break down the filter cake material for easier flow back through the gravel pack and screens. Wellbore Cleanout: Proper wellbore cleanout prior to running any sand control screens into a well is essential to avoid screen plugging. Drill-in fluids should be displaced utilizing a push pill followed by filtered completion brine. Fluids should be filtered to 2 microns absolute and a NTU value of 20 or less achieved prior to running the screens. The casing and workstring should also by cleaned with acid to remove pipe scale and rust. Remember, the sand control screens are filters and they become plugged easily.
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point can be easily picked without multiple logging runs. Drilling the Open Hole: The fluid used for drilling the open hole is critical to the success of the completion. The general requirements of an ideal drill-in (or under-reaming) fluid are as follows: Compatible with the reservoir rock and fluids (non-damaging) Good suspension properties Low fluid loss Density easily controlled Easily mixed and handled Thin friable filter cake with low break-out pressure. While most fluids do not have all of these properties, some, such as calcium carbonate brine based systems have performed well as drill-in and underreaming fluids. Examples of these fluids include: Bakers PER FFLOW, MIs Flowpro, and Halliburtons Baridrill N are all good calcium carbonate brine based fluids that have been used as drill-in fluids. The critical issue is that the drill-in fluid should do minimal irreversible damage to the face of the formation. The solids laden fluids should quickly form a filter cake to minimize filtrate losses. The filter cake should be easily removable prior to or after gravel packing. The QA/QC of the drill-in fluid is also important. The fluid must be maintained to ensure the filter cake quality remains consistent. A few rules of thumb can help here:
Figure 8.2: Top Set Completion Typical Openhole Sand Control Design The most common type of open hole completion is referred to as top set as illustrated in Figure 8.2. While this figure shows a vertical completion this discussion is also pertinent to horizontal completions. In this completion the production casing is set at the top of the completion interval to isolate overlying strata. Once the casing is cemented, the drilling fluid is displaced with a designed drill-in fluid and the productive formation is drilled to total depth. The hole would then be cleaned and the gravel pack is installed. Critical issues in top set open hole gravel packs include selecting the casing seat, drilling the open hole, under-reaming if necessary, cleaning the hole and gravel packing. Selecting the Casing Seat: Selecting the casing seat at the proper depth can have a significant impact on the success and cost of an open hole completion. Normally, the casing should be set at the top of the pay zone to avoid any unstable shale from above. Failure to isolate the shale behind casing may cause problems and delays throughout the remainder of the completion and even through the entire life of the well. Well logs should be run to ensure all offending strata have been penetrated and will be cased prior to running the casing. In the case of logging while drilling, the casing
Use between 20 and 40 lbs of sized calcium car-
bonate in the system. Only use high quality ground marble. Size the solids based on formation pore sizes. If core data is not available, use the square root of average reservoir permeability to get the D50 pore size. Sample the drill-in fluid on the rig to maintain drill cuttings loading below 25 lbs/bbl. Use MBT to maintain clay content in the fluid
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below a value of 2. The MBT test looks for clay content in the drill-in fluid. It is important to keep the clay content low to preserve the quality of the system, too much clay and the filter cake will not flow back through the gravel pack or prepack screens. Use a dump and dilute program to help maintain the drill-in fluid A good practice is to dump 50% of the drill-in fluid every 500 ft of open hole drilled or right after drilling a shale or silt stone section. Maintain a low spurt loss for the system, this will help build a thin filter cake that will be easier to remove later. Why is it so important to maintain a high quality filter cake for open hole completions:
Filter cake permeability is low (0.001md). Im-
properly designed or maintained drill-in fluids may deposit a filter cake that invades the formation causing significant permeability damage. Open-hole completions do not have perforations or fractures to bypass this damage. Filter cake material can plug screens and mix with gravel pack sand and reduce well production.
Figure 8.3 shows an SEM photograph of a filter cake built on core material. It is essential that this filter cake be made of acid or enzyme soluble material to allow removal before producing the well. If the well is brought on production before removal, this filter cake material will plug the sand control screens. Do not be fooled by service company lab tests showing the filter cake production back through the screens. In the real world, the filter cake will contain clay and drill cuttings that will cause lift off problems and plugging of the screens. This filter cake should be removed by acid or with enzymes prior to first production. For gravel pack completions, the gravel pack carrier fluids can contain breakers to help break down this filter cake. Figure 8.4 shows the impact on retained permeability for drillin fluids contaminated with clay from the drilling process. As can been seen for figure 8.4, the maximum damage occurs at clay concentrations greater than 5 to 10 lbs/bbl. This condition is exacerbated by finer gravel sizes. Sand solids have less of a detrimental effect than clays. Figure 8.5 shows the screen plugging from undegraded drill-in fluid filter cake material.
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between completion skin and hole cleaning. This relationship is not too surprising but what is often overlooked is the fact that once a well is damaged, subsequent acid work may not yield an undamaged well. Before running the screens in the hole and gravel packing, it is necessary to remove the drill-in fluid drill solids from the hole, clean the hole and scour the filter cake to thin it down. Details for cleaning the hole are given in Chapter 6.
Figure 8.4: Effect of clay in drilling fluids The goal of the drilling and completion engineer should be to work with the service company to design a drill-in fluid that will form an external filter cake that can be removed prior to running pre-pack screens or while pumping the openhole gravel pack. In all cases it is important to provide good wellbore clean-out practices as well. The next section will focuses on hole displacements and cleaning prior to gravel packing. Hole Cleaning Solids in the form of drill-in fluids, drill solids and thick filter cakes plug screens, tools and gravel pack sand. The importance of cleaning the hole and scouring the filter cake is shown in Figure 8.6. This bar graph based on field data shows the relationship

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Figure 8.6:Skin caused by improper hole cleaning If the pay section of the well is drilled with a properly designed and maintained drill-in fluid, the well cleaned out prior to running the screens, and a
Figure 8.5: Screen Impairment Caused by Undegraded DIF Filtercake
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breaker system used to remove filter cake residue, a low skin open hole completion is possible. Figure 8.7 compares measured completion efficiencies for wells that were properly displaced and clean-up prior to production vs. wells with no clean-up but acidized after first production. Summary Open hole completions requiring downhole sand control should be designed with sand control screens to stop the production of formation sand and allow both the solids for the filter cake and any mobile formation fines to pass through the screens and gravel pack to avoid screen and gravel plugging. The basic steps to follow are: 1. Select sand control technique based on reservoir characteristics. SPE Paper 39437 is a good reference. Basically, formations with small grain sizes and poor sorting coupled with formation
fines should be open hole gravel pack candidates and under-reamed to provide greater hole size and more surface area. These well conditions also make good frac pack candidates. Well sorted larger grained reservoirs with low clay volumes can be completed with stand alone screens or with pre-pack screens. 2. Size the sand control screens utilizing core material selected from the targeted pay zones. Be sure to omit non-pay areas to avoid under sizing the screens. If the target zones are well sorted use a 6 to 8 times ratio to the D50 grain size to select the screen slot size. If poorly sorted sand, use a 5 to 6 times ratio. For gravel packs, size gravel pack sand this way and size the screens to retain the gravel. For high angle holes or horizontal holes, the retaining screen should be sized to bridge formation sand in case the annulus area of the pack develops voids. 3. Always use a properly designed drill-in fluid to drill the pay section for openhole completions re-
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Figure 8.7: Comparison of Well Performance Predictions with Field Data
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quiring sand control. The drill-in fluid filter cake should be designed to allow removal with a breaker system. Never allow the drill-in fluid system to get out of spec while drilling. Planned fluid sampling from the rig is critical. Be sure to maintain clay content below 5 lbs /bbl or an MBT reading of less then 2. 4. Plan for a good wellbore clean-up after drilling the pay section and prior to running the screens. This should include displacing the drill-in fluid with a push pill followed by filtered (2 Mu absolute) completion brine. Circulate completion brine at 300 ft/min annulus rate to but the displacement in turbulent flow and thin the filter cake. Obtain a 20 NTU reading in the cased hole and 50 NTU in the open hole section. Pickle the production casing and work string before running screens. If fluid loss is a concern while running screens, place a filtered solids free XC polymer pill in the openhole section. 5. Acidize the filter cake after running the screen to TD. If gravel packing, use an enzyme breaker system as part of the carrier fluid. Acidizing prior
to gravel packing is not recommended as at least 60 % returns are needed to gravel pack. Utilize a water pack system if there are no exposed shale sections or fluid loss is not too high. Always use at lest a 6% KCl or other inhibited system to avoid hole stability problems while gravel packing. If fluid loss problems exist, use a shunt tube screen and gravel pack with a gelled system. 6. If an oil based DIF is used to drill the pay section be sure to maintain the total solids below 12 lbs/ bbl to control the filter cake thickness and allow flowback through the screens. Displace the OBM with a solids free system and circulate at 3000 ft/ minute annulus velocity to thin the cake. Utilize a screen plug tester to check the mud for solids after circulating. If the sample screen passes the mud without plugging, run the screens. After reaching TD use an oil base carrier fluid to gravel pack. In the case of stand alone screen, displace with a water wetting surfactant and mutual solvent package to help break up the filter cake and aid in flowback and cleanup. This is the preferred technique for Hawtah horizontal wells.
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Chapter 9 - Gravel Packing Horizontal Wells Introduction

Horizontal wells can be used to improve well productivity and project economics. In the past 10 years, horizontal well technology (particularly drilling) has improved substantially to the point that some new reservoirs are being developed solely with horizontal wells. Here in Saudi Aramco, the Shaybah field is a local example of a full field horizontal development. The Qatif field will also be developed utilizing horizontal well technology. Horizontal sidetracks from existing mature wells have also enabled some operators to extend the production life of fields that would have been abandoned if conventional well technology was the only means of exploiting the remaining reserves. Despite the technological improvements, without question, the economic impact of horizontal wells is the primary reason for their increased popularity. The factors that contribute to the improved economics are: application of cased hole completions in conventional wells. The disadvantages of a cased hole completion in a long horizontal well include the cost of the casing and cementing operations, as well as the cost of the tubing conveyed perforating operations. If in addition, the well requires sand control, the completion cost can easily exceed the drilling cost of the well. For this reason, cased hole horizontal completions are not as common as open hole completions, and, should not be applied in formations that require sand control. Finally, it is difficult to complete a cased hole horizontal well as the well will require fluid loss control after perforating to recover the guns and run completion equipment. This process can often lead to completion skin problems. Open Hole Completions Open hole completions are by far the most common approach taken to complete horizontal wells. The types of open hole completions include barefoot, pre-drilled pipe, screen, pre-packed screen and gravel packs. The barefoot and pre-drilled pipe options are generally applied in competent formations where sand production is not an issue. Barefoot completions offer no control of the production profile of the well and zonal isolation is only possible via a workover. Completing horizontal wells in unconsolidated formations requires difficult decisions regarding the type of sand control to use. Screens, pre-packed screens and gravel packs have all been used in unconsolidated formations. A more expensive option is the emerging expandable sand control screens. Drilling Influence The techniques used to drill the well can have a profound influence on the type of completions that can be applied. Horizontal wells are loosely referred to as long, medium and short radius depending on how quickly the well deviates from 0 to 90. Table 9.1 shows the differences in long, medium and short radius wells in terms of build angle and radius. Long
Increased productivity Improved reservoir management Increased recoverable reserves.

Considerable publicity has been given to drilling horizontal wells, but the completion technology has largely been downplayed. However, how horizontal wells are completed is as important if not more so than how they are drilled. As with conventional wells, there are two generic ways of completing a horizontal well, either cased hole or open hole. Both completion techniques have their advantages and disadvantages and site specific applications. Cased Hole Completions Cased hole completions offer distinct advantages in terms of zonal isolation and successful future remedial work; therefore, cased hole horizontal wells have been applied primarily in reservoir situations where the ability to achieve zonal isolation (either initially or in the future) is paramount to the success of the well. This situation is similar to the
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radius wells are extensions of standard directional processes and allow the greatest flexibility in terms of the types of completions that can be installed. The abrupt change from 0 to 90 in a short radius well makes it difficult to get certain completion components like screens, casing and external casing packers around the bend; therefore, completion options may be restricted. In any event, special attention is required in the selection of completion equipment to ensure it is suitable for the given well conditions. Type Well Short Medium Long Build Angle Radius 1 to 3.5o/ft 19 to 42 ft 8 to 20o/100 ft 286 to 716 ft o 3 to 6 /100 ft 1,900 to 1,000 ft
duces the viscous drag forces on the formation material making horizontal wells less likely to produce formation sand than their conventional counterparts. Due to changing reservoir conditions over the life of the well, it is not always immediately apparent if the completion method chosen is optimum; thus, an extremely difficult situation arises. Following are some horizontal sand control completion options. Slotted Liner or Screen Completions Slotted liners or screens represent the simplest approach to sand control in a horizontal well. The openings in the slotted liner or screen are typically sized to be twice the diameter of the formation sand grain at the largest ten percentile (D10). This sizing criteria stems from the work of Coberly1 who determined that a sand grain will bridge on a slot opening twice its diameter provided two particles attempt to enter the slot at the same time. Of course, establishing the bridges requires that a sufficient concentration of formation sand attempting to enter the slotted liner or screen at the same time. If the produced fluids liberate only a small concentration of formation sand, there is a possibility of sand production rather than sand control. For a slotted liner or screen to be effective, it can only be used in well sorted, large grained, relative high permeability formations with little or no clay. The choice between slotted liner or screen is largely based on economics. Slotted liner is less expensive, but has limitations on minimum practical slot width of 20 gauge and has significantly less available flow area. Screens are capable of much smaller openings and have greater flow area, but are more expensive.
Table 9.1: Long, Medium and Short Defined In addition, fluid losses while drilling may impact the completion type based on how the losses are handled. In some instances, the completion type is decided after drilling and reviewing the LWD logs. If fractures are present and the formation has a water contact or gas contact, the well may require casing to isolate the fracture to avoid early gas or water break through. The new expandable liner systems available offer more flexibility for zonal isolation then do cemented liners or open hole completions. Unconsolidated Formations Horizontal wells are characterized by long productive intervals. Because so much of the pay zone is exposed, horizontal wells are capable of producing at much higher rates compared to conventional wells. Despite the higher total rate, the flow rate per foot of formation in horizontal wells is substantially less than the flow rate per foot of formation in a conventional well. In addition, the flowing pressure drop required to produce a given rate from a horizontal well is significantly less than that of a conventional well. The combination of lower flowing pressure drop and lower flow rate per foot re-
Reasonably inexpensive Easy to run Can provide reasonable sand control under proper
conditions.
Advantages of Slotted Liners or Screens:
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Disadvantages of Slotted Liners or Screens: Susceptible to plugging under most conditions Suitable only for well sorted, large grained, high permeability formations with little or no clay materials or other fines. Pre-packed Screen Completions Pre-packed screens contain a thin layer of consolidated resin coated gravel within the screen assembly to act as a positive guard against formation sand production. The nature of the consolidated resin coated gravel makes it a very efficient filter for stopping formation sand production, but unfortunately, like all filters, pre-packed screens are prone to plugging. In horizontal wells, pre-packed screens are now widely used without gravel packing as a completion technique for wells drilled into unconsolidated formations. To date, many of these completions have been successful. Despite their tendency to plug, there are applications where pre-packed screens can be used successfully in a horizontal well environment without a gravel pack. Guidelines for using pre-packed screens are much the same as with slotted liners and screens (i.e. well sorted, large grained, high permeability formations with little or no clay materials or other fines), but emphasis must be placed on using them in clean formations where the flow rate through the screen is less than about 5 barrels per day per foot of screen. The consequence of subjecting them to high throughput rates is a higher probability that plugging will occur. Advantages of Pre-packed Screens: Relatively easy to run, but care must be taken to displace solids laden mud from the hole prior to running screens to prevent plugging Good sand control. Disadvantages of Pre-packed Screens: Highly susceptible to plugging over time Expensive relative to slotted liners or non-prepacked screens
Suitable only for well sorted, large grained, high
permeability formations with little or no clay materials or other fines.
Gravel Packed Completions Gravel packing is another option for completing horizontal wells in unconsolidated formations. While this technology is more complicated and sophisticated than slotted liners, screens or pre-packed screens, it offers longer production life and reduced plugging tendency. Gravel packing has not been widely used in horizontal wells due to its higher cost and the concern over fluid loss due to the high circulating pressure required for gravel packing long horizontal sections. Today, more horizontal wells are being gravel packed due to better quality drill-in fluids that allow good fluid loss control while gravel packing, and the ability to design breaker systems to remove the filter cake material prior to first production. In addition the new shunt tube gravel pack screens allow complete annular packs utilizing gel carrier fluids even if lost circulation occurs while gravel packing. Based on the preceding discussion, gravel pack technology is available for completing long, horizontal wells. Guidelines for Gravel Packing Horizontal Wells
Use a designed drill-in fluid to control fluid loss,
allow low filter cake lift off pressures, and be soluble in acid or other breakers. Use brine as a carrier fluid with conventional screens and gel systems for shunt tube screen designs. Keep the gravel concentration below 2 pounds of gravel per gallon of carrier fluid. Ensure that the ratio of wash pipe OD to screen ID is 0.75 to 0.80. Gravel packing offers distinct advantages over a simple pre-packed screen in horizontal completions in unconsolidated formations. Gravel packing places a finite stress against the formation at the
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gravel/formation interface that reduces the movement of fines into the gravel pack. Pre-packed screens are a suspended filter that do not place a finite stress against the formation. A consequence of the lack of stress against the formation is that formation particles are free to move with the produced fluids. Since the formation fines are more mobile than the load bearing particles in the formation, the accumulation of fines at the outside surface of the pre-packed screen and/or just below the outside surface can cause plugging and a loss in productivity. This problem becomes more significant when fine grained, or high clay content formations are involved and when there is production of viscous fluids. Advantages of Gravel Packing Horizontal Wells: Excellent sand control Enhanced completion longevity. Disadvantages of Gravel Packing Horizontal Wells: Higher cost than stand-alone screens Long horizontal completion may result in lost circulation and incomplete packing. Expandable Sand Control Screens Expandable sand control screens are new technology that looks promising. It will provide the same advantage as gravel packing as it will support the formation interface and will result in the reduced movement of fines into the screen. In addition, the expandable screens have no annulus to fill with gravel or get plugged with formation sand. The screen is expanded out to the formation face hence helping to stabilize the sand. Another potential advantage of the expandable systems over pre-packed screens and gravel pack-
ing is zonal isolation possibilities. A horizontal well completed with pre-packed screens can incorporate external casing packers to achieve zonal isolation. The success of the zonal isolation is dependent on setting the external casing packers in the right location and the sealing characteristics of the packer. Accurately predicting the setting location required for future zonal isolation can be difficult. Gravel packing can incorporate external casing packers, but this requires more complex service tools and operations to accomplish setting of the external casing packers and gravel packing. The expandable systems offers the ability to expanded blank pipe sections wrapped with elastomers. The blank sections can be placed opposite shale sections, fracture sections, high water cut areas, etc. Advantages of Expandable Systems in Horizontal Wells: Excellent sand control Enhanced zonal isolation capabilities. Disadvantages of Expandable Systems in Horizontal Wells: Higher cost than stand-alone screens or gravel packing May not withstand the stresses imposed at reservoir depletion. Summary Open hole horizontal completions offer additional flexibility over cased hole horizontal completions. Sand control options include slotted liners, expandable screen, wire wrapped screens, and prepacked screens in formations with well sorted, large grained, high permeability formations containing little or no clay materials or other fines. Poorly sorted formations with higher clay contents should be evaluated for open hole gravel packing.
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References 1. Coberly, E.G., Selection of Screen Openings for Unconsolidated Sands, API Drilling and Production Practice, 1941. 2. Penberthy, W.L. and Echols, I.E., Gravel Placement in Wells, SPE Paper 22793, Journal of Petroleum Technology (July 1993), 612-613, 670-674. 3. Penberthy, W.L. and Shaughnessy, C.M., Sand Control, SPE Series on Special Topics, Volume 1, 1992. 4. Baker Sand Control for unconsolidated formations sort course.
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Sand Control

Vol 1

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MESSAGE FROM VICE PRESIDENT SOUTHERN AREA OIL OPERATIONS

Module Title Well Completions Sand Control

Reservoir and Well Monitoring

Stimulation and Damage Removal Well Intervention

General Production Engineering Surface Facilities

PRODUCTION ENGINEERING SCHOOL

WELL COMPLETIONS SAND CONTROL

Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) - Volume 1

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Volume I - Table of Contents

Chapter 1 - Completion Design Criteria ...................................... 5

Chapter 2 - Well Completion Types .............................................. 8

Oil Producer Completions ........................................................................... 11

Offshore Oil Producers ................................................................................ 15

Water Injector Completions ........................................................................ 17

Gas Producer Completions .......................................................................... 20

SAUDI ARAMCO - PRODUCTION ENGINEERING SCHOOL

Khuff Gas Producers ..................................................................................... 20

Water Supply Completions .......................................................................... 21

Chapter 3 - Casing and Tubing ................................................... 23

Properties Of Tubular Material .................................................................. 25

Tubing And Casing Grades .......................................................................... 28

Casing Design .............................................................................................. 37 Tubing Design .............................................................................................. 37

TABLE OF CONTENTS: VOLUME I

Permanent Packers ...................................................................................... 43

Retrievable Packers .................................................................................... 44

Packer Selection .......................................................................................... 49

Chapter 5 - Surface and Subsurface Safety Valves .................. 54

Surface Safety Valves ................................................................................. 62

SAUDI ARAMCO - PRODUCTION ENGINEERING SCHOOL

WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT - PE 102 ....................................... 67

Chapter 1 - Wellhead System ...................................................... 69

Chapter 2 - Trees .......................................................................... 78

Chapter 3 - Suspension Methods ................................................ 81

Chapter 4 - Other Wellhead Equipment ..................................... 86

Chapter 5 - Flanges and Seal Connections ................................ 88

TABLE OF CONTENTS: VOLUME I

Chapter 6 - Wellhead Design Considerations ........................... 91

Chapter 7 - Equipment Specifications ....................................... 96

Chapter 8 - Wellhead Valve Lubrication .................................... 97

Lubrication Frequency ................................................................................. 98

Wellhead Valve Integrity Testing ............................................................... 99

Chapter 9 - Landing Base Inspection Program ...................... 100

Corrective Actions ..................................................................................... 102

Repair Methods ......................................................................................... 105

SAUDI ARAMCO - PRODUCTION ENGINEERING SCHOOL

PERFORATING - PE 103 ......................................................... 109

PERFORATING ......................................................................... 111

Perforating Operations .............................................................................. 117

EXCERCISE ............................................................................... 120 TUBING MOVEMENT - PE 104 ............................................. 123

Chapter 1 - Introduction to Tubing Movement ....................... 125

EXERCISE 1 ................................................................................................ 131

Chapter 2 - Calculating Length Change .................................. 132

EXERCISE 3 ................................................................................................. 142

TABLE OF CONTENTS: VOLUME I

Chapter 1 - Introduction............................................................. 161

Chapter 2 - Reasons For Sand Control ................................... 169

Summary .................................................................................................... 175

Chapter 3 - Completion Options and Candidate Selection .... 176

SAUDI ARAMCO - PRODUCTION ENGINEERING SCHOOL

Candidate Selection ................................................................................... 181