http://www.scribd.

com/doc/46543265/Biological-Level-of-Analysis
BLOA
Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on human behavior.
- Synaptic transmission
- Martinez and Kesner: the role of acetylcholine in the creation of short-term memory (+
Alzheimers)
- Drug effects on neurotransmitters (one particular drug example)
- The role of serotonin in depression (in abnormal psychology)
- Any other ne urotransmitter studies (e.g. love and neurotransmitters/hormones)
Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999)
Aim: How does sensory deprivation affect the brain?
Method: Lab and natural observation
Procedure: A group of Buddhist monks who went on a 72h pilgrimage were the participants of the
study. They did not consume water or food and did not talk. The monks were also exposed to cold
weather. After 48h the monks began experiencing hallucination. Blood samples were taken right
before the ascent and right after reporting hallucinations.
Findings: Serotonin levels increased in the brain -> they activated the hypothalamus and frontal
cortex. Sensory deprivation triggered the release of serotonin, altering the way in which the monks
experienced their environment.
LTP : Long-term potentiation; The strengthening of neural connections via repeated stimulation.
Recap on Pavlov: Classical conditioning leaning is based on connections between sensory areas and
motor areas; bell, food and saliva.

Using one or more examples, explain the functions of two hormones in human behavior
Oxytocin
Mikolacjak et al Oxytocin and trust
Melatonin
Adrenaline
Discuss two effects of the environment and physiological processes
Stress levels:
Carney and Hazier Cortisol level in school
Neuroplasticity:
Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972) Neuroplasticity in rats
Maguire et al.(2000) Taxi Drivers
Kiecolt-Glaser et al (1995) effects of psychological stress on wound-healing
Aims: Kiecolt-Glaser et al aimed to test the hypothesis that psychological stress (looking at a relative
with Alzheimers disease) can ause damage to the immune system (in the form of slowing of wound
healing). This hypothesis was based on previous research suggesting that the functioning of the
immune system can be damaged by various forms of stress.
Method: lab
Procedure: There were two groups: (1) caregivers who were women looking after a relative with
Alzheimers disease: and (2) control participants who were women matched in age and family income
with the caregivers. The caregivers who had on average been looking after a relative for almost eight
years scored much higher on perceived stress scale than the controls did. The functioning of the
immune system was studied by creating a small wound on the forearm close to the elbow: punch
biopsy. The time taken for the wound to heal was assessed by photographing the wound regularly
and by observing the response to hyrdrogen peroide (an absence of foaming indicated healing). A
small amount of blood was obtained for analysis before the punch biopsy
Findings: the time taken for the wound to heal was significantly longer for the caregivers than for the
controls. Healing time for caregivers: 48.7 and 39.3 for the controls. In addition, the caregivers had a
larger than average woundzise.

Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behavior
Clive Wearing
HM
Mirror Neurons:
What are mirror neurons?
In the frontal lobe of the brain. They match the actions of motor neurons but fire when we watch
other people perform action. The mirror neurons empathize the actions or senses on other people. A
feedback signal prevents us from literally feeling what others feel and merely empathizing with them.
What is the significance of mirror neurons?
To imitate a certain act it requires our brain to empathize with the person performing that act. Mirror
neurons help explain the rapid spread of new skills. In history, the sudden emergence of skills and this
increasing emulation of them could be explained by the emergence of mirror neurons.
Why are mirror neurons the neurons that shaped civilization?
How do phantom limbs relate to mirror neurons?
Because the feedback signals do not fire. By watching other peoples limbs which you do not have you
can feel their action or senses in your phantom limb because of mirror neurons.

Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behavior

Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis.



Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research.



Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis.



Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis.

Twin studies:

Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain.

Maguire et al 2000 taxi drivers


Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on human behaviour.

Oxytocin:

Mikolajczak et al (2010) Oxytocin not only increases trust when money is at stake, but also when
confidential information is in the balance.
Aim: To test how OT influences trust in different contexts than just financial trust (or trusting
somebody with your money)
Method: Laboratory
Procedure: Participants were invited to complete a questionnaire about their sexual preferences and
fantasies. Questions were purposefully very intimate to ensure a type of content that one would not
divulge to a stranger. Participants were told that the responses would be read with an optical
character recognition device. Participants were given an envelope until the end of the experiment.
After this, the substance (either Oxytocin or a placebo) were administered. The subjects were then
invited to wait for the beginning of the experiment in front of an excerpt of a movie featuring
friendship and camaraderie.
45 minutes after product administration, participants were asked to complete a similar questionnaire
to rule out the hypothesis that OT rid people of their inhibitions, and return both questionnaires to
the experimenter. The participants were protected by confidentiality rules but were free to seal the
envelope and even add sticky tape. The degree of the envelopes opening (sealed plus taped, only
sealed, or open) was considered a measure of the participants trust in the experiment.
Findings: No differences emerged between groups in demographic or individual difference measures.
There was no significant difference between groups regarding sexual practices or fantasies neither
before substance administration nor after. Oxytocin substantially increased trust. 60% of participants
in the OT group left the envelope open whereas only 3% of the PL group did. OT subjects were 44
times more likely to leave their envelope open than PL subjects.

Kosfield et al (2005) Oxytocin and investments
Aim: To see how oxytocin affects trust
Method: Laboratory
Procedure:
Got students in Zurich to play a serious game. The game involved real monetary exchanges between
two people playing the anonymous roles of investor and trustee. Beforehand, each subject had
received etiher the neuropeptide oxytocin or an inert placebo via nasal spray. As a group, the
investors who received oxytocin exhibited more trust in the anonymous trustee than did the investors
who received the placebo.
Findings: The investors who received oxytocin exhibited more trust in the anonymous trustee than
did the investors who received the placebo. The central action of oxytocin increases trusting behavior
but the spray did not change the behavior of the trustees. It seems that oxytocin only increases trust
and not the reliability of the trustees.

Adrenaline:
Schachter and Singer (1962) Adrenaline and Emotion
Aim: To show that the nature of emotion is dependent on contextual factors and that different
emotions might be the same set of physiological changes in the body that are simply labelled by the
brain according to cognitive processing of the context.
Method: Laboratory & Observation
Procedure: Recruited 184 male participants and they told them they would receive a vitamin injection
and that they would be participating in vision experiments.
In reality:
3 groups received an injection of adrenaline
- 1 group told they might experience an increased heart rate and shaky hands (actual symptoms)
- 1 group told some people experience a headache or numbness or itchiness in the feet as side effects
- last group not given any info about possible side-effects
+ 1 control group: placebo saline injection
In order to manipulate the nature of the emotion experienced by the participants, the researchers
constructed two contexts:
1. Euphoria: confederate of experiment encouraged participants to join in games with office equipmet
in the waiting room
2. Anger: confederate filled out a mock questionnaire but became increasingly outraged by the
personal nature of the questions
The researchers used observational data of participants and asked them to complete a self-report
that assessed their mood.
Findings: In the euphoria condition the groups who received adrenaline showed more euphoric
behaviors and more reported happiness. In the anger group, reporting did not change but behavioral
data showed participants who were aware of the real expected physiological changes performed less
of the angry behaviors than groups who had no explanation for their physiological arousal.
Using one or more examples, explain functions of two hormones in human behaviour.
(acetylcholine)

Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes.

Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behaviour. Evaluate two
relevant studies.

Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological
factors and behaviour.
PET:
Requires the injection of a radioactive substance into the participant
Usually this is a form of sugar that produces gamma rays as it is metabolized by the brain.
Eventually the signal is turned into a computer image that displays a colorful map of activity in the
different parts of the brain.

Raine, Buchsbaum and Lacasse (1997) Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron
emission tomography
Aim: To show that dysfunction in brain structures should be found more often in murderers than
dysfunction of the same areas in non-murderers, dysfunction in other areas of the murderers brains
that have been implicated in non-violent psychiatric disorders.
Method: Laboratory
Procedure: 41 prisoners (29 male, 2 female) with a mean age of 34.3 years charged with
manslaughter or murder in California. They were referred to brain-imaging scans for diverse reasons,
ranging from schizophrenia to head injury or organic brain damage. No murderer had psychoactive
medication for 2 weeks before scanning.
The murderers were matched with a normal sject for age, sex and schizophrenia where necessary.
Each control subject was also screened for external variables.
After practice trials all participants were injected with a tracer substance (fluorodeoxyglucose) that
was taken up by the brain to show the location of brain metabolism while they conducted a
continuous performace task (CPT) requiring them to detect target signals for 32 minutes. A PET scan
was then immediately given to show relative brain activity for 6 main cortical areas and 8 subcortical
areas.
Findings: There was lower activity in the prefrontal cortex, in areas of the parietal cortex, the corpus
callosum, the amygdala, the medial temporal and the thalamus. These areas are linked to self-control,
lower verbal ability and educational failure, inhibition or lack of it, emotional expression and in the
thalamus, a failure to learn the negative effects of violence.

Maguire et al (2000) Taxi Drivers
With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic inheritance influence
behaviour?

Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour.
Disgust:
One of the basic, universal emotions
Ekman et al. (1987)
Aim:
Method:
Procedure: Asked thousands of people around the world to identify the facial expressions related to
emotions of happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger and disgust by photographs.
Findings: People from Western and Eastern cultures associated similar emotions with certain facial
expressions.
Rozin (1996)
Aim: To study the innateness of disgust cross-culturally
Method: Cross-cultural questionnaire
Procedure: Americans and Japanese were asked to list things they found most disgusting.
Findings: Feces, poor hygiene and body boundary violations such as a gaping wound were the most
common answers. The findings were interpreted to support the idea that disgust reaction functions to
protect the body from ingesting or coming into contact with substances that might be detrimental to
human health and survival.
58-59
Fessler (2006)
Curtis et al (2004)
11. Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behavior.

Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behaviour.

Twin studies