HDBK Drilling FLUIDS

Drilling Fluids
Handbook
Energy Technology Company
Drilling & Completions
Fluids & Waste Management Team
Version 2-09
November 2009
2009 by Chevron Energy Technology Company
All rights reserved. This document is company condential.
No part of this handbook shall be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted by any means electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without
written permission from Chevron.
Warning and Disclaimer
The information presented herein is believed by Chevron
ETC to be accurate. However, no representations are made
concerning this information to any user and none shall be
implied. Under no circumstances shall Chevron ETC or its
responsible personnel be liable for any damages, including
without limitation, any special, incidental or consequential
damages, which may be claimed to have resulted from the
use of any information contained herein.
I
Drilling Fluids Handbook, Version 2-09

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: Introduction
Introduction ................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 2: Drilling Fluid Properties
Mud Weight or Density ............................................................ 2
Funnel Viscosity ........................................................................ 5
Rheology ..................................................................................... 5
Filtration / Fluid Loss Control ............................................... 16
Solids Content ........................................................................... 19
Properties Specific to Water Base Fluids .......................... 22
Properties Specific to Non-Aqueous Drilling Fluids ....... 26
CHAPTER 3: HES Impacts of Drilling Fluids
Drilling Fluids Health and Safety .......................................... 33
Environmental Impacts of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings .. 34
CHAPTER 4: Water Base Drilling Fluids
Spud Muds ................................................................................ 39
Low Solids Non-Dispersed Fluids (LSND) ........................... 41
Low pH/Polymer Fluids ........................................................ 45
KCI/Polymer Fluids ................................................................ 50
Salt Water Fluids .................................................................... 55
II

CHAPTER 4: Water Base Drilling Fluids (Contd.)
Sea Water Muds ..................................................................... 56
Saturated Salt Water Fluids ................................................ 58
Lignite/Lignosulfonate ......................................................... 60
High Performance Water Base Drilling Fluids .................. 63
CHAPTER 5: Non-Aqueous Fluids
Base Fluids ............................................................................... 66
Internal Phase .......................................................................... 73
Viscosifiers ............................................................................... 74
Emulsifiers ................................................................................ 75
Fluid Loss Additives ............................................................... 78
Weighting Agents .................................................................... 79
Gas Solubility .......................................................................... 80
Flat Constant Rheology NAF ............................................... 80
Product Safety and Handling .............................................. 82
Displacement Procedures .....................................................83
Logging ..................................................................................... 84
Troubleshooting ..................................................................... 85
CHAPTER 6: Chemistry Concepts
Solubility ......................................................................... 88
Common Drilling Fluid Chemicals ........................................ 92
Osmosis ................................................................................... 105
Thermal Degradation, Oxidation and Hydrolysis .......... 107
III

CHAPTER 7: Hole Cleaning
Hole Cleaning Regimes ......................................................... 110
Hole Cleaning in a Vertical Well ........................................... 111
Hole Cleaning in a Deviated or Horizontal Well ............... 113
Best Practices ........................................................................ 124
ECD and Standpipe Pressure Management .................... 128
CHAPTER 8: Solids Control Equipment
Introduction132
Solids Removal Efficiency ................................................... 136
Shale Shaker ........................................................................... 137
Hydrocyclones ........................................................................ 143
Centrifuges ............................................................................. 146
CHAPTER 9: Material Transportation and
Handling
Palletized Material ................................................................ 150
Drummed Material ................................................................. 151
Bulk Liquid Materials ............................................................ 152
Bulk Bags ................................................................................ 157
CHAPTER 10: Common Drilling Fluid-Related
Problems
Lost Circulation ...................................................................... 161
Stuck Pipe ............................................................................... 183
Barite Sag ............................................................................... 192
IV

CHAPTER 10: Common Drilling Fluid-Related
Problems (Contd.)
Wellbore Breathing ............................................................... 198
CHAPTER 11: Fluids-Related Productivity
Optimization
Formation Damage ................................................................. 211
Formation Protection ............................................................ 217
Drill-In Fluids ......................................................................... 220
CHAPTER 12: Corrosion and Acid Gases
Introduction.230
Oxygen Corrosion ................................................................ 234
Carbon Dioxide (Sweet Corrosion) .................................. 236
Hydrogen Sulfide (Sour Corrosion) ................................. 239
Bacteria-Induced Corrosion .............................................. 243
CHAPTER 13: Gas, Foam, and Aerated Drilling
Fluid Systems
Controlling Lost Circulation .............................................. 246
Reducing Formation Damage and Improving Productivity
................................................................................................... 247
Increasing ROP ..................................................................... 248
System Types ........................................................................ 249
References ......................................................................... 267
Chapter 1: Introduction
Energy Technology Company | 1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The Fluids and Waste Management Team's Drilling Fluids
Handbook is an effort to capture the knowledge and
experience of Chevron ETC personnel, Fluids & Waste
Management Team, and Fluids Community of Practice
and provide Chevron DSMs and drilling engineers with
practical and applicable information that will help them
to plan, analyze, and make decisions on drilling fluids
related operations on the rig.
There are a number of fluids handbooks and mud
manuals in the industry, but this Handbook is unique in
its content and audience. The other handbooks are
targeted at mud engineers and, as such, are focused on
their specific daily tasks, such as running mud checks
and vendor-specific product information. By contrast,
the Drilling Fluid Handbook covers what the mud checks
are, as well as explains what the results mean to the
overall operations. It encompasses fluid-related drilling
issues, their causes and the methods of mitigation, and,
crucially, how these issues interrelate with the entire
drilling operation. The Handbook covers related topics
such as HES issues, solids control, drilling optimization,
and so on, but from a fluids-centric standpoint, and in a
very practical fashion.
We want to provide concrete methods of handling fluids
related issues; something that a DSM can use as an
easily accessible reference that can assist in making day
to day fluids decisions. Many times drilling fluid decisions
are left to the service company personnel to the extent
that we may miss opportunities by not having the fluids
planning, performance evaluation, and problem solving
as a fully integrated part of our operations. The hope is
that this Handbook will help bridge the gap in a concise
and practical way.
Chapter 2: Drilling Fluid Properties
CHAPTER 2: DRILLING FLUID PROPERTIES

This section covers the drilling fluid properties reported
on the daily mud check and how they may be related to
current or potential hole problems. When guidelines are
presented, it must be remembered that all situations are
different and adjustments to the guidelines must be
made.
For instance, when an influx of gas or formation fluid
into the wellbore occurs, the fluid density is usually
increased to create a hydrostatic pressure overbalance
with the formation. Using another example, when drilling
a highly deviated well and torque or drag is an issue, this
may indicate the hole is not being properly cleaned, so
the yield point may be elevated or a sweep program is
initiated. There may also be times when problems occur
and it is not so easy to determine what drilling fluid
properties need to be changed and potentially optimized.
A troubleshooting guideline table for common fluid
contaminants and treatment is included as Appendix 2-1.

Mud Weight or Density
Mud weight or density is the most important fluid
property for balancing and controlling downhole
formation pressures and promoting wellbore stability.
Mud densities may be measured and reported in pounds
per gallon (lb/gal), pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft
3
), or
grams per milliliter (g/mL), and conversion factors
between the measurements are listed in Table 2-1.

To Convert Multiply By To Obtain
lb/gal 7.481 lb/ft
3

lb/gal 0.119826 g/mL
Table 2-1: Density conversion factors

As most drilling fluids contain at least a little air/gas, the
most accurate way to measure the density is with a
pressurized mud balance. The pressurized mud balance
is similar to the conventional mud balance, but has a
pressurized fixed volume sample cup. By pressurizing
the sample, any entrained air or gas is compressed to a
negligible volume, giving a more accurate fluid density
measurement.
The density of a non-aqueous fluid (NAF), also referred
to as organic phase fluid (OPF
1
), is temperature and
pressure dependent. Temperature affects the density
due to the thermal expansion or contraction of the base
oil being used. Base fluid will expand with increasing
temperature, resulting in a density decrease. When the
temperature of the base fluid decreases, the fluid
density will increase. Additionally, when the fluid is
subjected to pressure, the base fluid will compress
causing an increase in density.

1
Organic phase fluid is the terminology used to describe non-
aqueous drilling fluids in the North Sea/OSPAR regulated areas.

The operational impacts of mud weight or density
include:
Insufficient mud weight could result in:
o Wellbore instability or collapse If the
hydrostatic pressure exerted by a
column of drilling fluid falls below the
formation pressure, the wellbore can
become mechanically unstable. When in
a shale section, instability may be
observed by increased torque and drag
and/or excessive amounts of shale that
may tend to be larger in size than typical
drill cuttings. If in an unconsolidated
sand section, sloughing sand may
become a problem.
o An influx of formation fluids oil, water
(fresh or salt), gas (hydrocarbon bearing
or acid type such as H
2
S/CO
2
).
Excessive mud weights (i.e. high overbalance
compared to formation pressure) could result in:
o Decreased rates of penetration (ROP)
o Lost circulation due to induced
formation fractures
o Stuck pipe
o Reservoir damage due to increased
filtrate invasion
For NAFs, the equivalent static density (ESD) will
usually be higher than that of a water base fluid
of the same density, due to the compression of
the base fluid. In some situations this
compression in the base fluid and increase in
density could result in lost circulation.

Funnel Viscosity
The funnel viscosity of a drilling fluid is measured with a
MARSH Viscosity Funnel. The MARSH Funnel is designed
so that the outflow time of one quart of freshwater (946
cm
3
) at a temperature of 70 F 5 F (21 3 C), is 26
0.5 seconds.
With all drilling fluids, especially NAFs, the viscosity of
the base fluid is temperature dependent and the fluid will
thin as the temperature increases, in turn reducing the
funnel viscosity. The limitation of the MARSH Funnel is
that the viscosity is measured at only one rate of shear
and the sample is not at a constant temperature and
therefore does not give an accurate representation of
the flow properties of a drilling fluid. However, it is a
quick, simple test and provides a tool for spotting
changes/trends in a circulating drilling fluid, particularly
with water base muds.

Rheology
Rheology is defined as the study of the deformation and
flow of matter. Rheological measurements of a drilling
fluid include plastic viscosity (PV), yield point (YP) and
gel strengths. The information from these
measurements can be used to determine hole cleaning
efficiency, system pressure losses, equivalent circulating
density, surge and swab pressures and bit hydraulics.
Water base and non-aqueous fluids charts containing
typical PV and YP values for various densities are
located in Figures 2-1 and 2-2, respectively. It should be
noted that these charts do not consider the effects of
lost circulation material or bridging agents.

Figure 2-1: Plastic viscosity and yield point range for water base
mud

Figure 2-2: Plastic viscosity and yield point range for non-aqueous
fluids
Plastic Viscosity (PV)
Rheological measurements are usually made on a 6-
speed rotary viscometer. The shear rate is measured at
600, 300, 200, 100, 6, and 3 revolutions per minute
(rpm). Plastic viscosity reflects the physical
concentration, size and shape of solid particles in the
mud in addition to the viscosity of the fluid phase. The
PV is calculated as the difference in the 600 and 300
rpm rheometer readings (600 rpm reading 300 rpm
reading). PV will increase with any increase in solids
content, whether from barite, drilled solids, or other
materials.
A heat cup should be used to adjust the sample to the
appropriate temperature as outlined below:
Water Base Mud Usually 120F
NAF
o Usually 120 or 150F
o Deepwater 80 to 90F
HTHP Wells 150F
There is a direct correlation between high mud weights
and high PVs, but an increasing PV trend with a
constant mud weight is usually an early warning sign of
an increase in ultra-fine drilled solids in the mud. High
plastic viscosities are usually undesirable and increasing
trends in the plastic viscosity should be noted.
High PVs can cause high circulating pressures for fluids
within the drill string and through the bit. Decreasing
particle size increases surface area, which increases
frictional drag. Plastic viscosity is decreased by reducing
the solids concentration through dilution or by
mechanical separation. As the viscosity of the base fluid
decreases with increasing temperature, the plastic
viscosity decreases proportionally. Figures 2-3 and 2-4
depict the average solids range of water base and non-
aqueous fluids, respectively.

Figure 2-3: Average solids range for water base muds

Figure 2-4: Average solids range for non-aqueous fluids
Emulsified water in a NAF will act like a solid and
effectively increase the PV. Changes in temperature of a
NAF will also be reflected in the PV reading. For example,
PVs will decrease with increasing temperature and
increase with decreasing temperature.
The operational impacts of plastic viscosity are:
Rate of Penetration (ROP) - Any increase in
plastic viscosity, whether it is from material such
as barite, hematite or calcium carbonate
intentionally added to the system or a buildup of
fine drilled solids due to inefficient solids control
equipment or inadequate dilution rates, may
negatively impact the ROP.
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) - As the
plastic viscosity increases, the ECD will also
increase.
Surge and Swab Pressures - When plastic
viscosity increases, surge and swab pressures
will also typically increase.
Differential Sticking - When increases in plastic
viscosity are due to a buildup of fine drilled
solids, the propensity for differential sticking will
increase, especially in a water base drilling fluid.
Along with an increase in PV, there could be a
corresponding increase in reactive solids as
determined by the methylene blue test.

Yield Point (YP)
Yield point (YP) is a measure of the attractive forces
between the colloidal particles in the mud and is defined
as the 300 rpm reading minus the PV. These colloidal
particles include reactive clays, such as bentonite and
polymers that are added to a system, as well as a buildup
of fine, clay-rich drilled solids. YP is a useful component
of viscosity and gives an indication of the ability of the
fluid to carry cuttings efficiently out of the hole.
The YP value is directly related to the frictional pressure
loss of fluids in laminar flow, which are affected by this
particular interaction, in turn affecting pressure losses in
the annulus and equivalent circulating density. In
general, drilling fluid rheology should be designed
utilizing products that enhance low shear rate yield point
(LSRYP). In this instance, LSRYP does not necessarily
imply 6 and 3 rpm readings, but those are the
measurements available with the 6-speed rheometer.
There are times, especially when drilling large diameter
holes (12.25 inches), that 6 and 3 rpm readings will be
the shear rates that must be controlled because they
provide a better indication of the hole cleaning ability of
the drilling fluid. Keep in mind that a high YP does not
necessarily equate to adequate hole cleaning.
In water base fluids, contaminants such as salt,
anhydrite and carbon dioxide, as well as high
temperature environments, will increase YP. Additions
of lime or caustic soda may also increase YP in water
base systems using clay, especially with overtreatment.
Contaminants should always be identified and treated as
quickly as possible; however, the use of thinners and/or
dilution can be an effective temporary solution until the
contaminant can be neutralized.
Operational impacts of YP include:
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) As YP
increases, there is usually an increase in ECD.
When all parameters are equal, the increase in
ECD usually is higher when using a NAF than
when using a water base mud. This is partially
due to the compressibility and kinematic
viscosity of the base oil being used.
Hole Cleaning Usually the larger diameter hole
that is being drilled, the higher the YP must be
to promote efficient hole cleaning.

Gel Strengths
Gel strength measurements show both the rate and the
degree with which reactive particles in a drilling fluid
interact in a static fluid to form a gel structure. Gel
strengths are important for maintaining the suspension
of barite and drill cuttings when circulation is stopped.
Measurements are made on a rheometer using the 3 rpm
speed and readings are taken after stirring the mud at
600 rpm to break all the gels. A first reading is taken
after the mud has been static for 10 seconds, a second
after 10 minutes. It is also highly recommended to take a
30 minute reading to be sure the mud is not likely to gel
excessively during long static periods like a bit trip.
Water base drilling fluids should develop a low, rapid
initial gel strength (10 second), usually just above the 3
rpm value and should remain relatively flat with time.
For NAFs, typical gel strength readings might be 8 (10
second) and 12 (10 minute), represented as 8/12,
respectively. Gel strength readings similar to 3 / 30 or
9 / 55 would be considered progressive and undesirable
in a normal drilling fluid.
Highly progressive gel strengths can lead to high pump
initiation pressures being required to break circulation
after mud in the hole has remained static for a period of
time, such as after a trip. A progressive 30 minute gel
strength reading is indicative of a buildup of fine and
ultrafine reactive solids in the mud and indicates that the
mud requires dilution and/or treatment.
High gel strengths in water base muds can be the result
of chemical contaminants such as cement, lime,
anhydrite, gypsum, acid gases such as carbon dioxide
(CO
2
) and hydrogen sulphide (H
2
S), salt and bacteria. In
NAFs, high gel strengths are usually the result of a
buildup of fine reactive solids or overtreatment with
organophilic gelling agents and not chemical
contamination.
The operational impacts of gel strengths are as follows:
Surge/Swab Pressures Highly progressive gel
strengths can lead to high pump initiation
pressures being required to break circulation
after mud in the hole has remained static for a
period of time, such as after a trip. These high
pump pressures could result in fractures to the
formation, inducing lost circulation. In addition
to 10 second and 10 minute gel strengths, it is a
good practice to run 30 minute gel strengths.
The 10 second and 10 minute values may appear
acceptable, but the 30 minute value may be
progressive in nature and provide a better
measure of the effect the fluid condition will
have on surge and swab pressure (Figure 2-5). A
progressive 30 minute gel strength reading is
indicative of a buildup of fine and ultrafine
reactive solids in the mud and indicates that the
mud requires dilution.
Cuttings Suspension Drilling fluids that exhibit
ultra low gel strengths will not efficiently
suspend cuttings. This could lead to fill after
trips and connections, drill string pack-off
resulting in loss of circulation, as well as
cuttings beds in directional holes.
Barite Sag Low gel strengths can lead to
barite sag in weighted fluids. This situation will
be evident by large fluctuations in the density of
the mud coming out of the hole. This
phenomenon is most noticeable in directional
wells after a trip.

Figure 2-5: Gel strength development

Rheological Models
Rheological models are used to predict the behavior of
drilling fluids under flowing conditions. Examples of the
fluids behavior in drilling applications include the
pressure drop, equivalent circulating density and hole
cleaning performance.
The flow behavior of drilling fluids is governed by two
flow regimes, namely laminar flow which prevails at low
velocities, and turbulent flow that occurs at high
velocities. The critical velocity where the flow changes
from laminar to turbulent is dependent on pipe diameter,
density, and viscosity. It is expressed by a dimensionless
number, the Reynolds number, which lies between 2000
and 3000 for most drilling fluids. In the turbulent flow
regime, flow is disorderly and flow equations are
determined empirically.
Laminar flow is orderly and the pressure-velocity
relationship is a function of the viscous properties of the
fluid. The laminar flow equations are based on certain
flow models that relate the flow behavior to the flow
characteristics of the fluid. Most drilling fluids do not
conform exactly to any one of the models, but their
behavior can be reasonably predicted by one or more of
them. Simply stated, a rheological model is a description
of the relationship between the shear stress () and the
shear rate (), otherwise known as the consistency curve.
The consistency curves for some of the more common
models are shown in Figure 2-6.

Figure 2-6: Consistency curves for common flow models

Newtonian
Fluids containing particles no larger than a molecule (e.g.
water, salt solution, light oil) can be described by the
Newtonian model. These fluids are those in which the
consistency curve is a straight line passing through the
origin. The viscosity of a Newtonian fluid is described by
the slope of the consistency curve, and remains constant
for all shear rates. Because viscosity does not change
with rate of shear, it is the only parameter needed to
characterize the flow properties of a Newtonian fluid.
Nearly all drilling fluids exhibit more complex non-
Newtonian behavior.

Bingham Plastic
The Bingham Plastic model is the most common model
used to describe the rheological properties of non-
Newtonian drilling fluids. This model assumes that the
shear stress is a linear function of shear rate once a
specific shear stress has been exceeded (the threshold
shear stress or yield point). The shear stress divided by
the shear rate, at any given rate of shear, is known as
the effective or apparent viscosity.
The plastic viscosity and yield point are calculated from
conventional viscometer data taken at 600 and 300
rpm. After the PV and YP values have been determined,
the model can be used to determine the shear stress at
any given shear rate.

Power Law
The Power Law model describes a non-Newtonian fluid in
which the consistency curve passes through the origin
and can be described by the following exponential
equation:
Shear stress = K (shear rate)

Where K = the fluid consistency index and = the power
law exponent. The parameter K is the shear strength at a
shear rate of 1 sec
-1
and corresponds approximately to
the yield point. is a measure of the rate of change of
viscosity with shear rate, and is generally inversely
proportional to the shear thinning characteristic of the
fluid. Most drilling fluids exhibit behavior in between
ideal Bingham Plastic and ideal Power Law fluids.

Filtration / Fluid Loss Control
API Fluid Loss Test
The API fluid loss test uses the standard API filter press
with a differential pressure of 100 psi and ambient
temperature. It can also be referred to as the API low
pressure fluid loss test. To obtain correlative results, one
thickness of the proper 7.5 cm
2
filter paper, WHATMAN
No. 50, S & S No. 576, or equivalent, must be used. At
the end of 30 minutes, the volume of filtrate is
measured. Solids in a drilling fluid are deposited against
permeable formations by differential pressure forming a
filter cake. The most desirable filter cake is one that is
thin and impermeable, resulting in a low fluid loss. This
test does not simulate downhole conditions. It provides
an excellent method for identifying a change in the fluid
loss trend, but does not provide any useful information
about how the fluid will behave under downhole
conditions. The API fluid loss test can be misleading in
that the test will show what appears to be a very
acceptable fluid loss value with a very thin filter cake at
surface conditions. The best fluid loss data will be gained
by subjecting the fluid to simulated downhole
temperatures and pressures.
The operational impacts of API fluid loss test are:
Torque and drag - High fluid loss values will
result in a thick buildup of filter cake across
permeable zones. Filter cake buildup will be
more severe when a high differential pressure
exists across the zones. Excessive torque may be
experienced under dynamic conditions
(circulating fluid), although if the cake buildup is
not severe, an increase in torque may go
unnoticed. Under static conditions, e.g. tripping
pipe or logging, the filter cake buildup may be
very noticeable, resulting in excessive drag.
Differential Sticking - Flocculated clay particles
do not form impermeable filter cakes. High
filtration rates deposit more clay particles to the
rock face, forming a very soft, thick, mushy filter
cake that can be very sticky due to the increased
contact area of the drillstring. This situation can
often lead to occurrences of stuck pipe,
especially in water base muds. This is
particularly true in the static state, in which a
thick, sticky filter cake may be formed even if
the mud has a relatively low fluid loss. Fluids in a
dynamic state (circulating) will work to erode a
filter cake that formed under static conditions.
Formation Damage - High filtration rates will
result in fluid and fine particle invasion leading
to solids plugging, impairing production if the
permeable rock is also a reservoir.

HTHP Fluid Loss Test
Although exact conditions cannot be simulated at the
wellsite, the high temperature high pressure (HTHP) test
is a much better indicator of drilling fluid stability under
downhole conditions than the API fluid loss test. Like the
API test, the HTHP test provides an indication of drilling
fluid filtrate lost to the formation under static conditions
over a specific period of time.
The HTHP test can be performed at various differential
pressures and temperatures. The sample cell is placed in
a heating jacket so the sample temperature can be
adjusted to more closely match downhole conditions. It is
recommended that the test temperature be run at 25 to
50 F above the current estimated bottom-hole
temperature. Performing the test at this temperature
will help ensure that the drilling fluid is not being under
treated or over treated for the current drilling
environment. In addition, the test should be performed
at 500 psi differential pressure. Like the API fluid loss
test, the HTHP test is run for 30 minutes. Due to the size
of the HTHP test cell, the filtration area is 50% that of
the API test, therefore the filtrate collected should be
doubled to provide the correct result. After the test is
complete and the cell is allowed to cool and the pressure
relieved, the remaining fluid should be observed for
excessive gelation.
Drilling fluids, especially water base, tend to exhibit
viscous mud in the cell after the test is completed. This
can be due to several reasons, but is typically caused by
dehydration of the mud (high filtrate loss) or the fluid
contains a high content of reactive clay. Furthermore,
the HTHP filter cake should be inspected for thickness
and quality. HTHP filter cakes deposited by water base
drilling fluids will tend to be thick and tough, where as
those associated with NAF tend to be thin and
slick. These additional observations can be very helpful
when experiencing hole problems.
The presence of water in the filtrate from the HTHP fluid
loss test conducted on NAF can be an indicator of a weak
emulsion or water-wet solids.

Filter Cake
Solids in a drilling fluid are deposited against permeable
formations by differential pressure forming a filter cake.
The most desirable filter cake in both the API and HTHP
fluid loss tests is one that is thin and impermeable,
resulting in a low fluid loss. The rule of thumb for filter
cake thickness is to keep it less than or equal to 2/32
inch. Thick filter cakes usually occur with high static
filtration rates and may lead to stuck pipe.
Operational impacts of filter cake include:
Torque/Drag - A buildup of thick filter cake
across permeable zones is usually the result of
high fluid loss values. Thickness of the filter cake
will be more severe when a high differential
pressure exists across the zone. Excessive
torque may be experienced under dynamic
conditions (circulating fluid), although if the filter
cake thickness is not severe, an increase in
torque may not occur. Under static conditions,
e.g. tripping pipe or logging, the filter cake
buildup may be very noticeable and detected by
excessive drag.
Differential Sticking As the filter cake becomes
increasingly thicker across zones that are
permeable and severely overbalanced, the
propensity to stick tubulars, regardless of
whether it is drillpipe or casing, will be increased.
A thick filter cake may develop across zones that
may be highly permeable and not too
hydrostatically overbalanced, resulting in wall
sticking.

Solids Content
The solids content, measured by retorting (boiling off the
liquid portion), is the total solids fraction present in the
mud. This includes both soluble and insoluble drilled
solids and soluble and insoluble mud additives; those
which are necessary and those which are undesirable.
The breakdown of the solids into soluble (salt), insoluble
high gravity (weight material), or insoluble low gravity
solids (LGS) may be calculated.
Drilled solids are the worst contaminant that may be
incorporated into drilling fluids. That statement may be
considered radical at first look because the effect of
drilled solids on fluid properties is not nearly as dramatic
as the effect of cement or salt on fresh water drilling
fluids. Nevertheless, during normal drilling operations,
drilled solids will be incorporated into the mud and as a
general rule must be reduced to 6-7% by volume.
The effect of increasing solids concentrations in drilling
fluids can be very subtle, but will ultimately result in
increased viscosity, circulating pressures, ECDs, surge
and swab pressures. Penetration rates will suffer as the
solids content of the mud increases. Filter cakes will
become thicker and softer, increasing the potential for
differential sticking.
Drilled solids concentrations are extremely important
and should be calculated on a daily basis. The upper limit
for drilled solids in a good mud will be dependent upon
the type of fluid being used. For weighted fluids, an
upper limit of 6-7% or approximately 60 lb/bbl is
recommended. Most drilling fluids can tolerate elevated
drilled solids contents, without too great an effect on
mud properties, but overall performance will be
diminished.
Another property that is usually reported along with high
gravity solids (HGS) and low gravity solids is the average
density of the solids in the drilling fluid. Barite and
clay/silt have specific gravities (S.G.s) of 4.2 and ~ 2.6
mg/L, respectively. Average solids density provides a
quick measure of the relative concentrations of low
gravity and high gravity solids. Average solids density
values of ~ 3.8 or higher are considered acceptable
levels. Readings below 3.5 suggest that there may be too
high of a concentration of low gravity solids in the mud.
Water base and non-aqueous fluids charts containing the
average solids content for various densities are located
in Figures 2-3 and 2-4, respectively. It should be noted
that these charts do not consider the effects of lost
circulation material or bridging agents.
The operational impacts of solids content are:
Rate of Penetration ROP can be negatively
impacted by a high level of solids in the drilling
fluid. Solids intentionally added to the fluid, such
as barite for density and calcium carbonate for
bridging will inhibit ROP, but there is very little
that can be done in these situations. Maintaining
drilled solids within an acceptable range will be
helpful in providing an optimum ROP, provided
other parameters such as hydraulics are
optimized.
Equivalent Circulating Density An increase in
solids, regardless of whether they are LGS or
HGS, will lead to an increase in ECD. Excessive
ECDs can lead to loss of circulation or wellbore
breathing. Low gravity solids must be maintained
in an acceptable range to minimize the impact of
ECD.
Surge/Swab Pressures - High solids contents,
especially drilled solids, may lead to excessive
surge and swab pressures. A certain amount of
drilled solids is necessary to build gel structure
for barite and cuttings suspension, but drilled
solids that are high and not in line with good
practices will cause gel strengths to be excessive
leading to unacceptable surge and swab
pressures.
Differential/Filter Cake Sticking - Undesirable
LGS in the drilling fluid can lead to filter cakes
that are thick, mushy and sticky. This condition
may result in a higher propensity for incidents of
differential sticking.

Properties Specific to Water Base Fluids
Chemical Properties
The chemical properties of water base drilling fluids are
very important and must be analyzed. The drilling fluid
chemistry can greatly affect the performance of the fluid
in its ability to solubilize organic additives (e.g. lignite,
lignosulfonate), promote or inhibit the hydration of
bentonite and polymers, control the corrosion rate of
tubulars as well as aid in the identification of
contaminants like cement, salt and acid gases.

pH
pH is a numerical value of the concentration of hydrogen
ions in a solution and is a direct measurement of the
acidity or alkalinity of the solution. The pH scale (0 to 14)
is an inverse measurement of the hydrogen ion
concentration. Therefore, the more hydrogen ions
present, the more acidic the substance and the greater
the decrease in pH. A pH of 7 is considered to be neutral.
Fluids with a pH below 7 are acidic and those above 7 are
referred to as basic or alkaline.
Alkalinity is defined as the concentration of both water-
soluble and insoluble ions that neutralize acid.
Essentially there are three groups of ions that may
perform this function. They are the hydroxyl ions (OH
-
),
carbonate ions (CO
3
-2
) and bicarbonate ions (HCO
3
-
).
Hydroxyl ions are useful and ideally the pH of the mud
should be primarily controlled with the presence of
hydroxyl ions. Carbonate and bicarbonate ions may be
considered contaminants. High carbonate and
bicarbonate alkalinities may cause excessive viscosities
and gellation tendencies in water base drilling fluids.
The pH is measured most accurately with a pH meter,
not pH paper. Meters should be calibrated daily to
ensure the most accurate measurements.
Operational impacts of pH include:
Acid gases (H
2
S/CO
2
) An influx of an acid gas
will result in a rapid decrease in the pH. With
this rapid drop in pH, the YP, gel strengths and
fluid loss values will increase and be very
difficult to control in a water base drilling fluid.
Additionally, the Pm and Pf will have a
corresponding decrease in value.
Carbonates/Bicarbonates The presence of
CO
3
-2
and HCO
3
-
will adversely affect the fluid
loss control in water base muds containing a
high clay content.
Anhydrite A decrease in pH could be an
indication that anhydrite is being drilled. In this
situation, there should be a corresponding
increase in the hardness content.
Water Flow Typically, a decrease in pH will be
observed if an influx of water occurs.

Pm
The phenolphthalein end point of the mud or Pm
provides an indication of the amount of caustic soda,
KOH, lime, cement, etc in a water base mud and not just
the filtrate. Phenolphthalein will indicate the alkaline end
point at a pH of 8.3. The Pm value includes both
dissolved and non-dissolved alkalinity in the mud. It is
mainly used in lime muds to determine the ratio of
insoluble lime in the whole mud to soluble lime in the
filtrate.
The Pm will increase when cement is drilled. The Pm
could become very high if the cement is green, as a
large quantity of the cement will be incorporated into
the system instead of being removed by the solids
control equipment.

Pf / Mf
The phenolphthalein end point (Pf) and methyl orange
end point (Mf) are measurements that are made on the
mud filtrate which help determine ions that are
responsible for pH.
If the Pf and Mf are nearly equal, hydroxyl ions
(OH
-
) are mainly contributing to the alkalinity
If the Pf and Mf are both high, then carbonate
ions (CO
3
-2
) are present
If the Pf is low and the Mf is high, bicarbonate
ions (HCO
3
-
) are present
There will always be some carbonate and bicarbonate
ions. These ions are more detrimental in high clay
content muds than in low clay content muds. If the Mf is
more than 10 times the Pf, carbonate alkalinity may be a
problem, especially if the LGS clay content is high.
Elevated funnel viscosities, yield points and gel strengths
may also be present with a carbonate alkalinity. The
definitive test for measuring soluble carbonates in mud
filtrate is done with a Garrett Gas Train. Carbonates are
usually treated out with additions of lime and/or
gypsum.

Total Hardness
Total hardness is a measurement of the total soluble
calcium (Ca
+2
) and magnesium (Mg
+2
) ions present in a
water base mud filtrate. Excessive hardness may cause:
flocculation of clays in the mud
inhibition of clay hydration
inhibition of polymer effectiveness
inhibition of treatment chemical effectiveness
high filtration rates
thick/mushy filter cakes
Additionally, calcium and magnesium ions will compete
with potassium (K
+
) ions in reacting and stabilizing
formation clays. As both are higher on the reaction
series, they will prevent the K
+
ion from making the
desired clay basal exchange in potassium chloride (KCl)
muds and should be precipitated out of the system. This
can be done with additions of soda ash or by increasing
the pH with caustic soda. If the pH is to be maintained
less than 9.5, then bicarbonate of soda (bicarb) can be
used instead of soda ash or caustic soda.
Total hardness should be maintained below 300 mg/L in
most water base drilling fluids, except for lime muds,
where it is usually run slightly higher (~400 mg/L).

Chloride Content
The chloride content of water base muds is measured by
titration of the mud filtrate. Chlorides should be
monitored and any significant change in the trend should
be noted. Changes in the chloride trend could indicate an
influx of water (fresh or salt) or penetration of a salt
bearing formation.
Chlorides are sometimes maintained in the mud with
additions of salts, such as sodium chloride (NaCl) and
potassium chloride. Chlorides are maintained in
sufficient concentration to aid in shale inhibition. If KCl is
being used, it will be necessary to provide sufficient
potassium ions to fully react with the clays encountered.
A minimum of 3% KCl will be sufficient in most cases.
Occasionally, the KCl concentration will need to be
increased to as high as 15% to control some highly
reactive formation clays.

Methylene Blue Test (MBT)
The methylene blue test (MBT), also known as the cation
exchange capacity (CEC) test, uses a cationic dye which
strongly attracts to the negatively charged sites on
clays. The test provides a measure of the reactive clay
concentration (as bentonite equivalent) of a water base
drilling fluid in pounds per barrel.
Smectite clays have large basal surface areas that are
negatively charged and therefore have the highest
capacity to adsorb methylene blue dye of any clay. Some
reactive clay is useful and necessary, but too much can
lead to problems.
Increasing CECs are usually an indication of an increase
in drilled solids concentrations. In most low solids drilling
fluids, CECs should be maintained at 15 lb/bbl
equivalent or less.

Properties Specific to Non-Aqueous Drilling
Fluids
Electrical Stability (ES)
The electrical stability (ES) of a non-aqueous fluid is the
voltage necessary to induce current to flow through the
mud. The magnitude of this voltage is controlled by a
number of factors but is primarily an indicator of the
emulsion stability of the fluid. This test is often referred
to as the emulsion stability test. NAFs are non-
conductive; therefore to induce an electrical current to
flow through the fluid, the emulsion must be broken,
allowing the current to flow through the water fraction in
the fluid. The ease or difficulty at which this may occur is
dependent on the strength of the emulsion, but may also
be affected by the solids content and type, oil/water
ratio, degree of shearing, temperature, acid gas
contamination and many other factors. Conductive
solids, such as some fibrous materials, hematite, and
insoluble (excess) salt, will indicate a weak emulsion, but
in actuality, the emulsion stability will be sufficient.
The ES should be tracked for changes instead of
targeting any specific value. It is normal for the ES to
gradually increase as a mud is used. Incorporation of
water into the mud, such as from drilling green cement,
or from a water kick, may temporarily reduce the ES
voltage. In most cases this is not an indication of a
problem with the emulsion. There is no specific voltage
number that indicates if the emulsion is sufficient or not.
If the emulsion is believed to be weak, the HTHP
filtration test should be conducted at 25 to 50F above
the bottom-hole temperature. If there is no free water
found in the filtrate, the ES is most likely sufficient for
the operation.

Alkalinity / Excess Lime
Lime (calcium hydroxide) is added to most non-aqueous
drilling fluids to react with fatty acid emulsifiers and
form a calcium soap. A quantity of excess lime (3 to 5
lb/bbl) is usually maintained in the system to ensure that
enough hydroxide is available to maintain a strong
emulsion. Lime is also carried in the system as a first line
of defense for controlling acid gases (CO
2
and H
2
S). If
CO
2
or H
2
S is anticipated, the excess lime content should
be increased and maintained at 5 to 10 lb/bbl. In the
case of H
2
S, the excess lime content must not be allowed
to deplete as the reaction of lime and H
2
S is reversible
and may result in the release of H
2
S at the surface.
Note: When H
2
S is anticipated, it is recommended that a
scavenger be added to the system (see Table 2-2 below).

Fluid Type H
2
S Scavenger
Water Base 1. Zinc Oxide
2. Basic Zinc Carbonate
3. Zinc Chelate
4. Iron Oxide
NAF 1. Zinc Oxide
Table 2-2: Recommended H
2
S scavengers

Water Phase Salinity
Water phase or internal phase salinity is controlled by
the addition of a salt to the mud. The salt is dissolved in
the water phase of the mud, thereby increasing the salt
concentration of the internal phase. The objective of salt
additions is to lower the activity by increasing the
chloride content of the internal phase to the point where
its activity is equal to or less than the formation water,
so that water does not move out of the mud and weaken
shales. The salt used can be one of a large number that
are available, but is usually calcium chloride (CaCl
2
). The
drill cuttings associated with NAFs are usually hard and
brittle. If the cuttings being generated are wet, mushy
and stick together on the shaker screens, the chloride
content of the internal phase may need to be increased.
This condition may also be the result of water-wet solids.
A typical range is usually 25 to 30 wt% CaCl
2,
but lab
tests on offset cores or cuttings can help to determine
the concentration needed. This range is also necessary
for hydrate prevention in deepwater operations.

Oil or Synthetic:Water Ratio
The fractions of oil or synthetic base fluid and water in a
mud are determined by retorting, which also determines
the solids content. The oil or synthetic:water ratio (OWR
or SWR) is a ratio of the relative percentages of these
fluids in the liquid portion of the mud.
Calculations:
The volume % water in the liquid portion of the mud is:

The volume % oil in the liquid portion of the mud is:
O
P
= 100 - W
P

The oil:water ratio is: O
P
:W
P
The volume % brine in the oil + brine portion of the mud
is:
B O
B
V V
V
P
B

) ( 100

The volume % oil in the oil + brine portion of the mud is:
O
P
= 100 B
p
W O
W
V V
V
P
W

) ( 100

The oil:brine ratio is: O
P
:B
P
V
w
= volume fraction water in the whole mud
V
O
= volume fraction oil in the whole mud
V
B
= volume fraction brine in the whole mud
In NAFs, when the water fraction of the fluid is increased, the plastic viscosity will generally increase, as the water behaves like a
solid in these systems. Additionally, the fluid loss will decrease and the yield point and gel strengths will increase. When water
additions are made, emulsifier additions will also be necessary to ensure that a strong emulsion is maintained.
Contaminant Compound/Ion Source
Method of
Measurement
Possible Effect
on Fluid
Course of Action
Anhydrite,
Gypsum
CaSO
4
,
CaSO
4
2H
2
O /
Ca
+2
, SO
4
-2

Formation,
Commercial
gypsum
Ca
+2
titration High yield point
High fluid loss
High gels
Thick filter cake
Ca
+2
increase
Treat with Sodium carbonate (soda ash):
Ca
+2
(mg/L) x 0.00093 = Na
2
CO
3
(lbm/bbl)
Break over to a gypsum fluid
MgCl
2
MgCl
2
/ Mg
+2
,
Cl
-

Formation,
Sea water
Total hardness,
Cl
-
titration
High yield point
High fluid loss
High gels
Thick filter cake
Total hardness
increase
pH decrease
Pf decrease
Cl
-
increase
Treat with caustic soda, NaOH
(pH 10.0) for moderate contamination, e.g. sea water
Mg
+2
(mg/L) x 0.00116 = NaOH (lbm/bbl)
Treat with additional thinner and fluid loss chemicals
Convert to MgCl
2
fluid if contamination is severe
NOTE: for severe contamination, continued additions of NaOH or Ca(OH)
2
will
result in unacceptable viscosity increase.
Cement,
Lime
Ca(OH)
2
/ Ca
+2,
OH
-

Cement,
Commercial lime,
Contaminated
barite
Titration for
Ca
+2
,
Pm
High yield point
High fluid loss
Thick filter cake
pH increase
Pm increase
Ca
+2
increase
Treat with sodium bicarbonate
Ca
+2
(mg/L) x 0.00074 = NaHCO
3
(lbm/bbl)
Treat with SAPP
Ca
+2
(mg/L) x 0.00097 = Na
2
H
2
P
2
O
7
(lbm/bbl)
Treat with lignite, 7 to 8 lbm/bbl precipitates
1 lbm/bbl Ca(OH)
2
to form Ca
+2
salt of humic acid
Additional thinner/fluid loss chemicals
Centrifuge to remove contaminant particles
Dilution
Dump if flocculation cannot be controlled
Allow Ca(OH)
2
to remain in convert lime fluid or allow Ca(OH)
2
to deplete over time
In some cases, use acids such as HCl, phosphoric
Appendix 2-1: Troubleshooting guideline for common fluid contaminants and treatment
Appendix 2-1: Troubleshooting guideline for common fluid contaminants and treatment (continued)

Contaminant Compound/Ion Source

Method of
Measurement
Possible Effect
on Fluid
Course of Action
Cement, Lime
(contd.)
Treat with soda ash if light contamination Ca
+2
(mg/L) x 0.00093 = Na
2
CO
3

(lbm/bbl)
Since effects of pH are often more detrimental to fluid order, chemical treatment
should be:
1. Sodium bicarbonate
2. Lignite
3. SAPP
4. Soda ash
Sodium bicarbonate is treatment of choice
Salt NaCl / Na+,
Cl
-

Formation,
i.e., salt dome,
stringers,
salt water,
make-up water
Cl
-
titration High yield point
High fluid loss
High gels
Thick filter cake
Cl
-
increase

Dilution with fresher water
Addition of thinner/fluid-loss chemicals reasonably tolerant of NaCl
Convert salt fluid using chemicals designed for salt
Presolubilize chemicals where possible
Dump if flocculation is too severe for economical recovery
Carbonate,
Bicarbonate
CO
3
-2
,
HCO
3
-

Formation gas,
CO
2
gas, thermal
degradation
of organics
contaminated
barite,
overtreatment
with soda ash or
bicarbonate
Garrett Gas
Train, pH/Pf
method,
Pf/Mf titration
High yield point
High 10-min gels
High HTHP fluid
loss
Ca
++
decrease
Mf increase
pH decrease
Treat with lime:
HCO
3
-
(mg/L) x 0.00021 = Ca(OH)
2
lbm/bbl and CO
3
-2
(mg/L) x 0.00043 = Ca(OH)
2

lbm/bbl
Treat with gypsum:
CO
3
-2
(mg/L) x0.001 = CaSO
4
2H
2
O lbm/bbl and caustic soda: HCO
3
-
X 0.0025 =
NaOH lbm/bbl
Hydrogen
Sulfide
H
2
S / H
+
,
S
-2

H
2
S from
formation gas,
thermal
degradation of
organics,
bacterial action
Garrett Gas
Train
(quantitative).
Automatic rig
H2S monitor
(quantitative).
Lead acetate
test.
High yield point
High fluid loss
Thick filter cake
pH decrease
Pm decrease
Ca
+2
increase

Course of action to be in compliance with all safety requirements
Pretreatment/treatment with basic zinc carbonate
Increase pH 11.0 with Ca(OH)
2
or NaOH
Condition fluid to lower gels for minimum retention of H
2
S
Operate degasser, possibly with flare
Displace with oil-base fluid. Add excess Ca(OH)
2
to precipitate S
-2
and neutralize
acid
Chapter 3: HES Impacts of Drilling Fluids
CHAPTER 3: HES IMPACTS OF DRILLING
FLUIDS

Many different types of drilling fluid systems are used in
drilling operations and while the fluids technical and
economic requirements are the main driver, local
environmental regulations and waste disposal
considerations also determine which type of drilling fluid
system will be used.
The choice for a water base mud (WBM) or non-aqueous
fluid (NAF) depends on the formation to be drilled and
the particular technical requirements needed to drill the
well successfully, e.g. temperature, pressure, shale
reactivity. A WBM is generally used in the upper hole
sections of the well, while a NAF tends to be used in the
more technically demanding sections. Non-aqueous
fluids are also known as organic phase fluids (OPF) in
areas such as the North Sea.
Chevron has adopted Operational Excellence as a key
strategy to protect the safety and health of employees,
contractors, the general public and the environment.
One of the expectations of Operational Excellence is that
we will identify and mitigate key environment risks. Fluid
and cuttings discharge criteria will be dictated by local
and federal regulations, and the local HES team should
be able to assist with interpretation of the regulations.
The Chevron Global Upstream Environmental
Performance Standard (EPS) relating to drilling
operations and waste management can be found under
the GU_ES section at the following address:
http://upstreamandgasresources.chevron.com/uc/
oe_hes/oe_processes/gu_processes.aspx
Another reference for drilling fluid usage and waste
management is the ETC Drilling Waste Management

(DWM) Handbook. The DWM Handbook describes
benefits and advantages of various waste management
techniques and processes along with best practices. It
can be found at the following address:
http://etc.chevron.com/teamfluidswaste/publications
.asp

Drilling Fluids Health and Safety
Occupational exposure to chemicals is a daily occurrence
for many workers in the oil and gas industry. All
chemicals used in drilling operations should be identified
and controlled. This requires an appropriate Material
Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) which informs the user of
active ingredients in the substance and their health
classifications. It also gives a classification of the
substance and guidance on its use, transportation and
safe handling.
Drilling crews may be exposed to drilling fluids either by
skin contact or by inhaling aerosols, vapor and dust.
When skin is exposed to drilling fluids the most frequent
effects are skin irritation and contact dermatitis. The
highest potential for inhaling mist and vapor exists along
the flow line from the bell nipple to the shale shakers and
mud pits. The preparation and use of drilling fluid
systems may generate airborne contaminants in the
workplace, including dust, mist and vapor. The potential
for inhalation of dust is mainly associated with mixing
operations. Refer to the MSDS and ensure that a Job
Safety Analysis (JSA) covers the proper handling of
chemicals. It is important to use proper personal
protective equipment (PPE) (e.g. safety glasses/shield,
chemical resistant gloves, dust shield, apron) when
handling potentially harmful chemicals such as low/high
pH additives and concentrated brines.
The type of exposure is often dependent upon the state
of the additive. Most solid additives take the form of fine
powders and present an inhalation hazard. Liquid
components potentially pose a dermal exposure hazard
during fluid formulation and mixing. With liquids, there is
also a risk of inhalation exposure where sprays, mists or
vapor are formed. The vapor pressure and flash point of
base oils are critical to the vapor concentration and fire
risk in enclosed spaces, such as around the shale shakers
and mud pits. The flash point of whole mud will be
greater than that of the base fluid. Lower flash point
base fluids are likely to give off greater amounts of
vapor with an increased potential for health problems
and fire risks.
As drilling fluids are not intended for ingestion, oral
exposure is unlikely and negligible as compared to the
other routes of exposure. However, oral exposure should
not be ignored when contaminated hands are used to
handle food or to smoke. Good hygiene practices should
always be followed.
Lifting guidelines should be adhered to when manually
transporting sack material as well as other heavy
products. The use of pre-mixed fluids, smaller sacks
and/or automated/mechanical handling systems has
been shown to reduce the possibility of injury and
exposure. Refer to safe lifting practices/regulations
prior to handling products.

Environmental Impacts of Drilling Fluids and
Cuttings
The environmental impacts of drilling fluids and cuttings
depend upon their chemical composition, treatment and
disposal method as well as the receiving environment.
For example, high levels of sodium chloride in drilling
fluids will have little impact if discharged into a marine

environment whereas discharge of the same drilling fluid
into a freshwater stream would have a greater
environmental impact.

Onshore Impacts
Onshore environmental issues focus primarily on
toxicity, the usability of land, and the potential for
contamination of ground water. Onshore treatment
methods include bioremediation,
solidification/stabilization and thermal desorption.
Disposal methods for drill cuttings include reserve
pits/burial, landfill and drill cuttings injection. These
methods vary in acceptable cuttings characteristics,
treatment/disposal rate and cost. Refer to local
regulations, the Chevron EPS and ETC Drilling Waste
Management Handbook for further guidance.
The primary considerations involved in onshore drilling
fluid/cuttings treatment and disposal are the
concentrations of heavy metals, salts and hydrocarbons.
Most countries and states have regulations regarding
treatment and disposal of fluids and cuttings that place
limits on these concentrations.
Hazardous metals such as mercury, cadmium, chromium
and lead may be present in many of the formations
drilled and may also be found in some drilling fluid
additives such as chrome lignosulfonate. Heavy metals
do not biodegrade and can bioaccumulate in the food
chain that may lead to health problems. The most
commonly encountered heavy metal is barium (in the
form of barium sulphate) from barite weighting agent.
However, barium sulphate is highly insoluble in water
and has a low mobility in soils preventing ground water
leaching. Of more concern are heavy metals such as
cadmium and mercury associated with impurities in
some sources of barite. Most regions and operators now
specify limits on these heavy metal contaminants of
barite.
Salts such as sodium or potassium chloride are often
used in drilling fluids for shale inhibition and density
control, and can impact soil and water quality.
Measurements, such as electrical conductivity (EC),
cation exchange capacity (CEC) and sodium adsorption
ratio (SAR) can be used to assess the potential impact
and necessary treatments.
Excess sodium can replace calcium and magnesium ions
in clays creating sodic soils. These soils have poor
water permeability and soil texture that can adversely
affect plant growth. Salt compounds can also inhibit
plant growth by limiting their ability to take up water.

Offshore Impacts
The effects of mud and cuttings discharges on the
offshore environment depend on the type and amount of
fluid on the cuttings, the cuttings settling rate and the
local conditions. The location and shape of the cuttings
pile depends on the speed and direction of the current
and the water depth. For example, environments with
high currents tend to erode piles and speed up seabed
recovery. Deep water also tends to increase dispersion
and limit the heights of piles.

WBM
Most WBMs have low acute aquatic toxicity and any
heavy metals associated with the WBMs are not
bioavailable. Rapid dispersion of the WBM at the point of
discharge means they tend to have a low impact on the
local environment.

As a general rule, the effects of WBM and cuttings
discharges on the seabed are related to the total mass of
drilled solids discharged. When WBM and the associated
cuttings are discharged to the ocean, the larger particles
quickly settle to the sea bed. If discharged at or near the
sea surface, the mud and cuttings disperse over a wide
area and are deposited as a thin layer. If the cuttings are
discharged just above the sea floor (this is sometimes
done to protect nearby sensitive marine habitats), the
solids may accumulate in a large, deep pile.
Water base muds may contain small amounts of
hydrocarbon lubricants to increase lubricity and reduce
stuck pipe occurrences. The levels of these lubricants
are limited by local regulations. Although small amounts
of formation hydrocarbons can be noticeable in a WBM,
cuttings usually do not contain sufficient formation
hydrocarbons to be harmful to the environment. The oil
content of any fluid used to drill a reservoir section
should be monitored prior to discharge and if necessary,
the cuttings should be contained and shipped to shore
for treatment and disposal.

NAF
Whole NAF should not be discharged to the ocean. In
some locations, NAF drill cuttings may be treated (e.g.
using cuttings dryers) to remove the excess fluid and
discharged to the ocean, particularly if the base fluid is
synthetic.
Impacts to the water column from discharging NAF
cuttings are considered to be negligible because the
cuttings settle quickly (i.e. exposure times in the water
column are low) and the water solubility of the base fluid
is low. Because of their rapid settling and non-aqueous
nature, NAF cuttings disperse less readily in the water
column than WBM cuttings and do not increase water
column turbidity. The NAF fluid and cuttings can affect
the environment mainly by impacting the seafloor. Refer
to the Chevron EPS and local regulations for further
guidance.
Rates of biodegradation depend upon seafloor
conditions (temperature, oxygen availability, sediment
type and fluid concentration) as well as fluid type. Crude
oil, diesel and other long chain and highly branched
hydrocarbons are more difficult for microbes to
biodegrade. Short chain hydrocarbon molecules like
those used in synthetic base fluids are easier for the
bacteria to consume.
Field studies show that synthetic base mud levels in
sediments decline much more rapidly than with
traditional mineral oil base mud. The areas that
recovered the most rapidly were those in higher energy
environments with plenty of aeration, mixing and
biological activity.

Chapter 4: Water Base Drilling Fluids
CHAPTER 4: WATER BASE DRILLING FLUIDS

Water base drilling fluids have been used extensively
since drilling first began. In recent years, their use has
diminished, giving way to the use of non-aqueous fluids
(NAFs). This is primarily due to the superior drilling
performance and wellbore stability provided by NAF.
However, for various reasons, there are some areas
where water base drilling fluids remain the fluid of
choice. Reasons leading to their continued use over NAF
include logistics and cost as well as environmental
constraints. Outlined in this chapter are some of the
more commonly used water base drilling fluids that are
likely to be found in Chevron operations. The common
characteristic that most of these fluids have is the fact
that they are, at least to some degree, considered
inhibitive. It should be recognized that the formulations
included are generic and should be engineered for each
individual application.

Spud Muds
Spud muds are used to initiate drilling operations. These
fluids have good hole cleaning characteristics and are
capable of being built quickly and cheaply. They are
often required to support unconsolidated formations.
Table 4-1 shows some typical spud fluid formulations.

Fluid Type Product
Concentration
(lb/bbl)
Fresh water spud
fluids
Bentonite
Lime
Soda ash
20 - 25
1 2
To reduce hardness to
below 150 mg/L for
bentonite pre-hydration
Salt water Salt Water Gel 25 - 35
Sea water/
pre-hydrated gel
(Mix sea water and
pre-hydrated gel
50:50)
Bentonite
Caustic
Lime
30 - 40 (Pre-hydrate in
freshwater)
0.5 - 1.0
0.5 - 1.5
Table 4-1: Spud mud formulation

Maintenance
Build fresh volume as hole is drilled.
Add bentonite or alternative viscosifier, e.g. salt
water gel, as required for viscosity.
Use water to reduce viscosity. Due to their cost,
thinners are not normally used with spud fluids.
Small amounts of lime may be added, along with
salt water gel, to increase the yield of the clay in
sea and salt water muds.
Contaminants
Usually contaminants are not a problem, but to obtain
maximum yield of the bentonite, the hardness should be
reduced to less than 150 mg/L. Additionally, as chlorides
increase, the yield of bentonite will decrease. Chlorides
(Cl
-
) and hardness, in the form of calcium (Ca
+2
) and
magnesium (Mg
+2
), will inhibit the ability of bentonite to
absorb water; in turn, reducing its yield (viscosifying
ability).

Low Solids Non-dispersed Fluids (LSND)
Low solids non-dispersed fluids are primarily used to
obtain improved penetration rates and hole cleaning in
areas where conventional gel chemical fluid systems
give poor to moderate performance. This type of system
uses various materials to extend the yield of the clays,
resulting in significantly lower total solids content.
Laboratory and field data show a strong correlation
between the use of low solids fluids and improved
penetration rates. In addition, proper use of these
polymer extenders will result in the flocculation of low-
yield solids (drilled solids) and optimum effectiveness of
solids removal equipment.
Secondary benefits derived from this system include the
following:
Reduced water requirements
Lower total transportation cost
Reduced wear on pumps and surface equipment
Improved bit life
Better shale stability
The basic system is freshwater, bentonite, and a
bentonite extender (flocculant). The concentration
depends upon the suspension properties required for
hole cleaning.
Table 4-2 shows a typical LSND formulation and Table
4-3 depicts typical mud properties.

Product Concentration
Bentonite 8 14 lb/bbl
Bentonite Extender
( e.g. BEN-EX)
0.5 0.1 lb/bbl
Caustic Soda As needed for pH 9.5
Soda Ash Treat Ca
+2
below 150 mg/L
Table 4-2: Typical formulation for LSND Fluids

Property Value
Funnel viscosity
Plastic viscosity
Yield point
Gels
Filtrate
34 - 38 sec/qt
5 - 7 cp
6 - 9 lb /100 ft
2

4 - 6 lb /100 ft
2

12 - 15 mL
Table 4-3: Typical mud properties for LSND Fluids

If additional filtration control is required, 0.5 to 1.0 lb/bbl
(1.4 to 2.8 kg/m
3
) of a water soluble polyacrylate such as
sodium polyacrylate (SPA) may be used.

Maintenance
This system is maintained in the following manner:
For maximum penetration rates, the fluid density
should be maintained at 8.8 lb/gal (3% solids).
Fluid density should not exceed 9.0 lb/gal (6%
solids by volume).
The typical amount of bentonite extender
required per foot of hole drilled to flocculate
drilled solids is as follows (always add the
appropriate amount of extender when adding
bentonite or barite to the system):
o 2 lb extender for every 500 lb bentonite
o 2 lb extender for every 4000 lb barite
Use available solids control equipment, or dilute
with water to control the drilled solids to
bentonite ratio at 2:1 or less.
Treat new volume (from water addition) with the
extender and chemicals daily.
With weighted fluids, as weight increases,
maintain lower bentonite concentration.

Contaminants
Low solids non-dispersed fluids are quite sensitive to
chemical contaminants such as Ca
+2
, Mg
+2
, Cl
and HCO
3
.
In addition, improperly treated drilled solids, and even
bentonite and barite, can act as contaminants. The most
common problem relating to fluid viscosity is inadequate
treatment with an extender.
Specific chemical contaminant levels are as follows:
[Ca
+2
] maximum, 100 mg/L: treat with soda ash
or bicarbonate of soda
[Cl
], 5000 to 10,000 mg/L: dilute with

freshwater
[HCO
3
], [CO
3
-2
] should be minimized

Refer to Table 4-4 and Table 4-5 for problems in
unweighted and weighted low solids non-dispersed
(LSND) fluids respectively.

Table 4-4: Troubleshooting unweighted LSND fluids
Problem Weight Viscosity MBT
Low-
Density
Solids
Calcium Treatment
Weight
too high
_ Normal Normal High Normal
Increase settling time
Add extender or
flocculant
_ High High High Normal
Potential bentonitic
formation
Dilute, add extender
Viscosity
too high
Normal _ High Normal Normal
Dilute, add extender
Stop adding bentonite
Normal _ Low High Normal
Add extender and
bentonite
Check solids equipment
High _ High High Normal
Use solids control
equipment
Add extender and
water
Normal _ Normal Normal Normal Add extender
Normal _ Normal High High
Add soda ash and
extender or flocculant
Viscosity
too low
Normal _ Low Normal Normal
Add bentonite and
extender
Pilot test with extender
Add extender or
reduce treatment
Normal _ High Normal High
Treat calcium with
soda ash
Low-
Density
Solids
Calcium Treatment
Fluid loss
too high
_ Normal Low Normal Normal
Add bentonite and
extender
_ Normal Normal Normal Add SPA, or CMC
_ High Normal Normal High
Remove calcium with
soda ash or
bicarbonate of soda
Table 4-4: Troubleshooting unweighted LSND fluids (continued)

Low-
Density
Solids
Calcium Treatment
Viscosity
too low
Normal _ Low Normal Normal Add extender and bentonite
Normal _ Normal Normal Normal
MBT, due to drilled solids,
dilute, add gel and extender
Viscosity
too high
Add extender or SPA, or
CMC
Normal _ Normal Normal Normal
Add extender or SPA, or
CMC
Normal _ Normal Normal High
Treat with soda ash or
bicarbonate of soda (high
pH)
HTHP
Fluid
loss too
high
Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal
Add bridging or coating
agent
( e.g. asphaltics)
Normal Normal Low Normal Normal Add extender and SPA
Normal
Normal
High
Normal Normal High Remove calcium
Table 4-5: Troubleshooting weighted LSND fluids

Low pH/Polymer Fluids
A low pH/polymer fluid is characterized by the presence
of a high molecular weight partially-hydrolyzed
polyacrylamide (PHPA) polymer. PHPA acts as a
protective colloid. It functions as a shale, cuttings and
wellbore stabilizer. By bonding to sites on reactive shale,
PHPA inhibits dispersion of formation solids into the fluid
system. PHPA fluids are based upon low solids non-
dispersed (LSND) fluid technology. Table 4-6 shows
typical Low pH/polymer formulations.

Fresh
Water
Sea
Water
NaCl KCl
Make-Up Water (% by vol.)
Fresh water
Sea water

100
~
50
50
50
50
100
~
Electrolyte
NaOH/KOH
NaCl, % by wt
KCl, % by wt
*
~
~
*
~
~
*
Upto20%
~
*
~
Upto15%
Viscosifier
Bentonite, lb/bbl
XCD POLYMER, lb/bbl
10-20
~
10-20**
0.1-0.5
10-20**
0.1-1.0
10-20**
0.1-1.0
Fluid Loss (lb/bbl)
PAC Regular
PAC LV
LIGNITE
Starch
Modified Starch
0.5-1.0
0.5-1.0
1.0-6.0
~
0.5-6.0
0.5-1.0
0.5-1.0
2.0-8.0***
1.5-2.0
0.5-6.0
0.5-2.0
0.5-2.0
2.0-8.0***
1.5-3.0
1.0-8.0
0.5-2.0
0.5-2.0
2.0-8.0***
1.5-3.0
0.5-8.0
Rheology (lb/bbl)
Sodium Polyacrylate (SPA)
DESCO
0.25-2.0
0.25-5.0

0.25-2.0
0.25-5.0

0.25-2.0
0.25-5.0

0.25-2.0
0.25-5.0
Shale-Control Additives
PHPA, lb/bbl

0.25-1.5

0.25-1.5

0.25-2.0

0.25-2.0
Secondary
Shale-Control Additives
SOLTEX, lb/bbl
2.0-8.0 2.0-8.0 2.0-8.0 2.0-8.0
* To pH = 10.0
**Pre-hydrated in fresh water
***Pre-hydrated in pre-mix
Table 4-6: Low pH/polymer formulations

The following are general guidelines for the preparation
and maintenance of low pH/PHPA systems.

Methylene Blue Test (MBT)
The low pH/PHPA system provides the best performance
with MBT values maintained in the 15 to 20 lb/bbl (42.8
to 57.1 kg/m
3
) equivalent range. In general, an MBT of
less than 20 lb/bbl equivalent is recommended. MBT
values above 20 lb/bbl (57 kg/m
3
) equivalent may result
in high rheological values (yield point and gel strengths)
and may require dilution or use of a deflocculant.

Gel Strengths
It is common for 10 minute gels to reach 35 lb/100 ft
2
.
Drilling conditions and economics should determine the
need to reduce gel strengths. Report initial, 10 minute,
and 30 minute gels on all low pH/PHPA systems.

Filtrate pH
Fresh Water System
A filtrate pH of 8.0 to 9.0 is optimum for fresh water
systems. Caustic soda or caustic potash additions should
be made slowly to avoid a high pH. Carefully add caustic
materials to the system through the chemical barrel.

Sea Water System
When hardness reduction is necessary for fluid loss
control, a pH of 9.5 to 9.7 should be maintained.

Range for Filtrate Hardness (Ca
+2
and Mg
+2
)
Fresh Water System
Maintain a total hardness level of the fluid at a
concentration of 200 to 300 mg/L calcium as this range
tends to show the best stability.

Sea Water System
If low rheological and fluid loss values are not necessary,
sea water systems may be maintained at natural pH and
hardness. This is especially true when the objective of
the system is to control gumbo shale.
Filter cake quality and fluid loss control are adversely
affected by high hardness (>400 mg/L). Therefore, when
sand sections are drilled, the pH of the system may be
increased to chemically suppress the hardness level. In
sea water, the pH should be raised initially with caustic
soda or potassium hydroxide to a maximum value of 9.5
to 9.7. This will precipitate most of the magnesium.
Additions of soda ash and/or sodium bicarbonate should
then be used to precipitate out calcium to the desired
hardness level.
Fluid Loss
The filter cake quality of the PHPA system makes fluid
loss values of 10 to 20 mL/30 minutes sufficient in most
situations. To determine cake compressibility, fluid loss
values should be measured and reported at 100, 200, or
500 psi, and at 7 and 30 minute intervals. This test will
have to be performed in a HTHP fluid loss cell.

Dispersant Additions
Dispersant (e.g. DESCO) may be used in PHPA systems
when excess solids cannot be mechanically removed or
diluted. Dispersants will deflocculate the reactive clays,
resulting in a reduction in funnel viscosity, yield point
and gel strengths. Excessive use should be avoided to
ensure effective hole cleaning and to prevent mechanical
erosion of the wellbore. Small amounts of lignosulfonate
can be used in place of DESCO, but care should be taken
to not let the pH rise above 10.0. It is best to pre-
solubilize the lignosulfonate to protect against
increasing the pH above the recommended range.

Mixing Procedures
Fresh Water System
Add the following to the fresh water system:
1. Caustic soda
2. Bentonite (pre-hydrated in fresh water)
3. PHPA
4. Fluid loss additives, deflocculants, and
supplemental shale control additives
5. Barite
6. Adjust yield point with xanthan polymer (e.g.
XCD POLYMER)

Sea Water, Sodium and Potassium Chloride Brines
Add the following to the sea water/brine:
1. Caustic soda/KOH for pH and hardness control
2. Bentonite (pre-hydrated in fresh water)
3. Lignite
4. PHPA
5. Starch
6. Supplemental shale control additives (e.g.
SOLTEX)
7. Adjust yield point with xanthan polymer (e.g.
XCD POLYMER)
8. Sodium or potassium chloride to adjust salinity
as needed
9. Barite

KCl/Polymer Fluids
The use of potassium (K
+
) as a base exchange ion to
stabilize shales is an accepted practice in many
geographic areas worldwide. Its use in the Gulf of Mexico
has been greatly restricted due to the toxic effect of
potassium on the test species, Mysidopsis bahia shrimp.
Potassium is widely used internationally, and comes
from many sources, including potassium chloride,
potassium carbonate, potassium acetate, and potassium
hydroxide.

Major Applications
Drilling soft gumbo (high water content reactive
clay structure with elevated cation exchange
capacity) formations to prevent bit balling, clay
swelling, clay hydration and tight hole problems
that are commonly associated with drilling
reactive formations.
Drilling hard shale, such as that found in the
foothills of Canada and West Texas where
excessive sloughing and borehole enlargement
are common problems. This is not to be mistaken
for tectonically stressed formations, as the
system will not alleviate the problems associated
with these types of formations.
Drill-in or workover fluids where the pay zone
contains water sensitive clays intermixed with
the producing formation.
Functioning as the first line of defense for all
swellable formation clays.
Potassium is an effective clay swelling/hydration
inhibitor, where the concentration of potassium to
achieve the desired result is often a function of the shale
being drilled.
To accomplish maximum inhibition with potassium, it
must be the intervening ion within the fluid phase of the
drilling fluid. As an example, it would require a minimum
of 18 lb/bbl of potassium chloride in sea water before the
potassium ion became the dominant ion as opposed to
magnesium, calcium, sodium and the other cations
indigenous to naturally occurring sea water.

Potassium Sources
KCl is most often used to supply the major source of
potassium. In most drilling applications, a 3% to 5%
concentration (10.7 to 18.1 lb/bbl) is sufficient to provide
inhibition of clay swelling and hydration, though there
are many areas of the world which require 7% to 10%
concentration.
A secondary source of potassium is potassium hydroxide
which is sometimes used as an alkalinity agent.
Generally, KOH is used in such low concentrations that
the K
+
ion contribution is insignificant. The primary
benefit in using KOH instead of NaOH is that potassium
competes with sodium for ion exchange sites. A general
rule of thumb is to target a ratio of 3:1 of K
+
:Na
+
.
Approximately 1.4 lb of KOH is required to get the same
pH effect as one pound of NaOH. KOH provides
approximately 2,440 mg/L of K
+
ion for each pound per
barrel added.

Viscosifiers
Materials used as viscosifiers in potassium-based
systems include:
Pre-hydrated bentonite
1. Fill pit with fresh water
2. Add 0.5 to 1.0 lb/bbl soda ash
3. Add 0.25 to 0.5 lb/bbl caustic soda
4. Add 30 to 35 lb/bbl bentonite
5. Add 4 to 6 lb/bbl lignosulfonate
6. Allow to hydrate 4 to 24 hours
7. Agitate if possible with shear pump
Xanthan gum (e.g. XCD POLYMER)
Guar gum (modified)
Hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC)
The combination of 5 to 10 lb/bbl pre-hydrated bentonite
plus 0.25 to 1.5 lb/bbl XCD POLYMER has been a
commonly used viscosifying treatment. In some cases,
because of shortages or economic constraints, guar gum
and HEC have been used as viscosifiers. Although these
products will increase viscosity, they do not increase
carrying capacity. Therefore they are considered
unsatisfactory substitutes and will require elevated
bentonite concentrations to provide adequate hole
cleaning.

Filtration Control Agents
High filtration is characteristic of these fluids and almost
any attempt to establish control will result in some
deflocculation.
Materials used to reduce filtration are:
Starch - In concentrations of 2 to 3 lb/bbl, starch
produces reduced filtration rates (15 to 20 mL)
with no appreciable deflocculation. To lower
filtrate to the 5 mL range, 6 to 8 lb/bbl of starch
are required. When using starch in muds having
a salt concentration below saturation or a pH
below 11.5, a high dose of biocide will be required
to prevent fermentation.
Polyanionic Cellulose (PAC Regular) (e.g. MIL-
PAC R) is an effective filtration control agent in
KCl systems (0.25 to 2.0 lb/bbl). It may exhibit a
deflocculating effect on rheological properties
which could drastically reduce yield point to
plastic viscosity ratio.
Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC) - CMC provides
filtration control, although it is not as effective
as PAC.

Secondary Shale Stabilizers
Occasionally, the primary method for shale stabilization,
namely using the potassium ion, does not provide
adequate stability. In this situation, one of the following
secondary shale stabilizers should be considered.
Amines
Glycols
Asphalts
Polymers
Table 4-7 indicates a typical KCl/polymer formulation.

Product Concentration, lb/bbl
Pre-hydrated Bentonite 5 - 10
Potassium Chloride (KCl) 10 - 70
Caustic Potash (KOH) 0.25 - 0.75
XCD POLYMER 0.25 1.5
PAC 0.25 4.0
Starch 2 8
Biocide 0.5
Barite As Needed
Table 4-7: KCl/polymer formulations

This base fluid typically exhibits an extremely high yield
point and a relatively high filtration rate. For example:
PV = 5 cp
YP = 35 lb/100 ft
2

Filtrate (API) = 10 to 25 mL/30 min

Limitations
There are many areas in the world where successful
potassium applications have been documented; however,
there are other areas, such as in the highly kaolinitic
shales of northern South America and West Africa,
where failures are also well documented.
The use of potassium for inhibition when drilling
kaolinitic shales is strongly discouraged due to the
destabilizing effect of the potassium ion on kaolinite.

Salt Water Fluids
Salt water muds are generally used for shale inhibition,
drilling salt sections and controlling hydrates in
deepwater drilling. As outlined in Table 4-8, these fluids
can be categorized based on chloride content as sea
water, salt water or saturated salt water muds.

Classification
Chloride Concentration
(Cl
-
), mg/L
Brackish <10,000
Salt Water >10,000
Sea Water ~18,000
Saturated Salt Water >190,000
Table 4-8: Salt water mud classifications

Sea Water Muds
Brackish water and sea water are often used as make-up
water for spud fluids on inland barge and offshore
drilling operations, primarily because of their availability
and shale inhibition characteristics.

Sea Water Composition
The analysis of a typical sea water sample is shown in
Table 4-9. A generic sea water mud formulation is
depicted in Table 4-10.

Constituent mg/L
Sodium
Potassium
Magnesium
Calcium
Chloride
Sulfate
Carbon dioxide
10,400
375
1,270
410
18,970
2,720
90
Density ~8.5 lb/gal
Table 4-9: Typical sea water analysis

Pre-hydrated Bentonite 30-35
Lignosulfonate 4-6
Caustic Soda 0.2-0.5
Defoamer As needed
Table 4-10: Sea water mud formulation
Pre-hydrated bentonite procedure:
This mixture is generally added to the sea water at an
initial concentration of 25% to 30% of circulating
volume, then added as required while drilling. A
defoamer may be required to control foaming.

Maintenance
As drilling progresses, it is usually necessary to disperse
or deflocculate solids and lower fluid loss. The addition
of 3 to 6 lb/bbl of lignosulfonate, 1.5 to 3 lb/bbl of lignite,
0.25 to 1.0 lb/bbl of PAC and caustic soda are added as
required for a 1.0 to 1.5 P
f
(pH 10.0 to 10.5). These
concentrations should provide good rheology and a fluid
loss value in the 4 to 8

mL range.
To aid filtration control and cake quality, bentonite
should be maintained (by methylene blue test) in the 15
to 25 lb/bbl range. Sea water fluids require substantially
greater additions of caustic soda for alkalinity control.
This is due in part to the loss of hydroxyl ion by reaction
with magnesium. PAC Regular, PAC LV, lignosulfonate
and lignite are normally used for filtration control.
Saturated Salt Water Fluids
Application
Saturated salt water fluids are generally limited to
drilling operations encountering thick salt formations
and for hydrate control in deepwater applications.
Saturated salt fluids are prepared by adding NaCl to
water up to saturation and then adding appropriate
viscosifiers and fluid loss control agents.
High density (high salt content) produced brines can be
used to prepare these fluids. However, produced heavy
brines may contain high concentrations of hardness
(calcium and magnesium). As a result, saturated salt
fluids are usually run without pH control as the caustic
will react with magnesium to form Mg(OH)
2
, a gelatinous
material which will plug shale shakers and detrimentally
affect the rheology of the system. In such cases,
saturated salt fluids can be run at a neutral pH. Under
these circumstances, the addition of lignosulfonate and
pre-hydrated lignite should not be made, as they require
an alkaline pH to function properly.

Characteristics
A saturated or near-saturated NaCl (or KCl)
brine base is normally utilized.
Good mixing conditions (high shear) or
circulating times are required to develop good
suspension properties.
Exhibits high gel strengths and yield point.
Starch begins to degrade at temperatures above
225F (107C). PAC Regular PAC LV may be used
as a supplemental filtration control agent in
these higher temperature applications.
Starch fermentation is generally not a problem if
the system is saturated with salt, or if the pH is
11.5 or above. However, to ensure against starch
fermentation, a suitable biocide should be added.
Bacteria resistant starches can be substituted
for conventional starches as these products do
not normally require initial treatment with a
biocide.
Higher alkalinities are less corrosive and, where
P
f
1.0, reduce the tendency to foam.
Salt water fluids have a tendency for foaming.
Additions of a defoamer will be needed to help
reduce foaming problems.
Solids contents (retort analyses) of these fluids
should be corrected to compensate for the effect
of soluble salts.

Table 4-11 shows a saturated salt fluid formulation.

NaCl
Pre-hydrated bentonite
PAC
PAC LV
Starch
PHPA
Defoamer
Lignosulfonate
Caustic soda
Pre-hydrated lignite
110
10 - 15
0.5 - 2.0
0.5 - 2.0
1.5 - 3.0
0.25 - 4.0
As required for foam
2.0 - 6.0
pH = 7.0-8.0
2.0 - 8.0
Table 4-11: Saturated salt fluid formulation
Maintenance
Add sacked salt to maintain saturation
Utilize pre-hydrated bentonite for viscosity/
filtration control. Pre-hydrated bentonite
procedure:
PAC and/or starch for filtration control

Lignite/Lignosulfonate
Freshwater lignite/lignosulfonate fluids are commonly
employed for drilling in areas where formations contain
high concentrations of bentonite that are easily
dispersed, causing elevated viscosities and rheological
properties. They provide rheological control and afford a
degree of inhibition to drilled solids. These systems are
relatively inexpensive and not difficult to maintain. Table
4-12 represents a typical freshwater/sea water
lignosulfonate fluid formulation. The typical properties
are shown in Table 4-13.

Limitations
Lignite/lignosulfonate fluids do not provide good shale
stability and exhibit poor contaminant tolerance. A high
concentration of drill solids or chemical additions could
lead to excessive gel structures. Additionally, some of
the additives can break down and cause fluid
contamination, i.e. carbonate.

Applications
Lignite/lignosulfonate fluids are used to drill a variety of
formations. They can be weighted up to 18 to 19 lb/gal,
provided low gravity solids are in a minimal range. As
mud weight is increased, the bentonite concentration
should be decreased.
The pH range for proper control of these systems is 9.5
to 10.5 and the calcium ion (Ca
+2
) concentration should
be maintained below 300 mg/L. Salinity below 10,000
mg/L is tolerated well, but salinity above 25,000 mg/L
may require dilution with fresh water for optimal system
control.
These systems are stable to temperatures of ~350F.
Generally, chrome lignosulfonates and chrome modified
lignites tolerate higher temperatures. A typical
lignite/lignosulfonate formulation system and resulting
properties are outlined in Table 4-12 and Table 4-13,
respectively.
Product Concentration (lb/bbl)
Bentonite
Lignosulfonate
Caustic soda
Lignite
High Temperature Polymer Thinner
High Temperature Fluid Loss
12 - 20
2 - 8
(for pH of 9.5 - 10.5)
As needed
As needed
As needed
Table 4-12: Fresh water/sea water lignite/lignosulfonate fluid
formulation

Density,
lb/gal
Plastic
Viscosity,
cp
Yield
Point,
lb/100
ft
2

Gel
Strengths,
lb/100 ft
2

10sec
10 min
API
Filtrate,
mL/30
min
9 8-12 6-10 2-4 4-10 8-12
12 15-20 10-14 2-4 4-10 4-8
Table 4-13: Typical properties of lignite/lignosulfonate systems

Maintenance
Add lignosulfonate daily or per tour to control
yield point and gel strengths. Treatment ranges
between 0.5 and 1.0 lb/bbl will be sufficient for
average penetration rates if a good solids
removal program is utilized. Discontinue
lignosulfonate additions as the temperature
approaches 350 F.
Bentonite should be added as necessary to
maintain desired filtration rates and give the
necessary suspension properties. Bentonite
should be pre-hydrated, if possible, prior to
adding to the active system. Water additions are
required to maintain the plastic viscosity in the
desired range. Depending on the fluid density,
both lignosulfonate and water are usually
required.
Drilled solids may cause excessive problems with
fluid rheology and should be kept as low as
possible with mechanical control devices and
water. Decrease the low gravity solids
concentration of the fluid as the density is
increased.
When operating in a CO
2
environment, use lime
additions to neutralize the effects of the acid
gas.
Use of polymer-treated lignite fluid loss additives
and/or synthetic high temperature polymers is
recommended as temperatures approach 350 F.

High Performance Water Base Drilling Fluids
The goal of having a water base drilling fluid that
provides the drilling performance approaching that of a
NAF has resulted in the development of a class of fluids
known as high performance water base muds
(HPWBMs).
HPWBMs are typically used in place of NAF for the
following reasons:
Environmental concerns outweigh the need for
drilling performance
The use of NAF is unfeasible due to logistics
High potential for loss circulation
There are a number of these systems available. They are
all similar in that they contain additives that provide:
Superior shale stability
Suppressed shale hydration, swelling &
dispersion
Minimized bit balling and accretion
Low friction factors for torque and drag
reduction
Fairly high rates of penetration
Reduced differential sticking
Reduced losses in depleted sands
Historically, the most common approach to shale
inhibition, i.e. increasing shale stability and minimizing
shale hydration in water base muds, has been to use a
chloride component, such as sodium chloride or
potassium chloride. Although many of the HPWBMs still
use this mechanism, they also utilize polymers (both long
and short chains) that adsorb on the surface of the clays,
limiting dispersion and somewhat slowing water uptake.
This approach to shale inhibition includes materials that
plug shale pores and physically block water uptake, as
well as possibly establishing partial membranes between
the mud and shale formation. In addition to using new
shale inhibitors, most of these systems will have an
additive to enhance rates of penetration. As might be
expected, the cost associated with these systems is
significantly higher than the cost of conventional water
base systems.

Chapter 5: Non-Aqueous Fluids
CHAPTER 5: NON-AQUEOUS FLUIDS

Non-aqueous fluids (NAFs) are defined as drilling fluids
which have oil as the continuous external phase. Each
system is typically composed of base fluid, brine,
emulsifier, lime, organophilic clay (viscosifier), fluid loss
additive and weighting material. NAFs are invert
emulsions. The external phase is oil and the internal
emulsified phase is water. Typically, oil:water ratios for
inverts range from 95:5 to 50:50. The emulsified phase
is almost always a brine; calcium chloride (CaCl
2
) being
the usually preferred salt.
Because the advantages frequently outweigh the
disadvantages, as shown in Table 5-1, NAFs continue to
be used in difficult drilling environments and in special
applications.
Advantages Disadvantages
Shale stability and inhibition
High penetration rate
Temperature stability
Lubricity
Resistance to chemical
contamination
Gauge hole in evaporative
formations (salt)
Solids tolerance
Reduced tendency for
stuck pipe
Reduced fluid density drilling
Reduced cement cost
Flexibility
Reduced stress fatigue
Corrosion control
Reuse
Hydrate prevention
High initial cost per barrel
Reduced kick detection/gas
solubility issues
Fluid compressibility
Pollution control/environmental
issues/disposal problems
Rig cleanliness
Hazardous vapors/special skin care
for personnel required
Effect on rubber parts
Fire hazard
Special logging tools required
Table 5-1: Advantages and disadvantages of NAF
Conventional invert emulsion fluids are formulated with
the same basic products. Each system is typically
comprised of:
External phase base fluid - diesel, mineral or
synthetic oil
Internal phase brine - water containing CaCl
2
,
NaCl, glycerin, glycol, acetates
Viscosifiers - organophilic clay or polymer
Wetting agents
Lime
Emulsifiers
Fluid loss additives - asphalt, gilsonite, polymer
Weight material - barite, hematite, calcium
carbonate
The quantities and concentrations of each will be
dependent upon the application and desired properties.
For example, when formulating a low density invert, the
internal phase water fraction will be much higher than
that for a high density formulation.

Base Fluids
Base fluids (the continuous phase) are hydrocarbon oils
and are typically the largest component by volume of an
invert emulsion system. The continuous oil phase is the
phase into which everything else is mixed. Base fluids
are nonpolar, low-surface-energy/tension liquids that
interact with mineral solids. This characteristic is the
basis for the use of NAFs as non-reactive, inert drilling
fluids. Hydrocarbon base fluids will not solvate or swell
clays, which makes them ideal for drilling hydratable
shale.
The most widely used base fluids have been diesel,
mineral oil, and synthetic oils. The choice of base fluids is
driven by performance, environmental regulations,
availability, and price. The two environmental
considerations that are usually addressed are the acute
toxicity to aquatic organisms as the cuttings coated with
NAF fall though the water column and the long term
impact on the seabed as the NAF biodegrades.
Properties that affect performance and should be
considered when selecting base fluids are:
Kinematic viscosity - Viscosity describes a fluid's
internal resistance to flow and may be thought
of as a measure of fluid friction. Kinematic
viscosity is usually recorded at 40
o
C (104
o
F) and
as a general rule, base fluids with lower
kinematic viscosities are more desirable and
provide superior performance.
Flash point - Defined as the temperature at
which oil vapor ignites upon passing a flame over
the hot base fluid. The base fluid selected should
have a flash point that is higher than the
maximum expected flowline temperature.
Pour point - Defined as the temperature at
which the base fluid ceases to flow. The base
fluid should have as low a pour point as possible,
especially for deepwater drilling and storage in
cold climates.

Diesel Oil
Historically, the most widely used and least expensive
base fluid has been diesel, but due to environmental
concerns its use has diminished in recent years. Diesel
contains aromatics, sulfur and nitrogen compounds
which have enough toxicity to adversely affect many
aquatic organisms. The aromatics, branched paraffins
and cycloparaffins in diesel biodegrade very slowly.
Offshore discharge of cuttings covered with diesel is
banned nearly everywhere and onshore disposal creates
HES concerns and liability.

Mineral Oil
Mineral oils are petroleum-derived hydrotreated refinery
streams that contain lower concentrations of aromatics,
sulfur and nitrogen compounds than diesel. The most
highly treated mineral oils are called enhanced mineral
oils (EMOs) and they are very low in troublesome
compounds. Mineral oils are composed primarily of a
complex mixture of straight-chain paraffins, branched
paraffins and cycloparaffins. Good mineral oils have low
toxicity and good drilling performance, but they all tend
to be fairly slow to biodegrade due to the branched and
cyclic materials.

Synthetics
Synthetics are produced by the reaction of specific
purified chemicals, as opposed to mineral oils and diesel,
which are produced by purification of petroleum through
distillation. Drilling fluids made with synthetic oils
perform comparably to, and in some cases may exceed
the performance of mineral oil and diesel oil systems.
Although the purchase costs of synthetic base fluids
(SBF) exceed those for diesel and mineral oils, the cost
disadvantage is overcome if drill cuttings from wells
drilled with SBF can be discharged onsite, thus saving
transportation and disposal costs.
Due to their purified molecular structure, synthetic fluids
can resolve many environmental problems associated
with diesel and mineral oils. Trends show that synthetic
base drilling fluids are usually much less toxic and more
biodegradable under aerobic (with air) and anaerobic
(without air) conditions, and produce fewer hazards in
handling than diesel and mineral oil base fluids. However,
how less toxic and biodegradable depends on the
structure and composition of the SBF.
The various synthetic base drilling fluids currently used
in the field are classified according to the chemical
composition of their base fluids and routinely identified
by the generic chemical name. These various types of
synthetic base fluids have a wide range of chemical
properties and drilling performance. Examples of
commercial synthetic base fluids and their key
properties are shown in Table 5-2. The four types of
synthetic base fluids most widely used today are esters,
linear alpha olefins, internal olefins, and linear paraffins.

Table 5-2: Commercial names and properties of synthetic base
fluids
Commercial
Name
SBF Type Manufacturer
Density,
g/mL
Pour
Point,
o
C
Flash
Point,
o
F
Viscosity
@ 40
o
C,
cSt
PETROFREE
TM
Ester Cognis 0.86 -30 354 6
PETROFREE LV
TM
Ester Cognis 0.86

297 3.2
FINAGREEN
TM
Ester Fina 0.85 -30 300 5
AMODRILL 1200
TM

Linear Alpha
Olefin
Ineos
Oligomers
0.78 -9 255 2.25
ALPHATEQ
(SN 1890)
TM

Linear Alpha
Olefin
Ineos
Oligomers
0.78 -18 241 1.87
ISOTEQ
TM
Internal Olefin CP Chem 0.79 -10 245 3.6
AMODRILL 1000
TM
Internal Olefin
Ineos
Oligomers
0.79 -24 279 3.09
BIOBASE 130
TM
Internal Olefin Shrieve 0.79 -15 250 2.9
SARALINE 185V
TM
Linear Paraffin Shell MDS 0.78 -27 192 2.6
ESTEGREEN Linear Paraffin Sasol 0.76 -6 194 2
MOSSPAR H
TM
Linear Paraffin PetroSA 0.79

205 2.8
Commercial
Name
SBF Type Manufacturer
Density,
g/mL
Pour
Point,
o
C
Flash
Point,
o
F
Viscosity
@ 40
o
C,
cSt
BAROID
ALKANE
TM

Linear Paraffin Sasol 0.77 -8 176 2.05
SARAPAR 147
TM
Linear Paraffin Shell MDS 0.77 12 248 2.5
SARAPAR 103
TM
Linear Paraffin Shell MDS 0.73 -18 167 1.6
Table 5-2: Commercial names and properties of synthetic base
fluids (continued from page 69)

Esters
Fatty acid esters used in drilling muds are derived from
fatty acids and alcohols and are commonly known as
esters. In one manufacturers product, the fatty acid
component of the ester-based material used for NAFs is
derived from vegetable oils. The key to the performance
characteristics is the proper selection of the
hydrocarbon chain length on either side of the ester
functional group. These side groups are selected to
minimize fluid viscosity, maximize hydrolytic stability,
and minimize toxicity.

Esters contain oxygen in the structure. The two oxygens
create an active carbon site in the ester molecule which
is susceptible to attack of either acid or basic-type
reactants. The result is a fragmentation of the ester to
give the corresponding alcohol and carboxylic acid. It is
the breakdown process which affords the ester type SBM
such a rapid biodegradation rate in both laboratory tests
and seabed conditions. In a drilling situation, concerns
regarding the use of esters focus around high
temperature applications, cement contaminations, and
acid gas influx. Some new esters have been chemically
designed to have greater thermal stability and to be
more resistant to acid or base hydrolysis.

Linear Alpha Olefins
IOs (internal olefins) and LAOs (linear alpha olefins)
essentially are from similar chemistry. These synthetics
are derived from alpha olefins via catalytic
polymerization of ethylene molecules. The alpha olefins
are further modified to give IOs. The structural
difference between IO and LAO products is that the
double bond is in the terminal position in the LAO, while
the double bond is between two internal carbon atoms in
the IO structure.
LAOs tend to stack more closely together because of
their uniform linear structure. This phenomenon results
in higher pour points for LAOs as compared to IOs with
the same molecular weight. Because of the intrinsically
higher pour points, LAOs having viscosities useful in
drilling fluids are necessarily of lower molecular weight.
These lower molecular weights result in lower flash
points and greater acute toxicity than with IOs.

LAOs range in molecular weight from approximately 112
(C
8
H
16
) to 280 (C
20
H
40
). This mixture of LAOs is distilled
to give distinct cuts of individual LAOs or blends of
LAOs. Therefore, the term LAO C
14
C
16
is a blend of C
14
H
28

and C
16
H
32
LAOs; likewise, the C
16
C
18
LAO is a blend of
C
16
H
32
and C
18
H
36
.
Internal Olefins
IOs are synthesized by isomerizing LAOs (isomerization
changes a molecules structure but not its atomic
composition). IO molecular structures are less uniform
than those of LAOs. This lack of uniformity results in
lower pour points than LAOs having the same number of
carbon atoms. The inherently lower pour points of the IO
molecular structure allows for the use of higher
molecular weight molecules, which results in lower acute
toxicities, lower bioaccumulation potential and lower
volatility than LAOs. The internal double bond of the IO
gives rise to additional structural isomers (cis and trans),
which do not allow the molecules of the IO to pack
together as uniformly on cooling; therefore, the pour
point of the IO is lower than that of the LAO.

Linear Paraffins
Linear paraffins are similar in structure to olefins with
two exceptions; they lack the double bond that is
characteristic of the olefin, and their carbon chain length
distribution is broader than the distribution of olefins.
Linear paraffins can be manufactured by either a purely
synthetic route or by a multi-step refinery process that
includes hydrocracking and the use of a molecular sieve.
The latter linear paraffins are classified as mineral oils
according to the generally-accepted EPA definition.
Synthetic linear paraffins are made from methane gas in
the Fischer-Tropsch GTL (gas-to-liquids) synthesis
process. This process results in a mixture of linear
paraffin molecules including n-paraffins and slightly
branched (methyl and dimethyl) paraffins.

Linear paraffins have several distinct advantages over
other synthetic base oils. They are much less expensive
than esters and olefins, at about 1/3 the cost. This lower
cost is a result of the relatively low operating cost of the
GTL process and the low cost of natural gas compared to
ethylene, fatty acids and alcohols. Chevron has an IP
position with worldwide patent coverage on linear
paraffins. They have been used extensively in Chevron
drilling operations since 1996, including drilling in
Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Brazil, U.S. GOM, Australia,
Angola, Nigeria, Azerbaijan, and Bangladesh. Linear
paraffins are recommended as the base fluid when
considering biodegradation, in particular, bioremediation
projects involving composting or landfarming. Linear
paraffins have been shown in comparative tests to
aerobically biodegrade faster than mineral oils, olefins
and esters.

Internal Phase
The most commonly used internal phase in NAF drilling
muds is brine water. Calcium chloride is the most
predominantly used salt although sodium chloride, sea
water and other brines are occasionally used. The
concentration of salt is selected to minimize reactivity
with drilled formations. Recently, other components such
as acetates have been used as the internal phase due to
environmental considerations. The choice is dictated by
the formation, economics and disposal method to be
employed.

Viscosifiers
Organophilic Clays
Organophilic clays are excellent gelling agents in oil and
excellent at suspending weighting materials. They are
relatively inexpensive but have only moderately good
thermal stability. While organophilic bentonite is the
most common, hectorite, attapulgite and sepiolite are
also used. Bentonite and hectorite are platelet clays that
will increase viscosity, yield point and build a thin filter
cake to aid in reducing the fluid loss. In contrast,
sepiolite and attapulgite are rod-like clays that increase
the gel structure of the fluid but will have very little
effect on the viscosity or fluid loss characteristics of the
fluid.
When choosing the appropriate organophilic clay, a
decision must be made as to whether temperature
stability or clay efficiency (maximum viscosity under low
shear mixing conditions) is the most important criteria.
When drilling in a high temperature environment, clay
that exhibits a high tolerance to thermal degradation is
required. When mixing a new fluid at a liquid mud plant,
a more efficient clay may be desirable. As clay efficiency
increases, the concentration required to achieve the
desired properties is reduced.

Polymers
A number of polymers are available for use in NAFs.
These polymers increase fluid carrying capacity and
extend the viscosity temperature stability to 500
o
F
(260
o
C). These types of polymers viscosify the external
phase (base oil) of the drilling fluid. They include:
elastomeric viscosifiers, sulfonated polystyrene
polymers, styrene acrylate, fatty acids and dimer-trimer
acid combinations. Some of these polymers serve a dual
purpose as both viscosifiers and fluid loss control
additives. The effectiveness of any particular polymer
will change with the type of base fluid in which it is used.

Emulsifiers
To formulate stable water in oil mixtures, the use of
surfactants is required. Surfactants lower surface
tension and emulsify the internal water phase and oil
wet solids. The most common example of a surfactant is
soap. Surfactants orient at the oil/water interfaces,
lowering surface tension. Surfactants also form a barrier
around the emulsified dispersed droplet (Figure 5-1) and
in essence, mechanically stabilize the interface,
preventing droplets from coalescing or breaking.

Figure 5-1: Emulsion
EMULSIFIED WATER
DROPLET IN OIL
HYDROPHILIC
HEAD
SURFACTANT
ORGANOPHILIC
TAIL
SURFACTANT
ORGANOPHILIC
TAIL
There are numerous manufacturers of emulsifiers
worldwide. Emulsifier chemistries for the different
manufacturers will vary, as some have proprietary
formulations. Minor changes to formulations and
different sources of raw materials can greatly affect
product performance.
In practice, emulsifiers are classified as either primary
or secondary, depending on the desired application.

Primary Emulsifiers
Primary emulsifiers are identified by the following
characteristics:
Generally very powerful, fatty acid based
Requires lime to activate and build a stable
emulsion
Builds tight emulsion
Very tolerant to high temperature and
contaminants
Emulsified water is colloidal in size
Overtreatment may increase kinematic viscosity
of base fluid
Relatively inexpensive compared to other
emulsifiers
When using primary emulsifiers, there are several
considerations that must be taken into account. It is
important to know the activity of the product and the
carrier fluid/solvent should be environmentally
acceptable for the area in which it is being used. The
product activity is the amount on a percentage basis of
active available product or it can also be viewed as the
amount the product has been watered down. Typically,
most premium emulsifiers, whether primary or
secondary, will have an activity of 65 to 70%.

Secondary Emulsifiers
Secondary emulsifiers are identified by the following
characteristics:
Typically not fatty acid based, e.g. imidazoline,
amides
Does not require lime to activate
Provides a relaxed filtrate, e.g. HTHP filtrate
values of 12-15 mL/30 minutes
Overtreatment usually does not increase
kinematic viscosity of base fluid
Relatively expensive compared to primary
emulsifiers
Caution should be exercised when selecting an emulsifier
for a particular application. In general the following
guidelines should be used:
When possible, use only a classic secondary
emulsifier. These emulsifiers contain very little
or no fatty acid that require lime for activation.
Primary emulsifiers that require lime build very
tight emulsions (i.e. high ES readings), reduce
the HTHP fluid loss, and increase the kinematic
viscosity of the base fluid. Any one of these
effects or a combination of them could be
detrimental to penetration rates.
Use the secondary emulsifier until bottom-hole
temperatures dictate the addition of a primary
emulsifier. When this occurs, use the primary
emulsifier as a supplement to the secondary.
Do not over treat with the secondary emulsifier.
All the major drilling fluid vendors will provide primary
emulsifiers. Many will provide secondary emulsifiers that
will require lime to activate, but not all will have a
classic secondary emulsifier offering that does not
require lime. Additives such as EZ MUL NT (Halliburton
Fluid Services) and CARBO-MUL HT (Baker Hughes
Drilling Fluids) are examples of classic secondary
emulsifiers that do not require lime.

Fluid Loss Additives
A freshly built NAF will inherently have a certain amount
of built in fluid loss control at lower temperatures,
depending on the type and concentration of emulsifier
used. Generally speaking, lower HTHP fluid loss values
will be achieved as the percent water in the fluid
increases. However, these mechanisms for reducing or
controlling HTHP fluid loss should not be relied upon at
elevated temperatures. As temperatures increase, fluid
loss control is achieved through the use of asphalts,
gilsonites, amine treated lignites or polymer type
materials.

Asphalt
Powdered, air-blown asphalt is used as a primary fluid
loss additive for drilling at elevated temperatures. The
asphalt particles swell and deform, effectively plugging
pores in the filter cake. Caution should be exercised
when using asphalt, as excessive solubility of the
material will lead to extremely viscous fluids at low
temperatures. Treatments can range up to 15 lb/bbl
(42.8 kg/m
3
).
Gilsonite
Gilsonite is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon solid.
Being naturally oil-wet, it easily disperses into NAFs.
Gilsonite exhibits different softening points when heated.
When heated, the particles soften and deform, plugging
pores in the filter cake. High softening point gilsonite
provides HTHP filtrate control up to the 400
o
F (204
o
C)
range. Caution should be exercised when using gilsonite,
as it behaves like a fine solid in the fluid and can lead to
extremely viscous fluids at low temperatures.
Treatments will range up to 15 lb/bbl (43.1 kg/m
3
).

Amine Treated Lignite (ATL)
Superior quality amine treated lignite provides good high
pressure, high temperature filtration properties to about
450
o
F (232
o
C). Variations in base materials and
reaction conditions result in a wide quality range for
these materials.

Polymers
Oil insoluble polymers are used for extreme high
temperature filtration control. The most common is a
methylstyrene/acrylate copolymer, commonly referred
to as PLIOLITE. Other products will use maleic anhydride
and rosin blends and others will use blends of styrene
butadiene.

Weighting Agents
There are several methods of increasing the density of
NAFs. Usually, barite (barium sulfate) is used to increase
the density of drilling fluids. Other weighting agents are
hematite (iron oxide), manganese tetraoxide (e.g.
MICROMAX) and calcium carbonate. These weighting
materials increase the density of the external phase of
the fluid. An alternative method of controlling fluid
density is achieved by altering the composition and
activity of the internal phase, but the effect is very
minimal.

Gas Solubility
Detection of gas kicks while drilling with a NAF is more
difficult because of the solubility of gas in the base fluid.
The degree of solubility is dependent on:
Composition of the formation gas
Composition of the base fluid used
Pressure
Temperature
Even a low volume influx that goes undetected will
rapidly expand when it reaches the surface and cause
unloading of fluid from the hole. This reduces bottom-
hole pressure, allowing additional gas to enter the
wellbore, and potentially resulting in an uncontrollable
situation (blowout). The key to well control in NAF is
quick detection and handling of the influx. The problem
lies in that the normal surface responses to gas kicks are
dampened because of the solubility of the gas in the
base fluid. The rig crews must be aware of the
differences in responses to gas kicks in NAFs and be
prepared to detect small changes in pit levels, flow rates,
and flow checks.

Flat/Constant Rheology NAF
Planning and operations with NAFs are complicated by
the inherent variation with temperature and pressure of
the kinematic viscosity of the base fluids used in the
external phase. This is usually observed as a thinning or
thickening of the mud at downhole temperatures and
pressures. Unfortunately, this also results in deviation
from the planned equivalent circulating densities (ECD's)
as operations vary, particularly when resuming
circulation with cold mud from the surface following a
period without pumping. The effect is especially
pronounced in deepwater operations where there is a
large temperature variation between the cool fluid in the
riser and the hot fluid at the bit. This not only results in
different circulation pressures, but the change in gel
strength can be problematic. These changes in fluid
properties can cause wellbore instability and/or
fracturing of the formation.
To mitigate this drilling hazard, a number of companies
have developed additive packages that try to counteract
the change in rheological properties as the temperature
and pressure change downhole. Typically, one set of
additives help keep the fluid from thickening at cooler
temperatures, while another will mitigate the thinning
effect at higher temperatures. These mud systems are
termed "flat" or "constant" rheology fluids.
The creation of a truly constant rheology is complicated
by the fact that temperature and pressure tend to have
the opposite effect on the viscosity of drilling fluids.
Furthermore, a vertical well and a horizontal well, drilled
to the same measured depth, will have a different
temperature-pressure relationship. When constant
rheology systems are measured at different
temperatures and pressure, more steady properties are
seen as compared to a conventional system.
Design of constant rheology systems is somewhat
different than conventional systems, as the surface
properties more closely resemble the downhole
properties. As a result, these fluids appear thin and there
have been concerns about the hole cleaning ability of
these systems. To address these concerns, constant
rheology systems typically boast enhanced low shear
rate viscosities, which allow for good hole cleaning
properties while still exhibiting the flow properties of a
thin fluid.
Constant rheology systems offer the promise of lower
ECD's and more dependable fluid properties regardless
of the stage of the operation or shut down time, which
would reduce the chance of fluid related non-productive
time (NPT). The difference in design and difficulty in
properly capturing their performance in traditional fluid
modeling has made their justification difficult in some
cases, but as these systems become more common,
wider adoption may be expected.

Product Safety and Handling
Use proper precautions for employee protection when
handling all chemical products used in NAFs. The use of
an appropriate respirator, gloves, goggles, and apron is
recommended. Obtain and refer to material safety data
sheets (MSDS) before product use. The liquid NAF
products usually contain flammable or combustible
liquids and must not be stored around heat, sparks, or
open flames. Do not reuse empty containers.

Special Rig Equipment and Precautions
Observe the usual precautions for handling NAFs
including:
Prepare rig to contain spills from shakers, drips
from flow lines, etc
Use pipe wipers during trips
Use high-speed, linear motion shakers capable of
processing 110% of the fluid volume at the
smallest screen size anticipated
Pits should be covered to prevent rain water
contamination
Disconnect all water valves around the pits to
prevent accidental water contamination
Clean shaker screens and fluid cleaner screens
with a bucket of base fluid and an air gun
Do not use plastic or phenolic resin materials for
lost circulation as these materials are
detrimental to the stability of the system
Use steam cleaners to assist with clean up or
heated high pressure washers
Use absorbent materials (e.g. OIL DRY) to assist
the containment and dry up spills
Recover spilled fluid with fluid vacuum systems

Displacement Procedures
Displacement can occur either in cased or open hole, but
cased hole displacements are preferred. Before
displacement, all pits and lines should be as clean as
possible. The trap doors on the pits can be packed with
barite to help prevent leaking.
The water base fluid to be displaced must be thinned to
reduce yield point and gel strengths. This reduction
helps achieve a good displacement and prevent
contamination of the NAF.
A water spacer of sufficient volume to occupy 500 to
1000 feet of annular space should be used to chase the
water base fluid up the hole.
A base oil spacer of the same size is used when
displacing a NAF fluid with a water base fluid.
During displacement, the drillpipe should be rotated and
reciprocated, if possible. Use a high pump rate to help
prevent channeling. After displacement begins, the
pumps must not be shut down.
The total pump strokes must be calculated for the spacer
to come around to the shaker. This calculation helps
locate the interface. Bypass the shakers and remove the
water base fluid to a reserve or waste pit when on land
or discharge overboard when offshore if environmental
regulations permit. Any contaminated NAF should be
isolated and treated. If contamination is severe, it may
be more cost effective to dispose of the fluid.

Logging
The use of a NAF drilling fluid can impact and complicate
logging operations. The first impact is that invasion of
NAF into the formation will distort resistivity log
interpretation, especially in oil reservoir zones. This
makes good quality filter cake even more important and
efforts should be made to minimize the amount of time
that the formation is exposed to the NAF fluid. The
continuous NAF phase also affects logging as the fluid
has different fundamental properties than water; the
biggest differences being an extremely high resistivity
and different sonic impedance.
NAFs do not conduct electricity like water base muds,
and as a result, spontaneous potential (SP) logs do not
work. Laterolog logs (such as FMI) will only work where
tools have direct contact with the formation, which in
practice means where the pads touch the wellbore,
leading to less borehole coverage. Typically, induction
logs are used in a NAF, and care must be taken when
comparing these measurements to those from other
resistivity tools as they will have different depths and
volumes of investigation.
The difference in fluid density and bulk modulus between
water base mud and NAF will lead to a different speed of
sound in the fluids. As a result, in processing, proper
environmental inputs are required to give correct results
on sonic logs. It is important to note that some density
logging while drilling (LWD) tools use ultrasonic
measurements to correct for standoff, and unless the
correct fluid type is entered, an incorrect standoff will be
calculated, leading to an error in measurements.
Finally, water salinity is often an environmental
correction for nuclear measurements. Loggers need to
be aware that salinity can be reported. Remember that
many processing programs require the salinity to be
reported as a fraction of the entire fluid, while the mud
report will show the salinity of a NAF fluid for only the
water phase. This needs to be correct to account for the
entire fluid volume or the processing will include a much
higher salt concentration than really exists.

Troubleshooting
Table 5-3 contains a guide for troubleshooting NAFs,
including typical indicators of problems encountered and
suggested treatments.

Problem
Indications Causes
Treatment
Mixing fluid
at the
mixing
plant
Poor emulsion (low
ES) stability.
Barite settling.
Dull grainy
appearance of fluid.
Fluid very thin with
inadequate yield or
gel strength.
1. Inadequate shear
2. Cold temperatures
3. Poor wetting of barite
4. Too high electrolyte
content. Usually
greater than 350,000
ppm
5. Surfactant
contamination
possible if CaCl
2
brine
has been previously
used as a completion
or workover fluid
1. Maximize shear.
2. Lengthen mixing time.
3. Add barite. Add
emulsifier. If severe,
add small amounts of
wetting agent.
4. Dilute back with fresh
water. After emulsion
is formed, can add
more CaCl
2
to obtain
desired activity.
5. Pilot test with known
CaCl
2
brine to
determine if problem
does exist.
Lost
circulation
Decrease in visible
surface (pit) volume.
Reduced flow line
volume.
Hydrostatic pressure is
greater than formation
pressure.
Add bridging agents (e.g.
calcium carbonate, fiber,
nut plug). Never add
phenolic resin materials.
Reduce mud weight if
possible.
High
viscosity
High PV and YP.
1. High solids content.
2. Water contamination.
3. Improper OWR/SWR.
4. Excessive clay.
1. Dilute with new base
fluid. Maximize solids
control efficiency. Add
emulsifiers.
2. Add emulsifiers. If
severe, add wetting
agent.
3. Dilute with new
volume of base fluid.
4. Dilute with new
volume of base
fluid/add wetting
agent.
Sloughing
shale
Fill on connections
and trips.
Torque and drag.
Increase in volume
of cuttings across
shale shakers.
1. Drilling under-
balanced.
2. Excessive fluid loss.
3. Aw too low.
1. Increase mud weight.
2. Add emulsifiers. Add
fluid loss control
agents.
3. Adjust salt content of
internal phase to
match formation
activity.
High fluid
loss
High HTHP fluid loss
with water in filtrate.
Low electrical
stability (ES).
Fill on connections
and trips.

1. Low emulsifier
concentration.
2. Low concentration of
fluid loss control
additives.
3. High bottom hole
temperature.
1. Add emulsifier and
lime if needed.
2. Add fluid loss agents.
3. Add more emulsifier
and lime, if needed to
increase electrical
stability.
Table 5-3: Troubleshooting NAF systems guide for pilot testing
Problem
Indications Causes
Treatment
Low
emulsion
stability
(ES)
Dull, grainy
appearance to fluid.
High HTHP fluid loss.
Water in filtrate.
Barite settling.
Blinding of shaker
screens.
Extreme cases can
result in water
wetting of solids.
1. Inadequate emulsifier
concentration.
2. Super-saturated with
CaCl
2.

3. Water influx from
formation or leakage
from surface
equipment.
4. Addition of fresh fluid
from mixing plant.
5. Insoluble sodium
chloride (NaCl)
lime, if needed.
H
2
O and add
emulsifier.
lime , if needed.
4. Maximize shear. Check
electrolyte content
(the higher the
content, the difficult it
is to form the
emulsion)
H
2
O and add
emulsifier.
Water
wetting of
solids
Agglomeration of
barite on sand-
content test.
Sticky cuttings.
Blinding of shaker
screens.
Barite settling.
Dull, grainy
appearance of fluid.
Low elec. stab. (ES).
Free H
2
O in filtrate.
1. Inadequate
emulsification.
2. Water or water base
fluid contamination.

3. Supersaturated CaCl
2

as evidenced by free
salt crystals in the
mud.
1. Add emulsifier.
lime, if needed. If
severe, add wetting
agent.
3. Dilute with fresh H
2
O
and add emulsifier.

Table 5-3: Troubleshooting NAF systems guide for pilot testing
(continued)

Chapter 6: Chemistry Concepts
CHAPTER 6: CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS

Drilling fluids are complex mixtures of chemicals such as
water, clays, salts, polymers, surfactants, organic liquids
and solids. When drilling fluids are circulated downhole,
they enter an area of high pressure and temperature.
This environment is much like a reaction vessel in a
chemical plant, and chemical changes to the drilling fluid
invariably take place. Therefore, formulating and
maintaining drilling fluids requires some chemistry
knowledge in order to move drilling fluids engineering
from an art towards a science. This chapter contains
only basic explanations and examples of the central
chemistry concepts encountered in drilling fluids.

Solubility
It is well known that things like sugar and salt dissolve in
water, but what exactly happens as the material
disappears? Salt is made up of sodium (Na
+
) and chloride
(Cl
-
) ions held together by ionic bonds. When sodium
chloride dissolves, these ionic bonds are broken. As the
sodium and chloride ions move between the water
molecules, the hydrogen bonds holding the water
molecules together are also broken. Because water
molecules are polar, by definition they have a positive
end and a negative end. In this example (depicted in
Figure 6-1), the negatively charged ends of water
molecules are strongly attracted to the positively
charged Na
+
atoms and they cluster on all sides until the
Na
+
is solvated and floating free in solution. Likewise, the
same reaction occurs as the partially positively charged
hydrogen ends of the water molecules associate with the
negatively charged chloride ions.


Figure 6-1: Solid sodium chloride dissolving in water

Dissolving polymers, glycols, amine-based shale
inhibitors, surfactants, etc. into water follows a similar
path. Water molecules cluster around the polar parts of
the molecule until its soft shell of water floats it free
into solution. Materials like high molecular weight
polymers might not go into true solution, but become
hydrated enough to disperse evenly in water and
perform their intended functions in a drilling fluid.

Saturation/Free Water
Materials such as methanol are miscible with water in all
proportions, but most drilling fluid related chemicals
reach a saturation point, or maximum solubility limit.
When a chemical reaches its saturation point, the soluble
solid stops dissolving in the solution and remains as a
precipitate. For example, at room temperature sodium
chloride (NaCl) will dissolve in water up to a little over 26
wt%, whereas potassium chloride (KCl) will only reach a
little over 24 wt%. Solutions of calcium chloride (CaCl
2
)
become saturated at just over 40 wt%. The most soluble
of the salts are the formates, with potassium formate
saturating at 76 wt%, and cesium formate reaching 83
wt%. On the other end of the scale, gypsum/anhydrite
only dissolves enough to release about 800 ppm of
calcium ions into solution. Calcium carbonate (CaCO
3
), a
common pore bridging solid added to drilling fluids, will
only release about 3 ppm of soluble calcium into solution
at normal water base mud pH. CaCO
3
readily dissolves in
acid, which makes it ideal for drill-in fluids for open-hole
completions where the filter cake must be removed.

The term free water describes the amount of water in a
solution (or drilling fluid) that is not already being used
to keep other things dissolved. Everything that dissolves
in water has a water-demand, which is an amount of
water that must loosely attach to the material to carry it
into solution. Free water becomes critical in drilling fluids
that carry a great deal of dissolved solids. For example, a
saturated salt mud used to drill through a salt/halite
interval has almost all of its water tied up; keeping the
salt and polymers in solution and keeping the barite and
drill solids water wet. When all the free water is tied up,
any further chemical additions (even thinners) will cause
the viscosity of the drilling fluid to go up very quickly
because the chemical cannot dissolve and remains a
solid.

Water Phase Activity
Water phase activity is a concept that frequently comes
up in conjunction with shale stability (see Osmosis
below). The activity of an aqueous solution is a relative
measure of how easily water evaporates from the
solution. Activity is measured by determining the
relative humidity (water vapor) in the air space of a
closed container of a solution. Evaporation is fairly quick
from a container of pure water, but the more salt, etc.
dissolved in a solution, the slower the evaporation rate
because the water molecules are bound to the solutes
and less free to evaporate. Pure water is assigned an
activity of 1.0. A saturated sodium chloride solution has
an activity of about 0.76, and saturated calcium chloride
has an activity of about 0.38. Shales average
approximately 10 to 20% water content and usually have
activities in the 0.60 to 0.98 range.

Effect of Temperature
Normally, as the temperature of water increases,
additional amounts of a given material can be dissolved.
For example, a saturated salt drilling fluid can dissolve
additional formation salt at elevated downhole
temperatures, which then comes back out of solution on
shaker screens or in the pits when the mud cools down.
There is one exception to this trend. Some non-ionic
surfactants exhibit a cloud point or upper temperature
solubility limit. An example of this would be glycol, which
is sometimes used as a shale inhibitor.

Effect of Salt
Everything hydrates more poorly in solutions containing
salt. This is favorable when the goal is to limit cuttings
dispersion and hole washout when drilling clay-rich
shales. The downside is the difficulty in getting full yield
out of mud chemicals when they are added to a salty
water base fluid. When building new mud, it is preferable
to hydrate all of the clays and polymers in fresh water,
prior to adding any salts.

Like Dissolves Like
Like dissolves like is an old chemistry rule-of-thumb
that points out that polar solvents like water and
methanol dissolve polar and ionic materials like sugars,
salts, small alcohols and amines. Conversely, non-polar
solvents like gasoline, xylene and diesel will only dissolve
non-polar materials like wax and asphalt. Of course, as
with any rule-of-thumb, there are exceptions. Materials
like butyl alcohol will somewhat dissolve in both polar
and non-polar solvents. These materials are referred to
as mutual solvents and can help with certain problems,
such as removing trapped water from a clay-rich
reservoir sandstone.

Common Drilling Fluid Chemicals
Detailed knowledge of chemicals is usually unnecessary
for successful drilling fluids engineering, but a few rules-
of-thumb can be useful. Some of these include:
Anything water soluble enough to dissolve in a
water base mud has enough polar or charged
sites to be attracted to clay surfaces. This means
that the material will adsorb on cuttings and be
steadily depleted from the mud. The tendency to
adsorb also means the material is likely to
adsorb onto reservoir rock and may change its
wettability (see Surfactants section) or cause
other formation damage. Chemicals with
multiple charges or polar sites may sometimes
bridge clay platelets and cause a significant mud
viscosity increase or gellation.
Chemicals that have a weak spot like an oxygen
or nitrogen atom in the middle are usually not
suitable for high temperature (300
o
F) drilling
fluids. These sites are vulnerable to oxidation
and hydrolysis.
Soluble calcium (Ca
+2
) and carbonate (CO
3
-2
) ions
will precipitate to form calcium carbonate
(limestone), such as when lime is used to treat
carbonates out of a drilling fluid. Conversely, if
calcium chloride completion brine is used in a
carbonate rich reservoir containing carbon
dioxide (CO
2
) gas, extensive formation damage is
likely. Carbonate ions in a drilling fluid or
formation brine usually come from dissolved
CO
2
. The CO
2
can be from the formation or can
be generated by mud chemical degradation or
bacterial action.
Soluble calcium ions are usually detrimental to
water base drilling fluids. Clays are readily
flocculated by soluble calcium since each ions
two positive charges can attract and bridge two
clay particles. When this bridging is extended
throughout a fluid it can cause huge viscosity
increases, and the flocculated clays tend to make
poor quality filter cakes. Also, polymers,
surfactants, etc. which have negatively charged
carboxylate groups (e.g. CMCs, PACs, acrylates)
can be precipitated by a similar association with
calciums two positive charges. Of course, some
drilling fluids are based on calcium (gypsum,
lime, calcium chloride), but they require special
deflocculants and low cation exchange capacities
(CECs). Magnesium (Mg
+2
) and other divalent
ions (two positive charges) associate less
strongly with clays and carboxylate chemicals
and usually present less of a problem. The
maximum preferred calcium level for many mud
chemicals is 300-400 ppm. The most common
treatment is to precipitate the calcium with a
carbonate ion source like soda ash. Note: Trying
to treat calcium below 100 ppm can sometimes
lead to detrimental side effects.

Common Chemical Types
Polyglycols - Polyglycols are a large family of
compounds used for shale inhibition, lubricity and ROP
enhancement. At molecular weights of a few hundred to
a couple of thousand they are either water soluble or
water dispersible.
Amines - Amines are nitrogen bearing compounds of the
general formula N-R
3,
where R is an organic group.
Amines tend to be surface active and some of their uses
are reducing corrosion by coating steel, adsorbing on
clays to make them oil-wet for use in non-aqueous fluids
(NAFs), and shale inhibition.
Amides - Amides are also surface active nitrogen-based
compounds and have a general structure of R-CO-N-R
2
.
Common usages include acrylamide-based polymers or
copolymers for cuttings encapsulation/preservation, and
polyamide emulsifiers in NAFs.
Phosphates - Soluble phosphates such as sodium acid
pyrophosphate (SAPP) and tetrasodium pyrophosphate
(TSPP) are used as low temperature (<150
o
F) water base
mud thinners and calcium removers.
Alcohols - The term alcohol refers to any molecule with a
(-OH) group. Many mud products contain -OH groups
(CMC, PAC, xanthan gum, lignosulfonate) as part of
complex structures, but one simple alcohol used in mud
as a defoamer is octanol.
Silicone - Silicones are any of a number of siloxane
polymers. Common uses in water base drilling fluids
include defoaming and lubrication.
Graphite - Graphite is a multi-layered all-carbon
compound that is used occasionally in water base mud
for lubrication, and extensively in NAFs as a lost
circulation control additive.

Common Salts
NaCl Sodium chloride
KCl Potassium chloride
CaCl
2
Calcium chloride
BaSO
4
Barium sulfate, barite
CaCO
3
Calcium carbonate, limestone, marble, calcite
Fe
2
O
3
Iron oxide, hematite
FeO
.
TiO
2
Iron titanium oxide, ilmenite
Ca(OH)
2
Calcium hydroxide, lime,
NaHCO
3
Sodium bicarbonate, bicarb
Na
2
CO
3
Sodium carbonate, soda ash
Na
2
H
2
P
2
O
7
Sodium acid pyrophosphate, SAPP
NaOH Sodium hydroxide, caustic, caustic soda
KOH Potassium hydroxide, caustic potash
Ca
2
SO
4
Calcium sulfate, anhydrite, gyp/gypsum (water in crystal)
NaBr Sodium bromide
CaBr
2
Calcium bromide
ZnBr
2
Zinc bromide
HCOOK Potassium formate, potassium salt of formic acid
HCOONa Sodium formate, sodium salt of formic acid
HCOOCs Cesium formate, cesium salt of formic acid

pH
pH is a mathematical function which expresses how
acidic or alkaline a solution is on a simple 0 to 14 scale
(Figure 6-2).

Figure 6-2: pH scale with examples

Water base drilling fluids are maintained on the alkaline
side of the scale in order to reduce corrosion on
drillstring and casing, as well as to avoid the low pH
flocculation of clays. Slightly alkaline pH (7.5 to 9.0)
drilling fluids are recognized as producing better
cuttings stability and less hole washout than fluids with
higher pHs. Hydroxyl ions (OH
-
) are very dispersive to
shale, so the higher the pH, the greater the hole washout
and the greater the tendency for cuttings to dissolve
before reaching the surface. However, some mud
additives like lignite and lignosulfonates are more
soluble and work better at higher pHs (9.5).
Some types of formation damage are attributable to pH.
Most reservoir brines are slightly acidic (pH 4 to 6) due
to dissolved acid gases like carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulfide (H
2
S), and because some crude oils contain small
amounts of natural carboxylic acids. Most reservoir drill-
in fluids and coring fluids are run only slightly alkaline
(pH 7.5 to 8.5) because above approximately a 9.2 pH, a
number of damaging effects take place.
Bicarbonate ions begin to convert to carbonate
ions in appreciable quantities and can be readily
precipitated as calcium carbonate (limestone),
reducing permeability.
Any natural carboxylic acids in the crude oil will
be ionized at high pH and become active
surfactants that can generate and/or stabilize
emulsions.
At high pH, any pore lining clays are more likely
to be mobilized by either regular dispersion or by
silica dissolution, which increases rapidly above
pH 9.2. These mobile fines will eventually bridge
off at a pore throat and sharply reduce
permeability.
The solubility of some common compounds in relation to
pH is shown in Figure 6-3. The distribution of CO
2
,
bicarbonate and carbonate ions as a function of pH in
fresh water and sea water is shown in Figure 6-4.
Figure 6-3: Solubility in relation to pH for some common
compounds (International Drilling Fluids Technical Manual for
Drilling Completion and Workover Fluids, 1982)

Figure 6-4: Distribution of carbon dioxide, bicarbonate ions and
carbonate ions in fresh water and sea water as a function of pH
(International Drilling Fluids Technical Manual for Drilling
Completion and Workover Fluids, 1982)

An elevated pH can also lead to the degradation of
certain chemicals. For example, when fresh cement is
drilled with a partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (PHPA)
mud, the resulting high pH can hydrolyze (cleave with
water) the amide group and release significant amounts
of ammonia at the flow line. Also, some of the synthetic
base fluids that are used as ROP enhancers contain
esters which can be hydrolyzed into the original fatty
acid and alcohol.

Polymers
Polymers are long chain molecules formed by chemically
joining one or more small monomers together over and
over (see Figure 6-5). Besides straight chains, polymers
can be branched and/or crosslinked, which modifies their
properties.

Figure 6-5: Simple alternating copolymer

The function of a polymer in a drilling fluid is strongly
related to its chain length and the nature of the
monomers. Short chain polymers (2,000 to 12,000
molecular weight) work well as thinners while polymers
with molecular weights from about 40,000 to 100,000
are frequently good fluid loss control additives. Polymers
above 500,000 provide additional viscosity.
Some common polymers for water base drilling fluids are
show in Table 6-1.
Table 6-1: Common polymers for water base drilling fluids
Material Source Application
Xanthan gum Bacterially produced Viscosifier, especially
for low shear rate
rheology
Polyanionic cellulose (PAC) Chemically modified
(water soluble)
cellulose frequently
from cotton
Different grades used
for both fluid loss
control and viscosity
Carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC)
Similar to PAC, but
less chemical
modification
Grades for fluid loss
control and viscosity
Material Source Application
Sodium polyacrylates Synthetic Grades for thinning
and for fluid loss
control
Partially hydrolyzed
polyacrylamide
Synthetic Used to improved
cuttings integrity, but
some versions also
give significant
viscosity
Guar gum Plant seeds Viscosity
Starch Corn, potato, rice Fluid loss control
Lignosulfonate Lignin from trees,
modified to be water
soluble
Thinner
Hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) Ethylene oxide
modified cellulose
Viscosifying brines
and fluid loss control
Table 6-1: Common polymers for water base drilling fluids
(continued)

Polymers derived from natural sources (e.g. cellulose,
bacteria, wood pulp) are frequently more cost effective
than their synthetic counterparts, but because they have
weak spots like oxygen in their backbones they begin to
thermally degrade when the downhole temperature
exceeds a critical value.
A few commonly accepted thermal limits are seen in
Table 6-2.

Product Thermal Limit,
o
F
Guar gum 150
Starch 225
Xanthan gum 275
CMC 275
PAC 275
Lignosulfonate 325-350
Polyacrylates 400
Table 6-2 Some drilling fluid polymer thermal limits

Most drilling fluid polymers are supplied as dry powders
and require extra care when mixing. Dry polymers are
slow to hydrate and fully disperse. This is particularly
true of higher molecular weight materials used for fluid
loss control and viscosity. Very slow addition rates
through the hopper are recommended. There are a
number of high-shear mixing devices that can be built
into or added just downstream of the hopper. The best of
these devices will improve hydration rates, maximize
yield, and improve the effectiveness of each sack of
material. Conversely, shearing can be taken too far.
Some long chain polymers like PHPA and xanthan gums
can be shear-degraded to shorter chains. A certain
amount of shear-degradation happens just from the mud
passing through the mud pumps and bit nozzles, but a
few shear devices can strongly increase the degradation.
Many drilling fluid polymers and water base mud
chemicals are made water soluble by the presence of
carboxylate groups. These groups each have one
negative charge. Soluble calcium has two positive
charges and can react with two carboxylate groups
sharply reducing the water solubility of the complex.
Because of this incompatibility it is usually a good idea to
keep the soluble calcium in a water base mud below
about 300 to 400 ppm. Trying to reduce the soluble
calcium level to near zero can lead to secondary
problems so the best compromise is to target a few
hundred parts per million.

Surfactants
Surfactants are used for a very wide range of
applications in drilling fluids, including reducing bit-
balling, emulsifying brine into a NAF, shale inhibition,
casing cleaning spacers before cementing, and oil-
wetting solids in a NAF. This section will cover a few
illustrations.
Surfactants are molecules that have two distinct parts; a
water soluble head and an oil soluble tail (see Figure
6-6).

Figure 6-6 : Simple surfactant molecule diagram

Oil
soluble
tail
Water
soluble
head
Solvency
One of the main roles of surfactants is solvency, or
cleaning oily material off of surfaces. For example, how
does a surfactant spacer clean NAF off of a casing string
so cement can form a good bond? Since surfactants
have both hydrophilic (water-loving) and lipophilic (oil-
loving) portions they tend to migrate to interfaces like
an oil-water interface where each half of the molecule
can be in its preferred environment. In this case, the
surfactants in the water base spacer readily partition
their lipophilic tails into the oil on the casing, leaving
their water soluble heads in the water phase. When a
great many surfactant molecules gather in the oil
droplet the large number of water-soluble heads
sticking out of the droplet makes it water-dispersible
(see Figure 6-7) so it can be floated off of the steel and
carried away by the rest of the spacer.

Figure 6-7: Oil droplet solubilized into water

Water
Water
Water
Water
Oil-Wetting & Water-Wetting Surfactants
Another interface where surfactants tend to accumulate
is at metal or rock interfaces with oil where the water-
soluble head of the surfactant is attracted to charged
sites on the surface of the metal or mineral. Most metals
and minerals are naturally water-wet, but with a
surfactant hydrophile firmly attached to the solid
surface, the lipophilic tail is forced to lay near the
surface, changing the surface to oil-wet. An oil wetting
surfactant is useful:
When barite and drilled solids in a NAF need to
be oil-wet to keep the mud rheology stable
When filming amines from water base muds
adsorb on metal surfaces and slow down
corrosion rates
When surfactants coat a bit and bottom-hole
assembly and reduce bit balling
However, oil-wetting is detrimental to a producing
formation. Oil is most easily produced from a porous
matrix when it can slide on a film of water attached to
the rock. When oil-wetting surfactants from the filtrate
of a NAF adsorb on reservoir rock they can make the
near-wellbore region oil-wet, substantially reducing
relative permeability.

Emulsifiers
Forming emulsions is another important function of
surfactants. The most familiar application is emulsifying
calcium chloride brine into a non-aqueous drilling fluid to
help with fluid loss control, rheology and shale control.
The emulsifying surfactants form a very tight skin on the
tiny brine droplets (5 to 10 microns) and keep them
stabilized and dispersed in the continuous oil phase.
Emulsions have also been used in water base drilling
fluids. It is not as common as it once was, but diesel or
other base fluid was added to water base muds to help
with shale stability, ROP and bit-balling. These products
work better when not emulsified, but since drilling fluids
go through very high shear rates and usually contain
some surface active material, emulsification eventually
occurs.
Emulsions can be detrimental to producing zones. When
the mud filtrate invading a formation contains
surfactants, an emulsion can form with the oil or
formation brine. These emulsions are usually highly
viscous and can impede oil production.

Thinning
Thinners are usually short-chain polymers which have
numerous negatively charged groups that are attracted
to the charges on clay edges. However, surfactants also
frequently carry negative charges (or at least partially
negative charges for non-ionic surfactants) and can
substantially thin dirty, non-dispersed muds. Even
moderately surface active materials like sulfonated
asphalts can cause unexpected thinning. As always it is
recommended to pilot test major additions to a drilling
fluid system.

Osmosis
Osmosis relates to the movement of water through a
semi-permeable membrane. In this application a
membrane is called semi-permeable if its openings are
so small that only water molecules can move through it
and not larger materials like salt ions, alcohols,
polymers, etc. If two bodies of water with different
salinities are separated by a semi-permeable membrane
then water will spontaneously move through the
membrane to try to equalize the two salinities. An
example of this would be handling high salinity
completion brine without gloves. Skin cell walls are
semi-permeable, so when they are exposed to high
salinity brine, water rushes out of the skin cells, leaving
the skin very dry and chapped (wear your protective
equipment!).

Non-Aqueous Fluids (NAFs)
The highest percentage of footage drilled in the oilfield is
through shales. Shales tend to become unstable when
exposed to water, so one preferred feature of a drilling
fluid is that it prevents water from being available to
shales. In NAFs this happens because the external phase
is an oil and the brine phase is very tightly emulsified.
The emulsifying surfactants pack so tightly on the
outside of the brine droplet that they form an excellent
approximation of a semi-permeable membrane. If the
salinity/activity (see Water Phase Activity above) of
the brine phase is lower than the activity of the shale
then any water movement will be from the shale into the
drilling fluid, thereby preserving the strength of the
shale.

Water Base Muds
Shales have long been thought to behave somewhat like
a semi-permeable membrane because their pores are so
small (tens of angstroms), and because of the highly
charged surfaces of clays. However, research has
established that salt ions can move in and out of shales
with little hindrance (perhaps 5 to 10% restriction as
compared to 100% for a true semi-permeable
membrane). Several approaches have been tried to
improve the membrane efficiency of water base drilling
fluids. The mechanisms are not fully understood, but
improvements can be made by sharply reducing the
permeability of the shale (using silicates, starch/amine
reactions, etc), and also by depositing chemicals in the
pore systems (using methyl glucoside, polyglycols,
aluminum complexes, etc.). While shale stability can be
greatly improved with these systems, they may not
perform as well as oil muds on rate of penetration,
lubricity, temperature stability, etc.

Thermal Degradation, Oxidation and
Hydrolysis
An old chemistry rule-of-thumb states that chemical
reaction rates roughly double for each 10
o
C of
temperature increase. As might be expected, the side
effects of chemical reactions in drilling fluids are rarely
positive.

Oxidation
Familiar forms of oxidation include iron rusting and
things like a freshly cut apple or potato turning brown. In
a drilling fluid, dissolved or entrained oxygen reacts with
organic additives like polymers, lignite or surfactants,
changing their properties. In extreme cases like high
temperature high pressure (HTHP) wells some of the
oxidation will be carried all the way to the production of
CO
2
. CO
2
dissolved in a drilling fluid will lower its pH
potentially leading to problems with viscosity if the CO
2

is not treated out with lime or some other source of
calcium. In addition to the effects on pH, signs of
oxidation could include a drop in polymer viscosity and
difficulty controlling fluid loss.

Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis means to cleave with water, and it is a
common chemical degradation pathway in water base
drilling fluids. A simple example is shown in Figure 6-8.
The molecule is cut into two parts with part of the water
molecule (OH) going with one half and the remaining
hydrogen going with the other half.
Figure 6-8: Starch chain cut by hydrolysis

Polymers like starch, guar, xanthan gum, CMCs and
PACs with similar polysaccharide (sugar) backbones are
readily cut apart by hydrolysis, especially at high
temperature and high pH. To some degree, surfactants,
lignite, asphalts, etc. are all susceptible to oxidation.
An example for NAFs is the hydrolysis of the esters used
to make environmentally friendly muds. The high pH
water (calcium chloride brine and lime), combined with
temperatures above 300 to 325 F will hydrolyze the
ester back to its original components (a fatty acid and an
alcohol), as depicted in Figure 6-9.

Figure 6-9: Hydrolysis of a typical ester base fluid molecule
C
17
- C - O - C - C C
4

O
C
C
Typical Ester Base Fluid
H - O - C - C - C
4

C
C

C
17
- C - O
-
1

O
heat, high pH
+
Fatty
Acid
2-Ethylhexyl Alcohol
O
CH
2
OH
H H
H
H
O O
H
OH
OH
O
CH
2
OH
H H
H
H
H
OH
OH
O
CH
2
OH
H H
H
H
O
H
OH
OH
O
CH
2
OH
H H
H
H
H
OH
OH
OH HO
+
Heat,
High pH
H2O
Chapter 7: Hole Cleaning
CHAPTER 7: HOLE CLEANING

The transport and removal of drilled cuttings, formation
rock, cement and other solid material in the wellbore is
one of the most fundamental parts of drilling operations.
A well cannot be successful if the rock drilled is not
displaced from the wellbore. Furthermore, for efficient
well construction, the drilled formation must be removed
in a timely and consistent manner. Failure to effectively
transport the cuttings can result in a number of drilling
problems including:
Excessive over pull on trips
High drag and rotary torque
Stuck pipe
Hole pack-off
Formation fracturing and breakdown
Slow ROP
Lost circulation
Trouble running casing
Primary cementing failures
Not only does poor hole cleaning contribute to some of
the largest sources of drilling non-productive time (NPT),
but it can ultimately lead to damage of the reservoir
formations and a decrease to well productivity.
Therefore, it is crucial that hole cleaning be properly
addressed in the well planning phase and fluid
formulation, as well as best practices being implemented
and cuttings transport being monitored throughout
drilling. It is also worth noting that some of the
properties and practices that help with hole cleaning can
be detrimental to other parts of the drilling operations
by increasing standpipe pressure and equivalent
circulating density (ECD), and all aspects must be
considered. Designing parameters for hole cleaning
should not be done in such a way that other sources of
non-productive time are inadvertently caused.
For a discussion of the rheological models and terms
described in this chapter, refer to the Rheological
Models section of Chapter 2.

Hole Cleaning Regimes
The mechanics of moving cuttings and solids out of the
wellbore vary significantly depending on the inclination
of the wellbore. In a vertical wellbore, the cuttings have
no place to settle aside from the bottom of the hole. As
the rotation of the bit and BHA can usually stir these up
into the annular flow, cuttings transport is mainly a
function of ensuring the annular velocity is greater than
the particle slip velocity. In deviated wells, cuttings will
have a tendency to settle to the low side of the hole and
form cuttings beds. These cuttings may move uphole
through the bulk flow, but may also slump back when
circulation stops; causing pack-offs and drilling
problems, as well as generally increasing torque and
drag. In horizontal holes, cuttings beds are almost
certain to form, and effective hole cleaning relies on a
combination of factors such as flow rate, drillstring
rotation, and drilling fluid properties. An idealization of
the different hole cleaning regimes can be seen in Figure
7-1. The strategies and practices involved in good hole
cleaning obviously vary in these different environments,
so they will be examined individually.


Figure 7-1: Hole cleaning regimes as a function of inclination and
annular velocity (Courtesy of DTA Drilling Fluids Manual)

Hole Cleaning in a Vertical Well
Vertical and near vertical wells are defined as having
less than 30 inclination, although as the well
approaches 30, some of the problems associated with
deviated wells may be encountered. In a vertical
environment, the main factor determining hole cleaning
is the slip velocity of the cuttings compared to the
average annular velocity. If the annular velocity is the
greater of the two, cuttings will rise while circulating. As
the slip velocity is a function of the mud properties and
the annular velocity of the flow is a function of the
pumping rate, these are the parameters to focus on in
vertical hole cleaning.
When the pumps are off, the gel strength of the drilling
fluid can prevent the settling of cuttings. It should be
noted that cuttings may fall back, and normally this is
not an issue at the bit/BHA as the higher local annular
velocities and rotation will generally move cuttings back
into suspension. More problematic can be locations
where there is a change in annular diameter, such as at
casing points or at the sea floor when using a riser.

Particle Slip Velocity and Settling
During circulation, cuttings will have a natural tendency
to sink due to their density. This tendency is
counteracted by the flow of the drilling mud and viscous
forces acting against particle movement. If the settling
tendency is greater than the force of the flow and
viscous forces, the particle will not be transported out of
the hole.
Stokes' Law for creeping flow in a Newtonian fluid with
oilfield units is:
:
sI
=
1S8(p
s
-p
]
)J
s
2
p

where v
sl
is the particle slip velocity and is the fluid
viscosity, d
s
is the particle diameter,
s
is the density of
the particle, and
f
is the fluid density or mud weight.
The Moore correlation for Power Law type fluids at
intermediate Reynolds numbers with oilfield units is:
:
sI
=
2.9uJ
s
(p
s
- p
]
)
0.667
p
]
0.333
p
u
0.333

where
a
is the apparent viscosity, a function of the fluid
behavior index "n" and the fluid consistency index "k".
There are many more complex methods for calculating
cuttings slip velocity that incorporate particle geometry,
more sophisticated non-Newtonian fluid models, and so
on, but the general trends remain the same. The
methods to reduce slip velocity are:
Increase fluid viscosity. The higher the drilling
fluid viscosity, the lower the slip velocity due to
viscous effects on the cuttings.
Increase mud weight. As the mud density
approaches the cuttings density, the slip velocity
will drop due to increased cuttings buoyancy.
Decrease cuttings diameter. The smaller the
cuttings, the lower the slip velocity due to
increased suspension forces.
The gel strength required to suspend a spherical particle
in a non-Newtonian fluid is (in oilfield units):
g
= 1u.4J
s
(p
s
- p
]
)
where
g
is the gel strength and d
s
is the particle
diameter. There is a direct correlation between the
required gel strength and the cutting diameter. The
smaller the cuttings, the easier they are to suspend. It
should be noted that Newtonian fluids, such as some
spud muds, water or brines, do not have a gel strength
and thus, particles will settle if flow is stopped as long as
the cuttings have a higher density than the fluid
surrounding them.

Hole Cleaning in a Deviated or Horizontal
Well
At an inclination of greater than roughly 30, the
mechanisms of cuttings transport become significantly
more complex. When pumping is not continuous and gel
strength formation is not instantaneous, cuttings will fall
for some period after the cessation of circulation. In a
vertical hole, this means they may fall back some
distance, but in a deviated hole, they may settle on the
low side of the hole. Through this process, cuttings beds
can develop, and the formation, transportation, and
erosion of these beds are complex and time dependent.
The formation and dissipation of cuttings beds are time
dependent processes which greatly complicate modeling.
Typically, hole cleaning programs calculate the steady
state flow rate at which the formation and removal of
cuttings beds is equal. This does not account for the
movements of the cuttings during the pumps off time.
As a result, many more drilling parameters come into
play to maintain good hole cleaning in a deviated
environment, and best practices and lessons learned are
significantly more important.

Factors Affecting Hole Cleaning
Hole cleaning is an issue to be considered in all hole
sizes and all inclinations. The fundamental factors
affecting the ability of the drilling fluid flow to transport
cuttings are:
Annular velocity
Pipe rotation
Rate of penetration
Mud density
Mud rheology
Hole geometry
Cuttings properties
It should be noted that these parameters are
interrelated and their effects on hole cleaning can vary
significantly. Despite the complexity, it is important to
understand the impact of each parameter to determine
the best remedial actions and preventative measures.

Annular Velocity
The term annular velocity refers to the mean velocity
bulk flow, that is, the average speed of the drilling fluid
in the space between the drillstring and wellbore wall. In
general, changing annular velocity has the single
strongest effect on hole cleaning. Without circulation
towards the surface, it is not possible to remove drill
cuttings. If annular velocity is lower than the slip velocity
of particles, they will not be transported out of the hole.
In deviated and horizontal environments, the flow
transports cuttings and erodes cuttings beds. Thus, in
most wells, the first response to poor hole cleaning may
be to increase the pump rate, assuming that the
resulting standpipe pressures and ECD are acceptable.
Although annular velocity refers to the average fluid
velocity, it should be noted that this is not the velocity of
all of the fluid in the annular cross-section. Figure 7-2
shows laminar velocity profiles between the drillstring
and the wellbore wall (in this case representing 5-inch
drillpipe in a large riser). Three fluids are shown; all have
the same average velocity, but different rheological
properties. It can be seen that there may be areas
toward the edges where the local fluid velocity is less
than a given slip velocity. In these cases, the particles
will fall back until they are agitated into the center of the
flow where they can be transported upwards. This is the
reason that optimizing rheological properties for hole
cleaning is an important aspect of hole cleaning, as will
be discussed later.
In a deviated or horizontal well, the velocity profile will
tend to be different due to pipe eccentricity. This results
in larger areas of lower flow rates, which can lead to
more cuttings dropping out of the flow and laying on the
low side of the hole in cuttings beds. In these cases, it is
sometimes impractical to increase the flow rates to the
amount required to sufficiently erode the cuttings and
clean the hole. Other parameters would be better
adjusted, such as pipe rotation or mud properties.

Figure 7-2: Annular velocity profiles for different rheologies at the
same average annular velocity

As the flow rate increases, the average annular velocity
increases linearly, as does the velocity profile until
turbulent flow is initiated. Turbulence is initiated when
the fluid velocity, in conjunction with the fluid properties
and hole geometry, is sufficiently so high that the fluid
can no longer flow in a smooth laminar pattern.
Turbulence causes wide and constant fluctuations in the
local velocities and this makes turbulent flow quite
effective in transporting cuttings, especially in deviated
holes. Unfortunately, turbulent flow results in a higher
frictional pressure drop. In larger hole sizes (above 8 1/2
inches) the required flow rates (which are increased by
pipe laying on the low side of the hole) are often
prohibitive from a surface pressure and formation
fracture standpoint. Additionally, turbulent flow has a
higher propensity to cause formation erosion and
washout.

Pipe Rotation
Rotation of the drillstring induces the fluid surrounding it
to revolve in the same direction. At the edge of the pipe,
the speed will be the same as the drillstring, and at the
wellbore wall, it will be zero. This rotational velocity
profile can be seen in Figure 7-3. It should be noted that
this example assumes a centered pipe. If the pipe is
eccentric, the profile will vary according to the angle
relative to the direction of the pipe.

Figure 7-3: Change in fluid rotational velocity from edge of 5"
drillstring to edge of 12.25" wellbore with 120 RPM pipe
rotation
In a vertical well with centered pipe, rotation will spin
particles outward in a centrifugal manner. This
movement will not aid in hole cleaning and might
actually be detrimental as cuttings tend to move toward
the lower local velocity areas near the wellbore wall. At
this point they would begin to settle when their slip
velocity exceeds the local flow rate. Fortunately, the
vibrations and chaotic movements that occur in drilling
operations mean that this does not continuously occur
and particles reenter the higher speed flow and continue
to move to the surface.
In deviated or horizontal environments, the situation is
quite different. The drillstring is usually eccentric and
cuttings beds have often formed on the low side where
the pipe is. Here, pipe rotation is crucial to ensure good
hole cleaning. The rotation of the pipe tends to kick up
settled particles into the higher speed flow, allowing
them to be transported. Without pipe rotation, it can
sometimes be extremely difficult to transport cuttings
sufficiently to avoid pack-offs and stuck pipe.
Additionally, the smaller annular space caused by larger
cuttings beds can result in higher ECDs and standpipe
pressure. When planning wells with extended horizontal
sections, the use of rotary steerable tools is
recommended as the prolonged periods without rotation
associated with sliding can cause a great deal of hole
cleaning problems.
The optimum pipe speed required to aid in hole cleaning
is a function of cuttings properties, ROP, flow rates and
hole geometry. However, while increasing surface RPM
will tend to improve hole cleaning, there is a point of
diminishing returns. With increased pipe rotation, drill
cuttings and particles in the fluid will generally tend to
be ground up more. This leads to fine drilled solids which
may be difficult to remove from the fluid and a shift in
the size distribution of lost circulation materials.
Furthermore, excessive pipe rotation may lead to
damaging downhole vibrations and stick-slip, which can
cause NPT from tool failure and worsen wellbore
stability. Thus, choosing the appropriate surface rotation
can be complicated and is best done in conjunction with
downhole shock measurements. While pipe rotation
alone is insufficient to ensure good hole cleaning in
deviated, horizontal and extended reach wells, it is a
crucial tool to prevent NPT.

Rate of Penetration
The concentration of cuttings in the fluid, assuming no
settling out, is a direct function of particle slip velocity,
ROP, flow rate, and hole geometry.
s
=
BS
2
- R0P
BS
2
- R0P + C [1 -
:
s
:
u
-

where f
s
is the solids concentration, BS is the bit
diameter, ROP is the rate of penetration, C is a unit
conversion factor, v
s
is the particle slip velocity, v
a
is the
average annular velocity, and Q is the surface fluid flow
rate.
The cuttings concentration is important as it influences
ECD, standpipe pressures, fluid rheological properties, as
well as the ability to clean the hole. It can be seen from
this equation that by increasing the hole size (bit size or
using a hole opener), ROP, or slip velocity, it will increase
the concentration; while increasing the flow rate will
reduce it.
In general, uncontrolled, high ROP can lead to hole
cleaning difficulties, pack-offs and other sources of NPT.
So, it is important to ensure that operating parameters
are sufficient to remove the cuttings generated by a
given ROP. It is usually recommended to control the ROP
such that the cuttings concentration remains below four
or five percent.
Mud Density
The density of the drilling fluid has a direct effect on the
slip velocity of particles due to buoyancy forces. As a
result, with high mud weights, lower flow rates are
required to achieve good hole cleaning. It should be
noted that this applies primarily to vertical holes. Unless
the mud weight approaches the cuttings density,
cuttings beds will still form in inclined wells and pipe
rotation is required to ensure transport of cuttings out
of the well.
Fluid Rheological Properties
As described by the slip velocity equations, increasing
viscosity tends to improve hole cleaning. Generally, it is
the low-end rheology properties that help provide good
hole cleaning, but this can be complicated by how
properties are reported. Plastic viscosity (PV) and yield
point (YP) numbers are normally based on calculations
made using FANN dial readings at the 300 and 600 rpm
speeds. In large hole sizes, the fluid may not be
subjected to the same shear rates as those represented
by these viscometer rpm speeds. That said, it is still easy
to see that an increase in PV and YP will tend to help
hole cleaning, specifically with a high YP to PV ratio. The
situation is more difficult with Power Law fluids. Instead
of PY and YP, the rheology is described by "k" and "n"
parameters which are less intuitive. The effect of varying
these can be seen in Figure 7-4 where three different
fluids flow at the same average flow rate and same
pressure drop. Nevertheless, it can be seen that fluids
with a higher 'k" and lower "n" will tend to have a more
flattened velocity profile, which allows more of the
annular space to experience flow above the particle slip
velocities.

Figure 7-4: Velocity profiles for 3 Power Law fluids at the same
flow rate and pressure drop

Another representation of flow, the Herschel-Buckley
model, adds another parameter
0
which allows for
better prediction of fluid properties. The hole cleaning
behavior of fluids represented by this model is somewhat
easier to predict since the
0
parameter is a good
indicator of hole cleaning ability. However, raising
0
too
high can lead to problems with the higher shear rate
rheologies (i.e. high PVs) and result in unacceptable
ECDs.

Hole Geometry
For a given flow rate, the larger the annular space
between the drillstring and the wellbore wall, the lower
the average velocity. This fact dictates the need for
higher flow rates to ensure good hole cleaning in larger
hole sections. It also should be remembered that the
addition of tools that enlarge the borehole behind the
bit, such as hole openers or underreamers, will create
the need for higher flow rates.
Discontinuities in hole geometry are often trouble areas
where cuttings can build up. At the base of the casing
shoe in deviated wells, cuttings being transported on the
low side can be caught in a low energy area and form
beds that are difficult to remove. If care is not taken
while pulling through the shoe, pack-offs or stuck pipe
can occur. Risers also present a challenge, as there can
be a very large difference between the casing ID and the
riser ID. Cuttings flowing upwards into the riser can end
up settling on the base, where there is not effective flow
to move them. Booster pumps are the primary tool to
deal with this challenge. They inject flow at the riser
base in deepwater drilling and aid in the transport of
cuttings into the main flow.

Cuttings Properties
The size, shape, and density of a cutting or any solid
particle in the annulus affect the force required to move
it. This can cause problems when entering a new
formation or using a new bit type, as the change in
cuttings can result in hole cleaning problems despite
maintaining drilling parameters which were previously
adequate.
Cuttings dimension is normally measured as the
effective diameter and cuttings can range from a very
fine, coffee grounds size, to a significant fraction of the
bit size in fast underbalanced drilling. Cuttings are often
assumed to be spherical in order to simplify modeling
their behavior, but in practice cuttings are usually
irregular. Generally, the less spherical the cutting, the
slower it will settle. The common diameters that are
used in hole cleaning simulations are between 1/4-inch
and 1/2-inch, although engineers are encouraged to look
at the size of the cuttings coming over the shakers to
provide a check, with the understanding that cuttings will
usually be ground down by drillpipe rotation. The larger
the cutting diameter, the higher the slip velocity and the
more difficult it is to transport the particle out of the
hole. Additionally, the type of bit and cutting action
impacts the cutting size. Bits that grind the formation,
such as those that are diamond impregnated, tend to
produce finer cuttings than bits with roller cones that
gouge the formation.
Cuttings density reflects the rock that is being drilled.
Often the porosity and any fluids in the rock are ignored,
as the pore structures are assumed to be crushed in the
drilling process. With extremely large cuttings, the effect
of porosity may not be negligible. As the density of the
rock increases, greater annular velocities are required to
clean the hole.
A summary of the effects of various parameters on hole
cleaning is shown in Table 7-1.

Table 7-1: Summary of parameter effects on hole cleaning
Parameter
Effect of Increase in Parameter on
Hole Cleaning
Annular Velocity
Improves hole cleaning. Primary
parameter to affect hole cleaning in
vertical environments.
Pipe Rotation
Minimal impact in vertical wells,
important in deviated wells and very
important in horizontal wells.
Rate of Penetration
Increases cuttings concentration, which
may require increasing other
parameters.
Parameter
Hole Cleaning
Mud Density Decreases slip velocity.
Rheological
Properties (PV,YP)
Improves hole cleaning, but may
increase ECD.
Hole Geometry
(gap between pipe
and annulus)
Reduces annular velocity requiring
higher flow rates, increased pipe
rotation, and/or altered rheological
properties.
Cuttings Properties
(cuttings size)
Larger cuttings have higher slip velocity,
but are easier to remove with shakers.
Table 7-1: Summary of parameter effects on hole cleaning
(continued)

Best Practices
There is no magic formula for hole cleaning that covers
all situations. Because circulation is never continuous
through an entire section, the time dependent nature of
cuttings transport ensures that every well is different.
Good hole cleaning requires proper planning and
preparation, but must also include continuous
monitoring to ensure success. The simplest way is to
watch the volume and rate of cuttings coming over the
shakers. Changes in this trend can indicate a failure to
clean the hole. If the volumes are different than a similar
offset well, then perhaps cuttings are not being
transported adequately. Downhole pressure while drilling
(PWD) tools can help monitor hole cleaning in vertical
sections, as the suspended particles will increase the
bottom-hole pressure. A continuous increase in the
pressure may indicate that the cuttings concentration is
increasing. Surface torque and hook load can be used to
evaluate the buildup of cuttings beds. Comparing the
drag tripping in and out can show the accumulation of
drilled solids and suggest that additional sweeps or hole
cleaning trips may be needed.

Hole Cleaning Sweeps
One of the most basic tools used to clear out excessive
cuttings is to pump a sweep of fluid with different
properties than the normal drilling fluid. Ideally, this
sweep will pick up cuttings that are not being adequately
transported to surface. Most commonly, sweeps are of a
higher density (often 3 to 4 ppg higher) and sometimes
higher viscosity than the drilling fluid. This is most
effective in vertical wells, as the viscosity difference can
quickly lead to flow separation in an inclined well.
The effectiveness of sweeps can be seen when a large
slug of cuttings comes over the shakers. If the volume of
cuttings seems inadequate or other signs of excessive
cuttings are observed, repeated sweeps may be
attempted, although the first sweep should be
completely circulated out prior to the next sweep.

Short Tripping and Wiper Trips
Making periodic short trips has proven helpful in
controlling problems created by cuttings beds in the high
angle portion of the well. Tripping through the bed can
help to ensure that the bottom-hole assembly and bit
can be pulled through it, and the action agitates the bed
allowing some of the cuttings to be picked up when
circulation begins. When sliding with a downhole motor,
short trips are sometimes used to clean up the section
that was not drilled with pipe rotation.
Wiper trips are usually longer pre-planned trips which
involve circulation and pipe rotation. These trips work
through recently drilled sections and attempt to mobilize
as much of the cuttings beds as possible. Many times
there is a hole cleaning program that dictates a wiper
trip after a given number of hours or distance drilled,
although sometimes a wiper trip may be needed based
on increasing torque and drag and inadequate cuttings
returns on surface.
Short trips and wiper trips can be quite helpful in
assisting hole cleaning when beds have built up, but as
the time spent is essentially non-productive, they should
be used when appropriate and not as a cure-all or
replacement for good hole cleaning practices while
drilling. Time spent on trips is also extra time that the
hole is open, which can lead to a number of time delayed
problems, such as wellbore instability, shale swelling, and
formation damage from deeper invasion. Thus, it is
important to realize when a cleaning trip is needed, and
when it can be avoided.

Drillstring Rotation
It is well understood that pipe rotation in deviated and
horizontal wellbores, especially with sizes less than 17 1/2
inches is greatly beneficial. The question is: What is the
optimal pipe rotation speed? A general industry rule-of-
thumb suggests at least 120 RPM in larger hole sizes.
Some have pushed for more aggressive speeds of up to
200 RPM. As with many aspects of drilling, the optimum
RPM is usually only found through experience. Higher
rotation speeds do help, but can lead to downhole
shocks, tool failure, and NPT. Low pipe rotation may lead
to poor hole cleaning, pack-offs, and time lost to wiper
trips. Proactive monitoring of downhole shocks,
adjustment to drilling parameters like weight-on-bit
(WOB) and RPM, and attention to the cuttings volume
and type coming over the shakers provide the best way
to optimize drillstring rotation.
Flow Rates
While it is relatively straight forward to calculate the
required flow rate to clean a vertical hole, horizontal
wells are more problematic. A number of industry
computer programs and models exist, but as a starting
point, the some broad industry rules-of-thumb for
extended reach wells are shown in Table 7-2.

Hole Size Recommended Flow Rates
17 1/2"
At least 1000 to 1200 gpm. As frictional
pressure drop tends to be quite low in this large
hole size, pump rates are often the maximum
allowable for the pumps.
12 1/4"
Aim for 900 to 1000 gpm as ECD allows. For
lower flow rates, monitor hole conditions and
be prepared for wiper trips.
8 1/2"
400 to 600 gpm depending on ECD and
pressures. Watch for standpipe pressure spikes
that might be warnings of potential pack-offs.
6"
Flow rate is often dictated by pressure and ECD
limitations. If possible, use 250 to 300 gpm.
Table 7-2: Recommended flow rates for cleaning various hole
sizes

Prior to Tripping Out of Hole
It is usually a good practice to make sure that the hole is
clean prior to tripping out, as this can help to avoid pack-
offs and stuck pipe. Before tripping out, circulate the
hole at the normal flow rate until the shakers are clean,
while rotating and reciprocating the drillpipe. This might
require as many as three bottoms-ups, depending on the
hole angle and hole size. Table 7-3 contains some typical
numbers of bottoms-ups required.

Hole Angle ( in degrees) 8 .5 in. 12.25 in. 17.5 in.
0 10 1.3 1.3 1.5
10 30 1.4 1.4 1.7
30 60 1.6 1.8 2.5
> 60 1.7 2.0 3.0
Table 7-3: Recommended numbers of bottoms-ups prior to
tripping for various hole sizes

ECD and Standpipe Pressure Management
While considering how best to clean the hole, it is
important to remember that the majority of parameters
that increase hole cleaning also result in an increase in
the frictional pressure drop, which in turn leads to higher
standpipe and bottom-hole pressures. Fracturing the
formation because of increased ECD is not the desired
outcome of trying to improve hole cleaning.
It can be seen from Table 7-4 that care must be taken
not to limit operations through the increase in pressure
while trying to improve hole cleaning. That being said, a
pack-off due to poor hole cleaning will also increase
pressures.
Parameter
Pressures
Annular Velocity
Directly increases pressures. Bottom-
hole pressure effect is somewhat less if
pipe is eccentric or in large hole sizes,
but standpipe pressure will still increase.
Pipe Rotation Can cause a small increase in pressures.
Rate of Penetration
Increases cuttings concentration, which
causes higher fluid density and higher
pressures.
Mud Density Increases hydrostatic pressures.
Rheological
Properties (PV,YP)
Tends to increase pressures.
Hole Geometry
(gap between pipe
and annulus)
Larger gap reduces the pressure drop in
the annulus, but pressure drop in the
drillpipe stays the same.
Cuttings Properties
(cuttings size)
Smaller cuttings are harder to remove
with solids control equipment which
leads to increasing drill solids in the
mud. This increases density and
especially fluid viscosity leading to
higher pressure.
Table 7-4: Summary of parameter effects on standpipe and
bottom-hole pressures

Monitoring Pressure While Drilling
The simplest pressure measurement is at the standpipe.
This number is an indication of the total pressure drop,
minus the surface system to the pumps. The most
important aspect of standpipe pressure is to ensure that
it remains below the rating of surface equipment.
Sudden changes in pressure while other parameters are
constant are indications of drilling problems. A sudden
increase can be a result of a pack-off, a blocked bit
nozzle, a stalled downhole motor, and so on. A sudden
decrease may indicate there is a washout around the
drillpipe.
In many operations a PWD tool is included in the BHA
and real-time data is transmitted via the measurement
while drilling (MWD) tool to surface. These tools can be
very useful, but care must be taken in their
interpretation. Downhole ECD measured by the PWD tool
is often used as a proxy for hole cleaning. The tool
measures pressure, and if an increase in pressure is due
to an increase in cuttings concentration, then this is
directly related to hole cleaning. This works best in a
vertical well. In a horizontal well, poor hole cleaning will
lead to the formation of cuttings beds. If the cuttings are
not suspended in the mud, they will not add to the
density and thus, the PWD tool will not give the same
indication of the formation of cuttings beds, as this will
only measure the change in annular size from cuttings
beds.
PWD measurements are not always rapidly updated; the
data points may measure from a few seconds to a few
minutes apart. This makes PWD measurements
somewhat problematic for rapid response, as a pressure
spike in a single data point might be considered noise,
and a few more data points may be required for
confirmation. This may take a few minutes, at which
point a serious problem may have developed.
Additionally, alteration of drilling parameters, especially
surface pipe rotation, can also affect ECD and care must
be taken to differentiate the cause of a change in the
ECD trend.
Many PWD tools also store recorded data at a much
higher sampling rate. Unfortunately, these data are not
available until the tool is back on surface and the data
are then dumped to the computers. While not helpful for
real-time decisions, careful review of these data,
compared to surface data, can help to build experience
in correlating surface measurements, such as flow rate,
standpipe pressure and cuttings returns to downhole
measurements. This can allow for more confidence in
future runs when diagnosing hole cleaning problems.

Chapter 8: Solids Control Equipment
CHAPTER 8: SOLIDS CONTROL EQUIPMENT

Solids control equipment is utilized on the rig to remove
undesirable solids from the drilling fluid system. There
are many types of solids control equipment, but main
types of solids control equipment, in order of flow from
the bell nipple, are shale shakers, hydrocyclones and
centrifuges. Additional components that can be added to
the process flow, such as flocculation systems, will
enhance solids removal efficiency (SRE) and in turn,
improve the quality of the drilling fluid.
The overall goal of solids control at the rig is to remove
drilled solids from the mud system as these solids, at
high concentrations, can degrade drilling performance.
In order to maintain the desired range of drilled solids in
a mud system, solids control equipment and/or dilution
are required.
SRE directly impacts dilution rates, which can have a
detrimental effect on overall fluid and fluid related cost;
not to mention potential non-productive time (NPT). The
lower the overall SRE, the higher the required dilution
rate will be to maintain drilled solids in the desired range.
When dilution fluid, either water or non-aqueous fluid
(NAF), is added to the system, three costs are incurred
simultaneously:
Dilution cost
Fluid additive cost
Disposal cost
Economic savings attributed to improved penetration
rates and reduced NPT, although valuable, usually are
not considered to be the only justification for utilizing
improved solids control equipment. In many cases, the
economic advantages due to reduced dilution and
disposal costs are more than enough to justify
expenditures for additional equipment.
Dilution, although effective, can be a very expensive
method to control solids. The following formula can be
used to calculate dilution requirements to maintain a
known percentage of drill solids in the mud system:

ds
d ds
ds
V
V V
T

Where V
d
= Dilution volume
V
ds
= Volume of drilled solids to be diluted
T
ds
= Target drilled solids (volume fraction)

The formation being drilled and the drilling fluid used
often dictate the type of solids control equipment
needed to remove drilled solids from the fluid, in turn,
maximizing SRE. There are two types of solids present in
an active mud system, drilled solids and solids
incorporated into drilling fluid additives. These solids, as
related to solids control, can be broken down into four
categories. The major categories of solids are outlined in
Table 8-1, along with corresponding particle sizes in
microns (m), types of particles and the solids control
equipment needed to remove them from the system.

Category Size
(m)
Types of Particles Solids Control
Equipment
Colloidal <2 Bentonite, clays,
ultra-fine drilled
solids
N/A
Silt 2 74 Barite, silt, fine
drilled solids
Desilter,
Centrifuge
Sand 74
2,000
Sand, drilled solids Shale Shaker,
Desander
Gravel >2,000 Drilled solids,
gravel, cobble
Shale Shaker
Table 8-1: Solids classifications

Each category of solids control equipment is capable of
removing solids in a particular particle size range, as
indicated in Table 8-2. Correct configuration and
application of the solids removal equipment could
significantly reduce drilling fluid cost, as well as the
overall drilling cost.

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here are numerous factors that affect the capability of
solids control equipment to efficiently remove particles
in a particular size range. The most common are:
Capacity and feed rate
Drilling fluid type (inhibition, viscosity, base fluid
type)
Equipment performance
As previously shown, the main components of solids
control equipment are primary/secondary shakers, mud
cleaners, desilters, desanders and centrifuges (Figure
8-1).

Figure 8-1: Process flow of solids control equipment (Courtesy of
Derrick Equipment)

Solids Removal Efficiency
SRE depends on a number of factors such as equipment
type and equipment operating parameters. For instance,
shale shaker efficiency is related to g-force, frequency,
stroke length, retention time, drilling fluid properties,
cuttings characteristics.
In general, the more inhibitive the drilling fluid used, the
higher the SRE that can be obtained. The practical limit
to the SRE when drilling with water base mud is
approximately 85%. It is possible to have an SRE of 90%
or higher when using NAF.
The optimum SRE (SRE
optimum
) can be calculated by using
the following formula:
SRE
optmum
= 1uu -
1 - I
ds
I
ds
S
c
+ (1 - I
ds
)

Where S
c
is the solids concentration (volume fraction) in
the discarded stream from the solids control equipment.

Shale Shaker
The shale shaker can be regarded as the first line of
defense in the solids removal system. It uses a simple,
reliable method of removing large amounts of coarse
drilled solids from the circulating system. When
operational and correctly maintained, a shale shaker can
provide consistent removal of solids from the fluid
system.
An adequate number of shale shakers should be installed
to process the entire circulating rate, with the goal of
removing as many drilled solids as is economically
feasible. Since the shale shaker is regarded as the most
important piece of solids control equipment, the most
efficient shale shakers and screens should be selected,
especially when the goal is to achieve optimum economic
performance of the solids control system. Figure 8-2
depicts flow rate capacity versus mud weight ranges of
10 to 18 lb/gal for various API screen mesh sizes of a
generic shaker. It should be noted that shaker
performance may improve or reduce the flow rate.

Figure 8-2: Flow rate capacity versus mud weight for various API
screen numbers

The flow across the shaker screen should be such that
mud is covering at least 75% of the entire shaker. For
example, a four-panel shaker should have mud across at
least three screens. Also, when using more than one
shaker, it is important to ensure equal flow distribution
to each shaker.
Shale shaker performance is a function of the following:
Vibration pattern and dynamics
Deck size and configuration
Shaker screen characteristics
Mud rheology
Solids loading rate

There are four basic motions available for oilfield
shakers:

1. Circular motion a uniform round motion (Figure 8-3)

Figure 8-3: Circular motion

2. Elliptical motion a non-uniform oblong motion (Figure
8-4)

Figure 8-4: Elliptical motion

3. Balanced elliptical motion a uniform oblong motion
(Figure 8-5)

Figure 8-5: Balanced elliptical motion

4. Linear motion a balanced elliptical motion with
aspect ratio of infinity to one (Figure 8-6)

Figure 8-6: Linear motion

Of the four types, linear motion shakers are best suited
for standard oilfield use due to the ease of attaining a
higher g-force (6 to 8). Balanced elliptical shakers
typically have a lower g-force (up to 20% lower in
balanced elliptical motion) than that of linear motion
shakers.
The most important variable associated with shale
shakers is screen selection, which will define the flow
capacity and solids removal efficiency. Historically,
screen sizes and labeling have been inconsistent and
sometimes misleading across manufacturers and
vendors. The American Petroleum Institute (API) has
established API RP 13C, Recommended Practice on
Drilling Fluids Processing Systems Evaluation, Testing
and Labeling Procedure for Shale Shaker Screens to
address this issue. It provides guidelines for screen
sizing and a uniform, accurate and easy screen labeling
procedure.
Shaker troubleshooting can be problematic at times as
the source of the problem could be from adjustments to
the drilling fluid and/or the mechanics of the shaker.
Referring to shaker mechanics, it is important to check
the sand content, especially if the problem occurs with
only one shaker. As shakers can successfully remove >74
m particles, only trace sand should be measured. If
there is more than a trace amount, the problem can be
caused by one or more of the following:
Shaker screen(s) worn This can be identified
with increased amounts of sand over time when
verified by the sand content test. With this
problem, there may or may not be noticeable
wearing at one or more shaker screens. If this is
true, repair or replace the worn screen(s).
Shaker screen(s) undersized As the average
particle size of the solids the in drilling fluid
decreases over circulation time, the particles
tend to remain in the mud system if not initially
screened out. When this occurs, the rheology will
increase and can be verified by plastic viscosity
(PV) values increasing over time. Screening up
by increasing the API screen number can
alleviate this problem. This API number is related
to the corresponding ASTM mesh sieve.

A troubleshooting guide (Table 8-3) also identifies other
mechanical problems associated with shakers:

Problem/
Observation
Possible Cause Solution
Cuttings not
conveying to
the
discharge
end in a
uniform
manner
Incorrectly
installed or
tensioned screens
Install screens according
to manufacturers.
Maintain tensioning
system as per
manufacturer
recommendations.
Poor
cuttings
conveyance
in one area
of a screen,
often whirl
pooling
Missing or worn
screen support
such as channel
cover, cross and
side supports
Replace missing or worn
channel covers as
needed. Replace cross
and side supports as
needed.
Cuttings
tend to move
towards one
side of the
shaker
Unlevel installation
or worn float
mounts/isolation
springs. Improper
replacement
part(s)
Replace worn, degraded,
weakened part with
correct manufacturers
recommended part(s)
Table 8-3: Shaker troubleshooting guide

If all shakers suddenly become problematic, the source
of the problem moves from shaker mechanics to the
drilling fluid, with the following possible causes:
Water-wet solids NAF cuttings adhere to the
screens and blinding occurs. A high temperature
high pressure (HTHP) fluid loss test can identify
if water is in the filtrate. If so, the drilling fluid
chemistry should be addressed or screen down
using a lower API Screen number.
Lost circulation material (LCM) blinding
Increased mud losses off the shaker discharge
when utilizing fine LCM. If the LCM is necessary,
screen down so the screens do not plug.
Another alternative is to choose a LCM that has
a specific gravity (SG) lower than that of the
base fluid, use coarse screens on the shaker and
add a mud cleaner with fine screens (API 170 to
200 mesh). The LCM will be removed for reuse
by the hydrocyclone and the drilling fluid can
then be screened by the shaker of the mud
cleaner.
WBM polymer screen coating WBMs with long
chain polymers have a tendency to coat fine
mesh three layer shaker screens. Use coarser
screens (screen down) or change out for two
layer screens. These are available from the
original equipment manufacturer (OEM) as well
as non OEM. However, two-layer screens have a
reduced life over multi-layer screens.

Hydrocyclones
Technology improvements with shaker screens and
centrifuges have somewhat lessened the need for
hydrocyclones at the rigsite. However, there are still
areas where hydrocyclones are very important.
Hydrocyclones convert fluid pressure into velocity and
centrifugal forces, allowing up to 300 g-forces internally.
Oilfield hydrocyclone sizes are typically available from 4
to 12 inches diameter, where the smaller the diameter,
the finer the particle size that can be removed.
Hydrocyclones are primarily utilized as desilters and
desanders. Desilters (4 diameter) can be mounted over
the top of a shale shaker (commonly referred to as a
mud cleaner) and are capable of a +20 m separation.
Desanders (10 to 12 diameter) on the other hand, are
typically used in a stand-alone set up and are capable of
a separation of up to approximately +74 m.
In unweighted water base muds, hydrocyclones are a
cost-effective method of removing fine solids that
cannot be removed by shale shakers outfitted with API
100 mesh or coarser screens. As hydrocyclones will
remove silt sized particles (e.g. barite), it is not advisable
to utilize with fluid weights above 12 lb/gal for
desanders/desilters without a mud cleaner. The devices
will strip out valuable weighting agents as well as discard
large quantities of whole mud. This may not be
economical unless there is a desire to reduce the mud
weight.
Expected feed rates will vary by vendor, but typically
range from 50 to 75 gpm per cone for desilters, to
approximately 500 gpm per cone for desanders. Most
hydrocyclone manufacturers specify 75 feet of head
pressure, which equates to 3.9 times the mud weight as
derived in the following formula:
p = 0.434 (feet of head) (fluid S.G.)
where p is the feed line (head) pressure in psig
Additionally, hydrocyclones should be sized to process
120% of the maximum expected mud flow rate (Figure
8-7).


Figure 8-7: Hydrocyclone setup

For a 10 lb/gal mud, the feed line pressure gauge should
read 39 psig for 75 feet of head. If the pressure is not
obtained, there are several adjustments that can be
made in order to be more closely matched with the
manufacturers recommended head pressure:
Adjust plumbing to remove unnecessary elbows,
tees and valves
Check centrifugal pump/impeller for system
compatibility and wear
Remove cones until correct head pressure is
achieved (be sure to plug opening)
Check centrifugal pump/impeller for proper
impeller sizing
The solid/liquid portion spiraling downward and out of
the cone (underflow) should have a spray or umbrella
shaped discharge indicating the cone is not loaded. The
inside stream moving up at a high velocity, toward the
overflow, will suck air with the stream in the vortex
portion of the hydrocyclone, causing a slight vacuum to
occur at the center of the cone.
Rope discharge may occur when the solids concentration
of the fluid being processed is higher than what the
hydrocyclone can process, which can lead to plugging.
Corrective action for rope discharge consists of opening
up the underflow and ensuring that the discharge
opening is free and clear of obstructions. Reoccurring
issues with rope discharge are indicative that the solids
loading to the hydrocyclone needs to be reduced, by
means of increasing the number of cones in the desilter
bank and/or by using finer mesh screens on the shale
shaker.

Centrifuges
An oilfield decanting centrifuge is a separation device
which utilizes g-force to enhance the settling of particles
from liquid and is capable of removing all solids larger
than 10m, based on the settling principle of Stokes Law.
Unlike a shale shaker, centrifuge separation is based
primarily on density, not particle size. However, the
centrifuge, like all other pieces of solids control
equipment, is limited to a certain feed rate as well as the
percent of solids discharge allowed in the effluent before
plugging begins. Therefore, placing equipment upstream
of the centrifuge to remove larger solids will allow the
centrifuge to remove a larger percentage of smaller
solids closer to the 10m range.
A centrifuge (Figure 8-8) separates solids from liquid fed
into a bowl; rotating at a high speed by imparting high
centrifugal forces (1,000 g-forces minimum
recommended) on the solids laden mud system.


Figure 8-8: Centrifuge cutout diagram

The feed stream is pumped into the vertical center of the
conveyor via an inlet feed tube. The mud exits the feed
tube and enters an acceleration chamber housed inside
the conveyor, then exits the chamber through feed ports
and enters the bowl area. At this point, the slurry is
exposed to high g-forces created by the rotation of the
bowl, where the high g-forces cause sedimentation of
the feed stream solids. The rotating conveyor has flights
similar to the threads of an auger where the solids are
transported up the conical section of the bowl and out of
the liquid. The gear box causes the conveyor to rotate at
a slightly slower speed than the bowl. The torque needed
to turn the conveyor is carried through the gear box and
emerges at the shaft. The shaft is held by a shear pin or
other safety device so that excess torque will not be
applied to the gearbox or conveyor. The relatively dry
solids continue out of the bowl. The cleaned liquid is
decanted off through epicentric ports at the opposite
end.
There are three major categories for centrifuges and
they are identified by the height of the bowl; small (<14
diameter), medium (15 16 diameter) and large (>16
diameter) bowls. A centrifuge is capable of processing
only a fraction of the total mud system volume. In
general, the larger the centrifuge bowl, the more
throughput volume can be processed. The flow that each
centrifuge can process varies with solids loading/mud
weight, as well as the target percent solids removal
desired. The average volume throughput capacity for a
small bowl centrifuge is 10 to 90 gpm, a medium bowl is
30 to 140 gpm and a large bowl is 60 to 180 gpm when
processing fluid densities from 16.0 lb/gal down to 8.34
lb/gal, respectively. Fluid densities greater than 16.0
lb/gal contain too high a concentration of insoluble
solids for the centrifuge to process. In time, the solids
drop out of the mud at a much faster rate than the scroll
can displace; leading to plugging or fusing of the scroll to
the bowl.
Centrifuges are utilized in various configurations, namely
as single or dual stage. For centrifugation to be
successful, it is advisable to utilize a minimum of API 140
mesh screens upstream at the shaker. In single stage,
the centrifuge processes a portion of mud and is used to
remove solids that pass through the shaker and/or
hydrocyclone.
Single stage centrifugation with weighted WBMs will
typically involve a single centrifuge where the solids
laden effluent is discarded and replaced with clean fluid
comingled with the solids collected in the underflow.
Dual stage, or barite recovery mode, utilizes two
centrifuges in series. The first centrifuge removes barite
at lower g-forces (600 to 900) for a fluid with regular
rheological properties and the second centrifuge
removes low gravity drill solids.
Over time, centrifuges have evolved to be more oilfield
proof, allowing them to be able to be transported and
improve separation efficiency. However, problems still
arise where the centrifuge can arrive on location or be
utilized for a long period of time which reduces the
viability and centrifuge life. Some common problems are,
but not limited to, the following:
Bearing failure
Discharge plugging/bypassing
Wear of wetted parts (feed tube, solid discharge
inserts, flight strips)
Excess vibration
Scroll flight wear
Bowl/scroll fusion (pack-off)
Rolling plug
Wear of wetted parts
Through routine maintenance and running within
manufacturer specified guidelines, the above listed
issues can be mitigated. The centrifuge operates with
less mechanical error when shutdown and startup are
limited (reducing on/off times), such as with 6 to 8 hours
of daily run time versus on/off per hour. The bearings
should be lubricated according to manufacturer
specifications to eliminate overheating that could lead to
bearing failure (do not over lubricate), as well as be
protected from vibration or movement when in transport
(mainly with land applications).
Other potential problems can occur with incorrect feed
rates, excess solids and incorrect differential speed.
These issues can lead to numerous problems, ultimately
leading to centrifuge failure. Check with the
manufacturer to ensure proper maintenance and
operational guidelines and specifications.

Chapter 9: Material Transportation and Handling
CHAPTER 9: MATERIAL TRANSPORTATION
AND HANDLING

The need to transport and handle drilling fluids or fluid
products is common to all drilling operations. Materials
can be transported and handled by a number of different
methods. It is important to follow local regulations and
guidelines for material transportation and handling of
drilling fluids and products. The proper handling of
materials can increase efficiencies, reduce waste (both
packaging and product), and ensure the safety of
personnel who will be handling the materials.
Depending on the complexity of the operation and
capabilities of the rig, handling methods will vary by
project. Whether used for drilling, completion,
cementing, etc., materials may be available in bulk,
drummed, palletized or in big bags, i.e. 2,000 lb bulk
sacks. Each method of packaging will have advantages or
disadvantages, depending on the specific application and
local regulations. A thorough evaluation of the
operational needs, rig capabilities and logistics should be
done prior to determining the most appropriate
packaging in which to receive products.

Palletized Material
Most drilling fluid products are transported to the
wellsite on stacked and shrink wrapped pallets. This type
of method for material handling is the most common for
small or moderate quantities. However, there are several
HES concerns associated with palletized material,
including:
Manual handling Materials are supplied in sacks
of various weights and sizes, typically depending

on the bulk density and their usage
requirements. Because of their size and weight,
some of these materials are bulky and awkward
to move by hand. This could obviously result in
injury to the handler if proper safety precautions
are not followed; although the manual handling
of supplied sacks can be more manageable when
compared to drummed materials.
Material breakage & waste Unprotected
palletized material will often contain broken
sacks, especially on the corners where the
material may come into contact with material on
adjacent pallets during handling.
Packaging waste Each sack of material
contains packaging that must be disposed of.
Environmental liability Drummed material, in
particular, presents a huge potential for
environmental liability. Years after disposal in
landfills, residual materials left in drums could
subject Chevron to significant financial liability.

Drummed Materials
When a drilling rig does not have bulk liquid handling
facilities, it is common for the fluid additives to be
supplied in drums. Drums will come in various sizes,
depending on the type of material being transported.
Drum composition is usually steel, but molded plastic is
sometimes used, especially if the material is corrosive.
The disadvantages of drum use outweigh the
advantages.

Disadvantages include:
Manual handling Drums should not be manually
handled. Special handling precautions are
necessary and require alternate methods to add
the liquid to the system. Equipment that may be
necessary includes forklifts, drum slings, drum
pumps, overhead cranes, etc. Because of their
size and weight, drummed materials are more
difficult and awkward to move by hand than
sacked materials. This could result in injury to
the handler if proper safety precautions are not
followed.
Drum Disposal Typically, drums must be
washed out, rinsed, and crushed prior to
disposal. This cost can run close to $50 per
drum, including the disposal of the wash fluid.
Drum disposal should meet local regulations and
Chevron best practices.
Environmental The future economic liabilities
associated with landfills and disposal sites could
be very costly to Chevron. It is a well known
practice that when it comes to clean-up and
reclamation of these sites, the waste generator
with the largest financial resources will be held
responsible and will incur the largest expense for
the clean-up.

Regardless of how drummed material is handled, the
operation should be conducted safely and within the
Chevron Tenets of Operation.

Bulk Liquid Materials
The use of bulk liquid additives is becoming more
prevalent. New build rigs are making provisions in the
design stage to be able to efficiently handle liquid bulk
products. Existing rigs are undergoing modifications or
placing tanks on the top deck to allow the use of bulk

additives. There are a number of advantages to using
bulk materials, including:
Efficient Chemical Use The use of bulk material
eliminates left over partial drums. The expense
of partial drums can be three-fold; the material
has been purchased, it may then need to be
disposed of and the drum will separately need
disposal. The bottom line is, you only pay for the
material that is used.
Handling The handling of bulk materials is
much easier and safer than the handling of
drums. The number of crane lifts associated with
the use of bulk materials should be reduced over
that of drums.
Packaging Waste There is no packaging waste
associated with using bulk liquid material.
Environmental The potential environmental
liability associated with the use of drums is
eliminated.
There are a number of different vendors with a variety
of liquid bulk handling setups. Some use a prefabricated
manifold (Figure 9-1) that is designed into the rig when
built, while others utilize a portable manifold (Figure 9-
2). The type of manifold used will be dependent on the
needs and capabilities of the drilling rig.


Figure 9-1: Prefabricated manifold bulk liquid system (Courtesy
of Vortex Ventures)

Figure 9-2: Portable manifold bulk liquid system (Courtesy of
R & D Technologies)

Regardless of the type of manifold being used, the
transport of material to the rig is relatively standard.
Materials will be shipped to the rig in tote tanks (Figure
9-3), sometimes referred to as intermediate bulk
containers (IBCs). Typical materials transported and
used in tote tanks are emulsifiers for non-aqueous fluids
(NAFs) and spotting fluids for stuck pipe.

Figure 9-3: Tote tank

By definition, a tote tank or IBC is a container used for
the transport and storage of fluids and bulk materials.
The construction of the IBC container and the materials
used are chosen depending on the application, i.e. there
are various types available in the market:
Foldable (collapsible)
Plastic composite
Polycage
Steel
Stainless steel
Tote tanks range in size but are generally between 24
and 52 inches (610 mm and 1320 mm) in height. The
length and width of a tote tank are usually 42 inches and
48 inches (1067 mm and 1219 mm), respectively, but will
be dependent on the specific country's pallet dimension
standard. Depending upon the size, tote tank capacity
can be anywhere from 110 gallons to 550 gallons.
Common dimensions and capacities are listed Table 9-1.
Tote tanks should have pallet-like bases so that they can
be easily moved with forklifts and should be designed to
stack vertically.
Table 9-1: Common tote tank capacities and dimensions
Size Capacity Gallons/Inch
42 x 48 wide
24 high
110 gallons 8.57 gallons/inch
42 x 48 wide
30 high
42 x 48 wide
32 high
42 x 43 wide
42 high
42 x 48 wide
46 high
42 x 48 wide
51 high

Size Capacity Gallons/Inch
42 x 53 wide
63 high
42 x 48 wide
75 high
Table 9-1: Common tote tank capacities and dimensions
(continued)

It is recommended that tote tanks used for offshore
applications should meet minimum requirements such as
those outlined for offshore Gulf of Mexico (GoM) use
unless more stringent requirements are in place.

Bulk Bags
Some rigs have active fluid systems of 15,000 to 25,000
barrels, which require a large amount of chemical
additions on a daily basis. Fluid systems of this size
cannot be maintained through conventional methods,
such as utilization of 50 and 100 lb sacks. Therefore, bulk
bag systems are beneficial when the use of large
quantities of a material, in a relatively short period of
time, is anticipated. Materials such as salt for completion
fluids, bentonite when drilling surface hole, and barite
for major weight-ups are a few examples of when bulk
bags would be warranted. Bulk bags, depending upon the
bulk density of the material, can hold anywhere from
1400 lbs (lime) to 4000 lbs (barite) of product.
Common to all bulk bag systems is a support structure
that will hold a fully loaded bulk bag and a hopper
system to deliver material (Figure 9-4). Some systems
made for disposable bags have a spear to puncture the
bag and start the flow of material. Other systems have
an automated valve system which allows material to be
metered into the system.

Figure 9-4: Bulk bag handling system (Courtesy of Vortex
Ventures)

Bulk bag systems have a number of advantages:
Safety The potential for injury is reduced since
the handling of 50-100 lb sacks is eliminated.
There is minimal dust and chemical exposure to
personnel.

Handling The handling of dry bulk materials is
much easier as the number of crane lifts
associated with the use of bulk materials is
reduced. Materials are able to be mixed faster
with less manpower required to perform the
work.
Packaging Waste Packaging waste associated
with using dry bulk materials is reduced or even
eliminated. Most bulk bags are disposable,
although reusable bags are available. Bulk bag
use can eliminate the need to dispose of 40 to
80 paper sacks and the associated shrink wraps
and pallets.
Storage Products packaged in bulk bags have
fewer tendencies to leak or become damaged
when being transported or stored.

Some of the disadvantages are:
Depending on the bulk bag system used, partially
used bags may be difficult to handle.
Due to the size and handling requirements of
bulk bag systems (i.e. forklifts/cranes), they are
typically located on an upper deck. Often times,
due to limited deck space and load limitations,
bulk bag systems cannot be used.

Bulk bag systems have a number of safety issues that
should be recognized and addressed:
Sunlight and Heat - Bulk bags will rapidly
deteriorate with exposure to ultraviolet (UV)
light. When exposed to sunlight for several
months (~3), the bulk bag material will partially
degrade into a powder. Best practices dictate
that they are stored in the shade or covered with
a tarp. Additionally, the bag should be dated
when loaded. When the 3-month deadline is
approaching, the original bag should be picked
up and lowered into a new bag. The straps
should be cut off of the old bag and the current
date sprayed on the new bag, starting the next
3-month life span.
Lifting Strap Design - Some bulk bags have lifting
loops/straps sewn into the top of the bag. This
bag design is not the most desirable to employ. A
better design is one where the straps go around
and support the base of the bag.
Weight Lifts Safety Factors - Typical lift safety
factors are in the range of 5:1 to 6:1. It should be
noted that these safety factors will be reduced
under the following conditions:
o Extended exposure to ultraviolet light
o Normal wear due to handling
o Excessive lifts Move bags on pallets
when possible

Chapter 10: Common Drilling Fluid-Related Problems
CHAPTER 10: COMMON DRILLING FLUID-
RELATED PROBLEMS

During drilling operations, a number of drilling fluid-
related issues can arise. Some of these are specific to
the type of system being employed and others can occur
with any drilling mud. This chapter addresses some of
the most common and important issues, how they
impact operations, and how to prevent and mitigate
them. Lost circulation and stuck pipe account for a large
portion of fluids-related non-productive time (NPT), and
through better understanding of their mechanisms there
is an opportunity to improve drilling efficiency and
reduce costs. Barite sag is a topic of concern for
weighted fluids and requires proper planning to prevent.
Typical indications that allow for the detection and
treatment of barite sag will also be discussed. Wellbore
breathing is an often discussed, but not fully understood
phenomenon. Failure to distinguish it from other drilling
problems can lead to lost time. While not every fluids
related problem is covered in this section, this is an
attempt to cover four of the biggest sources of trouble.

Lost Circulation
Lost circulation, or lost returns, is the partial or total loss
of circulating fluid from the wellbore to the formation. It
is the loss of whole fluid, not simply filtrate, to the
formation. Losses can result from either natural or
induced causes and can range from a few barrels per
hour to hundreds of barrels within minutes. Lost
circulation is one of drillings biggest expenses in terms
of rig time and safety. Uncontrolled lost circulation can
result in a dangerous pressure control situation and loss
of the well. Additionally, losses into a reservoir formation

can damage productivity by displacing native fluids,
changing wettability and blocking pore throats with
drilled solids.
The frequency and severity of natural and induced losses
vary around the world and are dependent on both the
geology and the drilling conditions. As the industry
continues to develop existing fields, more drilling takes
place through zones depleted by prior production,
making losses more frequent and problematic.
Lost circulation can be broadly classified into two major
categories based on the cause of the loss:
Natural losses occur in formations with natural
permeability, usually voids or fractures.
Induced losses occur in an induced fracture,
caused when hydraulic forces within the
wellbore exceed the formation strength.

Natural Losses
Natural losses can occur within three formation types:
Losses into high matrix permeability formations
(gravels and coarse sands)
Formations with conductive natural fractures or
faults
Vugular or cavernous formations

Matrix Permeability
High permeability formations are encountered as a
matter of course in drilling. Formations with matrix
permeability which result in lost circulation include
mainly shallow coarse sands, gravels and micro-
fractured carbonates.
The key to solving losses to matrix permeability is to first
bridge the largest openings in the formation with rigid
granular LCM materials, and second, seal the bridged
opening with deformable fibrous and flaked LCM
materials. Effective bridging agents must be sized to
match the matrix pore openings.

Natural Fractures
Naturally occurring fractures and faults can be found in
any type of formation. They are commonly found in
tectonically disturbed areas surrounding salt domes and
along mountain fronts. In such areas, it is generally
accepted that lost circulation is a matter of fact and
preparations to handle such problems are made a
standard part of drilling plans. Natural fractures can be
widened by excessive hydraulic pressure. They then
behave as induced fractures.

Vugular/Cavernous Formations
Vugular or cavernous structures form as portions of the
formation and are dissolved or decomposed over
geologic time. The voids generally form in dolomite or
limestone formations and can range in size from small
worm-hole networks to extremely large caverns.
Poorly compacted, buried reefs may also contain large
conductive voids. Lost circulation which occurs in a
cavernous formation can be the most difficult type to
overcome. The size of the voids and the total volume can
make it difficult to bridge the opening or fill the voids
with any lost circulation material pill or cement plug. In
addition, these voids often exist filled with water or
hydrocarbons which can interfere with certain remedial
techniques.

Losses to caverns are generally very large and are
frequently preceded by drilling breaks as the bit drops
through the void. Losses to caverns require either filling
the entire void or plugging the cavern near the wellbore,
a task that can range from very difficult to nearly
impossible. In many cases, drilling through a cavern will
require either tolerating the loss or using an alternative
technique, such as air drilling or mud-cap drilling.

Induced Losses
Induced losses result from the creation and extension of
fractures by the drilling operation. Induced fractures
result when the equivalent circulating density (ECD) of
the drilling fluid exceeds the fracture gradient. This
causes the formation to part, opening a fracture. Unlike
natural losses which first occur at the bit, induced
fractures occur in the weakest exposed formation.
Induced fractures happen when the ECD is increased,
while weighting up, tripping, drilling too fast, or as the
result of a mud ring or other situation causing a
temporary pressure surge that breaks down a weak
formation. The location of the fracture is often closer to
the casing shoe than the hole bottom. This attribute of
induced fractures complicates the identification of the
loss zone and the placement of materials designed to
combat the problem.
Because fracture gradient changes with rock type, some
formations are more sensitive to induced fractures than
others. Depending upon depth, the fractures created will
either be horizontal or vertical. If the depth is 2500 feet
or less, horizontal fractures are usually produced. At
depths over 3500 feet, fractures are usually vertical.
Because horizontal fractures require lifting the entire
overburden, they are typically limited to shallow depths.
Vertical fractures occur without lifting the overburden,
and they can be created at much lower pressures over
the fracture pressure.
Depending upon the situation, natural and induced
fractures are easily extended and difficult to seal without
reducing the hydrostatic pressure. The propagation
pressure is generally much less than the pressure that
would be required to initiate the fracture. Consequently,
fracture losses, once initiated, are difficult to control.
Induced fracturing is probably the most troublesome
because it can occur in almost any formation type. It is
more difficult to control or prevent fluid losses to
induced fractures because, as the fracture extends or
reopens, any seal that may have been formed is
destroyed.

Fracture Initiation
Induced fractures are created by excessive pressure in
the annulus and occur most often when weighting-up,
tripping, drilling too fast or killing a kick. High fluid
weight, excessive ROP, surge pressures, and annular
restrictions contribute to this problem. The drilling fluid
density should not be greater than that required to
control formation pressures. The ROP should be
controlled at a rate which keeps the ECD below the
fracture pressure by a safe level.
A good practice to follow, prior to making a bit trip, is to
circulate bottoms-up prior to stopping circulation.
Particularly after fast drilling, the fluid will be loaded
with cuttings which increase fluid density, rheological
properties, and static gellation, thus, increasing the
pressure required to break circulation, as well as
increasing the potential for lost circulation when tripping
into the hole. The use of successive, thin turbulent and
viscous sweeps improves the cuttings removal

efficiency, particularly in deviated and horizontal
wellbores.
Excessive pipe running speeds should be avoided.
Maximum safe pipe running speeds should be
established. Frequent circulation breaks when going into
the hole can reduce circulation initiation pressure, and
the drillpipe should be rotated just prior to breaking
circulation. This movement will reduce fluid gel strength,
thus reducing the pressure required to break circulation.
The last few joints of drillpipe should be circulated down
to wash any accumulated cuttings from the hole bottom.

Fracture Propagation
Propagation occurs when the high pressure conditions
that originally caused the fracture to occur are not
corrected. Every effort should be made to reduce
downhole hydraulic pressure and seal the fracture with
proper treatment. While squeezes may aggravate the
situation by forcing the fracture to open further, they
deposit LCM within the fracture. Once the squeeze
pressure is relaxed, the fracture can close and seal on
the LCM.
Once a fracture has been sealed, it should be protected
from being reopened by keeping the hydrostatic
pressure as low as is safely possible. If the fracture is
reopened, the seal is broken and must be re-established
to prevent further fluid losses.

Preventing Drilling Induced Fractures
Both fracture initiation and propagation can be
minimized by reducing the pressure that the formation is
exposed to from the drilling fluid in the annulus. This can
be done by:
Reducing mud weight
Reducing annular pressure losses by thinning the
drilling fluid or reducing the pump rate
Improving hole cleaning
Controlling ROP
Reducing annular restrictions and balling
However, no action of this type should be undertaken
without considering its effect on other functions. For
example, if the cause of the surge is poor hole cleaning,
thinning the drilling fluid may not be the best solution to
implement.

Severity of Loss
The severity of the loss can be an important indicator of
not only the type of treatment required, but also the size
of the treatment. Numerous lost circulation remedies
have failed simply because the treatment size did not
match the severity of the loss. The industry has a
convention that quantifies losses according to severity,
ranked by the loss rate while circulating. Table 10-1 lists a
classification according to loss rate.
Note: Non-aqueous fluids (NAFs) are more expensive
and their lost circulation problems are more difficult to
solve, therefore, lower loss rates are used.
Volume Severity Formation Type
< 25 WBM (< 10 NAF) Seepage Porous, permeable sands
25 to 100 WBM
(10 to 30 NAF)
Partial Coarse sands and gravels
> 100 WBM (> 30 NAF) Severe Cavernous or vugular formations
Table 10-1: Loss rate classification (units are barrels per hour)

Treatment of Lost Circulation: Planning and
Preparation
Proper planning is important to the success of resolving
lost circulation problems expediently. Not only does a
variety and sufficient quantity of specialty products need
to be in the rig inventory, but local stock points should
be aware of their required inventory. A minimum rig
inventory of products for use in combating lost
circulation should be established at the outset. Logistics
should be considered in each case.
Rig crews need to be trained to respond to losses
correctly. Otherwise, losses of sometimes expensive
drilling fluid can become excessive. A list of instructions
should be posted such that each crew member is aware
of their individual responsibility. The crews should be
well versed in the type of equipment and any special
configurations that may be necessary to address the
situation. Spud meetings should be held to address the
responsibility of each member of the crew, plus any fluid
loggers and fluid engineers that will be assigned to the
well.
Any special equipment requirements such as tanks, lines,
pumps, etc. should be determined. Storage facilities for
premixed slurries (pills or squeezes) should be available
to minimize rig time losses. Hole surveying equipment
(e.g. temperature recording, spinner survey) should be
available to locate the loss zone if necessary.
It is very important to consider the bit nozzle sizes and
downhole tools when choosing LCM types and
concentrations. Most measurement while drilling (MWD)
and logging while drilling (LWD) tools are rated for a
maximum LCM size and at times by concentration.
Failure to consider these bottlenecks may result in
damaged tools, plugged bit nozzles and the necessity to
trip out of the hole.
Guidelines for Restoring Circulation
1. Determine the loss rate and record the
characteristics of the loss (Is loss associated with an
increase in ECD, increase/decrease in ROP, change
in formation, crossing a fault? Is it sensitive to ECD
or pump rate? Is this the first loss or a reoccurring
loss?). Maintain and review a record of previous lost
circulation events and treatment effectiveness.
2. Determine the most probable cause or type of loss.
3. Determine the most likely location of the loss zone.
4. Choose a treatment and volume matched to the type
and rate of the loss.
5. Apply the treatment adjacent to the loss zone using
the best possible spotting technique.
6. Consider tripping to remove small nozzles and using
a cementing pump if this will permit a better suited
remediation technique.
7. Make sure a blend of sizes and materials is used to
totally seal and cure losses once a bridge or plug is
established.
8. Keep pipe moving while dealing with lost circulation
to prevent differentially stuck pipe.
9. Make sure treatments which must be cured are
allowed enough time to set up.
10. If circulation is not restored, progress in an orderly
manner to the next more potent remedy.
11. If circulation cannot be restored, proceed to an
alternative drilling technique which tolerates the lost
circulation situation, such as floating mud cap,
drilling blind, flow drilling, aerated mud, foam, or
air/gas drilling.

The following recommendations are generalized for all
geographic locations and should be evaluated for use in
a particular area based on the individual situation. The
products listed are generally the most effective size and
type and can be changed for a similar material
depending on what is available.

Seepage Losses (< 25 bbl/hr WBM or <10 bbl/hr NAF)
Note: For seepage losses in the production interval,
calcium carbonate is the recommended LCM due to its
acid solubility. Rock wool or cellulose fibers, used in
conjunction with calcium carbonate, are also acceptable.
1. Reduce mud weight and ECD, if possible.
2. Mix LCM and drill ahead:
Mix 5 to 10 sacks per hour fine LCM for 2+
circulations. Mica is recommended, or it may be
substituted with any one of the following; cellulose,
nut shells, LCM blend, or calcium carbonate (medium
d50 35 to 50 microns). If seepage continues,
increase LCM particle size and quantity, and use a
blend of materials. Mix 10 to 20 sacks per hour of a
combination of medium nut shells, fine cellulose and
fine mica for 2+ circulations. Should seepage
continue, change shaker screens to coarse (such as
API 20) mesh and treat entire system with 15 to 25
lb/bbl fine LCM blend mica, nut shells, and cellulose
(or use sacked LCM blend).
Note: If the drilling fluid is unweighted and/or
contains little bentonite or fluid loss control
additives, mix 4 to 8 sacks per hour of fine calcium
carbonate and 1 to 2 sacks per hour bentonite.
3. Spot LCM pill, pull up and wait:
If seepage continues and is unacceptable, spot pill on
bottom and pull up and wait two to four hours. Pill
should contain 25 to 50 lb/bbl medium LCM blend
mica, nut shells, and cellulose (or use sacked LCM
blend); with WBM, use >20 lb/bbl bentonite. Also,
spot LCM pills in open hole prior to trips.
4. Use techniques for partial losses:
If seepage continues and is unacceptable, continue
with treatments described for partial losses.

Partial Losses (25 to 100 bbl/hr WBM or 10 to 30 bbl/hr
NAF)
Natural Loss Zones
1. Reduce mud weight and ECD, if possible. Drill slower,
reduce circulation rate and rheology (be sure to still
provide adequate hole cleaning), trip in hole slower,
break circulation while rotating and working pipe,
etc. Evaluate and eliminate any annular restrictions
which may be causing an imposed annular pressure,
such as balling of bit / BHA, mud rings, cuttings beds,
etc.
2. Mix LCM and drill ahead.
3. Change shaker screens to coarse mesh and treat
entire system with 15 to 25 lb/bbl fine LCM blend;
mica, nut shells, and cellulose (or use sacked LCM
blend).
Note: If the drilling fluid is unweighted and/or
contains little bentonite or fluid loss control
additives, also mix 4 to 8 sacks per hour fine calcium
carbonate and 1 to 2 sacks per hour bentonite.

If partial losses continue, spot pill on bottom and pull
up and wait 2 to 4 hours. Pill should contain 25 to 50
lb/bbl medium LCM blend (for WBM use >20 lb/bbl
bentonite), 10 to 30 lb/bbl medium and coarse nut
shells, 5 to 15 lb/bbl fine mica, and 3 to 10 lb/bbl fine
cellulose (or use sacked LCM blend). Also, spot LCM
pill in open hole prior to trips.
If partial losses continue, spot larger volume viscous
pill using larger particle size LCM. Spot on bottom
and pull up and wait 2 to 4 hours.
Pill should contain 35 to 70 lb/bbl medium and
coarse LCM blend (for WBM, use >20 lb/bbl
bentonite), 20 to 40 lb/bbl coarse nut shells, 10 to 20
lb/bbl coarse mica, and 5 to 10 lb/bbl medium
5. Spot settable plug:
Select settable plug based on static loss rate,
required plug strength and differential pressure, and
formation type as described in Figure 10-1 and in the
Settable Plugs section later in this chapter. Widely
applicable, effective, treatments would be diesel oil,
bentonite, and two parts cement (DOB2C) and
activated latex for fractures and vugular zones, or
crosslinked polymers with LCM (such as X-LINK,
POLY-PLUG and BLEN SQUEEZE for matrix losses).
6. Use techniques for severe losses. If partial losses
keep occurring, continue with treatments as
described for severe losses.

Induced Fracture Loss Zones
reduce circulation rate and rheology (be sure to
maintain adequate hole cleaning), trip in hole slower,
break circulation while rotating and working pipe,
etc. Evaluate and eliminate any annular restrictions
which may be causing an imposed annular pressure,
such as balling of bit / BHA, mud rings, cuttings beds,
etc.

Spot LCM pill adjacent to the most probable loss
zone (weakest shale below the casing shoe) and pull
up and wait four to six hours.
coarse nut shells or coarse and extra-coarse calcium
carbonate. Also, spot pills prior to trips.
If partial losses continue, spot a larger volume pill
using a blend of LCM. Spot on bottom and pull up
and wait 4 to 6 hours.
bentonite), 20 to 40 lb/bbl medium and coarse nut
shells, 10 to 20 lb/bbl coarse mica, and 5 to 10 lb/bbl
medium cellulose (or use sacked LCM blend). Also,
spot LCM pill in open hole prior to trips.
3. Spot and squeeze a high fluid loss pill:
If partial losses continue and are unacceptable, use
(DIASEAL M
TM
), attapulgite, or other high fluid loss pill
spotted adjacent to the most probable loss zone
(weakest shale below below the casing shoe) and use
the hesitation squeeze method to develop and hold
pressure.
If high fluid loss squeeze holds for a period of time
and then breaks down, use high fluid loss pill, like
DIASEAL M, formulated with cement and LCM spotted
adjacent to the most probable loss zone (weakest
shale below the casing shoe) and use the hesitation
squeeze method to develop and hold pressure. When

adding cement to a high fluid loss squeeze, use only
the normal amount of DIASEAL M, and use 1 to 1.4
sacks cement and 20 lb/bbl of conventional LCM like
medium nut shells.

For NAF systems, use oil or synthetic base DIASEAL M

squeeze first, then try water base DIASEAL M
squeeze, being careful to keep it isolated from the
main system with spacers.

4. Spot settable plug:
Select settable plug based on static loss rate,
required plug strength and differential pressure, and
applicable effective treatments would be in DOB2C,
thixotropic cement and activated latex.
5. Use techniques for severe losses:
If partial losses continue and are unacceptable,
continue with treatments described for severe
losses.

Severe Losses (>100 bbl/hr WBM or >30 bbl/hr NAF)
Note: The techniques used for fighting severe losses
are not effective unless they are placed adjacent to the
loss zone. For this reason, it is especially important to
correctly evaluate the location of the loss zone.
reduce circulation rate and rheology (be sure to
maintain adequate hole cleaning), trip in hole slower
and break circulation while rotating and working
pipe, etc. Evaluate and eliminate any annular
restrictions which may be causing an imposed
annular pressure, such as balling of bit/BHA, mud
rings, cuttings beds, etc.
Spot large volume viscous pill using coarse LCM
blend. Spot on bottom and pull up and wait 2 to 4
hours.
bentonite), 20n to 40 lb/bbl COARSE nut shells, 10 to
20 lb/bbl coarse mica, and 5 to 19 lb/bbl medium
3. Spot special lost circulation pill:
Natural Loss Zones
Select settable plug based on static loss rate.
Required plug strength and differential pressure, and
applicable effective treatments would be DOB2C and
activated latex for fractures and vugs, or crosslinked
polymers with LCM (such as X-LINK, ULTRA-SEAL,
POLY-PLUG and BLEN SQUEEZE for matrix losses).
Induced Fractures
Spot and squeeze a high fluid loss slurry, such as
Diaseal M or attapulgite adjacent to the most likely
loss zone (weakest shale below the casing shoe). Use
the hesitation squeeze method to develop and hold
pressure. Unless the loss occurred in conjunction
with a change in ROP, which would identify the loss
zone, do not assume the loss zone is on the bottom.
If the high fluid loss pill fails, proceed to a settable
plug selected from Figure 10-1 and in the Settable
Plugs section later in this chapter. Widely applicable
effective treatments would be DOB2C, activated
latex, and resin-coated sand for induced fractures.


4. Spot hard pill:
If severe losses continue, spot hard pill such as
DOB2C, magnesium cement, resin-coated sand, latex,
silicate/cement, etc.
5. Use alternative drilling technique:
If severe losses continue and are unacceptable, use
alternative techniques which tolerate the problem
and allow drilling to continue. These alternative
techniques include: floating mud cap, drilling blind,
aerated mud, foam, mist and air drilling.
6. Set casing or a liner once the loss zone has been
completely drilled.

Settable Plugs
The term settable plugs is used here to describe lost
circulation techniques which use slurries that gel or
solidify to seal a loss zone. These types of slurries
include crosslinked polymers, cements, gunk pills (like
diesel oil and bentonite (DOB), diesel oil, bentonite, and
cement (DOBC), sodium silicate-calcium chloride, latex-
calcium chloride, resin-BENGUM, and FLEX PLUG),
coated sand type slurries. Not included in the settable
plug category are conventional LCM, barite plugs, and
high fluid loss squeezes like DIASEAL M.
The determination of which of these settable plugs
should be used is not simple and depends on a number of
factors. The most universally applicable settable slurries
are the gunk type DOBC and DOB. When spotting gunk
type slurry, the pumping ratio should be started at a high
ratio of mud-to-gunk for about half of the volume to
allow the slurry to invade the formation. It should then
be changed to a lower ratio of mud-to-gunk to provide a
higher viscosity to stop the loss.
The most important factors when selecting a settable
plug are the non-circulating static loss rate and the plug
strength required. The following discussion and Figure
10-1 are intended to help determine which of these
materials is most applicable to a given situation.

Figure 10-1: Decision chart for selecting a settable plug

Static Loss Rate and Mud Contamination
Many of the settable plug slurries are not effective and
will not set up if they are contaminated with mud,
especially NAF. For this reason, it is important to
evaluate the non-circulating static loss rate to
determine if mud contamination is probable. With high

static losses, it is important to slow the loss rate when
spotting a slurry so that it is not washed away by
subsequent losses. Two techniques which work best with
high static loss rates are, 1) gunk type slurries placed
with variable ratio pumping schedules or 2) a two-slurry
spotting technique where one slurry, like silicate or LCM,
is intended to slow the losses and the other slurry, like
cement, is designed to form an effective long lasting
seal.
Slurries that would not work well with high losses while
being placed or once placed include crosslinked polymer
slurries and conventional cements. Settable slurries
which can tolerate a moderate degree of contamination
include magnesium based cements, silicate or latex
slurries activated by calcium chloride, resin coated sand,
and thixotropic cements. Settable slurries which are
most effective in situations with high non-circulating
static losses are gunk slurries and combinations of
silicate or latex followed by cement.

Differential Pressure and Plug Strength
Many of these settable plugs do not develop high
strength or withstand high differential pressure. Many of
these products may work initially, but will fail if exposed
to high differential pressure.
Crosslinked polymer plugs form a soft rubber-like
strength and would be good choices for partial and
matrix losses, but will fail if exposed to high differential
pressures. Gunk type slurries vary in strength from low
strength DOB to higher strength BENGUM and FLEX PLUG
to very strong DOBC. Silicate pills do not exhibit
resistance to differential pressure, while latex pills
provide good plug strength. Cements have high plug
strength but are difficult to place, especially when static
loss rates are high.

Treatment Preparation
Many lost circulation materials require specialized
mixing procedures. Contact the supplier before using the
material to obtain the detailed mixing instructions.
Follow the instructions precisely. Certain standard
procedures apply in almost every lost circulation case.
These include:
1. Identifying the type, location, and severity of the
loss.
2. Reviewing the field history to determine what has
worked in the past.
3. Selecting the treatment type.
4. Verifying the hole volume, bit nozzle sizes and
maximum LCM concentration for downhole
equipment.
5. Estimating the volume of material to be pumped.
6. Identifying the need and availability of materials,
tanks and other equipment that may be necessary to
prepare spacers and LCM pills.
7. Ensuring that any additional equipment required
(e.g. pumping units, proportional blenders) is on
location and in operating condition.
8. Thoroughly cleaning the mixing tanks to prevent
contamination. Purging the mixing equipment and
lines of unwanted fluids prior to mixing.
9. Ensuring that the prepared lost circulation pill is
isolated from the rest of the drilling fluid system
until use.

Upon approaching a known loss zone, a separate mixing
pit should be kept available for mixing pills and slugs. If
the anticipated loss will be severe, a pit capacity of at
least 100 barrels is required. A pre-mixed slurry with up
to 80 lb/ bbl LCM should be prepared and kept agitated
in the pit.

Treatment Placement
Many treatments will require specialized pumping
procedures. The service company should be contacted
for detailed instructions on the placement of the
material. That being said, certain procedures can apply
to almost every situation. These include the following:
1. Review the placement requirements of the
treatment.
2. Prepare a plan to implement the placement
procedure.
a. Establish how the material will be delivered
downhole (i.e. by a pumping unit or with the rig
equipment) and rig up.
b. If mixing on the fly is required, establish how
that will be done and the rates at which it will
occur.
c. Determine if fluid other than that required to
keep the hole full will be pumped from the
surface into the annulus and rig up as needed.
Prepare to squeeze.
3. Once the placement has begun:
a. Continue until the LCM is completely displaced
from the drillpipe. Count pump strokes.
b. Monitor surface volumes for changes. Any
changes should correlate to the volume of
material pumped (as indicated by pump strokes).
c. Monitor pipe and casing pressures to reduce the
possibility of induced losses and to verify the
displacement of the LCM from the pipe.
4. Squeeze as recommended by the supplier of the
product or technical specialist.
5. Pull the drillpipe clear of the calculated top of the pill
by at least 100 bbls of hole volume or pull into
casing.
6. Wait the required time for the treatment to react
and take effect.
7. When the hole stands full, pressure the annulus to
50 psi. If the pressure holds, slowly increase the
pressure to the equivalent of 1.0 lb/gal over the mud
weight at the loss zone. If the annulus will not hold
pressure, try another pill.
8. Maintain the pressure for 2 to 3 hours.
9. If the pressure holds, circulate the hole. If it doesnt,
try another pill with a larger size and higher
concentration of LCM.
10. Wash or drill out.
11. Depending upon the LCM composition, the residue
will either have to be diverted and removed from the
circulating system or incorporated into the drilling
fluid.

Reasons for Failure to Cure Lost Circulation
The most common reasons for failing to cure lost
circulation are:

1. The location of the loss zone is not correctly
identified. Improperly placed corrective measures
fail to reach the zone or are diluted below effective
levels before the zone is reached. If repeated
treatments are not effective and the loss zone is not
known definitively, run a survey to determine the
loss zone.
2. Methods and techniques are not systematically
matched to the type cause and severity of the loss
zone.
3. The appropriate remedy is not applied quickly
enough.
4. Records describing the details of the loss and the
materials and techniques applied are not kept. Each
occurrence and lessons learned should be
documented in a systematic manner. Lost circulation
records and detailed reports on an individual well or
experiences within an area are invaluable for
developing an appropriate remedy.
5. The pill or plug was contaminated by mud,
preventing proper setting. Balanced column methods
and special plug spotting techniques should be used
for all remedies which are adversely affected by mud
or formation fluids.
6. The squeeze pressure for the remedy was too high;
induced fractures were formed in a weak formation.
The imposed surface pressure plus the hydrostatic
pressure should not exceed the overburden pressure
of ~1.0 psi/ft.
7. Pumping ratios wrong for gunk. For gunk-type
slurries, the pumping ratio of mud-to-gunk is critical
to obtaining loss zone penetration, then sufficient
viscosity to stop the loss so that plug strength can
develop.
8. Reluctance to use nonstandard remedies such as
soft or hard plugs, high fluid loss squeeze
techniques, or to drilling blind through the loss zone
and setting pipe.

Lost Circulation Workflows
Appendix 10-1, on page 209, provides guidance for
determining the type of loss zone which is essential for
determining the most likely location of the loss zone.
Appendix 10-2, on page 210, provides guidance for
resolving lost circulation. It is based upon standard
industry practices and focuses on generic technology.
While every lost circulation problem may not be cured by
following the chart, it provides a starting point for the
immediate treatment of the problem.

Stuck Pipe
Stuck pipe during drilling operations can occur for a
variety of reasons such as hole collapse, inadequate hole
cleaning, pulling the pipe into an under-gauge hole or by
differential sticking. Regardless of the reason, failure to
remedy stuck pipe will result in the necessity to part the
drillpipe. At this point, fishing can be attempted, but
most often, cementing and a sidetrack are necessary.
Obviously, stuck pipe should be avoided as much as
possible and treated to prevent expensive non-
productive time. The primary indication of stuck pipe is
the inability to move the drillstring. This is usually
associated with the inability to rotate the pipe, and often
circulation is difficult or impossible. Simply using the
maximum over-pull to try and free the pipe is often
counterproductive, resulting in a thoroughly stuck pipe
which would require a side track. It is important to use
good drilling practices to avoid stuck pipe, and if stuck,

determine the cause and apply the appropriate remedial
procedures. While stuck, it is important to try and retain
the ability to circulate and keep pipe mobility, as this will
allow most of the effective remedial actions to take
place.
The most common causes of stuck pipe can be broken
down into two general categories: differential sticking
and mechanical:
Differential pressure sticking (wall sticking)
Mechanical
o Keyseating
o Wellbore geometry
o Formation-related wellbore instability
o Inadequate hole cleaning

Differential Pressure Sticking
Differential pressure sticking is caused by a higher
pressure in the annular fluid than the formation pore
space. The result of this imbalance is the tendency for
fluid to be drawn into the formation. This flow also pulls
drillstring components to the borehole wall. This action
can only happen in the presence of a porous and
permeable formation. Most drilling fluid formulations
include components designed to build a filter cake on the
borehole wall. One effect of this is to prevent hydraulic
communication between the annular fluid and formation
fluid. As a result, a perfect, impermeable filter cake will
eliminate the risk of differential stuck pipe.
Unfortunately, this is rarely achieved in practice due to
factors such as poor filtration control, thick filter cake,
mechanical removal of the filter cake through pipe
movement, and the time required to form the filter cake
after drilling new formation.
Differential pressure sticking is usually indicated when
the pipe cannot be rotated or reciprocated but full
circulation at normal pressure can be established.
Conditions contributing to the likelihood of differential
pressure sticking are:
High formation permeability
High positive differential pressure
Hole angle
Poor mud filtration properties
The relative geometry of the pipe and the
wellbore
Period of time the drillstring remains immobile
The degree of drill collar stabilization
(Configuration of drill collars may also be
important.)
Poor particle size distribution in the mud leading
to formation of a thick, high permeability filter
cake
Stuck pipe from differential sticking, unlike being
mechanically stuck, usually cannot be removed by
working the pipe free. Differentially stuck pipe will
normally require the spotting of specialized fluids across
the problem zone to aid in freeing the pipe. If the
spotting fluid is not successful, then a washover job may
be required to free the pipe.
The force (pull) needed to free a differentially stuck pipe
is given by:

where p is the pressure differential between the
annular fluid and the pore pressure, A is the contact area
between the drillstring and filter cake, and f is the

friction factor of the drillstring-filter cake interface.
Preventative and remedial measures center on lowering
the values of p, A, and f.

Prevention of Differential Sticking
Drill with mud density as low as practical
(reduces p)
Maintain a good, thin compressible filter cake
(reduces reduces p, A, and f)
Keep hole as straight as possible (reduces A)
Keep solids content of mud as low as possible
(reduces p, A, and f)
Keep static drillstring time to a minimum
(reduces f, the static f is higher than the dynamic
f)
Use lubricants (reduces f)
Avoid long strings of large drill collars (reduces
A)
Use stabilizers or spiral drill collars (reduces A)
Use a NAF (reduces f)
From a drilling fluid design standpoint, two of the most
important things to focus on are the formation of a good
filter cake and mud weight. The parameter typically used
as an indicator of good filter cake quality is a low
filtration rate. An often overlooked point regarding low
filtration rates is the effect of temperature and pressure.
Low API filtrate values do not necessarily mean that
filtration rates will be low downhole at increased
temperature and pressure. The drilling fluid should be
tested routinely at elevated temperatures and pressures
to determine filter cake compressibility. The high
temperature high pressure (HTHP) fluid loss test is
recommended for this. When drilling through potentially
problematic zones, care should be taken to maintain the
mud weight at the low end of the acceptable range and
by not allowing it to drift higher.
Remedial Measures for Differential Sticking
In spite of all precautions, stuck pipe still occurs. It is
often possible to free the stuck pipe through one of the
following common methods:
Working/jarring it loose, applying torque and
tension to try to work the pipe free
Reduction of hydrostatic pressure by spotting or
u-tubing a column of fluid of lower density than
the muds in use, such as water or oil
Spotting a pill designed to reduce the friction
between the drillstring and filter cake
Determine the stuck point and spot a diesel oil
(or other environmentally-friendly oil) pill or
surfactant and leave in place to soak for some
time (These pills break up the filter cake,
reducing the contact area.)
If all else fails, parting the drillstring at a higher depth,
setting a cement plug and sidetracking may be
necessary. Initially, mineral oil or diesel were primarily
used in pill formulations, but over the years a number of
more sophisticated (and environmentally-friendly)
products have been developed. These pills are most
effective when used as quickly as possible after getting
stuck. It is often advisable to raise the pill to
approximately the same density as the drilling fluid to
minimize migration of the pill in the hole. Once free, it is
important to build the filter cake back up, minimize
exposure time of smooth, large diameter drillstring
components (e.g. drill collars, MWD/LWD tools), and keep
the mud weight as low as possible to prevent getting
stuck again in the same zone. As zones of differential

sticking are sometimes loss zones, the use of LCM
treatments should be considered and the problem area
should be noted when preparing for cementing.

Mechanically Stuck Pipe
The drillstring can become immobile due to the physical
blockage of pipe movement for a number of reasons.
This is usually caused by an object or objects blocking
the way, such as cuttings, junk or cement, or a
geometrical configuration of the well that causes
additional side forces and higher overpull.

Keyseating
A keyseat is caused by the drillpipe cutting or wearing a
slot into the side of the borehole. The drill collars, being
larger than the drillpipe, can become wedged into this
slot and then stuck. The drillstring is usually stuck while
pulling out of the hole. The drill collars are pulled into the
key seat and stuck. Keyseating is exacerbated by:
The number and severity of doglegs
Length of time that the uncased section of the
wellbore is left exposed, especially in terms of
rotating hours and number of trips
The relative size between the drillpipe tool joints
and the drill collars (Very large collars are less
likely to pull into a keyseat and become stuck,
than are collars that are just slightly larger than
the tool joint outside diameter.)
Rapid transition from a formation that is prone to wash
out to one that remains close to gauge, or the reverse
(The washed out section no longer provides support for
the adjacent formation and thereby concentrates the
wall stress exerted by the drillpipe.)
Keyseating problems can sometimes be avoided by
drilling with a stiff BHA which tends to minimize the
chance of severe doglegs, using keyseat wipers properly
positioned in the string, and designing a wellpath that
minimizes high doglegs in problematic formations.

Wellbore Geometry
When designing a wellpath, it is important to consider
the need to move the BHA and other large diameter
components through the drilled hole. High bend motors,
in-gauge stabilizers and LWD tools, and more extreme
well paths can create a situation where the BHA drift
diameter is very close to the borehole size. In such
cases, even a small amount of cuttings or formation
swelling can prevent the BHA from pulling back out
through the formation. The addition of reamers can help,
but they will increase torque as well as increase cuttings
load. If problems are encountered or are expected,
carefully watching micro-doglegs in sliding intervals is
important. Reaming through these areas can help limit
trouble spots. It is important not to just look at the
dogleg over the length of a stand, but to consider the
micro-doglegs that most reduce drift diameter.

Formation Instability
The shape and diameter of the borehole is not
necessarily static over time. Reactive shales, formation
breakout, and moving salts are a few examples of
mechanisms that can result in a change of the well that
may cause stuck pipe. Additionally, formation instability
can result in cavings and hole collapse that result in a
sizeable amount of cuttings-like material entering the
annular fluid. The prevention of formation instability is a
separate topic, but generally it is controlled by correct
mud weight, mud water salinity, and good drilling

practices. If the instability causes a change in borehole
shape, the stuck pipe problems are similar to wellbore
geometry. If cavings occur, the situation is analogous to
inadequate hole cleaning, as described next.

Cuttings Accumulation
The drillstring can become stuck when drilled cuttings
are not adequately removed from the hole. This type of
sticking is usually accompanied by loss or partial loss of
circulation caused by packing off. In a vertical well, this
tends to occur after fast drilling has loaded the annular
space with cuttings, followed by a sudden stop in
activity. At this point, the cuttings may settle; forming a
blockage if left long enough. In deviated wells, the
situation is more complex. Above a certain inclination
(often stated as 35), cuttings beds will form on the low
side of the wellbore. If these beds become too large or
are pulled through too fast, the pipe may become stuck.
To prevent pipe sticking due to cuttings accumulation:
Always follow good drilling practices, including
proper drillpipe rotation speed, circulation after
kelly down, wiper trips, monitoring the cuttings
coming over the shakers, etc.
Provide proper training for the driller and mud
engineer to identify when cuttings are
accumulating downhole, necessitating additional
wiper trips and circulating times, as well as the
adjustment of mud properties.
Maintain drilling fluid properties capable of good
hole cleaning and general wellbore stability.
Maximize rotary drilling, especially for high angle
holes (>35). The use of a rotary-steerable
system can greatly assist in this.
Ensure proper selection of casing points to
minimize exposure time of formations to drilling
fluids.
Maintain sufficient mud density in pressured
zones.
When planning a high angle well, ensure that the
rig can handle the operational requirement of
flow rate, pipe rotation, etc. that will be required,
as this may be more than what a rig drilling is
capable of.
When the stuck pipe is caused by debris or cuttings
accumulation, the typical actions to free the pipe consist
of rotating, reciprocating and attempting to break
circulation. Usually, hydraulic force is the most effective
method of breaking up a serious cuttings related pack-
off. It is not always necessary to "blast" free. Often, a
steady flow will erode the cuttings buildup. The
effectiveness of this can be monitored by watching the
standpipe pressure. If the pressure slowly drops for a
given flow rate, then the blockage is being worn down.

Junk, Cement, and Collapsed Casing
A number of other materials can become lodged in the
borehole, preventing pipe movement: broken off pieces
of the bit or BHA, a piece of cement falling back and
collapsed casing. Sometimes these can be drilled or
reamed out or a sidetrack may be necessary. It is
important to recognize the sources of stuck pipe, as
most of the typical fluids remedies will not assist in these
situations.


Impact on Torque and Drag
As the primary indicators of stuck pipe are increased
torque and/or drag, it is important to closely monitor
these parameters during drilling. The following chart
(Figure 10-2) shows some of the most common causes of
stuck pipe and other downhole problems, identified by
their impact on torque and drag.
Figure 10-2: Impact of downhole problems on torque and drag
Barite Sag
Under certain circumstances, the weighting material in
drilling fluids can separate and settle. This phenomenon
is referred to as barite sag and it can cause significant
variations in mud density. These variations include both
decreases and increases in fluid density. A decrease in
mud weight, or light spot by itself is not a clear indicator
of barite sag. Although it is most often a problem in non-
aqueous drilling fluids, barite sag has been observed in
all types of weighted muds.
These density variations can cause a number of drilling
problems, including:
fractured formation and lost circulation
stuck pipe
pack-offs and loss of the ability to circulate
wellbore instability
well control issues
additional cost from the related NPT and mud
conditioning
These problems can be particularly pronounced in
directional and extended reach wells because the
variation in fluid density can cause larger swings in
equivalent static and circulating densities.
Barite sag occurs when inert weight material particles
(e.g. barite, hematite) settle and form an ultra-high
density slurry or a barite bed on the low side of the
hole. Generally, barite beds can form in wells that are
deviated 30 or more and are drilled with mud weights
greater than 12 lb/gal (1.4 kg/L). At angles up to about
75, the beds can slump (slide or flow toward the bottom
of the hole). After a trip, subsequent mud circulation
reveals a wide variance in mud weight.
Barite sag is commonly associated with static conditions
during periods of no circulation, but sag can also occur in
dynamic flow conditions, especially with low annular
velocities. Additionally, if barite has already settled out
in a deviated well, the beds can slump back and cause
stuck pipe or pack-offs even after the fluid properties
have been adjusted.

In vertical wells, drilling fluid gel strength can prevent
the initiation of sag by suspending the particles while
circulation is ceased. In a deviated environment, the
situation is complicated by "Boycott settling". This
phenomenon is caused by rapid settling of heavier
particles which causes heavy mud to drop to the low side
of the hole and lighter mud to rise to the top.
The problem of barite sag in NAF can be exacerbated by
high temperatures which tend to thin the fluid and
decrease low shear rate yield points (LSRYPs).
Furthermore, low viscosity clean muds and wells with low
annular velocities are more susceptible to sagging.
Certain activities such as running casing/liners, tripping
pipe at slow speed and logging, can induce sag by
creating a low shear environment. This environment
breaks gels but does not provide enough energy to keep
the barite suspended.
Sag can also occur in drilling fluids which are stored at
surface for extended periods of time. This can be made
worse on ships where the rocking motion will prevent the
formation of gel strength, thus allowing the barite to fall
out. Proper tank agitation is the key to preventing this
problem.

Barite Sag Detection
Accurate and timely detection of barite sag is important
to allow for treatment and mitigating practices before
serious drilling problems and related NPT occur. As with
most fluids-related drilling problems, monitoring trends
during operations is key to successful determination of a
problem. The following parameters should specifically be
watched for indications of barite sag:
Mud weight - After trips, mud weight in and out
should be measured (at least every 15 min) while
circulating bottoms-up. The typical fingerprint
of barite sag is a roughly sinusoidal shape (see
Figure 10-3). When circulating bottoms-up, light
mud is followed by heavy mud, then by the
original-weight mud. The heaviest mud weight
usually occurs at bottoms-up. In HTHP
applications, mud weight adjustment for
temperature is recommended. Use of a
pressurized balance helps obtain good data with
gas-cut mud.
Standpipe pressure - Fluctuations in standpipe
pressure may occur as slugs of light and heavy
mud pass through the bit nozzles and other
restrictive parts of the circulating system. Also,
higher standpipe pressures may indicate if
annular sag pack-off is occurring.
Torque and drag - High torque and overpull can
indicate that barite beds are forming on the low
side of the hole.
Mud losses and gains - Unexpected losses may
occur in deviated wells as heavy mud in the
annulus reaches near-vertical sections of the
well and rapidly increases hydrostatic pressure.
The opposite effect can occur with light mud,
which could cause the well to flow. Care must be
taken to differentiate this effect from wellbore
ballooning.


Figure 10-3: Mud weight variations indicate sag after trip.

(Courtesy of M-I SWACO)
Drilling Fluid Guidelines to Prevent and Treat Barite

Sag
Elevated low-shear rheology and gels help
reduce sag. Clay-based rheology modifiers may
be more effective than fatty acid products in
freshly built NAFs. For some muds used in
deepwater applications, the rheology
adjustments to counteract effects of low
temperatures can exacerbate sag.
Maintain adequate yield stress. The LSRYP,
measured at the lowest speed available on the
FANN 35 viscometer, is a good indicator for sag-
related rheological properties. For most wells,
LSRYP should be maintained above the 7 to 15
lb/100 ft
2
(3 to 7 Pa) range. Larger hole sizes
typically require higher LSRYP values. Maintain
low shear rate viscosity (measured with a
BROOKFIELD viscometer) at 0.1 rpm in the
20,000 to 30,000 cp range.
Carefully monitor mud weight after dilution.
Base oil additions thin NAFs, and increase sag
potential. Rheology modifiers can compensate
for viscosity loss; however, some rheology
modifiers require a sufficient amount of water to
be available.
Maintain proper surfactant concentration.
Wetting agent levels in non-aqueous fluids must
be sufficient to prevent barite agglomeration.
Overtreatment should be avoided to prevent
undesirable reductions in viscosity.
Exercise care with fluid loss additives. Under
certain circumstances, sag problems can be
aggravated by viscosity reductions caused by
fluid loss control additives, typically in WBMs.

Operational Best Practices for Barite Sag
Measure fluid density while circulating bottoms-
up to identify sag fingerprint. Compare the
expected ECD to downhole measurements
(erratic deviations can be an indicator of sag).
Watch for pump pressure variations when
operational parameters are constant.
Maintain flow at designed rates. Barite sag is
often a dynamic settling problem in which beds
are formed during periods of low circulation
rates. Long periods at low flow rates exacerbate
sag, even if other key variables are within proper
limits. Beds should be removed prior to tripping
out using high flow rates and rotary speeds.
In cases of severe sag, especially when coupled
with a low fracture gradient at the casing shoe, it
may be necessary to stop circulating, trip out
and stage back in. The goal would be to prevent
lost circulation when heavy mud from the
bottom is above the shoe.

Minimize time between trips. Beds formed under
dynamic conditions can slump during static
periods. Beds formed at medium angles slump
faster, but beds in the 60 to 75 range can be
considerably thicker and give more problems. It
may be necessary to stage in the hole if there
are extended periods between trips.
If possible, minimize sliding time and maximize
pipe rotation. For a given set of conditions, sag is
least likely to occur when the pipe is rotating at
greater than 75 rpm and eccentric. Sag is worst
when the drillpipe is stationary and eccentric.
Pipe rotation can minimize bed formation and
even help remove existing beds. Completing
rotary wiper trips often is beneficial after
extended periods of sliding.
Properly condition mud prior to cementing.
Avoid overtreatment of the mud to reduce
viscosity prior to running casing and/or
cementing. Excessive dilution dramatically
increases the likelihood of sag.
If extensive periods of static conditions are
expected due to logging or other activity,
consider conditioning the mud to give better
properties for preventing sag.

Wellbore Breathing
Wellbore breathing, also referred to as wellbore
ballooning, can be associated with either induced or
naturally occurring fractures, and is normally associated
with non-aqueous drilling fluids. Wellbore breathing is
troublesome for drilling operations due to the increase in
non-productive time. NPT related to wellbore breathing
is usually due to monitoring for flow on connections,
interpreting fluid losses while drilling, and identifying
kicks.
While drilling ahead, if ECD exceeds the fracture
initiation (induced fractures) or fracture opening
pressure, drilling fluid flows from the wellbore and is
temporarily lost into these fractures. These fractures
may continue to propagate and grow, resulting in very
large volume losses. When the pumps are turned off and
the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus decreases to the
equivalent static density (ESD), the fractures will begin
to close and this temporarily lost fluid will flow back
into the wellbore, displacing fluid from the well. In most
cases, the volume of fluid lost will be very close to, if not
the same as, the volume of fluid that flows back into the
well with the pumps off.
When the pumps are shut down, fluid can flow from the
wellbore for an extended period of time (30 minutes or
more) and volumes gained can be in excess of 200 to
300 barrels. For this reason, the flow can often be
mistaken as a kick. If the flow is assumed to be due to a
kick, it should be circulated out using the Drillers Method.
If wellbore breathing is the cause of flow from the well,
increases to the mud density should be avoided.
Because the consequences of misinterpreting a wellbore
breathing event can be severe, it is essential that the
cause of the fluid influx be clearly understood.
The risk of wellbore breathing increases as an interval is
drilled deeper. If the mud weight is increased to manage
wellbore stability, the combined effect of higher mud
weight and ECD may push the wellbore pressure very
close to the fracture initiation pressure at its weakest
point in the interval, typically the casing shoe, but it
could be anywhere in the wellbore. If this occurs, the
pressure may be sufficient for a network of fine
fractures to develop, without the fractures opening
sufficiently to cause severe lost circulation.

Alternatively, the increasing pressure may be enough to
propagate existing fractures. These fractures will then
take fluid from the wellbore, giving the impression that
lost circulation is occurring. When circulation is stopped,
the pressure in the wellbore decreases and the fractures
are able to close, displacing the lost mud back into the
wellbore and giving the impression that the well is
flowing. Managing to stay within the available pore
pressure-fracture gradient window, without initiating
breathing, lost circulation, or well control, is a major
challenge, particularly on deepwater projects.

Wellbore Flow-Back Characterization
Fingerprinting Techniques
Wellbore flow-back fingerprinting techniques not only
help identify the onset of breathing, but also determine
the extent of the breathing and fluid influxes. Procedures
are available that allow the severity of breathing to be
reduced and lost circulation avoided. Wellbore breathing
is often a precursor to lost circulation. Consequently, if
breathing is identified, steps should be taken to mitigate
the breathing in order to avoid lost circulation and
reduce NPT.
Annular pressure while drilling (APWD) data can clearly
show when a well is breathing. For a well that is not
breathing, the ECD trace from the tool on a connection is
square. When the pumps are off and the fluid is not
moving, the ECD will rapidly drop to the ESD value.
Conversely, when the pumps are turned on and fluid
movement is initiated, the ESD rapidly increases to the
drilling ECD value previously observed, prior to the
connection. When a wellbore is breathing, a gradual
pressure decrease is observed in the annulus as the fluid
is squeezed back into the wellbore from the fractures
during a connection. When the pumps are on, the ESD
value gradually increases to the previous ECD value
while the fractures are again being injected with drilling
fluid. These scenarios are illustrated in Figure 10-4.

Figure 10-4: Annular pressure profiles for non-breathing and
breathing wellbores

The main drawback to the use of downhole APWD tools
is the limited number of pressure data points that can be
retrieved in real-time. If only a few data points are
transmitted, it can be very difficult to say with any
confidence that a square or curve pressure profile exists.
For this reason APWD tools most often identify wellbore
breathing in recorded mode which is processed after the
tool is back on surface. Unfortunately, this means that
the identification can only be made after the fact,
following a trip.
The following procedure provides a method to
fingerprint and monitor the wellbore for the onset of
breathing:

1. Ensure all surface equipment is configured for
drilling ahead purposes.
2. After displacing to NAF:
a. Circulate at the drill ahead flow rate
b. Shut down pumps
c. Record time for flow to decrease to zero and
total volume gained in the active system
from the time the pumps are shutdown
3. Repeat this procedure if a formation integrity test
(FIT) or leak off test (LOT) is performed after the
displacement. If FIT/LOT was performed prior to
displacement, proceed directly to step 4. The times
and volumes recorded in steps 2 or 3 will serve as
the baseline for a stable, non-breathing well.
4. On each connection and flow check, record the time
required for flow to decrease and the total volume
gained.
a. Should the time increase or the volume
increase, the wellbore may be breathing.
The flow rate from the well must be
decreasing with time.
b. Should flow from the well increase with time
or remain constant, the well is flowing and
well control procedures should be initiated.
5. If gas is observed on bottoms-up after connection
and the well appears to be breathing, determine if
the well is under-balanced using the following
procedure:
a. Note strokes for bottoms-up
b. Apply slow circulating rates for 30 minutes
and record strokes

c. Resume normal drill ahead flow rates and
continue circulating until bottoms-up cycle is
complete
d. If no gas is present, then previous gas shows
are associated with breathing
e. If gas is present, well is under-balanced
When drilling ahead, and a baseline flow-back trend has
not been established, a first time flow-back occurrence
should be treated as a kick and circulated out by the
Drillers Method to identify whether an influx of
formation fluid has occurred.

Never assume wellbore breathing!

A second method used to identify wellbore breathing
utilizes real-time resistivity measurements. Depending
upon whether the pumps are on or off, deep and shallow
resistivity traces will show different characteristics. For
a wellbore exhibiting breathing, fluid is forced into the
fractures with the pumps on. When the pumps are off,
fluid is forced out of the fractures. The resistivity
profiles can thus determine if non-aqueous drilling fluid
is forced beyond the diameter of the wellbore. An
example of the resistivity traces is given in Figure 10-5.
Care should be taken with this approach to ensure that
the source of this log response is not due to filtrate
invasion.



Figure 10-5: Real-time resistivity trace showing shallow
penetration of SBM after fracture initiation

A third method for identifying wellbore breathing
involves fingerprinting the flow back profile of the
drilling fluid during connections. This procedure should
be applied while drilling out the cement at the start of
the interval and carried through on each subsequent
connection for the rest of the interval. Characterizing
the flow back profile while drilling the cement provides
an opportunity for recording the flow back for a cased
hole, where fluid influxes cannot occur and wellbore
breathing has not been initiated. It is important that the
drill ahead flow rate be used in order to represent the
conditions expected, once exposed formation is being
drilled. This reference curve can be used throughout the
interval to determine when breathing is initiated and its
severity. The objective here is to record the volume of
flow back mud and the time for the flow to decrease to
zero.
Importantly, this technique can also be used to identify a
fluid influx from the formation. Under breathing
conditions, the observed flow out of the well should
begin to decrease and approach zero over time.
Depending on the severity of the breathing, this process
can occur over a very long time (flow times exceeding 1
hour have been reported), leading to a large increase in
NPT. This extended flow back time can also give the
impression that the well is flowing. If in fact the well is
flowing, an increase in the rate of flow out of the well
should be observed at some point during the connection.
It is not possible for the flow back rate to increase if the
well is simply breathing. When using water base mud, if
the well is actually flowing, lighter fluid will be brought
into the annulus and the flow should begin to increase
due to the lower hydrostatic head. If using a NAF, gas
will dissolve into the fluid and an increase in flow will
usually not be detected until the gas reaches its bubble
point and comes out of solution when it is circulated up
the hole. An example of the fingerprinting technique
being used to identify a kick is given in Figure 10-6.

Figure 10-6: Fingerprinting technique for characterizing flow back
profiles on connections and identifying wellbore breathing and
kicks


When wellbore breathing is occurring, the shape of the
flow back profile should remain the same, but the total
volume of fluid returned to the active pit system should
increase and the time required to achieve zero flow may
also increase.
The volume of mud returned on a connection can also be
dependent on the flow rate immediately prior to shutting
down for a connection or flow check. For this reason it is
important to characterize the initial reference flow back
profile at the expected drill ahead flow rate.
Modifications to the surface equipment configuration
while drilling can also change the reference profile. If
this occurs, a new reference profile should be generated.

Breathing with Gas
One major issue that occurs with wellbore breathing, and
one that greatly adds to the confusion, is the presence of
gas in the mud that is circulated back to the surface. If
the apparent losses occur in sands or at the interface
between sand and shale, the fluid that flows into the
fractures may come into contact with hydrocarbons,
specifically gas. In this instance the entire volume that
flows into the fractures may then contain a significant
level of gas when circulated back to the surface. In this
instance, is easy to assume that this gas is due to the
well being under-balanced and a kick occurring.
In order to identify if the gas is due to the well flowing or
absorbed gas associated with breathing, the following
procedure can be applied. After a connection has been
made, circulate the mud at a reduced flow rate for 30
minutes before resuming full circulation. This will allow
gas-free mud to pass through the open hole section
without entering fractures. Track the strokes required
for the mud to reach the surface. If there is no gas
present in the mud once it reaches the surface, then it
can be assumed that the previously recorded gas is
related to mud (containing gas) re-entering the wellbore
from fractures (breathing) and not a kick. If gas is still
present, then it is most likely that the well is under-
balanced and the mud weight should be increased. The
reduced flow rate should inhibit the fractures from re-
opening and inducing breathing, ensuring that the mud
does not enter and then flow back out of the fractures.
The objective with the slow flow rates is to pass a
minimum of 500 ft of mud through the annulus without
opening fractures that may be present.

Solutions for Managing Wellbore Breathing
Curing breathing is a definite challenge when drilling
with NAF. Laboratory testing and field data suggest that
a combination of resilient graphitic carbon (RGC) and
calcium carbonate (CaCO
3
) will provide some degree of
healing to the fractures. Laboratory testing on fractured
cores indicate that fracture re-opening pressures can be
increased when RGC is placed in the fracture. If RGC is
successfully placed in a fracture, when the fracture
closes the product is able to deform without breaking
down, thus maintaining its ability to stay in place and
continue to bridge once pressure is re-applied to the
fracture.
Additional methods for reducing or eliminating breathing
through reducing wellbore pressures include:
1. Reduce mud weight (if possible)
2. Reduce flow rate in order to lower the ECD
3. Reduce the fluid rheology to lower the ECD
4. Reduce the rate of penetration
For options 2, 3 and 4, consideration must be given to
the effect that changing these parameters will have on

other aspects of the operation. It may also be necessary
to adjust other parameters if either of these options is
applied.
It is important to realize that a clear distinction between
wellbore breathing and formation fluid influxes can be
the difference between a successful well and loss of the
interval. In order to combat these situations, different
responses are required. If wellbore breathing is
misinterpreted as a kick and the mud weight is
increased, lost circulation can develop. If a kick is
misinterpreted as wellbore breathing and the mud
weight decreased or simply maintained, the
consequences are obvious. For these reasons it is critical
to have clear, agreed upon strategies in place to deal
with wellbore breathing should it develop. Good
communications are important to ensure that the casing
and cementing planner and operators are aware that the
well is breathing, as it is likely that the well will be static
prior to their arrival.
The procedure for understanding the difference in
resistivity traces is outlined in SPE paper number 67742
How to Diagnose Drilling Induced Fractures in Wells
Drilled with Oil-Based Muds with Real-Time Resistivity
and Pressure Measurements.


Appendix 10-1: Identifying type and location of loss
Normal Drilling
Is loss
downhole?
Is casing
worn, leaking?
Is casing
shoe cement
holding?
Fix surface system leak
Fix hole in casing
Squeeze casing shoe
NO
YES
YES
NO
YES
Did loss occur suddenly while tripping,
raising mud weight/ECD, drilling fast,
or with annular restriction (balling,
tight hole)?
Induced Fracture in weakest zone
just below casing shoe or below
annular restriction
Confirming Features:
ECD is near fracture gradient
Loss rate is sensitive to changes
in ECD/circulation rate
Mud loss is recovered with
reduced mud weight/ECD
Loss not experienced on adjacent
wells
Initial loss rate is maximum loss
rate
Not associated with drilling break
Often occurs at formation change
from shale to sandstone
YES
Did a change in ROP, torque,
etc. accompany the loss?
Gradual Loss:
Did loss start gradually,
then increase with depth
to a maximum?
YES
NO
NO
Losses to natural matrix
permeability or micro-fractures
near bottom
YES
Occurs in high permeability sands gravels,
and fractured formations
Not sensitive to increas/decrease in ECD
Occurs most often in low solids muds
Starts gradually and increases with depth
Abrupt Loss:
Is formation carbonate such
as limestone or dolomite?
NO
Losses to natural vugs or
caverns or highly fractured
limestone on bottom
YES
NO
Sudden loss while drilling, often
severe
Usually associated with limestone/
dolomite
Usually associated with change in
ROP or torque (bit may drop)
Loss rate sensitive to changes in
ECD
LCM not very effective
Loss occurs with a change in ROP
Loss occurs with a change in formation
Loss to natural fractures
or fault on bottom
Is fault or natural fractured
interval anticipated or
possible?
YES
Is mud weight near
fracture gradient?
NO
YES NO
Appendix 10-2: Decision chart for treating loss circulation
<
>
Seepage Loss
< 25bbl/hr WBM
< 10 bbl/hr OBM
Reduce Mud Wt.
& ECD, if possible
Success?
NO
Mix 5-10 sacks per hour
fine LCM & drill ahead
Success?
Treat system with 15-25 lb/
bbl fine LCM blend and drill
ahead
Success?
Spot pill w/25-50 lb/bbl
medium LCMblend;
Pull up and wait
Success?
See Partial Loss
NO
NO
NO
YES
YES
YES
YES
Normal Drilling
Partial Loss
25 - 100 bbl/hr WBM
10 - 30 bbl/hr OBM
Natural Loss Zones
Induced Fracture
Loss Zones
Reduce Mud Wt.
& ECD, if possible
Reduce Mud Wt.
& ECD if possible
Success?
Success?
Treat system with 15-25
lb/bbl fine LCM blend &
drill ahead
med. & course granular
LCM; Pull up and wait
medium LCM blend;
Pull up and wait
Spot high fluid loss
pill and squeeze
Success? Success?
Success? Success?
Spot Settable Plug (figure 1-5)
Success?
See Severe Loss
NO
NO
YES YES
YES
YES
YES YES
NO
NO
NO NO
YES
NO
Severe Loss
> 100 bbl/hr WBM
> 30 bbl/hr OBM
Reduce Mud Wt.
& ECD, if possible
Success?
Spot pill w/35-70 lb/bbl medium & coarse
LCM blend: Pull up and wait
Success?
Natural Loss Zones
Induced Fractures
Spot Settable Plug
(See figure 1-5)
Spot high fluid
loss pill and
squeeze
Success? Success?
Spot hard pill DOB2C, magnesium
cement, silicate-cement, resin coated
sand, etc (See Figure 1-5)
Success?
Use alternative technique mudcap, drilling blend,
aerated mud, foam, mist, air drilling or set casing
YES
YES
NO
NO
NO
NO
Chapter 11: Fluids-Related Productivity Optimization
CHAPTER 11: FLUIDS-RELATED
PRODUCTIVITY OPTIMIZATION

The productivity of a well is not just a function of the
reservoir properties, but also the manner in which it has
been drilled and completed. To achieve optimum
productivity, it is important to ensure that the fluids
used in the operation do not impair the potential
economic future of the well. The purpose is not just to
drill a well, but to maximize hydrocarbon recovery. It is
therefore critical to ensure that the drilling, drill-in,
workover, and completion fluids do not irreversibly
damage permeability, porosity and alter the native
formation wettability.
A non-damaging fluid is a clean fluid that induces little or
no loss of the natural permeability of the pay zone
targeted for development, while providing superior hole
cleaning and easy clean-up. In addition to being both
safe and providing an economical benefit for the
application, it must be compatible with the native fluid of
the reservoir to avoid precipitation of salts or production
of emulsions, which would damage well productivity.

Formation Damage
Formation damage can be defined as any restriction to
the flow of oil or gas from the formation to the wellbore.
Any restriction to flow around the wellbore reduces the
maximum flow potential and possibly the ultimate
hydrocarbon recovery. Formation damage may be the
result of physical, chemical, or bacterial alteration of the
producing formation. Formation damage includes
permeability or porosity impairment, skin damage, and
decreased well production. The skin value of a well is a
dimensionless factor that rates the production efficiency

of a well. This factor compares the actual well
productivity to the theoretical well productivity. A
positive skin value indicates damage that is impairing
well productivity and a negative skin value indicates
enhanced productivity, usually a result of a stimulation
treatment.

Causes of Formation Damage
The mechanisms of formation damage from invading
fluid generally include:
Plugging of pore throats on the face of the
formation by a filter cake during drilling
Dispersion of clays or other minerals contained
in the rock matrix
Dislodgement of fine particulates contained
within the pore spaces (fines migration)
Swelling of pore space clays causing blockage
Emulsion formation
Change in rock wettability
Narrowing of fine pore spaces (capillaries)
through adsorption of water-soluble polymers
Water-blocking
Chemical precipitation of solution salts
Presence of sulfate-reducing or slime-producing
bacteria and byproduct precipitates
Formation damage usually takes place during drilling
and/or completion operations and is a very significant
contributor to the evolution of positive skin in the well.
This results in suboptimal production rates and it could
even result in loss of reserves.
During drilling, the density of the drilling fluid is usually
maintained to give a hydrostatic pressure greater than
the formation fluid pressure to prevent a possible well
blow-out. While drilling, as new formation is exposed by
the drill bit, fluid is forced into the formation by the
positive differential drilling fluid column pressure.
Drilling fluid particles smaller than the pore throat
openings migrate into the formation during spurt loss,
but they rapidly bridge on the pore throats in the near
wellbore formation. Particles larger than the formation
pores accumulate at the formation face, initiating a filter
cake buildup. The invasion of whole drilling fluid is
stopped quickly by the filter cake and only filtrate is
allowed to penetrate the formation.
A second type of solids plugging can occur when fine
drilled solids or drilling fluid additives penetrate the
formation to depths beyond the near wellbore region.
These solids migrate into an ever increasing number of
radial passageways. When the well is flowed during
production, if the particles do not pass through the entry
route in reverse, they are likely to become lodged in
narrow passageways and block further fluid flow.
Solids plugging can also occur from the swelling or
migration of clays or non-clay minerals within
predominantly sandstone formations. Montmorillonites
and mixed-layer clays are typical examples of swelling
clays. In the presence of water fresher than that
originally contained in the pore space, montmorillonites
with a high content of sodium can swell to many times
their original volume. This swelling will shrink pore
openings, reducing porosity and permeability. While
smectites are the principal types of swelling clays, illites
can swell when they coexist with smectites. Kaolinite
has a platelet structure similar to smectite clays, but
exhibits little or no swelling characteristics. This group of
clays can be mobilized by the infiltration of fluids with
flow rates high enough to carry the fine particles away

from the pore surfaces. These mobilized fines then
migrate until they are trapped at pore restrictions (the
pore throats), thus reducing the permeability of the rock.
Mobilization, migration, and retention of clays and other
fine particles have been recognized as a major formation
damaging factor in sandstone formations. If these fines
are trapped near the wellbore, very significant
production losses occur because of the reduction in the
number of total flow paths into the borehole.
A secondary source of solids that cause formation
damage is the precipitation of insoluble salts or
suspended colloidal particulates; created when
completion or workover fluids contact incompatible
connate water. For example, when calcium brines come
in contact with connate water containing CO
2
, insoluble
calcium carbonate (CaCO
3
) may precipitate and plug
near wellbore pore spaces. In addition, due to their
physical and chemical properties, heavy brines or non-
aqueous drilling fluid filtrates may cause the
precipitation of high viscosity asphaltenes and paraffins
from in-situ hydrocarbons.
Formation damage may also be the result of a change in
the nature of the fluid wetting the surface of the pore
space, i.e., a wettability change. Because of the chemical
makeup of the sands and clays that compose the
majority of the worlds producing formations, water has
a greater affinity for the exposed solid surfaces than oil.
However, if the hydrocarbon has been oxidized or
otherwise contains polar groups, such as carboxyls,
amines, amides, sulfonates, and thiols, the partial
polarity of the hydrocarbon may actually be such that it
is attracted to the rock surface. Water is displaced and
the formation rock becomes oil-wet. When the formation
wettability changes, it does not do so uniformly; i.e.,
some of the pore surfaces remain water-wet and some
become oil-wet. Because the relative permeabilities of
water and oil are different, a zoning effect results and
hydrocarbon productivity is impaired. The formation is
more permeable to oil when the formation is water-wet
because the oil flows through the center of the pores
that compose the larger flow channels while water stays
in the narrower channels and along the rock surfaces.
Conversely, the formation is more permeable to water
when the formation is oil-wet because the water is not
restrained by its affinity for the polar surfaces of the
rock and is less viscous that the oil. Thus, the interface
between these two zones has the potential to form a
water blockage. The relative permeability for oil and
water as a function of water saturation (Sw) is shown in
Figure 11-1.

Figure 11-1: Relative permeability curves for oil and water in a
water-wet formation

Wettability changes can be caused by the presence of
surfactants in the drilling, completion, or workover fluids.
Additives such as detergents and lubricants in water

base drilling fluids and oil-wetting agents in non-aqueous
fluids are the most likely causes of wettability changes.
Excessive use of surfactants in completion fluids may
also change the natural wetting of the formation rock.
The natural tendency of water to wet polar surfaces
contributes to another formation damage mechanism
called water-block (Figure 11-2). Capillary pressure
promotes the displacement of oil by water but resists the
displacement of water by oil. In most reservoirs, native
pressures are great enough to overcome capillary
pressure. However, in low pressure and tight, low
permeability formations, the capillary pressures resisting
displacement of water by oil may be significant enough
to cause permanent impairment. The problem of water-
block is especially serious in the near-wellbore region,
where the pressure drop of the oil/water interface
approaches zero. The probability of water-block
increases as the volume of fluid lost to the formation
increases.

Figure 11-2: Depiction of water-block (Courtesy of Baker Hughes
Drilling Fluids)

Another cause of capillary impairment is in-situ
emulsification of in-place oil with completion/workover
fluids. Concentrated salt solutions have an inherent
tendency to form emulsions with crude oil even in the
absence of surfactants. Stable emulsions are formed by
mixing normally immiscible fluids at high shear rates.
Because the viscosity of oil/brine emulsions is very high,
their movement through the rock is severely restricted.
As the emulsion droplets become trapped in the capillary
pore spaces (emulsion block), the effective permeability
of the formation rock is impaired.
Water soluble polymers used for viscosity and filtration
control may adsorb onto the rock matrix in pore spaces
and reduce the flow channels available for hydrocarbon
movement. Removal of these polymers is difficult both
because of the strong attraction and because the
polymers are not mutually soluble in water and
hydrocarbons.

Formation Protection
It is advisable to follow some generally accepted
practices to prevent formation damage during drilling,
completion and workover operations. First, filtered brine
usually reduces the chance of introducing foreign
particles into the formation and causing water sensitive
clays to swell. Second, use of a laboratory tested and
selected surfactant helps reduce the chance of emulsion
formation, wettability change, and fines migration.
Lastly, the selection of a chemically compatible drilling,
completion and workover fluid reduces the probability of
insoluble salt precipitation.
Of the potential mechanisms to prevent formation
damage, the most significant is the prevention of fluid
loss to the formation. This is sometimes accomplished by
increasing the low shear rate viscosity (LSRV) of the
fluid. Because the flow rate in porous media is inversely
proportional to viscosity, increasing the viscosity of the

fluid at bottom-hole conditions can significantly reduce
the loss of fluid to the formation. The most common
practice for minimizing fluid loss to the formation is to
use a combination of increased viscosity and salt or
calcium carbonate particles to bridge the pore spaces on
the formation face. A properly designed fluid loss pill can
be removed by flowing the well back. These particular
bridging agents are acid soluble and therefore can be
removed by acid treatment if they are not removed by
washing or production of the well.

Best practices for preventing formation damage
during workover operations include:
Select formation-compatible completion or
workover fluids. Incompatible fluids can cause
shale swelling and precipitation of salts and
minerals which block pore throats.
Use only filtered (clean) brines to minimize
formation damage. Insoluble solids in the brine
will invade the production zone and damage
permeability.
The primary cause of formation damage during
workover operations is the invasion of fine solids
and debris from downhole operations, such as
near perforation, milling and scraping.
Minimizing fluid loss can prevent the entry of
these fines into the formation.
Fluid loss control pills that are properly
formulated clean up easily from perforations and
result in minimal formation damage. Using
poorly formulated pills may lead to severe
damage due to persistent filter cakes that
require high lift-off pressures. The loss of
filtered, compatible fluids into the reservoir
during completion or workover operations has
little effect on future productivity when the
formation has relatively high permeability.
Tight formations can also be damaged by loss of
fluid and are most likely to be damaged by
invasion as they have small pores and high
capillary pressures. They are therefore more
difficult to clean up than high permeability
reservoirs.
In non-fractured wells, viscous pills, in
combination with minimum fluid densities, can
be used to control fluid loss to an acceptable
level. However, to more effectively minimize
fluid loss, properly sized bridging materials must
be added to the viscous pill to seal the
formation.
In fractured wells, both coarse and fine solids
may cause irreversible damage. To stop the loss
of fluid, special care must be taken to ensure
that bridging materials added to the fluid loss pill
contain materials coarse enough to bridge the
fractures at the formation face.
Fluid loss pills for use inside screens should be
carefully designed to bridge inside the screen
and not penetrate into the screen element.
Failure to do so could result in plugging of the
screen and/or gravel pack.
When working with less than salt saturated
fluids, it is a good practice to use an antibacterial
agent (biocide) to inhibit the growth of slime
producing bacteria so that these bacteria are not
introduced into the producing formation.


Best practices for preventing formation damage
during drilling operations include:
Utilization of a properly designed drill-in fluid.
Elements include:
o Inhibitive fluid (brine or NAF)
o Properly sized, acid soluble bridging
agents
o Minimize fluid loss with starch or
polymers
o Minimize commercial clay usage with
polymer viscosifiers
o Neutral to slightly alkaline pH (8.3 to
9.0)

Drill-In Fluids
A drill-in fluid (DIF) is a combination of a drilling and
completion fluid specially formulated to maximize the
productivity index of a producing well. It must maintain
the desired properties of an acceptable drilling fluid (i.e.
density, viscosity, shale stability and fluid loss control) as
well as completion fluid characteristics (i.e. clean, non-
damaging to the wellbore and the internal pore structure
of the producing zone) (Table 11-1).


Drill-In Fluid
Drilling Completion
ROP
Wellbore stability
Hole cleaning
Solids removal
Lubricity
Inhibition
Formation Damage
Clay hydration
Fines migration
Incompatible water
Solids plugging
Emulsions
Table 11-1: Desired drill-in fluid attributes

There are three main categories of drill-in fluids that are
commonly utilized:
1. Water base: sized calcium carbonate or clear brine
2. Non-aqueous: synthetics (invert or 100% base oil)
3. Foam: nitrogen, air or gas (with or without additives)
The DIF must reduce/mitigate formation damage by
removing and/or lessening the quantity of additives
which are responsible for solids buildup in the pore
space/throats. The drill-in fluid must also be compatible
with the chemical nature and permeability of the
formation, as well as offer good hole cleaning.
Completion type (open or cased hole) is the primary
factor in the fluid selection (Table 11-2).



Primary
Concerns
Drill-In Fluid
Clean-Up and
Stimulation
Pre-Drilled
Liner
Completion
good bridging
and filter
cake quality
are needed to
prevent solids
from entering
pore network
ease of filter
cake removal
as the
scraping tools
cannot be
used
bridging
particles are
required for
filter cake
quality
acid soluble or
breaker
degradable
polymer
additives
calcium
carbonate or
sized salt can
be cleaned up
easily
either acid
wash or brine
with polymer
breakers
Pre-packed
or Premium
Screen
Completions
weight
materials and
bridging
agents from
conventional
drilling fluids
can
potentially
block these
devices
use either
ultrafine or
soluble
bridging
agents
biopolymer-
based fluid
provides
elevated, low
shear rate
rheology for
hole cleaning
fluid loss
achieved with
polymeric or
starch
additives
sized salt or
calcium
carbonate
bridging
agents

either acid
wash or
polymer
breakers

Table 11-2:Drill-in fluid selection for completion type

Primary
Concerns
Drill-In Fluid
Clean-Up and
Stimulation
Open Hole
Gravel Pack
Completion
weight
materials and
bridging
agents from
conventional
drilling fluids
can
potentially
block these
devices
use either
ultrafine or
soluble
bridging
agents
hole stability
during gravel
pack

biopolymer-
based fluid
provides
elevated, low
shear rate
rheology for
hole cleaning
fluid loss
achieved with
polymeric or
starch
additives
sized salt or
calcium
carbonate
bridging
agents

either acid
wash or
polymer
breakers

Table 11-2: Drill-in fluid selection for completion type
(continued)

A suitable DIF should build a filter cake on the face of the
formation, but not enter too far into the formation pore
space/throat. This can be accomplished with the addition
of sized particles of durable, easily remediated, bridging
additives into the fluid system. It is recommended that
the particles be chosen so that bridging can be effective;
typically at least a one third diameter of the mean pore
throat diameter and a wide particle size distribution
(PSD). In addition to reducing formation damage,
another benefit is that an optimal PSD, coupled with
tight filtration control, will significantly reduce
differential sticking tendencies while drilling.

Special consideration for drill-in fluid formulation should
be given in order to achieve a low filter cake lift-off
pressure during production initiation (Figures 11-3 and
11-4).

Figure 11-3: Proper filter cake deposited at the face of the
formation with minimum penetration

Figure 11-4: Improperly designed bridging agents resulting in
filter cake penetration into pore structure

The DIF filtrate should contain good shale inhibition
qualities to prevent shale swelling within the pore
throats, which creates a potential for formation damage.
The brines used with the DIF formulation should also be
compatible with the completion fluid. Important factors
for optimum filtration control are as follows:
Low spurt loss
Low total filtrate loss
Thin filter cake
Compatibility with minerals and fluids in the rock
It is important to utilize high quality products,
specifically polymers and starches. Bridging agents
should meet specified PSD requirements and be tested
prior to usage. QA/QC procedures should be in place to
ensure the quality of products meet the desired
specifications.
Laboratory testing is recommended for optimization of
the DIF formulation and should be based on known
reservoir parameters such as lithology (sand/shale),
bottom-hole pressure/temperature and average pore
throat diameter. For bridging optimization, the expected
pore throat diameter of the formation interval should be
used to identify the concentration and PSD of bridging
agents necessary to reduce filtrate and solids invasion
into the reservoir. The effectiveness of the bridging
agents should be tested in the laboratory with a
permeability plugging apparatus (PPA).
The order in which DIF products are added (Table 11-3) is
important to ensure proper yielding while reducing the
concentrations necessary to achieve recommended
properties.


Sample Mixing Procedure
Order of
Addition
Product Role in DIF
1 Soda Ash Removal of Ca
+2
2 KOH pH Control - Buffer
3 XCD
Polymer
Viscosifier
4 KCl Shale Inhibitor
5 Biocide Bacteria Growth Reducer
6 Starch Filtration Control
7 CaCO
3
Weighting/Bridging
Agent/LCM
Table 11-3: DIF mixing order example

A generic DIF formulation is shown in Table 11-4 and
provides typical concentrations of fluid products. It
should be noted that most drill-in fluids are formulated
for a specific application, and therefore products and
concentrations may vary.

Sample DIF Formulation
Soda Ash 0.5 lb/bbl
KOH
0.5 lb/bbl
KCl
7 lb/bbl
XCD Polymer
2 lb/bbl
Biocide
0.1 lb/bbl
Starch
7 lb/bbl
CaCO
3
Fine
10 lb/bbl
CaCO
3
Medium
10 lb/bbl
CaCO
3
Coarse
10 lb/bbl
Table 11-4: DIF formulation example

Magnesium oxide (not shown above in formulation) has
been used to dramatically improve the temperature
stability of various starch fluid loss products when added
to drill-in fluids.
Fluid measurements particularly important for DIF
applications (Table 11-5) include pH for inhibition of
bacteria growth, low shear rate viscosity (LSRV) to
ensure polymer yield/concentration for hole cleaning,
retort measurements for drilled solids concentration and
a laser-type particle size analyzer/sieve tester for PSD.
The LSRV can be measured using a BROOKFIELD
viscometer with appropriate spindle size for fluid
viscosity range. The BROOKFIELD viscometer is not a
common testing instrument seen at a drilling rig;

therefore it is a requested item and is typically utilized
for QA/QC testing in the laboratory environment.

Sample WBM DIF Properties
MW 8.8 9.0 lb/gal
PV <10 cp
YP 20 30 lb/100ft
2

RPM 3/6 10 12
LSRV (0.3 RPM) 25,000 30,000 cp
pH 9.0 10.0
% Insoluble
Solids, weight max < 2% by weight
Table 11-5: WBM DIF properties example

Careful attention should be paid to bridging agent
additions for maintenance, as particle sizes will diminish
with each circulation. Typically, maintenance is carried
out by adding the larger particle size range, in lieu of a
more blended sizing as in the initial formulation.
It is recommended to use additional shearing devices
and/or pre-mix tanks for initial makeup, as well as
product additions to limit fish-eyeing of the starch and
polymers while also increasing the yield of each. This will
also reduce the overall cost by minimizing the
concentration of polymer needed to achieve and
maintain recommended LSRV and mud properties. In
areas where only a standard rig hopper is available with
no upgrading potential, it is recommended to decrease
the rate of addition to reduce fish eying.
Any drilled solids that remain in the mud system after
circulation increase the potential for formation damage.
The best choice to reduce the insoluble solids content is
using whole mud dilution when the percent insoluble by
weight exceeds 2 wt%. The second best option is using
solids control equipment on the rig to allow for the
highest solids control efficiency as possible. This can be
achieved with screening up to as fine as possible (API
140+ mesh) on shaker screens.

Chapter 12: Corrosion and Acid Gases
CHAPTER 12: CORROSION AND ACID GASES

Corrosion can be defined as the chemical or
electrochemical reaction between a material, usually a
metal, and its environment that produces a deterioration
of the material and its properties. In other words,
corrosion is the result of chemical or electrochemical
reactions which return refined metal to its original form.
A refined metal will always attempt to revert to its
original state. However, proper care of a refined metal
will extend its useful life. In short, corrosion will be
decreased by keeping the metal clean and protected.
Corrosion and its effects impact every aspect of the
drilling, completion and production process.
Corrosion can be caused by several different
mechanisms, including dissolved gases, galvanic currents
generated on metal surfaces by electrochemical cells,
stray currents and bacterial action. Since it is basically
an electrochemical process, an electrical circuit must be
established for corrosion to occur.
The best analogy for electrochemical corrosion is a
battery circuit which is composed of four primary parts:
Anode This is the equivalent to the negative
electrode of a battery and the point where
metals dissolve or go into solution
Cathode The battery equivalent of the positive
pole where hydrogen is produced
Conductor - There must be a coupling or
electrical bridge between the anode and cathode
to complete the circuit allowing the electrons to
flow
Electrolyte - An electrical potential difference
between the anode and cathode must exist when
immersed in an electrolytic medium
The anode and cathode exist on the drillpipe itself. The
drilling fluid can serve as the electrolytic medium, and
the coupling is created by the drillpipe steel. The
potential difference is created by the crystalline
structure and different metals used in the drilling pipe
alloy, or as a result of scale formation.
Several factors, including temperature, pressure, pH, and
dissolved salts affect the rate at which corrosion
proceeds. Most of these factors are interrelated and
have a synergistic effect on the corrosion rate. The basic
relationships are as follows:
Temperature
o As temperature increases, the rate of
corrosion increases. If all other factors
remain constant, the corrosion rate
doubles for each 20 to 50
o
F increase in
temperature.
o Temperature decreases the solubility of
corrosive gases (O
2
, CO
2
, H
2
S), thus
decreasing the corrosiveness of the
fluid. Note that solubility refers to the
solubility of gas at surface pressure, and
does not include chemical reactions of
gases such as carbon dioxide (CO
2
) and
hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S) with the fluid.
Pressure
o As pressure increases, the solubility of
most corrosive gases will increase.
o When the fluid is pumped downhole,
entrained or trapped air in the fluid
quickly goes into solution as the
pressure increases.
o This dramatically affects the oxygen
content of the fluid, which increases its
corrosivity.
pH
o In general, corrosion rate decreases as
pH increases.
o At ambient temperatures, corrosion
rates rapidly decrease as the pH
increases.
o As pH is increased above 10.5, very little
additional reduction in corrosion rate is
obtained. For pH values below 4.0,
ferrous oxide (FeO) is soluble. As a
result, the oxide dissolves as it is formed,
rather than depositing on the metal
surface to form a film that would inhibit
corrosion. At a high pH, there is an
increase in the rate of the reaction of
oxygen with Fe(OH)
2
(hydrated FeO) in
the oxide layer to form the more
protective ferric oxide (Fe
2
O
3
), which
forms a skin on the metal surface,
reducing the potential for corrosion.
Dissolved salts
With increasing salt concentration, conductivity
rises, thus increasing corrosion rate.
However, increasing salt concentration reduces
oxygen solubility, in turn decreasing corrosion
rate.
The overall effect is a short-lived rise in
corrosion rate due to conductivity. In the case of
chloride salts, corrosion rate rises until the
chloride concentration reaches approximately
18,000 mg/L. Above this range, as chloride
concentration increases, oxygen solubility and
corrosion rate decrease.
Corrosion rates are calculated from corrosion coupons
which are strategically placed in the drill string. The
coupons are a known weight and are normally placed in
the crossover sub above the drill collars and/or in the
kelly saver sub or mud saver sub. The coupons should be
run in the drill string for at least 40 hours. The time a
coupon is run must be accurately reported to be able to
determine the actual rate of corrosion.
The weight of material lost per square area in a given
period of time will give the rate of corrosion. Rates may
be reported as pounds per square foot per year
(lb/ft
2
/yr), kilograms per square meter per year
(kg/m
2
/yr), or in mils per year (mpy), which is actually a
thickness reduction (Table 12-1). A mil is defined as one
thousandth of an inch.

Rate lb/ft
2
/yr kg/m
2
/yr mpy
Acceptable 0 2 0 - 10 0 - 50
Moderate 2 4 10 - 20 50 - 100
High 4 6 20 - 30 100 - 150
Severe >6 >30 >150
Table 12-1: Corrosion coupon corrosion rate ranges

Multiple coupon runs are necessary to give an accurate
corrosion rate. One run will give two data points and will
indicate a linear rate of corrosion. This is not always an
accurate representation of what is really occurring. The
type of corrosion indicated is also very important. If
uniform corrosion has taken place, weight loss numbers
may be a valid indicator of corrosion severity; however,
pits may completely penetrate a coupon with little
weight loss, incorrectly indicating a low corrosion rate.
Corrosion coupons come in various sizes and
metallurgies; therefore, it is important to have the
proper ones available.

Oxygen Corrosion
Many water base drilling fluids in use today are more
corrosive than those used in the past. Low solids non-
dispersed (LSND) and low pH polymer fluids will tend to
be more corrosive due to the elevated quantities of
oxygen associated with the systems and the limited use
of lignosulfonates. Used in sufficient quantities,
lignosulfonate acts as an oxygen scavenger. If it is not
being used, it is advisable to monitor the O
2
level in the
mud and use a high quality oxygen scavenger. It has
been shown that dissolved oxygen levels exceeding 1.0
mg/L accelerate corrosion.
Oxygen enters a drilling fluid system at many points:
Shale shakers and hoppers
Cascading drilling fluids
Surface guns
Suction leaks
Centrifugal pumps
Desanders and desilters
When associated with CO
2
and H
2
S, as little as five parts
per billion O
2
can greatly accelerate corrosion. In
general, oxygen corrosion affects the drillpipe, casing,
pumps and surface equipment. This corrosion commonly
occurs under residual mud when pipe is stored in other
restricted areas, such as drillpipe protector rubbers.
Poorly functioning pipe wipers are often overlooked as a
cause of oxygen corrosion. These wipers may leave mud
streaks on the drillpipe which dry and set up a potential
corrosion cell. Localized cells are formed where steel is
in contact with aerated solutions at one place and with
oxygen deficient solutions in another.
Oxygen corrosion is a reaction that will occur where iron,
water and oxygen are present. The reaction at the anode
occurs under reducing conditions, usually under mud,
rust or other barriers. Oxygen is required at the cathode
to supply OH
-
for the continuation of the reaction at the
anode. The reaction that occurs is a two-step process
resulting in ferrous hydroxide deposition at the cathode.
In general, as water gets colder, the solubility of oxygen
increases. For example, in fresh water, 14.6 mg/L O
2
are
soluble at 32F (0C) compared to 7.8 mg/L at 86F (30
o
C). Therefore, during winter months, corrosion rates in
water base fluids may increase because of increased O
2

solubility, due to decreasing temperature at the surface.
It should be noted that studies from a closed loop
dynamic simulation of downhole conditions show that
oxygen concentrations downhole are not reduced by
increased temperature. This is because the system is
closed and the oxygen cannot escape to the atmosphere.
The course of action that reduces the amount of oxygen
that enters the drilling fluid should be the initial step in
alleviating the potential for oxygen corrosion to occur.
Submerging hopper and mud gun discharges below the
mud will minimize the oxygen content of the drilling
fluid. The fluids pH should be maintained at the highest
practical level to reduce corrosion levels. To chemically
remove oxygen from the drilling fluid, a sulfite oxygen
scavenger is recommended. Oxygen will be removed by
the oxidation of sulfite (SO
3
-2
) to sulfate (SO
4
-2
).
The sulfite scavenger should be injected directly into the
pump suction line for maximum effectiveness. A
minimum sulfite concentration of 100 ppm should be
maintained at the flowline. Should corrosion rates be
excessive, the sulfite content may need to be increased
to a range of 250 to 300 ppm.
Caution: The sulfate formed by the reaction of oxygen
and sulfite creates a potential food source for sulfate
reducing bacteria. Sulfate reducing bacterial generate
H
2
S, which will also cause corrosion to occur.

Carbon Dioxide (Sweet Corrosion)
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) corrosion, sometimes referred to
as sweet corrosion, is attributed to the following:
Carbon dioxide intrusion which occurs as a gas
kick
Slow bleed-in of carbon dioxide while drilling
Entrapment of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the
mud at the surface and circulated downhole
Formation waters containing bicarbonate (HCO
3
-
)
or carbonate (CO
3
=
)
Bacterial or thermal degradation of fluid
additives
Contamination of barite or bentonite
Sweet corrosion refers to a condition where no iron
sulfide corrosion by-product occurs from the result of a
sour gas (H
2
S) type corrosion. Carbon dioxide can enter
into the wellbore from the formation and reach the
surface as a gas or react completely with the water
phase of the drilling fluid before reaching the surface.
The solubility of CO
2
in the water component depends
upon the partial pressure of the CO
2
entrained in the
mud. The partial pressure of an ideal gas (most gases are
ideal at ambient conditions) in a mixture is equal to the
pressure it would exert if it occupied the same volume
alone at the same temperature. The total pressure of a
gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of each
individual gas in the mixture. The greater the partial
pressure, the greater the solubility of CO
2
and the
greater the severity of the corrosion that occurs as a
result.
Carbon dioxide corrosion can cause severe pitting
(worm-eaten appearance) and sharp cracks in fatigue
areas. When water is present, CO
2
dissolves, forming
carbonic acid, which is a weak acid corroding steel just
like any other acid. The corrosion product is iron
carbonate (siderite) scale. Carbon dioxide can also cause
embrittlement, resulting in stress corrosion cracking.
The quantity of carbon dioxide present to cause
corrosion is a function of pH due to the CO
2
/HCO
3
-
/CO
3
-2

equilibria. As pH decreases, HCO
3
-
converts to carbonic
acid (H
2
CO
3
) and corrosion increases. Conversely, as the
pH rises, the minerals in the water will precipitate and
could become scale-forming, leading to a decrease in
corrosion. This rise in pH may be accomplished with a
reduction in the system pressure, which allows CO
2
to
come out of solution.
Generally, an increase in pressure will increase the
solubility of CO
2
in water and an increase in temperature
will decrease the solubility of CO
2
in water. Dissolved
minerals act as a buffer, preventing the reduction of pH
in water containing CO
2
, thereby influencing the rate of
corrosion in a given system.
Detecting carbon dioxide in water base drilling fluid is
not always easy, as it will depend upon the quantity of
reactive solids present in the fluid, but it can be
identified by several means:
Reduction in pH
Increase in rheology values and fluid loss
Increase in HCO
3
-
and CO
3
=
content
Identification by gas detection equipment
Iron carbonate, magnesium carbonate, or
calcium scale on the drillpipe
Increased corrosion rates
Small influxes of CO
2
into water base muds can be
neutralized with caustic soda and lime or gypsum while
maintaining a pH of 10.0 or higher is an easy, cost-
effective treatment method.
Where a CO
2
influx has become severe or where
neutralization requires large treatments, several steps
will be necessary to minimize the corrosive effect on the
drillstring:
If possible, raise the fluid density to stop the
influx.
Treat with caustic soda and lime to neutralize
the acid gas and treat system with a scale
inhibitor to prevent scale deposition.
Monitor alkalinities and pH periodically to ensure
that carbonates are precipitated and solubility of
carbon dioxide is minimized.
Polymer-type thinners will act to sequester metals and
soluble calcium may appear low or unavailable.
Detecting carbon dioxide tends to be more difficult in
non-aqueous fluids (NAFs) than water base drilling fluids
and is not dependent upon the quantity of reactive solids
present in the fluid, but CO
2
can be identified by several
means:
Reductions in alkalinity and excess lime
Electrical stability (ES) could decrease
Identification by gas detection equipment
Corrosion rates associated with carbon dioxide in NAF
should be extremely low due to the non-conductive
properties of the non-aqueous fluid. Even though
corrosion rates are low, it may be desirable to treat the
CO
2
contamination to minimize the detrimental effects to
the fluid properties (e.g. emulsion stability, fluid loss).
Additions of lime will react with the CO
2
, neutralizing the
effects on the fluid. It should be noted that the by-
product of this neutralization is calcium carbonate.
Therefore, if large quantities of CO
2
are being
neutralized, an increase in rheology and solids content
should be expected.

Hydrogen Sulfide (Sour Corrosion)
H
2
S is a colorless gas that is extremely toxic and
corrosive. H
2
S can wreak havoc on mud systems,
affecting viscosity, fluid loss and overall mud properties.
In very low concentrations it has a rotten egg odor and
causes eye and throat irritation. H
s
S can also be lethal
when exposure concentrations exceed 1,800 ppm for 1 to
2 minutes.
Hydrogen sulfide is associated with gas intrusion,
makeup water and bacteria. Thermal degradation of
water base drilling fluid additives will also contribute
minor amounts. When dissolved in water, hydrogen
sulfide is a weak acid and becomes corrosive. In the
presence of CO
2
or O
2
and water, hydrogen sulfide
becomes severely corrosive due to the driving voltage
increase of the resulting corrosion cell.
Iron sulfide and atomic hydrogen are the typical
products of these reactions. The iron sulfide scale
produced by this reaction will adhere to the steel
surfaces as a black scale. This in turn produces a
galvanic action between the steel and sulfide scale which
causes deep pitting.
Hydrogen sulfide can cause severe weakening of a steel
pipe by a process called hydrogen embrittlement. The
atomic hydrogen released in the above reaction can
enter the steel matrix where it can combine with the
steel and cause it to become brittle. Hydrogen atoms
evolved from H
2
S can penetrate into the steel structure,
especially along stress cracks, and combine to form
molecular hydrogen or react with carbon compounds in
the steel. This molecular hydrogen tends to blister
ductile steel and crack high strength steel. Short
exposure times to hydrogen sulfide can cause
permanent weakness in the pipe, even after it has been
removed from the H
2
S environment. Steels with yield
strengths below approximately 90,000 psi are nearly
immune to sulfide cracking. A high resistant chrome
(HRC) of less than 22 grade is usually in this range.
Hydrogen sulfide solubility is very dependent upon pH
and its disassociation increases with an increase of pH.
Optimum disassociation level is obtained at
approximately 7.0 pH. As the pH increases, the
concentration of existing hydrogen sulfide will decrease
to a very low level. Tubular cracking tendencies are also
drastically reduced if the pH is maintained above 10.0.
It is important that H
2
S be detected quickly and
accurately, as small amounts can be lethal to human life.
Detection of hydrogen sulfide in water base drilling fluids
can be done by several methods. If there is a possibility
of encountering H
2
S, gas detectors or monitors should
be installed on the drilling rig to detect unreacted H
2
S
gas at the surface. Additionally, there are two common
chemical tests that can be used to determine the total
sulfides, both soluble and insoluble, in a drilling fluid.
When testing for the presence of sulfides in a water base
drilling fluid, it is extremely important that the filtrate
used be as fresh as possible. The filtrate should be taken
from a sample of fluid freshly collected at the flowline.
Exposure of the fluid or filtrate to the atmosphere
should be minimal, as this reduces the accuracy of the
test.
There are two tests that can be performed to identify
H
2
S in the drilling fluid, Hach and Garrett Gas Train (GGT)
tests. The Hach test is used to detect hydrogen sulfide
in the acid form, or as soluble sulfides in makeup water,
filtrate or mud. As previously seen, the concentration of
H
2
S will decrease as the pH increases. Therefore, the test
is performed in an acid environment to measures H
2
S as
a gas. The GGT can be used to analyze soluble and
insoluble sulfides in the mud filtrate. The test uses a
controlled CO
2
flow from a gas cartridge to force H
2
S
from an acidized sample of fluid or filtrate.
If hydrogen sulfide gas is encountered or expected to be
encountered when using a water base system, the pH of
the mud should be maintained above 10. At an elevated
pH, H
2
S is converted to soluble sulfide, which exhibits a
reduced tendency to cause hydrogen embrittlement.
Additions of caustic soda and lime should be used to
increase the pH above 10. Do not use caustic soda alone,
because caustic reacts to form sodium sulfide (Na
2
S),
which is extremely soluble, and H
2
S may be released
from the fluid if the pH drops. Lime is recommended
instead because it forms calcium sulfide (CaS) which is
only slightly soluble and will precipitate from the system.
However, since soluble sulfides are corrosive and will
revert back to H
2
S if a reduction in pH occurs, do not rely
on this approach for total control. An H
2
S scavenger
should be added to the system, in addition to increasing
the pH.
A number of H
2
S scavengers, utilizing different
chemistries, are commercially available and are listed
below:
Basic Zinc Carbonate (2ZnCO
3
3Zn(OH)
2
) -
normally used as an H
2
S scavenger in water base
systems. The reaction of zinc carbonate with
sulfides is irreversible, forming insoluble zinc
sulfide (ZnS) and will occur within a pH range of
3.4 to 14. Approximately 1 lb/bbl (2.85 kg/m
3
)
zinc carbonate is needed to remove 500 mg/L of
the sulfide ion. If used as pretreatment, no more
than 5 lb/bbl (14.27 kg/m
3
) should be added to
the system. It should be noted that the reaction
of zinc carbonate with H
2
S will also form soluble
carbonates, which will need to be treated.
Zinc Oxide - an inorganic compound with the
formula ZnO. The reaction of zinc oxide with
sulfides is irreversible, forming insoluble zinc
sulfide (ZnS) and water.
Iron Oxide (Fe
3
O
4
) - can be used in water base
drilling fluids as an H
2
S scavenger. The reaction
of iron oxide with sulfides produces iron sulfide
(FeS). It is specially formulated to have a very
high surface area and is very effective when
used in a low pH environment. Treatment levels
will be dependent upon the pH of the system and
the rate of hydrogen sulfide intrusion into the
mud system, but will usually be in the range of 10
to 30 lb/bbl. An excess of unreacted iron oxide
should be maintained in the mud at all times.
As with water base drilling fluids, detection of hydrogen
sulfide in non-aqueous drilling fluids can be done by
several methods. If there is a possibility of encountering
H
2
S, gas detectors or monitors should be installed on the
drilling rig to detect unreacted H
2
S gas at the surface.
Additionally, the Garrett Gas Train can be used for
detecting H
2
S in NAFs. Unlike the water base fluids that
use filtrate for H
2
S determination, whole mud is used for
H
2
S determination in NAFs.
For superior protection of the drill string and tubulars
when H
2
S or any acid gas is anticipated, a NAF is
recommended. The main advantage of a continuous oil
phase fluid for drilling acid gas-bearing formations is the
prevention of the various types of corrosion listed. The
non-conductive nature of the NAF inhibits the
electrochemical reaction necessary for corrosion to
occur. The oil forms a protective oil film on the drillpipe
which is not readily removed by the oil-wet solids
through an erosion process. The primary precautions
taken with the NAF system are to carry an alkalinity
above 1 mL of 10 normal sulfuric acid per mL of mud in
the whole mud alkalinity test, and circulate the fluid
through a mud-gas separator and vacuum degasser.
Additionally, the use of zinc oxide (ZnO) to scavenge H
2
S
is recommended.

Bacteria-Induced Corrosion
Tubulars can suffer severe corrosion as the result of
bacterial action. Microorganisms (e.g. bacteria)
contribute to corrosion in different ways. For
microorganisms to accelerate corrosion rates, suitable
conditions must exist to promote their growth. An ideal
environment for bacterial growth includes moisture,
minerals, organic matter such as starch and polymers,
an energy source and a suitable pH. Some bacteria act
as cathodic depolarizers, while others form slimes or
growths that shield a portion of the metal and set up
oxygen concentration cells.
Microorganisms affecting corrosion are classified
according to the presence (aerobic) or absence
(anaerobic) of oxygen. In aerobic environments, the
species Thiobacillus accounts for most of the corrosion.
These bacteria convert sulfur to sulfuric acid, which will
stimulate corrosion. Under anaerobic conditions, sulfate
reducing microorganisms such as Desulfovibrio can
cause sulfide corrosion. These organisms utilize
hydrogen formed by electrochemical corrosion during
their growth and reduce sulfate to H
2
S. Both hydrogen
utilization and H
2
S formation cause increased corrosion
rates. This mechanism involves both the direct attack on
iron by hydrogen sulfide and cathodic depolarization. In
aerated drilling fluids, sulfate reducing bacteria may be
found within active corrosion pit areas where the oxygen
content becomes low. Anaerobic bacteria can turn the
drilling fluid black and produce a rotten egg smell. If
sulfate reducing bacteria are present, alterations to the
fluid chemistry will be required. Increasing the pH to 10.0
or above, in addition to the use of a bactericide, is
recommended.
As a general rule, the use of very high pH muds is not
desirable due to the detrimental effect of the hydroxyl
(OH
-
) ion on exposed shale, which could potentially lead
to wellbore instability. To prevent bacterial growth from
occurring, especially when using water base muds with
near a neutral pH (<9.5), pre-treatment of all makeup
water with a biocide should be standard practice. In
addition, daily additions of biocide should be made to the
drilling fluid system and bacterial growth monitored.
A quick reference guide to preventing and treating the
various types of corrosion is shown in Table 12-2.

Table 12-2: Quick reference guide for corrosion in drilling fluids
Chapter 13: Gas, Foam, and Aerated Drilling Fluid Systems
CHAPTER 13: GAS, FOAM, AND AERATED
DRILLING FLUID SYSTEMS

Gas, foam and aerated fluids are used to drill when
annular pressure less than that produced by a column of
a normal drilling fluid is desired. While these are forms of
under-balanced drilling, they differ from simply drilling
with a lower mud weight than the formation pore
pressure, as they rely in part or entirely on the use of a
gas as a drilling fluid.
The most common reasons for drilling with aerated,
foam and gas drilling fluids are:
Controlling lost circulation
Reducing or avoiding formation damage and
improving production
Increasing ROP

Controlling Lost Circulation
If the cause of lost circulation is due to the differential
pressure between the column of fluid in the annulus and
the pore pressure in the formation, then a reduction in
the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus will generally
result in a reduction in the rate of flow into the
formation (losses). If the hydrostatic pressure can be
reduced to or below the pore pressure, losses can be
stopped entirely. The use of gas to reduce the effective
mud weight, or drilling entirely with a gas or foam, can
drastically lower the annular fluid density, reducing or
eliminating losses. This effect can be understood by
looking at the simplest form of the flow equation
(Darcy's Law for a linear system, i.e. a lengthwise
coreflood).
q =
k
p
P
1
-P
2
I

where q is the flow rate, k is permeability, is the fluid
viscosity, P
1
and P
2
are the pressures on either side, and
L is the length.
As the difference between P
1
and P
2
is reduced, the rate
of flow drops. Additionally, as this pressure variation is
the cause of differential sticking, the reduction in
annular pressure can help to alleviate this drilling
problem.
Operationally, controlling losses with a reduced density
drilling fluid can be done in two ways; using a reduced
density system from the beginning of the zone
(expecting losses and drilling the entire interval under-
balanced), or by having the system on standby and
utilizing it only once losses are encountered. With these
systems, some gas may enter the formation as bubbles
which blocks pore throats, further reducing losses, but
potentially impairing productivity and logging.

Reducing Formation Damage and Improving
Productivity
As with any under-balanced drilling operation, systems
utilizing gases to reduce density can significantly reduce
formation damage. This is possible due to the reduction
or elimination of drilling fluid invasion into the formation.
Without invasion, native permeabilities remain
undisturbed and the formation's original wettability is
unchanged. Fine particles in the drilling mud do not enter
the formation to plug pore throats and precipitation
from chemical interactions is avoided. As a result, the
wells skin factor is significantly reduced and higher
production is possible. Additionally, the wells may
require less stimulation to bring them on line, saving
time and cost. These effects are particularly pronounced
in lower permeability formations, especially with gas.
The difference may not be so evident in higher
permeability or fracture formations, or wells that
undergo hydraulic fracturing.

Increasing ROP
One of the advantages of drilling with a lower density
fluid is the improvement in the rate of penetration. This
occurs with all fluids, not just ones utilizing gases. But,
with the low densities achievable with gases, the
increase in ROP can be very significant. The increase is
due to the reduction in the confined compressive
strength of the rock. The confined compressive strength
can be described as a measurement of the hardness of
the rock, which takes into account the pressures
surrounding it. By reducing the annular pressure, the
confined compressive strength is decreased. The impact
of this can be seen in the following equation, which
comes from the Chevron Specific Energy Rate of
Penetration (SeROP) model.
R0P =
1S.SS - - N
B
B
[
CCS
EFF
M
- W0B
-
1
A
B

where ROP is the rate of penetration, is the bit
coefficient of sliding friction, N is the bit RPM, D
B
is the
bit diameter, EFF
M
is the bit mechanical efficiency, CSS is
the compressive confined stress, WOB is the weight on
bit, and A
B
is the borehole area.
Reducing the mud weight by even a few pounds per
gallon below the pore pressure can result in doubling or
more of the ROP. Care must be taken in such situations
to ensure good hole cleaning, as the cuttings load will
dramatically increase because the hole cleaning capacity
of aerated fluid, foam, or pure gas system is significantly
less than that of a conventional fluid. More than one well
has encountered a cuttings pack-off after not adjusting
drilling practices to compensate for higher ROP.

System Types
Systems utilizing gases can be broken into three
categories: aerated drilling fluids, foam systems, and dry
gas (air and gas drilling). Table 13-1 provides a brief
description of the systems and applications.

System Description Applications
Aerated
drilling
fluid
Air/nitrogen is added into
drilling mud. The liquid is the
continuous phase.
The air bubbles expand in the
annulus, reducing hydrostatic
pressure.
Few or no additives are
required.
Shallow wells with low
pressure formations
Unconsolidated or weak
formations
As a contingency for
normal operations to
control losses
Foam A polymer and/or bentonite
slurry is mixed with
compressed air to form a
continuous bubble phase.
Foaming additives are
necessary to create and
maintain the system.
Less phase separation
than aerated fluids,
while achieving lower
densities.
Can be used in place of
air drilling in water
bearing formations or
larger hole sizes.
Dry gas
(air
drilling)
High volumes of air/gas are
pumped. Little or no fluid is in
the system.
Used for extremely low
pressure formations
Typically for slim hole
applications
Cannot tolerate water
Table 13-1: Gas, foam and aerated system descriptions and
applications
Aerated Drilling Fluids
Aeration refers to the introduction of air into a fluid. In
the context of drilling operations, aeration is the use of a
compressor unit to create high pressure gas which is
injected into a drilling mud. Two gases are primarily
used: air and nitrogen. Both will be discussed in this
section, but the generic term air will be used to denote
both, unless otherwise specified.
The aeration of a drilling fluid is one of the simplest ways
to control losses, reduce formation damage, and
increase ROP. The air is injected into the flow system,
usually at the standpipe, resulting in bubbles in the liquid
flow. As air is compressible and the flow line pressure is
significantly higher than atmospheric pressure, the
bubbles are quite small and do not significantly affect
the density of the fluid in the drillstring. As the bubbles
reach the annulus, the pressure reduces and the bubbles
expand. This in turn causes the effective mud weight to
drop. Additionally, as the bubbles expand the bulk flow
rate of the mud increases. For example, if 300 gallons of
air are injected per minute into the standpipe where the
mud flow rate is also 300 gallons per minute, the total
flow rate of the aerated fluid will be just over 300
gallons per minute in the standpipe, but almost 600
gallons per minute at the bell nipple. It should be noted
that at higher air injection rates and/or significant hole
deviation, separation can occur between the air and
liquid phase. The result is the alternation of slugs of air
and liquid arriving at the surface.
Aerating fluid is most effective in shallow wells and very
significant drops in ECD can be seen for air injection
rates within the range of standard units.
Figure 13-1 shows the effect of aeration on equivalent
circulating density for an example well. An 8.5-inch hole
size is assumed and the liquid flow rate is 300 gpm for a
9 ppg drilling mud. The graph shows various air injection
rates, ranging from 300 to 3,000 gpm of air (1:1 ratio to
10:1 ratio of air to liquid). This is in the range of a
standard size compressor unit. It can be seen that at
shallow depths, the effect is quite pronounced, even at
relatively modest air flow rates. As depth increases, the
effectiveness of the aeration diminishes rapidly, and at
10,000 feet, even at the highest flow rate, less than a 2
ppg reduction is seen.

Figure 13-1: Equivalent circulating density for example well

Equipment
The equipment required to adapt a normal drilling rig to
aerated operations is relatively simple and can usually
be obtained, or in some cases fabricated, without too
much difficulty. The main items are as follows:
Rotating Head: A rotating head is needed to
divert pressurized mud, otherwise flow may
come up the BOP onto the rig floor. A drilling rub
is stabbed into on the rotating head to create the
necessary seal. High and low pressure rotating
heads are available and should be properly sized
to the intended operations.
Closed Flow Ditch: This is required to prevent
spillage of the aerated fluid over the location.
This can have baffle plates installed, allowing it
to operate as a "Poor-boy degasser".
Possum Belly Cover: Installed on top of the
possum belly. It is used to contain the high
pressure mud when returns approach. This
prevents a spray of mud that could pose a safety
hazard.
Flow Y Connection: Should be designed to
reduce the vibration where air is injected into
the mud on the standpipe. A smooth collision is
needed in this system so that vibration will be
reduced which will help on the wear on the pump
and eliminate the pop-off from falsely releasing.
Air Compressor: Usually a standard air/nitrogen
compressor unit offered by many service
vendors. Care should be taken to acquire a unit
with specifications that meet the required flow
rates at standpipe pressures.
Drillpipe Check Valve: Used to hold the back
pressure in the drill string, eliminating the pipe
from U-tubing.
Drillpipe Bleed off: Used to release the pressure
in the drillpipe below the check valve.
Drillpipe Stabbing Cone: The cone is used to stab
the drillpipe through the rotating head rubber.
Gas Hog: Installed to increase the efficiency of
breaking the air out of solution.
Modification may be needed on certain parts of the rig,
including upgrading the pop-off valves, installing dresser
sleeves, and so on. In some cases, when only a small
amount of aeration is desired, air can be sucked in
through a rig hopper, avoiding the need for a
compressor and associated equipment.
Determining the density of the fluid to determine
downhole pressures can be problematic due to the gas in
the mud. The use of a pressurized mud balance can give
an accurate measurement. If one is not available, ensure
that the fluid sample is mixed or stirred until as much air
as possible is removed from the mud before measuring
the density.
The use of an aerated drilling fluid is either throughout
an entire section, or brought in to combat specific losses.
If aeration is being used throughout the section, all
equipment needs to be in place before drilling begins. At
each connection, the injected air needs to be turned off
prior to breaking the connection. This is an important
safety point and good communication is vital between
the injector personnel and the rig crew. If a removable
drillpipe check valve is being placed in the drillpipe, it
needs to be moved to the new stand to be drilled. If
aeration is a contingency for losses, all of the equipment,
except for the injection unit and rotating head, may be
rigged up at the beginning of a job. When severe losses
are encountered, some time may be needed to prepare
additional mud volumes before proceeding. During this
time, the injection unit can be rigged up to the standpipe
and the driller can stab into the rotating head rubber. As
operating procedures are different than with normal
drilling, a safety meeting should be held to ensure that
there is proper management of change, good
communication and that all appropriate practices are
followed.

Aerated Mud Properties
The required fluid properties vary depending on the
application and depth of the well. Density, solids content,
gel strengths, and plastic viscosity must all be controlled
at low and constant values. The yield point will depend
on the type of fluid being used, but should be in a proper
range with respect to the plastic viscosity. Yield point
control is required in order to allow the air to be
removed when it reaches the surface. Injection
pressures will remain low if hydrostatic pressure and
system pressure losses are maintained at low values. As
well depth increases, controlling hydrostatic and system
pressure losses becomes more important in order to
avoid surpassing the capabilities of the air equipment.
Maintaining a pH above 10 will assist in corrosion control.
However, higher pH could cause polymer precipitation or
cuttings dispersion, depending on the type of mud being
used.

Common Aerated Fluid Types
Some common fluids used in aerated drilling are low-
solids and non-dispersed (LSND) muds and salt muds.
LSND muds are especially good with aerated drilling
muds because they offer shear thinning properties which
give low circulating pressures. Their major drawback is a
tendency to disperse cuttings at a high pH, so care must
be exercised when selecting additives in order to prevent
dispersion. Potassium chloride muds are very successful
in solving unstable shale problems in air-liquid circulating
systems. Potassium hydroxide should be used for pH
control. Fluid loss control may be obtained by using
polyanionic cellulose. The major disadvantage of salt
water muds is a higher corrosion rate compared to fresh
water muds. Removal of entrained air or gas from a salt
water mud can be difficult. Table 13-2 lists some typical
additives in an aerated system. It should be noted that
aerated systems can function with no additional
additives beyond the initial mud formulation, but in some
cases, adjusting mud properties is important to produce
good results.

Additive Function Typical
Concentration
(lb/bbl)
Bentonite Provides
viscosity and
wall cake
3 to 12
Partially hydrolyzed
polyacrylamide
(PHPA)
Creates
viscosity and
shale stability
0.5 to 1.5
Polyanionic cellulose
polymer (PAC)
Fluid loss
control
.5 to 1.5
Lime Inhibits
corrosion
0.8 to 1.5
Foaming agent To initial
aeration
As needed, this is
option if returns are
problematic
Table 13-2: Typical additives in an aerated system

Some common issues with aerated fluid include hole
cleaning, intermittent returns, corrosion, HES risks of
flowable hydrocarbons, logging, downhole tools, and
cementing.
Hole Cleaning
Air entrained in the fluid can affect the rheological
properties of the mud, reducing its effectiveness at hole
cleaning. Some basic remedies include increasing the
yield point of the mud through gel additives and
polymers. Foamers can be added to get a more foam-like
flow, but these can lead to cavitation problems with the
mud pumps, as all of the bubbles may not break out of
solution. Higher ROPs and intermittent flow can
exacerbate the situation. Controlled drilling is
recommended, and the volume of cuttings coming over
the shaker needs to be monitored. This takes some
experience to see what the normal volume of cuttings is
per stand, especially if flow is intermittent. Once this is
established, the amount of time circulating per
connection can be modified to match cuttings returns. It
should also be remembered that cuttings are likely to fall
back during connections, so care should be taken not to
pull into a tight spot once the connection is made.

Intermittent Returns
As the bubbles of air expand in the annulus, it is possible
for them to form large slugs of gas. This is more
problematic in deviated wells, where gravity separation
can occur, and with higher air flows. The lower the gel
strength and yield point, the more likely this is. The slugs
of air can be seen on surface as periods of no returns
followed by large volumes of mud and cuttings coming at
once. This sudden volume of mud can be quite dramatic
and even mistaken for a kick if no one is expecting it. A
covered possum belly and enclosed flow ditch are very
important in these situations to prevent large volumes of
mud spill on the location, thus causing an HES hazard.
Thought must be given to how the higher flow rate will
be dealt with at the shakers. When a large volume of
liquid overwhelms the shaker capacity, it must be
properly contained, even if that just means spilling
directly into the pits.
Another situation that can arise in a high permeability
loss zone is localized charging of the formation with
fluid. Typically, this happens when aeration is used only
after losses have occurred. Initially, the annular pressure
is too high and fluid flows into the formation. As the fluid
level drops and the air is injected into the system, the
annular pressure reaches the point where the localized
formation pressure is high enough to start returning
fluid back into the annulus. As the amount of fluid
pumped into the loss zone may significantly exceed the
total hole volume, once returns begin the fluid capacity
of a small rig may be overwhelmed. In this case, flow
must be diverted to the pit or some alternative short
term storage, such as a vacuum truck.

Corrosion
The injected air contains oxygen and carbon dioxide,
both of which are corrosive. The corrosive effect is a
function of the exposure time and volume of air pumped.
Various chemical additives may be added to prevent
corrosion, either by neutralizing the oxygen in the
mixture (oxygen scavenger) or by coating the pipe.
Additionally, scale inhibitors may be added. Maintaining
a pH above 10 will tend to help control corrosion, but
care must be taken so that an overly high pH does not
cause cuttings dispersion. If the aerated portions of wells
are short in nature and inspections are regular and
rigorous, it may be possible to operate without additional
additives, as long as caution is exercised.

Flowable Hydrocarbon Zones
If an air-based aerated fluid is used to drill through a
formation that bears flowable hydrocarbons, there is the
possibility of creating a combustible mixture. With a
rotating bit and drillpipe, an ignition source is also
present. Obviously, this is a very dangerous situation and
should be avoided. In the planning phase of a well using
air, all formations that could be drilled through should be
analyzed to ensure that they do not have the potential to
create this hazardous situation. If there is a chance or
even the possibility of a chance, air should be replaced
with nitrogen.

Logging
An aerated drilling fluid can cause some issues when
logging. The bubbles entrained in the fluid can enter the
formation or remain in the fluid during logging. This can
significantly impact some logs such as sonic and neutron
logs. If aerated fluids have been used in a section that is
being logged, it is important to inform the logger and the
formation evaluation personnel involved. Pumping
unaerated fluid just before the logging can alleviate
some of the log interference, but bubbles in the
formation may still cause issues. In lost circulation
situations where aeration has been used, it can be
difficult to maintain the fluid column high during a
wireline logging run. If fluid can be pumped in, that may
be an option, otherwise the logging operation must be
run as fast as safely possible to ensure that the borehole
at the formation of interest is still full of fluid, as most
logging sensors require fluid in order to function
properly.

Downhole Tools
An aerated fluid can pose problems to some downhole
tools. Most MWD tools that send a signal through the
drilling fluid cannot tolerate more than a few volume
percent air before the transmission begins to degrade.
The use of EMAG MWD tools is a way of avoiding this.
Otherwise, this may be a limiting factor in directional
wells. Downhole motors come in a variety of
configurations that can tolerate aeration all the way to
the point of being powered by only air. Pre-job planning
is important to ensure that the directional drilling service
provider can meet the required equipment
specifications.

Cementing
As with any other under-balanced drilling operation,
cementing jobs can be problematic. Various solutions
exist, including foam and reduced density cement
formulations. These can be effective in some situations,
but as aeration has been used to combat severe losses,
these expensive cements may just be pumped into the
formation. In such cases, sometimes it is necessary to
simply pump a large volume of cheap cement and, if
cement is not seen at surface, pump a top job to meet
well requirements.

Nitrogen in Aerated Fluid Applications
Nitrogen can be used instead of air in the aeration of a
drilling fluid. It functions in the same way as air and,
since the majority of air is nitrogen, very similar density
reductions are possible. Nitrogen offers a few key
advantages over air in aeration applications.
Nitrogen is not flammable. This means that it can
be used when drilling through hydrocarbon-
bearing formations that would otherwise prevent
an unacceptable HES risk. Care must be taken at
the surface to separate, treat, and/or dispose of
the hazardous formation gas.
Nitrogen is not corrosive. As a result, corrosion
additives are not necessary. This makes nitrogen
the gas of choice when corrosion concerns are
critical or when pipe and casing may be exposed
to gas for extended periods.
Nitrogen does have one significant drawback: cost. While
a compressor unit can take air directly from the
atmosphere, nitrogen requires pressurized tanks to
supply the necessary gas for operations. This is an added
expense, although many compressor units can be rigged
up to use either air or nitrogen. In many cases, nitrogen
is recovered by a degasser, allowing for reuse of the gas,
but again this is an extra piece of equipment.

Foam Drilling
Drilling foams utilize a mixture of water, surfactants,
polymers and/or bentonite for gel strength and yield
point, and sometimes anti-corrosion agents. Foams have
a much higher air to liquid ratio as compared to an
aerated system and consist of at least 70% gas by
volume. This translates to lower pressures and greater
under-balance. At the same time, foam systems are far
more tolerant to fluid influxes and can transport more
cuttings than a pure air or mist system, although salt
water and hydrocarbons can damage foam quality. If the
foam is properly generated, it will have a very stable
continuous phase. This is particularly helpful in deviated
wells where flow separation is problematic for aerated
fluids. The disadvantage is the specialized equipment
needed and associated costs. Foams are typically mixed
in a dedicated foaming unit, but the essentials for foam
operations are an air compressor, tanks for blending,
water, detergent and additives, a detergent solution
pump, a foam generator and injection manifold. Logging
can also be problematic depending on the tools and
measurements and can limit the use of foams if open
hole logs are a requirement.
Properly made up foam should end up having a shaving
cream like consistency. On close examination, a honey-
comb like structure can be observed. As the foam will
have less kinetic energy than normal or aerated fluid,
high annular velocities are necessary to transport
cuttings out of the wellbore. This often translates to 100
to 200 ft/min near the surface. As a result, air to fluid
ratios are in the range of 100:1 to 300:1. Table 13-3 shows
a typical formulation for a foam liquid phase.

Additive Concentration
(lb/bbl)
Volume % Function
Prehydrated Bentonite 10 to 15 - Builds Foam
Structure
Carboxymethylcellulose
(CMC)
0.5 - Foam
Stabalizer
and Drying
Agent
Guar Gum 0.2 to 0.5 - Foam
Stabilizer
Soda Ash 0.5 to 1.0 - Calcium
Treating
Agent
Caustic Soda/Caustic
Potash
0 to 0.5 - Corrosion
Protection
Foaming Agent - 1% Stabilizes Air
in Liquid
Potassium Chloride - 3-5% Shale
Stabilizer
Filming Amine - 0.5% Corrosion
Protection
Table 13-3: Example foam formulation
The quality of foam is important in ensuring good hole
cleaning and efficient drilling. Table 13-4 shows some
common problems in foam drilling and standard
treatments.

Problem Probable Cause Treatment
Quick drop in
pressure
Gas has broken
through the foam mix,
thereby preventing the
formation of stable
foam
Increase the liquid
injection rate and/or
decrease the air
injection rate
Slow increase in
pressure
Increase in cuttings, or
fluid from the
formation is being
carried to the surface
Increase the gas / air
injection rates
Fast increase in
pressure
Plugged bit or the
formation has packed-
off around drillpipe
Stop drilling and
attempt to regain
circulation
Gas blowing free
with mist of foam
Gas has broken
through the foam
mixture, preventing the
foam from becoming
stable
Increase the liquid
injection rate and/or
decrease the air
injection rate
Thin and watery
Two reasons:
1. Salt water from the
formation is diluting
the foam
2. Oil from the
formation is
contaminating the
foam
Increase the gas / air
injection rates, as
well as the % of
foaming agent
Table 13-4: Foam drilling problems and treatments

Operationally, foam drilling is similar in many ways to
aerated drilling, but it is far rarer to transition from a
normal fluid to a foam fluid in the middle of a section. It
is sometimes necessary to transition from air drilling to
foam drilling if flowing fluids are encountered, or hole
cleaning is inadequate. As with aerated drilling, it is
important to make sure that the rig crew is aware of the
additional safety concerns, such as ensuring that the
foam injection is turned off during connections.

Dry-Gas Drilling (Air Drilling)
Applications for dry-gas drilling are in hard formations
where water or oil flows are not likely to be encountered
and areas where drill water is scarce. Dry-gas drilling
uses compressed air or natural gas to cool and lubricate
the bit, to remove the cuttings from around the bit and
to carry them to the surface. Dry gas is injected down
the drillpipe while drilling and the cuttings are returned
to the surface as fine particles. The returns are vented
away from the rig in order to minimize the noise and
dust. Cuttings are caught by a specially designed screen
at the end of the blooey line or a specially designed
sample catcher.
In dry-gas drilling operations, the bottom-hole pressure
consists of the weight of the gas column, plus the
annular and blooey line pressure losses. The sum of
these pressures will usually be far less than the
formation pressure. Thus, the rate of penetration can be
very rapid due to the low hydrostatic pressure. Chip-
hold-down is also eliminated, making cuttings release
from the bottom of the hole much more efficient.
Overall, dry-gas drilling offers economic advantages in
high ROP and lower operational costs per foot of hole, as
compared to mud drilling. Dry-gas drilling operations
require special and careful planning. Gas compressibility
is a significant engineering consideration during both
planning and drilling phases. Other equally important
considerations are annular velocity requirements and
logging suite selections.
Gas annular velocity, rather than fluid rheology, is the
primary factor for cuttings transport when drilling with
dry gas. The annular velocity necessary to lift cuttings
determines the volume of gas that must be circulated.
These annular velocities are such that turbulent flow
always exists. To lift 3/8 inch to 1/2 inch cuttings, as a
general rule, an annular velocity of about 3000
ft/minute is required. Although most air- or gas-drilled
cuttings are quite small (dust particle size) when they
reach the surface, they are larger when they leave the
bottom of the hole. The milling action of the drillstring,
impact with other cuttings, and regrinding of large
particles at the bit are responsible for pulverizing them.
Logging is another factor to consider when drilling with
dry gas. Wellbores containing no fluid other than air or
gas can only be surveyed with devices that need no
liquid to establish contact with the formation. The
Induction Log is the only tool which can measure
formation resistivity in such holes. In multiple-zone
production, the Temperature Log indicates the relative
volumes of gas coming from each zone. The Noise Log
may be used to record zones of liquid or gas influx as
well as zones of severe loss. A relative amplitude log is
recorded and the noise may be monitored at the surface.
Water-bearing formations are the greatest limiting
factor to air or gas drilling. Small amounts of water can
be tolerated by adding drying agents such as CMC to the
dry gas to absorb the water. However, if the cuttings
become too moist they will stick together to form mud
rings which can block the annulus. If this occurs, loss of
circulation, stuck pipe, or even a downhole fire may
result.
Air
Air drilling is commonly used in areas where loss of
circulation with liquid type muds is a major problem. Air
is also used to drill hard, extremely low permeability rock
or formations. When drilling gas-bearing formations the
risk of downhole fires can be high. The chance of a
downhole fire when gas is present is increased if the
annulus becomes restricted, thus increasing the
pressure below the obstruction. Mud rings can cause this
type of problem. The standpipe pressure must be
continually monitored in order to detect and prevent an
excess pressure buildup. Even an increase in pressure of
about 15 psi can cause combustion to occur. Several
downhole tools have been designed to help combat fire
hazards. The Fire Float and Fire Stop are two of these
tools. The Fire Float is installed above the bit as a near-
bit protector. Under normal conditions it allows flow of
air while drilling, but does not allow back flow of air. If
the heat-sensitive ring is melted away by a downhole
fire, a sleeve falls and stops air flow in either direction. A
Fire Stop unit should be located at the top and midway in
the drill collar assembly. It consists of a simple flap
retained by a heat-sensitive zinc band. When the melt
temperature of the zinc band is exceeded, the flap closes
and air flow is halted. A quick rise in pressure at the
surface is noted which alerts the crew to the likelihood
of a fire.
Volume and pressure requirements must be considered
when selecting equipment for an air drilling program.
Surface pressure is determined by the total system
pressure losses. Atmospheric pressure decreases with
increasing elevation and relative humidity decreases
with increasing temperature. Equipment requirements
for a location which is situated at a high elevation in a
hot and dry climate are considerably different than
requirements for one which is in a cold, humid climate at
sea level. As a rule of thumb for compressors, there is a
3% loss in efficiency per 1000 ft of elevation.

Natural Gas
Natural gas, rather than air, is used as the circulating
medium when reservoirs contain appreciable quantities
of gas. Air cannot be used because of the danger of
downhole fires. The gas is compressed in the same
manner as air, but the return gas must either be flared
or collected to be put into a pipeline. Recycling of the
gas is not recommended because of the abrasive
particles in the used gas which would tend to damage
the compressors. Fire and explosion hazards around the
rigsite, due to gas leaks, are a constant danger when
drilling with natural gas.

References
REFERENCES

The following reference information is provided to assist
readers in locating supporting information for various sections
of this handbook.

CHAPTER 2: Drilling Fluid Properties
"Fluids Facts Engineering Handbook", Baker Hughes
Drilling Fluids, 2009.
"Drilling Fluids Course Manual", Unocal, 2002.
"Drilling Fluids Manual", Drilling Training Alliance,
Chevron and BP, 2007.
CHAPTER 3: HES Impacts of Drilling Fluids
Environmental Aspects of the Use and Disposal of Non
Aqueous Drilling Fluids Associated with Offshore Oil &
Gas Operations, International Association of Oil & Gas
Producers, Report No. 342, May 2003.
Composition, Environmental Fates and Biological Effect
of Water Based Drilling Muds and Cuttings Discharged to
the Marine Environment: A Synthesis and Annotated
Bibliography, Jerry M. Neff, Petroleum Environmental
Research Forum (PERF) and American Petroleum
Institute, January 2005.
Drilling Fluids and Health Risk Management, a Guide for
Drilling Personnel, Managers and Health Professionals in
the Oil and Gas Industry, International Association of
Oil and Gas Producers, 2009.

References
CHAPTER 4: Water Base Drilling Fluids
CHAPTER 5: Non-Aqueous Fluids
CHAPTER 6: Chemistry Concepts
Chemistry Concepts, Ben Bloys, Chevron ETC, 2004.
CHAPTER 7: Hole Cleaning
"Drilling Fluids Course Manual", Unocal, 2002.
"Applied Drilling Engineering", A.T. Bourgoyne, K.K.
Millhelm, M.E. Chenevert, F.S. Young SPE, 1991.
"Drilling Engineering", J.J. Azar, PennWell, 2007.
CHAPTER 8: Solids Control Equipment
Solids Control Handbook, Chevron, 1996.

References
CHAPTER 10: Common Drilling Fluid Related
Problems
Lost Circulation Prevention and Mitigation, Chevron
ETC, 2007.
"Applied Drilling Engineering", A.T. Bourgoyne, K.K.
Millhelm, M.E. Chenevert, F.S. Young SPE, 1991.
CHAPTER 11: Fluids-Related Productivity
Optimization
Drilling Fluids Manual, Baker Hughes Drilling Fluids,
1991.
CHAPTER 12: Corrosion and Acid Gases
Drilling Fluids Manual, BP and Chevron ETC, 2002.
Drilling Fluids Manual, Baker Hughes Drilling Fluids,
1991.
Manual of Drilling Fluids Technology, Halliburton Fluid
Services, 1996.
Drilling Fluids Engineering Manual, M-I SWACO, 1998.

References
CHAPTER 13: Gas, Foam, and Aerated
Drilling Fluid Systems
"Aerated Mud in Loss Circulation Zones", Jeff Wood and
Ian Harris, Chevron Report for San Joaquin Valley
Strategic Business Unit, 2008.
"Baroid Fluids Handbook", Halliburton, 1999.

HDBK Drilling FLUIDS

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HDBK Drilling FLUIDS

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Drilling Fluids

Drilling Fluids Handbook, Version 2-09

Drilling Fluids Handbook, Version 2-09

Drilling Fluids Handbook, Version 2-09

Drilling Fluids Handbook, Version 2-09

Chapter 2: Drilling Fluid Properties

Contaminant Compound/Ion Source

], 5000 to 10,000 mg/L: dilute with

Figure 10-2: Impact of downhole problems on torque and drag

Figure 10-3: Mud weight variations indicate sag after trip.

Drilling Fluid Guidelines to Prevent and Treat Barite

Energy Technology Company | 210

Appendix 10-2: Decision chart for treating loss circulation

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