Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is the study of heat

and thermal energy.

Thermal properties (heat and temperature)
are based on the motion of individual
molecules, so thermodynamics is a lot
like chemistry.
Temperature is measured in 3 scales.

-Fahrenheit OF
-Celsius OC
-Kelvin K
Temperature

Freezing Boiling Room Temp
32 212 68
0 100 20
273.15 373.15 293.15
Temperature is related to the average kinetic
energy of the particles that make up a material.
Observe what happens to the bimetallic strip
as it is heated.
Thermal Demo
What do you think is going on?
When materials are heated they tend to:
Expand
Thermal Expansion
When materials are cooled they tend to:
contract
A good application of this is the thermostat. Using a
bimetallic strip an electric circuit is opened and closed.
If the room is cold the strip contracts and connects
circuit, and when it heats too much it bends and opens
the circuit.
LTE - is the increase in any one dimension, of
a material when there is an increase in
temperature.
Linear Thermal Expansion
L = LO T
The equation for the change in length: LTE
is the coefficient of linear expansion
unit CO -1
LTE Applications
Thermal Stress is produced when space for
expansion due to temp changes is not
provided.
Engineers need to incorporate expansion
joints to account for this.
End part
1
First Law of Thermodynamics
U = Q + W

U: change in internal energy of system
(J)

Q: heat added to the system (J). Driven by
temperature difference.

W: work done on the system (J). Work
will be related to the change in the systems
volume.
Thermodynamic State and Gas Process
The thermodynamic state of a gas is
defined by pressure, volume, and
temperature.

A gas process describes how gas gets
from one state to another state.
Processes depend on the behavior of the
boundary and the environment more than
they depend on the behavior of the gas.
Work = area under curve
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Gas Cycles and the
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Work done by a cycle
When a gas undergoes a complete
cycle, it starts and ends in the same
state. The gas is identical before and
after the cycle, so there is no
Identifiable change in the gas.

U = 0 for a complete cycle.

The environment, however, has been
changed.
Sample Probem
Consider the cycle ABCDA, where
State A: 200 kPa, 1.0 m3
State B: 200 kPa, 1.5 m3
State C: 100 kPa, 1.5 m3
State D: 100 kPa, 1.0 m3
A) Sketch the cycle.
B) Graphically estimate the work done by
the gas in one cycle.
C) Estimate the work done by the
environment in one cycle.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Heat will
always
spontaneously
flow from a
hotter to a
colder object.
Transfer of Heat
How does Heat flow from a hotter
substance to a cooler substance.
There are 3 processes which transfer
heat:
- Convection
- Conduction
- Radiation
Convection
Convection is the process where heat is
transported from one place to another by
mass movement of a fluid.
V

T
Convection Example
Convection currents help
transport and distribute
heat.






Radiation
Heat Energy is transferred by means of
electromagnetic waves.
All bodies radiate energy continuously,
but only those with high temperatures
emit enough visible light to be seen in the
dark.
Radiation
A material that is a good absorber of
electromagnetic waves, is also a good
emitter.
A material that is a poor absorber, will
be a poor emitter.
Radiation Example
Lampblack (a fine black soot) absorbs well
Polished silver (reflects most of the energy)
Conduction
Conduction is the process where heat is
transferred directly through a material.
Example: Leave the tip of a metal spoon on
something hot. Over time even the handle of
the spoon will get hot through conduction
Conduction Calculation
Conduction is the process where heat is
transferred directly through a material.
= Heat transferred in time t (s)
A = Area (m2)
= Thermal conductivity (J/s m
C)
= Temperature (C)
L = Length or thickness (m) L
Heat Engines
Efficiency of Heat Engine
In general, efficiency is what fraction of the energy
put into a system is converted to useful work.

In the case of a heat engine, the energy that is put
in is the heat that flows into the system from the hot
reservoir.

Only some of the heat that flows in is converted to
work. The rest is waste heat that is dumped into
the cold reservoir.
Efficiency of Heat Engine
Efficiency = W = (QH - QC)
QH QH

W: Work done by engine on environment
QH: Heat absorbed from hot reservoir
QC: Waste heat dumped to cold reservoir

Efficiency is often given as percent
efficiency.
Carnot Cycle
Efficiency of Carnot Cycle
For a Carnot engine, the efficiency
can be calculated from the
temperatures of the hot and cold
reservoirs.

Carnot Efficiency = (TH - TC)
TH
TH: Temperature of hot reservoir (K)
TC: Temperature of cold reservoir (K)
Entropy
Entropy is a measure of disorder, or
randomness of a system.
The entropy of the universe is
increasing.

Ultimately, this will lead to what is
affectionately known as Heat Death of
the Universe.
Carnot Cycle
Specific Heat
The Heat Q that must be supplied or
removed to change the temp of a substance
of mass m by an amount T.
Q = c m T
This amount of heat Q varies depending on
the material. So each material has a
Specific heat capacity c (J/ kg C)
Conservation of Thermal Energy
Heat lost = Heat gained
Conservation of Thermal E
mcT = mcT
1
substance
2nd substance
Solid
Phases
Liqui
d
Ga
s
If Red heat is added (endothermic)
If Blue heat is taken away (exothermic)
Condensatio
n
Evaporation
Freezing
Melting
Sublimation
Deposition
Latent Heat types
Lf - Latent Heat of Fusion (Solid/Liquid)
Lv - Latent Heat of Vaporization (Liquid/gas)
The amount of energy given off when a substance freezes (or the
amount of energy the substances requires to return to liquid state).
The amount of energy given off when a gas condenses (or the
amount of energy needed to vaporize the liquid).
Phase Graph
2.
During a phase change, kinetic energy (temperature) remains constant, while
potential energy increases or decreases.