Accuracy of the

Biblical Text
Gary W. (Matt) Mathison
4404 114 Street NW, Edmonton Alberta Canada T6J 1N1
Email: gwmath1@tel!"net
#ellow!hi$$ing at
Sharon %o!$el Cha$el o& Edmonton
June, 2010 (e!ise" 2011)
'The material in thi! man!(ri$t (an be &reel) di!tribted and !ed withot a(*nowledging the
athor+
Table o& Content!
,-er-iew"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" iii
1" .ntrod(tion"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1
/" 0ariation in Crrent %ree* New Te!tament 1an!(ri$t!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1
/"1 What i! meant b) %ree* Te2t3T)$e!4""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1
/"/" 0ariant! a! a $er(entage o& -er!e! in e(le(ti( te2t!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""5
/"5" 0ariant! a! a 6er(entage o& Nmber o& Word! in E(le(ti( Te2t!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""4
/"4" 0ariant! a! a 6er(entage o& Nmber o& Word! A(ro!! All 7nown New Te!tament
1an!(ri$t!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 8
/"8" Thoght!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 6
5" .! it Time &or the %ree* Te2t3t)$e 9ehind the 7ing Jame! Tran!lation to be 6t to :e!t4"""""";
5"1" .ntrod(tion"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" ;
5"/" Crrent Stat! o& <i&&erent Te2t3T)$e!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""";
5"/"1" We!tern"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" ;
5"/"/" Cae!arean"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" =
5"/"5" Ale2andrian""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" >
5"/"4" 9)?antine"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 10
5"/"8" Thoght!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 11
5"5" 1an!(ri$t!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 11
5"5"1" Ale2andrian""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 15
5"5"/" 9)?antine"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 14
5"5"5" Thoght!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1;
5"4" Athor!hi$""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1;
5"4"1" Ale2andrian""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1;
5"4"/" 9)?antine"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1=
5"8" Chara(teri!ti(! o& Te2t""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" /1
5"8"1" Ale2andrian """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" /1
5"8"/" 9)?antine"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" /1
5"8"5" T)$e o& %ree* Writing: 7oine -er!! Atti( %ree*""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""//
5"8"4" Thoght!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" /4
5"6" @!e b) Chr(h #ather!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" /8
5"6"1" Thoght!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" /=
5";" Tran!lation! &rom the %ree* Te2t""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""/=
i
5";"1" S)ria( 0er!ion!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" /=
5";"/" Co$ti("""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" />
5";"5" Aatin"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" />
5";"4" %othi(""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" />
5";"8" Thoght!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" />
5"=" E2$lanation &or 0ariabilit) in Earl) 1an!(ri$t!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""50
5"="1" 0ariabilit) a! E2$lained b) S$$orter! o& Ale2andrian and 9)?antine Te2t3T)$e!""""50
5"="1"1" Criti(al Te2t! 'Ale2andrian+ %eneral 9elie& that S(ri$tral 0ariant! Aro!e
Throgh Aa(* o& :e!$e(t &or the Sa(redne!! o& S(ri$tre """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""5/
5"="1"/" The 9)?antine '1aBorit)CTradition+ Te2tD%eneral 9elie& that S(ri$tre wa!
Sa(red in the Earl) Chr(h """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 54
5"="/" Thoght!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 56
5">" Are the ,lde!t Ne(e!!aril) the E9e!tE 1an!(ri$t!4"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""5;
5">"1" Age <oe! Not 6ro-ide An) <ire(t E-iden(e o& Athenti(it)""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""5;
5">"1"1" A di&&eren(e o& 100 )ear! i! not !igni&i(ant"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""5=
5">"1"/" Newer Te2t! are $re&erred b) 1odern S(holar!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""5>
5"10" The 6roblem o& 1i!!ing 1an!(ri$t!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""5>
5"10"1" Fi!tori(al 6re(edent! &or 1i!!ing 1an!(ri$t!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""5>
5"10"/" Non3drabilit) o& 6a$)ri 1an!(ri$t!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""40
5"10"5" <e!tr(tion o& S(ri$tre! in :oman 6er!e(tion!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""41
5"10"5"1" Thoght!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 45
5"10"4" Ao!! o& boo*! b) Arab!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 45
5"11" :e$la(ement o& Ao!t 1an!(ri$t!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""44
5"1/" Te2tal Criti(i!m"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 44
5"1/"1" 6rin(i$le! o& Te2tal Criti(i!m a! @!ed b) We!t(ott and Fort """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""44
5"1/"/" 6rin(i$le! o& Te2tal Criti(i!m a! %i-en b) Aland and Aland""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""48
5"1/" 5" 6rin(i$le! o& Te2tal Criti(i!m a! %i-en b) 1et?ger"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""48
5"1/"4" Thoght! on the genealogi(al method""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""46
5"1/"8" Thoght! on GCon&lationH and Fen(e the Se(ondar) Natre o& the 9)?antine Te2t" 4;
5"15 9ia!"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 81
5"15"1" Thoght!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 8/
5"14" Con(lding Thoght!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 84
ii
5"18" Smmar)""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 8;
4"0" Addendm"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 60
8"0" Endnote!""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 61
Overview
The a((ra() o& the 9ibli(al Te2t i! o& great (on(ern &or Chri!tian! !in(e S(ri$tre $ro-ide! !
with the ba!i! &or or &aith" There ha! been a (hange in mar*eting !trategie! !o that -ariation
between Engli!h tran!lation! i! now being em$ha!i?ed"
:e(ent e!timate! o& the Ga((ra(ie!H o& Engli!h tran!lation! o& the 9ible range &rom 44I to
100I" S(h e!timate! are ina((rateDa((ra() (annot be determined be(a!e the original
te2t i! not a-ailable" :e!$e(ted te2tal (riti(! ha-e Joted Gagreement!H between (riti(al te2t! in
the range o& =0 to =8I" Aland and Aland re$orted that a(ro!! !e-en di&&erent %ree* Ge(le(ti(H
te2t! o& the New Te!tament, 6/">I o& the -er!e! were either identi(al or di&&ered b) no more
than a !ingle word" Fowe-er agreement between di&&erent %ree* te2t! !hold not be e2$re!!ed
on the ba!i! o& -er!e! !in(e the 9ible wa! not di-ided into -er!e! ntil re(entl), and di!!imilar
-er!e! ob-io!l) (ontain !ome identi(al word!" When te2tal -ariant! are e2$re!!ed a! a
$er(entage o& the nmber o& word! in the New Te!tament, agreement between di&&erent %ree*
te2t! i! greater than >8I" Thi! high degree o& agreement, (o$led with the general (on(l!ion
that no do(trine i! a&&e(ted b) te2tal di&&eren(e!, mean! that Chri!tian! (an ha-e (on&iden(e in
the nderl)ing %ree* te2t o& the New Te!tament"
1odern !(holar! are -er) (riti(al o& the Ga((ra()H o& the %ree* te2t3t)$e nderl)ing the 7ing
Jame! 9ible! 'herein (alled 9)?antineK al!o *nown a! 1aBorit), 7oine, Traditional+ in
(om$ari!on with the $rimaril) Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e nderl)ing the modern (riti(al %ree* te2t"
#or thi! rea!on e!!entiall) all modern Engli!h tran!lation! are ba!ed $on (riti(al te2t! o& an
Ale2andrian natre" The remainder o& thi! !td) e2amined the Je!tion: L.! it time &or the %ree*
te2t3t)$e behind the 7ing Jame! tran!lation to be $t to re!t4M E-iden(e i! $re!ented that the
9)?antine te2t3t)$e i! (ertainl) a! (lo!e, and $robabl) more (lo!e, to the original atogra$h! a!
the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e" Some o& the rea!on! &or thi! (on(l!ion are li!ted below"
Con!iderable -ariabilit) i! a$$arent in a-ailable New Te!tament man!(ri$t! be&ore the
&orth (entr) A"<" Thi! -ariabilit), and the e2i!ten(e o& onl) a -er) limited nmber o&
earl) %ree* man!(ri$t!, mean! that there i! a Gbarrier o& the !e(ond (entr)H whi(h
ma*e! it Gim$o!!ibleH to re(on!tr(t the genealog) o& (rrent te2t line! ba(* to the
original atogra$h!" There&ore how (lo!e an) !r-i-ing te2t i! to the original (an onl) be
deduced &rom e-iden(e a-ailable in earl) writing!, earl) tran!lation!, hi!tori(al
in&ormation and in&ormation (ontained in the di&&erent man!(ri$t!" Thi! m!t be *e$t in
mind when a!!e!!ing the G(ertaint)H with whi(h the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e i! reBe(ted"
S$$orter! o& the (riti(alCAle2andrian te2t generall) are o& the o$inion that a great deal o&
thi! -ariabilit) aro!e be(a!e earl) Chri!tian! did not (on!ider the original writing! to be
!a(red and th! the original word! were generall) not $re!er-ed in their original &orm"
0ariabilit) in earl) man!(ri$t! i! m(h ea!ier to e2$lain b) the targeted de!tr(tion o&
iii
New Te!tament man!(ri$t! b) :oman Em$eror!K hi!tor) tell! ! that original Chri!tian
writing! were im$ortant enogh !o that Chri!tian! were $re$ared to be mart)red &or
them" Th!, althogh &aith (annot be !ed a! a !$$ort &or the 9)?antine te2t in a
!(holarl) argment, the general la(* o& a$$re(iation o& the role o& &aith in the
tran!mi!!ion o& the New Te!tament (an be (on!idered to be a negati-e &or tho!e
!$$orting the (riti(alCAle2andrian te2t3t)$e"
E2$ert! belie-e that both the Ale2andrian and 9)?antine te2t3t)$e! are re(en!ion!
'$re$ared b) editing o& $re-io! man!(ri$t!+" The e-iden(e that thi! i! tre &or the
Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e i! a! &ollow!:
o There a$$ear! to be almo!t nanimo! agreement among te2tal (riti(! that that
the Ale2andrian te2t wa! $rod(ed a! a re(en!ion"
o Ale2andrian %ree* te2t i! GAtti(H in writing !t)le in (ontra!t with the G7oineH
'(ommon+ %ree* o& the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e" 7oine %ree* wa! the t)$e o& %ree*
whi(h be(ame (ommon a&ter the time o& Ale2ander the %reat and whi(h wa!
!$o*en at the time the original New Te!tament atogra$h! were written"
Fowe-er &rom 1003/00 A"<" there wa! a !trong GAtti(i?ingH mo-ement to tr) to
re(o-er the re&ined Atti( writing !t)le o& the earlier (la!!i(al $eriod" Thi! writing
!t)le ha! !imilaritie! to that &ond in the Ale2andrian te2t" Althogh thi! i! not
dire(tl) noted b) modern te2tal (riti(!, it i! im$li(it in that the alternate name &or
the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e i! G7oineH, !gge!ting a di&&eren(e between thi! and
Ale2andrian %ree*" Thi! $ro-ide! -er) !trong e-iden(e that the
Ale2andrianC(riti(al te2t ha! ndergone (on!iderable editing whi(h wold mean
that it i! !e(ondar) in natre" .n (ontra!t, the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e wold be
te2tall) (lo!er to the wa) the New Te!tament wa! originall) written"
o The -er) name GAle2andrianH indi(ate! that thi! te2t3t)$e originated in Ale2andria,
Eg)$t and it i! a -irtal (ertaint) that edited (o$ie! o& the New Te!tament were
$re$ared in thi! (it)" The mo!t &amo! librar) in the an(ient world wa! at
Ale2andria and the goal o& thi! librar) wa! to ha-e (o$ie! o& all a-ailable boo*!D
thi! ob-io!l) wold in(lde (o$ie! o& the New Te!tament" 1an!(ri$t! &rom the
librar) were !old throghot the :oman Em$ire" 9oo*! at the librar) were edited
b) a (are&ll) de&ined $ro(edre" 1a(leod note! L9) the !e(ond (entr)N
e-entall), the name GAle2andrianH be(ame a meton)m &or the (ra&t o& GeditingH &or
the $ra(ti(e o& (on!olidating and (orre(ting !(holar!hi$ rather than (reating itD
(riti(al, (!todial, $reo(($ied with the $rit) o& old &orm!"M .n addition, the &ir!t
Chri!tian in!titte o& higher learning wa! at Ale2andria and it i! *nown that one o&
the earl) head! o& thi! in!tittion, ,rigen, wa! trained in the $ro(e!!e! o& editing
te2t" Th!, althogh there i! no dire(t $roo& o& the $rod(tion o& either a non3
Chri!tian or Chri!tian edited New Te!tament at Ale2andria, the e-iden(e i!
o-erwhelming in &a-or o& the $o!!ibilit)" New Te!tament man!(ri$t! ho!ed in
the Aibrar) were nder the $rote(tion o& the Em$eror and th! wold ha-e
e!(a$ed de!tr(tion in the :oman $er!e(tion! o& Chri!tian!" .t i! there&ore
i-
$robable that the genealogi(al lineage o& !ome o& the New Te!tament
man!(ri$t! a-ailable toda) rea(h ba(* to the Ale2andrian Aibrar)"
o There i! no e-iden(e that the 9)?antine3te2t t)$e i! ba!ed $on a re(en!ion
other than it! G!$$o!edH a$$earan(e in the &orth (entr) A"<" and in&eren(e!
&rom te2tal (riti(i!m" E-en i& the 9)?antine te2t wa! $rod(ed in the 4
th
(entr),
the wide!$read belie& that A(ian o& Antio(h wa! in!trmental in it! $rod(tion i!
a $oint in it! &a-or !in(e he wa! mart)red &or hi! &aith" .& both the Ale2andrian and
9)?antine te2t3t)$e! are, in &a(t, edited te2t!, the (hoi(e be(ome!Dwhi(h i! the
mo!t tr!ted !or(e &or the New Te!tament: the e(le(ti( te2t $rod(ed b)
modern te2tal (riti(! wor*ing $rimaril) with !i2 Jite -ariable Ale2andrian3te2t
t)$e man!(ri$t! or that $rod(ed in 5003400 A"<" b) !omeone who wa!
mart)red &or hi! &aith, who wa! m(h (lo!er to the te2tal tradition, and who
ob-io!l) had good Jalit) man!(ri$t! to wor* &rom4
The olde!t a-ailable man!(ri$t! !$$o!edl) witne!! the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e" .ndeed,
modern (riti(! ha-e arri-ed at the (on(l!ion that the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e wa! not
de-elo$ed ntil the 4
th
(entr)" Fowe-er, a! $ointed ot in thi! re-iew, almo!t an) t)$e
o& e-iden(e i! more im$ortant than age when it (ome! to man!(ri$t athorit)" 1oreo-er
there i! o-erwhelming e-iden(e that 9)?antine reading! were $re!ent at lea!t a! earl)
a! /00 A"<"
o :e$table !(holar! 7en)on and Adam! noted that 9eatt) $a$)ri 'p
48
p
46
p
4;
+
dating &rom /00 500 A"<" L$ro-ide -alable and !b!tantial e-iden(e o& te2tal
(ondition! in Eg)$t a (entr) be&ore the 0ati(an and Sinaiti( (odi(e! Omain
witne!!e! o& the Ale2andrian te2t and o&ten li!ted a! Gthe olde!t and be!t
man!(ri$t!HP with whi(h or man!(ri$t e-iden(e $re-io!l) began"M The) li!t
agreement! and di!agreement! with the!e $rin(i$le man!(ri$t! a! well a! the
We!tern te2t and $ro-ide nmeri(al e-iden(e that the greate!t agreement o&
the!e $a$)ri i! with the 9)?antine te2t, Te2t! :e(e$t!Q .n other word!,
9)?antine reading! were $re!ent in New Te!tament man!(ri$t! at lea!t 100
)ear! be&ore the te2t3t)$e wa! !$$o!edl) de-elo$ed and among the earlie!t
*nown man!(ri$t!Q 1oreo-er there are a$$arentl) more 9)?antine reading! in
p
48
p
46
than Ale2andrian reading! and )et the!e two $a$)ri are li!ted a! two o& the
!i2 main witne!!e! &or the Ale2andrian te2tQ
The Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e wa! ne-er dominant in te2tal tradition ntil abot 1>80 A"<"
.n (ontra!t, it i! agreed e-en b) it! (riti(! that the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e ha! been the
$re&erred te2t3t)$e &rom R400 A"<" &or at lea!t the ne2t 14 (entrie!" 1oreo-er a-ailable
e-iden(e indi(ate! e-en a longer time !$an o& $re&eren(e be(a!e when $a$)r! p
66

wa! (orre(ted 'abot /00 A"<"+ more (orre(tion! were made towards the 9)?antine te2t3
t)$e than toward! (odi(e! 0ati(an! and Sinaiti(! 'Lthe olde!t and be!t man!(ri$t!Q+"
.t i! worth) o& note that p
66
i! al!o li!ted a! one o& the !i2 be!t witne!!e! &or the
Ale2andrian te2t t)$e, th! three o& the !i2 !$$o!ed a-ailable Ale2andrian witne!!e!
-
a$$ear to $ro-ide !tronger !$$ort &or the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e than the Ale2andrian te2t3
t)$eQ .n addition, a&ter 400 A"<" (orre(tion! were al!o made in man!(ri$t! toward! the
9)?antine te2t3t)$e 'in(lding Code2 0ati(an!K one o& the main witne!!e! o& the
Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e+" Thi! indi(ate! that the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e ha! been preferred
both be&ore and a&ter it! G!$$o!edH (reation in the 4
th
(entr)"
.t i! (orre(tl) arged that e-en thogh greater than =0I o& all *nown earl) %ree*
man!(ri$t! o& the New Te!tament are o& the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e thi! (annot be !ed a!
a !igni&i(ant $oint in &a-or o& thi! te2t3t)$e be(a!e the!e man!(ri$t! are !im$l)
(o$ie! o& (o$ie! and th! onl) re$re!ent one te2t3t)$e" Fowe-er it i! B!t a! im$ortant to
re(ogni?e that there are onl) two witne!!e! o& the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e whi(h (ontain
the maBorit) o& the New Te!tament 'Sinaiti(! and 0ati(an!+ and that the!e two
witne!!e! di&&er greatl) between them!el-e!" The other &or witne!!e! are $a$)ri and
mo!tl) (ontain onl) &ragment! o& te2t 'p
48
3 $ortion! o& the %o!$el! and A(t!, p
46
3
:oman! throgh 1 The!! and Febrew!, p
66
3 John, and p
;8
3 $ortion! o& A*e and John+"
Thi! la(* o& man!(ri$t ba!i! i! broght home when the la!t 1/ -er!e! in 1ar* 16 '>3/0+
are e2amined" A! &ar a! . ha-e been able to determine the!e -er!e! are in every %ree*
man!(ri$t whi(h (ontain! the go!$el o& 1ar* with the e2(e$tion o& two Ale2andrian
witne!!e! '(odi(e! Sinaiti(! and 0ati(an!+" 9e(a!e o& omi!!ion in the!e two
man!(ri$t!, e-er) !erio! 9ible !(holar !ing modern Engli!h tran!lation! i! o& the
belie& that the!e -er!e! are in dobt and there&ore the!e -er!e! ha-e e!!entiall) been
remo-ed &rom S(ri$tre" .n thi! (a!e the te2t o& the 9ible ha! been determined b) onl)
0"04I o& all *nown %ree* man!(ri$t! whi(h -ar) tremendo!l) between them!el-e!"
Thi! !im$l) !hold not be" The !erio! 9ible !tdent m!t a!* GAre the!e -er) &ew
Ale2andrian man!(ri$t! whi(h arenHt (on!i!tent with ea(h other a !olid &ondation &or
the Word o& %odH4
The e-iden(e $re!ented that the 9)?antine te2t i! a !e(ondar) te2t i! $rimaril) ba!ed on
the la(* o& man!(ri$t e-iden(e be&ore the 4
th
(entr) and te2tal e-iden(e o& the
!$$o!ed e2i!ten(e o& (on&lation '(ombining two di&&erent thoght! in the te2t, ea(h &rom
a di&&erent earlier man!(ri$t+" With re!$e(t to the te2tal argment, a! di!(!!ed in thi!
re-iew, (on&lation o& the 9)?antine te2t a$$ear! to ha-e been re&ted in at lea!t !ome
(a!e!" 1oreo-er it i! a(*nowledged that the genealogi(al method i! o& no -ale in
determining the relation!hi$ between a $arti(lar te2t3t)$e and the original atogra$h!"
Th! the main te2tal argment! in &a-or o& the Ale2andrian te2t are ba!ed $on
$hilo!o$h)K a di&&erent (on(l!ion wold be obtained i& there wa! a di&&erent
$hilo!o$hi(al !tarting $oint"
#rom a $er!onal -iew$oint, a -er) negati-e &a(tor &or the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e i! the
a$$arent bia! again!t the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e on the $art o& (rrent !(holar!" Thi! bia!
ma) be be(a!e the !(holar!, at lea!t in their mind!, ha-e rightl) and e-en B!ti&iabl)
(on(lded that the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e didnHt ari!e ntil the 4
th
(entr)" .& thi! i! tre, then
ob-io!l) it doe!nHt ma*e m(h !en!e &or them to tal* abot 9)?antine te2t in 9ibli(al
man!(ri$t! be&ore thi! timeDrather term! !(h a! G&ree te2tH (an be !ed &or the!e
-i
earl) 9)?antine reading!" .t ma) be &or thi! rea!on that modern 9ibli(al !(holar!, who
a$$ear to be the Ggiant!H, do not $re!ent data that i! hel$&l in ma*ing an in&ormed
o$inion" A! one e2am$le, the Je!tion o& GAtti(H -er!! G7oineH %ree* i! not di!(!!ed b)
an) modern te2tal (riti(" .t ma) well be that m) inter$retation o& thi! to$i( i! wrong bt
the e-iden(e !hold be there &or the reader to a!!e!!" Similarl), e-iden(e &or 9)?antine
reading! in the three !$$o!ed Ale2andrian $a$)ri witne!!e! i! not to be &ond in
(rrent writing!, rather the in&ormation a$$eared in wor* o& an earlier (riti(, 7en)on, who
(ertainl) wa! no !$$orter o& the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e" Additionall), earl) 9)?antine
reading! in the (hr(h G#ather!H are di!mi!!ed a! being (o$ied in b) later editor! who
$re&erred thi! t)$e o& te2t, with no real a(*nowledgement o& e-en their $otential
$re!en(e in the original! or di!(!!ion o& their $re-alen(e" The &ailre to allow &or e-en
the $o!!ibilit) o& an earlier 9)?antine te2t3t)$e i! a!!o(iated with e2$lanation! that are
not reall) logi(al" #or e2am$le, the !gge!tion that the New Te!tament wa! not
(on!idered to be S(ri$tre with a (a$ital S b) earl) Chri!tian! and that reading! were
initiall) $re!ent a! G&ree te2tH i! not an argment whi(h (an be ba(*ed $ b) hi!tor),
athorit) S(ri$tre (laim! &or it!el&, or e-en ba!i( *nowledge o& hman beha-ior"
Similarl), the !gge!tion b) #ee that 9)?antine reading! in the p
66
$a$)r! are e2$lained
b) the !ame $rin(i$le! that re!lted in it! a$$earan(e in the 9)?antine te2t t)$e 180
)ear! later when the te2t3t)$e (ame into e2i!ten(e i! not an internall) (on!i!tent
argment &or, a! noted b) Aland and Aland, Lone o& the (hara(teri!ti(! o& the New
Te!tament te2tal tradition i! tena(it)M" Al!o, i& the!e &or(e! were !trong enogh to
o-er(ome the Gtena(it)H o& the te2t to a$$arentl) o$erate in hi!tor) at lea!t twi(e 'and
$re!mabl) more i& we loo* at tenden(ie! a&ter 400 A"<"+, wold it not be e-en more
li*el) that the !ame &or(e! were in-ol-ed in $re$aration o& the original te2t4
An ob-io! (on(ern i!Dwhat (on!eJen(e! are there i& . (hoo!e the wrong te2t3t)$e4 .n
thi! regard, it i! (on(eded, e-en b) it! o$$onent!, that the 9)?antine te2t i! a well3
$re$ared te2t" .t! &ailing! are, a((ording to Aland and Aland, that it Lha! !&&ered
$rogre!!i-e re-i!ion, not 'or onl) to a !light e2tent+ on do(trinal grond!, bt mainl) in
the intere!t! o& intelligibilit) and b) mean! o& -erbal and !t)li!ti( alteration! and b) the
a!!imilation 'deliberate or nintentional+ o& $arallel narrati-e!"M Wi*i$edia !tate! that
9)?antine reading! Ldi!$la) &ewer in!tan(e! o& te2tal -ariation between $arallel
S)no$ti( %o!$el $a!!age, and the) are le!! li*el) to $re!ent (ontradi(tor) or Ldi&&i(ltM
i!!e! o& e2ege!i!"M Fort ha! !aid LThe Jalitie! whi(h the athor!N!eem to ha-e mo!t
de!ired to im$re!! on it are l(idit) and (om$letene!!" The) were a$$arentl) eJall)
de!iro! that he !hold ha-e the bene&it o& in!tr(ti-e matter (ontained in all the e2i!ting
te2t!N"entirel) blamele!! in either literar) or religio! grond!"""M A((ording to Walla(e
LThe general (hara(ter o& the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e i! normall) de!(ribed a! !mooth,
(on&lated, harmoni!ti(, (om$lete"""M ,n the ba!i! o& !tatement! !(h a! the!e it a$$ear!
that one (an ha-e (on&iden(e in thi! te2t3t)$e and that there will be no $roblem! with it!
!e" The !gge!tion that there ma) be L(ontradi(tor)M $a!!age! in other te2t3t)$e!
!hold, howe-er, be o& (on(ern &or !$$orter! o& the Ale2andrian te2t t)$e"
.n (on(l!ion, it i! (lear, and (ommonl) a((e$ted, that the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e whi(h i! the
ba!i! o& or modern Engli!h tran!lation! ha! been edited to a (on!iderable e2tent" Al!o,
-ii
althogh the argment ha! been ad-an(ed that the 9)?antine te2t (ame into e2i!ten(e in the 4
th
(entr) A"<" and that it wa! a !e(ondar) te2t, there i! abndant e-iden(e that it wa! $re!ent
m(h earlier" Th! thi! te2t3t)$e (annot be rled ot a! the te2t3t)$e mo!t (lo!el) related to the
original!" At thi! time, then, there i! no legitimate !(holarl) rea!on wh) one need! to mo-e awa)
&rom the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e 'and hen(e the 7ing Jame! tran!lation+ toward! the Ale2andrian
te2t3t)$e" .ndeed, $o!!ibl) be(a!e the origin o& the 9)?antine te2t i! !hroded in m)!ter) it i!
$o!!ible to bild a m(h !tronger (ir(m!tantial argment that the Ale2andrian te2t i!
!e(ondar), and that be(a!e o& e2ten!i-e editing it thi! te2t t)$e whi(h ha! de-elo$ed into a
L!tandardi?edM te2t whi(h &ind! the greate!t a((e$tan(e in the /1!t (entr)"
-iii
1. Introduction
A maBor attitde (hange a$$ear! to ha-e o((rred in the mar*eting 9ible tran!lation!"
6re-io!l) to en(orage a((e$tan(e o& the new tran!lation! em$ha!i! wa! on the !imilaritie!
between new and old" The &o(! now, howe-er, a$$ear! to be on em$ha!i?ing di&&eren(e!"
1et?ler
1
de-ote! a whole (ha$ter o& /0 $age! to LThe (a!e! o& error in the tran!mi!!ion o& the
te2t o& the New Te!tamentM" 9e(a!e o& the -ariant! in New Te!tament man!(ri$t!, Ehrman
/

'1>>5+ ha! de-oted a whole boo* toward! de-elo$ing the the!i! that the S(ri$tre we now ha-e
ha! been modi&ied to !$$ort $arti(lar theologi(al -iew$oint!"
S(h mar*eting !trategie! ha-e not been lo!t on other religion!" The .!lam awarene!! web!ite
5
ha! $i(*ed $ on !$$o!ed -ariabilit) o& 9ibli(al man!(ri$t!, !tating L.& we loo* at the te2tal
S(ertaint)S o& the @nited 9ible So(ietie!E The Greek New Testament, a te2t whi(h i! ba!ed on
the de(i!ion! o& a (ommittee, the re!lt i! (lo!e to =5"8I" There i! no mention o& >>"8I, >>"=I
or >>">I agreement here"M Thi! !ame !or(e !e! data gi-en in Aland and Aland
4
'1>=;+ and
(on(lde! Lwe (an ob!er-e an agreement in wording o& onl) 6/">I o& the -er!e! o& the New
Te!tament" The $ro$ortion range! &rom 48"1I in 1ar* to =1"4I in / Timoth)M" Thi! i! hardl) the
nmber! we wold li*e to !ee when attem$ting to e-angeli?e 1!lim!Q
What doe! thi! mean to )o and me4 #or one thing, i& )o are a 7ing Jame! !er )o might
need to re3e-alate and de&end )or $o!ition !in(e )o will be in(rea!ingl) in a minorit) what
do )o !a) when !omeone (ome! at )o with the 7ing Jame! 44348I a((ra() nmber4 What
do )o !a) to )or 1!lim neighbor when the) Je!tion the athorit) o& )or 9ible and th! the
-era(it) o& a &aith in the Aord Je!! Chri!t4 .! it worth the di!(i$line o& !td)ing Lto !hew th)!el&
a$$ro-edM '/ Tim /:18+ i& all we (an de$end $on the 9ible &or i! Ggeneral (on(e$t!H4
The $r$o!e o& the &ollowing i! to hel$ ! hold &a!t and in(rea!e or &aith in the a((ra(),
reliabilit) and athorit) o& the S(ri$tre" .n the word! o& or Aord Je!! Chri!t: LFea-en and
earth !hall $a!! awa), bt m) word! !hall not $a!! awa)M '1att /4:58+" To$i(! di!(!!ed
in(lde: 1+ 0ariabilit) o& the (rrent %ree* New Te!tament te2t!, and /+ An e2amination o& the
%ree* te2t3t)$e on whi(h the 7ing Jame! -er!ion! are ba!ed with the obBe(ti-e o& re3e-alating
it a! a ba!i! &or modern Engli!h 9ible tran!lation!"
2. Variation in Current Greek New Testament Manuscripts
2.1 What is meant b Greek Te!t"Tpes#
1(<onald
8
'/00=+ noted that in 1>>4 there were 8,664 %ree* man!(ri$t! o& the New
Te!tament li!ted in the o&&i(ial regi!tr) o& bibli(al man!(ri$t!" Thi! nmber in(lded 11; $a$)ri,
506 @ni(al! 'ne2t olde!t man!(ri$t! written in (a$ital letter! withot !$a(e! between and
written on $ar(hment+, and /,=1/ min!(le! 'lower(a!e3letter!+" There were /,/=1 le(tionarie!
'!ele(ted $ortion! o& S(ri$tre! that were read in (hr(he!+" Fe note!, howe-er, that the -a!t
maBorit) o& man!(ri$t! onl) (o-er a !mall $ortion o& the New Te!tament B onl) abot =I (o-er
mo!t o& the New Te!tament" .n what a$$ear! to be more re(ent in&ormation in Wi*i$edia
6
in
1
G9ibli(alTman!(ri$t!H !tate! SThe New Te!tament ha! been $re!er-ed in more man!(ri$t! than
an) other an(ient wor*, ha-ing o-er 8,=00 (om$lete or &ragmented %ree* man!(ri$t!, 10,000
Aatin man!(ri$t! and >,500 man!(ri$t! in -ario! other an(ient langage! in(lding S)ria(,
Sla-i(, %othi(, Ethio$i(, Co$ti( and Armenian" The date! o& the!e man!(ri$t! range &rom (ir(a
1/8 'the John :)landE! man!(ri$t, P
8/
K olde!t (o$) o& John &ragment!+ to the introd(tion o&
$rinting in %erman) in the 18th (entr)" The -a!t maBorit) o& the!e man!(ri$t! date a&ter the
10th (entr)"@
Althogh thi! !eem! li*e a lot o& man!(ri$t!, it i! -irtall) im$o!!ible &or hman! to do an)thing
$er&e(tl), m(h le!! (o$) a man!(ri$t a! long a! the 9ible" Co$)i!t! ma*e mi!ta*e! and thi!
mi!ta*e i! $er$etated when !omeone el!e (o$ie! the (o$)" .& (o$ie! are (ontinall) made o&
(o$ie!, then thi! error a$$ear! in that whole line o& do(ment!" Some !gge!t that thi! i! how
di&&erent Gte2t3t)$e!H ha-e ari!en" 1an), howe-er, thin* that there ha! been deliberate editing in
the $rod(tion o& !ome New Te!tament man!(ri$t!" Fowe-er di&&erent Gte2t3t)$e!H ma) ha-e
ari!en, a((ording to Wi*i$edia
;
'1an!(ri$t!To&TtheT9ible+, man) modern te2tal (riti(! belie-e
that Athe New Te!tament ha! been $re!er-ed in three maBor man!(ri$t tradition! Ote2t3t)$e!P:
the 4th3(entr)3CE OA"<"P Ale2andrian te2t3t)$eK the We!tern te2t3t)$e, al!o -er) earl) bt $rone
to $ara$hra!e and other (orr$tion!K and the 9)?antine te2t3t)$eK whi(h ma*e! abo-e =0I o&
all man!(ri$t!, the maBorit) (om$arati-el) -er) late in the tradition"M
The !ame re&eren(e indi(ate! that L!in(e the mid 1>
th
(entr), e(le(ti(i!m,N ha! been the
dominant method o& editing the %ree* te2t o& the New Te!tament '(rrentl), the @nited 9ible
So(iet), 4th ed" and Ne!tle3Aland, /;th ed"+N" E(le(ti(i!m i! the $ra(ti(e o& e2amining a wide
nmber o& te2t witne!!e! and !ele(ting the -ariant that !eem! be!t"N the olde!t man!(ri$t!,
being o& the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e, are the mo!t &a-ored, and the (riti(al te2t ha! an Ale2andrian
di!$o!ition" 1odern tran!lation! o& the New Te!tament are ba!ed on the!e (o$ie!"M
Fow (lo!e are the word! in the (rrent %ree* man!(ri$t! to the original word! a! gi-en b)
Chri!t and the A$o!tle!4 There i! a range o& o$inion on thi! matter" 1(<onald
=
'/00=+ (laimed
that A1o!t bibli(al !(holar! toda) are not )et read) to a!(ribed !a(red athorit) to an) $arti(lar
te2t o& the 9ible"@ Sin(e we n&ortnatel) donHt ha-e the original it &ollow! that we donHt *now
how (lo!e we are to the original, bt the -ariabilit) among di&&erent man!(ri$t! and te2t line!
(an gi-e !ome in&ormation"
There are di&&eren(e! in the wa) la(* o& agreement between 9ibli(al man!(ri$t! are (onted"
The mo!t a((e$ted wa) i! to (ont the G-ariant!H a! de!(ribed b) Walla(e
>
'/00>+ '$ro&e!!or at
<alla! Theologi(al Seminar), !enior New Te!tament editor o& the NET 9ible, and E2e(ti-e
<ire(tor &or the Center &or the Std) o& New Te!tament 1an!(ri$t!+" Fe de&ine! -ariant! a!:
L!im$l) an) di&&eren(e &rom a !tandard te2t 'e"g", a $rinted te2t, a $arti(lar man!(ri$t, et("+
that in-ol-e! !$elling, word order, omi!!ion, addition, !b!tittion, or a total rewrite o& the te2t"M
Fe $oint! ot that the -ariant ma) be in a !ingle man!(ri$t or a gro$ o& man!(ri$t! bt i& it i!
in a gro$ o& man!(ri$t! it i! !till onl) one -ariant"M
There are al!o di&&eren(e! in what i! meant b) $er(entage -ariabilit) or agreement between
man!(ri$t!K -ariant! are e2$re!!ed either a! a $er(entage o& -er!e! or a! a $er(entage o&
/
word! in the te2t and it i! im$ortant to *now whi(h method i! being !ed" Al!o, the word
Ga((ra()H i! !ometime! !ed to de!(ribe how reliable the athor belie-e! a te2t to be"
@n&ortnatel) a((ra() i! a word whi(h (annot be !ed in (om$arati-e te2tal (riti(i!m be(a!e
the original i! not a-ailable"
2.2. Variants as a percenta$e o% verses in ec&ectic te!ts
A! noted in the .ntrod(tion, The Comprehensive New Testament
10
'/00=+ (laim! La /0I
im$ro-ement o-er other Engli!h -er!ion!M" The /0I &igre !ond! Jite !imilar to the $re&a(e o&
the New 7ing Jame! 9ible
11
whi(h !tate! Ait i! mo!t im$ortant to em$ha!i?e that &ll) eight)3&i-e
$er(ent o& the New Te!tament te2t i! the !ame in the Te2t! :e(e$t!, the Ale2andrian Te2t,
and the 1aBorit) Te2t"@ Te2tal (riti(! Aland and Aland
1/
, !tate that Athe 9)?antine .m$erial te2t
and the Ale2andrian Eg)$tian te2t, to ta*e two e2am$le! that in theor) are diametri(all)
o$$o!ed to ea(h other, a(tall) e2hibit a remar*able degree o& agreement, $erha$! a! m(h a!
=0IQ@
The re!lt! o& Aland and Aland
15
de!er-e a (lo!er loo* !in(e, a! noted in the .ntrod(tion, it i!
their re!lt! that the .!lami( Awarene!! web!ite ha! Joted" The) loo*ed at !e-en di&&erent
e(le(ti( -er!ion! o& the New Te!tament" Thi! (om$ari!on in(lded the NA
/8
-er!ion 'two
-er!ion! $re-io! to the (ommonl) a((e$ted %ree* New Te!tament o& toda)+, the -er!ion o&
We!t(ott3Fort, and 0on SodenH! edition whi(h wa! (riti(i?ed a &ew $age! earlier b) the athor!
a! $la(ing the 7oine te2t t)$e Lon $ar with the other gro$!N"a -ale it did not de!er-e"M The)
(onted the nmber o& -ariant3&ree -er!e! in the all o& the!e !e-en edition!, where -ariant3&ree
i! de&ined a! the total -er!e! in whi(h there i! (om$lete agreement between all !e-en e(le(ti(
te2t! with the exception of a single word in any one of the seven editions within the -er!e or
where there were di&&ering orthogra$hi(al detail! '!(h a! !$elling o& name!+" .n their anal)!i! o&
the /; boo*! o& the New Te!tament the nmber o& -ariant3&ree -er!e! ranged &rom 48"1I in
1ar* to =1"4I in1 Timoth), with the a-erage a(ro!! boo*! being 6/">I" The) (on(lded that
thi! wa! LJite ama?ingM and m(h (lo!er agreement than wold ha-e been !!$e(ted" Wh)
wold the!e low o& $er(entage! be (on!idered to be GJite ama?ingH4 ,ne rea!on i! that !e-en
di&&erent te2t! are being (om$ared and the!e te2t! re$re!ent a -er) di-ergent -iew on the
athorit) o& di&&ering New Te!tament man!(ri$t! $re$ared a(ro!! a time $eriod o& o-er a
(entr)" Another rea!on i! that onl) whole -er!e! 'with the e2(e$tion o& one word+ are (onted
a! being identi(alQ .n thi! regard, there i! no rea!on to belie-e that when -er!e! di&&er there i!
di!agreement in e-er) word within that $arti(lar -er!e" .ndeed, it m!t be remembered that
S(ri$tre wa! not di-ided into -er!e! ntil Jite re(entl) !o it ma*e! no !en!e to !e G-er!e!H a!
a ba!i! o& e2$re!!ing Ga((ra()H"
.t i!, howe-er, onl) &air to $oint ot that what i! being (om$ared abo-e are G(riti(al te2t!H
$re$ared b) (hoo!ing the be!t reading &rom the di&&erent man!(ri$t! nder (on!ideration" Thi!
mean! that item! !(h a! !$elling mi!ta*e!, a GbadH !e(tion in one man!(ri$t, et(" ha-e alread)
been eliminated" Noti(e too, that i& di&&erent e(le(ti( te2t! are $rod(ed b) -er) li*e3minded
$eo$le then agreement will be higher than i& the) were $re$ared b) $eo$le o& a di&&ering
$er!$e(ti-e"
5
.n an) (a!e, it i! o& &ndamental im$ortan(e to determine the ba!i! o& (al(lation be&ore ma*ing
!wee$ing !tatement! abot Ga((ra()H between te2t!" .n thi! regard, althogh it i! not (lear in
!ome (a!e!, it wold a$$ear that all the Joted Ga((ra(ie!H di!(!!ed abo-e are ba!ed $on
nmber! o& identi(al -er!e! and th! are -er) m(h below what the tre a((ra() wold be on
a word3&or3word ba!i!"
2.'. Variants as a (ercenta$e o% Number o% Words in )c&ectic Te!ts
When We!t(ott and Fort $rod(ed a %ree* New Te!tament the) were -er) o$timi!ti( abot it!
Ga((ra()H33 whi(h no dobt (ontribted to the wide a((e$tan(e o& their te2t" Th! Fnter
14

'1>;/+ !tate! A9t we ma) Jote the -erdi(t o& one o& the greate!t, #"J"A" Fort 'who, along with
9i!ho$ We!(ott, $rod(ed in 1==1 the mo!t &amo! modern edition o& the %ree* New
Te!tament+: >The word! in or o$inion !till !bBe(t to dobt (an hardl) amont to more than a
tho!andth $art o& the New Te!tament"=M Thi! i! an a((ra() rate o& >>">I and, !in(e there
are a$$ro2imatel) 15=,0/0 word! in the (rrent !tandard NA/; %ree* te2t ':i(oblog+
18
, there
wold be !omething li*e 15= word! in the %ree* New Te!tament in dobt" Fnter did, howe-er,
a(*nowledge that Fort $robabl) ndere!timated the element o& n(ertaint)Q
Sin(e the Aland and Aland
16
'1>=;+ data !or(e di!(!!ed abo-e a$$eared to gi-e low
e!timate! o& a((ra(), a (lo!er e2amination o& their wor* i! warranted" The) note that there
were /,04; in!tan(e! o& di&&eren(e! o& greater than one word between the Ne!tle3Aland te2t
'$re(r!or o& or 1odern %ree* te2t+ and the mo!t di-ergent o& the other te2t! '-on Soden+"
Sin(e the Ne!tle3Aland te2t ha! 68; $age! the!e di&&eren(e! amonted to 5"1 di&&eren(e! $er
$age" <i&&eren(e! were a! low a! 1"/ $er $age &or another o& the e(le(ti( te2t!" We (an al!o
loo* at thi! data on a word3&or3word ba!i!" Sin(e there are abot 15=,0/0 word! in thi! te2t
':io(blog+
1;
, then the GagreementH between the te2t! i! >="8I" Thi! i! a &ar (r) &rom the 6/">I
(ited abo-e and !ed b) the .!lam Awarene!! web!iteQ
The 9ible3re!ear(her"(om web!ite
1=
'/001+ (om$ared S(ri-enerE! Te2t! :e(e$t! '9)?antine
te2t3t)$e and the %ree* te2t whi(h nderlie! the 7ing Jame! tran!lation+ with &or (riti(al te2t!
ba!ed $rimaril) $on the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e 'i"e" tho!e $rod(ed b) e(le(ti(i!mK Tregelle!,
Ne!tle3Aland, Ti!(hendor&, and We!t(ott and Fort+" .t wa! noted that there were 4,168
>tran!latable di&&eren(e!= a(ro!! all &or (riti(al te2t!, with the range being 5,0>8 to 5,61= &or
indi-idal te2t (om$ari!on! with that o& the Te2t! :e(e$t!" Again, i& all the di&&eren(e! in the
&or (riti(al te2t! are (on!idered with the nmber o& word! in the Te2t! :e($t! te2t '140,8>;,
:i(oblog+
1>
, then the $er(entage agreement a(ro!! all &or di&&erent te2t! (an be (al(lated a!
>;"0I" Thi! i! (on!iderabl) higher than the =0I !gge!ted between the Ale2andrian and
9)?antine te2t3t)$e b) the method o& Aland and Aland and that !ed in the $romotion o& (rrent
New Te!tament!Q .t i! intere!ting to note that o& di&&eren(e! whi(h o((rred, 46, 5=, 15 and 5I
were di&&eren(e! o& omi!!ion!, !b!tittion!, addition! and tran!$o!ition!, re!$e(ti-el)"
<e$ending $on whi(h ba!e te2t i! !ed, omi!!ion and addition error! are the !ame th! thi!
(ategor) i! the large!t, re$re!enting 8>I o& di&&eren(e!"
Walla(e
/0
'/004+ in hi! addendm agree! with the abo-e thoght!: LThird, when one e2amine!
the -ariation! between the %ree* te2t behind the 7J0 'the Te2t! :e(e$t!+ and the %ree* te2t
behind modern tran!lation!, it i! di!(o-ered that the -a!t maBorit) o& -ariation! are !o tri-ial a! to
4
not e-en be tran!latable 'the mo!t (ommon i! the mo-eable n, whi(h i! a*in to the di&&eren(e
between GwhoH and GwhomHQ+" #orth, when one (om$are! the nmber o& -ariation! that are
&ond in the -ario! 1SS Oman!(ri$t!P with the a(tal -ariation! between the Te2t! :e(e$t!
and the be!t %ree* witne!!e!, it i! &ond that the!e two are remar*abl) !imilar" There are o-er
400,000 te2tal -ariant! among NT 1SS" 9t the di&&eren(e! between the Te2t! :e(e$t! and
te2t! ba!ed on the be!t %ree* witne!!e! nmber abot 8000Dand mo!t o& the!e are
ntran!latable di&&eren(e!Q .n other word!, o-er >=I o& the time, the Te2t! :e(e$t! and the
!tandard (riti(al edition! agree"M
1an!(ri$t! o& the 9)?antine '1aBorit)+ te2t t)$e ha! been (on!idered to be Jite ni&orm" An
e(le(ti( -er!ion o& thi! te2t3t)$e, The Greek New Testament According to the Majority Text with
Apparatus, de-elo$ed b) Fodge! and #ar!tad
/1
, ha! been !ed to e2amine -ariabilit) in thi!
te2t3t)$e" Walla(e
//
in an arti(le on bible"org, &ond 1,=5= di&&eren(e! between thi! e(le(ti(
1aBorit) %ree* te2t t)$e and the Te2t! :e(e$t! $on whi(h the 7ing Jame! 9ible i! ba!ed"
,n the ba!i! o& the nmber o& word! in the Te2t! :e(e$t! %ree* New Te!tament 'a((ording
to S(ri-enerH! te2t
/5
140,8>;+ the $er(entage agreement between the!e two e2am$le! o&
9)?antine te2t3t)$e! i! >=";I" #or (om$ari!on, !in(e there are ;,>8; -er!e! in the 7ing Jame!
9ible '7i??iah+
/4
, -er!e! in whi(h there i! $er&e(t agreement between the %ree* 9ible o& Fodge!
and #ar!tad and the Te2t! :e(e$t! i! at lea!t ;;I" .& more than one di&&eren(e e2i!t! in a
!ingle -er!e 'highl) li*el) in !ome (a!e!+ B then the agreement wold be higher" Al!o, &or
(om$ari!on $r$o!e! there were 6,8;; di&&eren(e! between the 1aBorit) Te2t and the (riti(al
te2t 'i"e" mainl) Ale2andrian3ba!ed+ whi(h re$re!ent! agreement! o& >8"5I and 1;"5I, on a
word and -er!e ba!e, re!$e(ti-el)"
2.*. Variants as a (ercenta$e o% Number o% Words +cross +&& ,nown New
Testament Manuscripts
What ha! been di!(!!ed abo-e (on(ern! e(le(ti( te2t! in whi(h the be!t reading! ha-e been
!ele(ted and (ombined &rom all a-ailable te2t!" ,ne wold e2$e(t a m(h greater -ariabilit) i&
di&&eren(e! within indi-idal man!(ri$t! are (on!idered" Thi! wold be e!$e(iall) tre i& a &ew
-er) bad man!(ri$t! were in(lded in the (om$ari!on"
Walla(e
/8
'/00>+ ha! !gge!ted that there are abot 400,000 >-ariant!= in the New Te!tament
o& toda)" Th! there are more -ariant! in the !m o& all a-ailable %ree* te2t! than the nmber o&
word! in the %ree* New Te!tament 333 whi(h !gge!t! a lot o& -ariabilit)Q Fowe-er, noti(e that
thi! de&inition in(lde! word order, !$elling, et(", !o im$ortant -ariabilit) i! not a! high a! it might
a$$ear" Walla(e doe! note that the A-a!t maBorit)@ o& -ariant! are A!tri(tl) grammati(al@"
The Ale2andrian te2t t)$e i! (on!idered to be the (lo!e!t to the original and th!, with the
e2(e$tion o& the New 7ing Jame! 0er!ion, it i! the te2t3t)$e on whi(h all modern tran!lation!
are ba!ed" Fowe-er a great deal o& -ariation e2i!t! within thi! te2t3t)$e" Wi*i$edea
/6

'<i&&eren(e!TbetweenT(odi(e!TSinaiti(!TandT0ati(an!+ (ite! e-iden(e &rom Fo!*ier that
there Aare 5,056 di&&eren(e! between Sinaiti(! and 0ati(an! onl) in the te2t o& the %o!$el!
alone@ and $oint! ot that the!e two Aare held to be the be!t witne!!e! o& the te2t o& the New
Te!tament and both re$re!ent the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e"@ The !ame !or(e Jote! <ean
9rgon '1==5+ a! !a)ing A S.t i! in &a(t ea!ier to &ind two (on!e(ti-e -er!e! in whi(h the!e two
8
1SS Oman!(ri$t!P di&&er the one &rom the other, than two (on!e(ti-e -er!e! in whi(h the)
entirel) agree"S
With re!$e(t to Code2 0ati(an!, 1(<onald
/;
'/00=+ (laim! that it i! mi!!ing 48 (ha$ter! o&
%ene!i!, and the te2t a&ter Febrew! >:14 wa! !$$lied b) a later hand" 1oreo-er the 6a!toral
E$i!tle! are mi!!ing and it i! nli*el) that the) were e-er in(lded" 1 and / 1a((abee! were
intended bt not in(lded and the a$o(r)$hal boo*! were in(lded" Fe (on(lde!: AWhile
Code2 0ati(an! i! one o& the mo!t im$ortant an(ient New Te!tament te2t! !r-i-ing antiJit),
it i! ne-erthele!! and edited te2t and a $artial or de&e(ti-e one at that" .& thi! i! one o& the be!t
and mo!t reliable man!(ri$t! o& the New Te!tament Ca! well a! the %ree* 9ibleC a-ailable
toda), it i! !a&e to !a) that there i! m(h we !im$l) do not *now abot the original te2t o& the
New Te!tament writing! or the boo*! (ontained in it e-en a! late a! the &orth (entr)"@
2.-. Thou$hts
.n (on(l!ion, the (rrent $o$larit) o& em$ha!i?ing di&&eren(e! between %ree* man!(ri$t!
ha! a -er) negati-e e&&e(t on the $er(e$tion o& the a((ra() and athorit) o& the 9ible" .n thi!
regard it m!t be a(*nowledged that there i! a great deal o& -ariation within indi-idal
man!(ri$t!" We (annot, howe-er, (al(late Ga((ra()H nle!! we ha-e the original writing!"
Ne-erthele!!, i& we e2$re!! agreement in term! o& the nmber -ariant! in relation to the nmber
o& word! in the New Te!tament rather than the nmber o& -er!e!, we get a -er) m(h im$ro-ed
$i(tre (on(erning the Ga((ra()H o& the New Te!tament"
#or mo!t o& !, thi! i! where the $roblem !hold be le&t to re!t" .& we (hoo!e to go no &rther on
thi! to$i( we (an ha-e (on&iden(e in the athorit) and -era(it) o& S(ri$tre !in(e we ha-e
demon!trated that the (rrent New Te!tament te2t! are in -er) good agreement 'U>8I+" We
(an al!o re!t in the (on(e$t e2$re!!ed b) the tran!lator! o& the 1611 7ing Jame! 9ible in the
$re&a(e in Gan a!Vere to the im$tation! o& or ader!arie!H: LThe -er) meane!t tran!lation o&
the 9ible in Engli!h, !et &oorth b) men o& or $ro&e!!ion """"" (ontainth the word o& %od, na), i!
the word o& %od" A! the 7ing! S$ee(h whi(h hee -ttered in 6arliament, being tran!lated into
rench, !utch, "talian and #atine, i! !till the 7ing! S$ee(h, thogh it be not inter$reted b) eer)
Tran!lator with the li*e gra(e, nor $eradentre !o &itl) &or $hra!e, nor !o e2$re!l) &or !en(e,
eer) where"M
6
'. Is it Time %or the Greek Te!t"tpe .ehind the ,in$ /ames Trans&ation to
be (ut to 0est#
'.1. Introduction
Thi! i! a &ndamental Je!tion &or indi-idal! and to the &ew remaining (hr(he!Ca!!emblie!
whi(h are !till re(ommending the 7ing Jame! and New 7ing Jame! 9ible!" .n(rea!ingl) the!e
tran!lation! and the te2t3t)$e behind them are (oming nder atta(* !o that it i! no longer B!t a
Je!tion o& !ing themK it i! a Je!tion o& B!ti&)ing their !e within the (ongregation, to other
indi-idal! and to or!el-e!"
Crrentl) all $o$lar modern tran!lation! with the e2(e$tion o& 7ing Jame! and New 7ing
Jame! are ba!ed $on the e(le(ti( %ree* te2t o& the @nited 9ible So(iet), 4th ed" and Ne!tle3
Aland, /;th ed" whi(h in trn i! $rimaril) ba!ed $rimaril) $on the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e" .n
(ontra!t, the 7ing Jame! -er!ion! are ba!ed $on the G9)?antineH te2t" Ea(h o& the!e two
%ree* te2t t)$e! will be loo*ed at below in a -ariet) o& di&&erent wa)! with the obBe(ti-e o&
determining i& it i! now time to de$art &rom the %ree* te2t3t)$e nderl)ing the 7ing Jame!
tran!lation 'i"e" re&erred to a! the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e in thi! man!(ri$t+"
Thi! ta!* o& e-alating the (ontined !e o& the %ree* te2t nderl)ing the 7ing Jame! -er!ion!
i! -er) di&&i(lt !in(e it i! im$o!!ible to $ro-e the trth o& !omethingK it i! onl) $o!!ible to !how
that it i! more or le!! li*el) to be tre than another alternati-e" Thi! $roblem ha! re!lted in
m(h a(rimon) in the $a!t and i! in no !mall $art re!$on!ible &or lo!! o& &aith in the athorit) o&
the 9ible" .ndeed, we are admoni!hed that LFim that i! wea* in the &aith re(ei-e )e, bt not to
dobt&l di!$tation!M ':om 14:1+" .n the &ollowing, then, Jotation! &rom Gathoritie!H will be the
$rimar) method &or Ggetting a &eelH &or the i!!e" A &ew inter$reti-e thoght! will then be added"
'.2. Current 1tatus o% 2i%%erent Te!t"Tpes
'.2.1. Western
Wi*i$edia
/=
'We!ternTte2t3t)$e+ Jote! We!t(ott and Fort: LThe main (hara(teri!ti( o& the
We!tern te2t i! a lo-e o& $ara$hra!e" SWord! and e-en (la!e! are (hanged, omitted, and
in!erted with !r$ri!ing &reedom, where-er it !eemed that the meaning (old be broght ot
with greater &or(e and de&initene!!"S ,ne $o!!ible !or(e o& glo!!ing i! the de!ire to harmoni!e
and to (om$lete" S1ore $e(liar to the We!tern te2t i! the readine!! to ado$t alteration! or
addition! &rom !or(e! e2traneo! to the boo*! whi(h ltimatel) be(ame (anoni(al"S Thi! te2t
o&ten $re!ent! longer -ariant! o& te2t, bt in &ew $la(e!, in(lding the end o& the %o!$el o& A*e,
it ha! !horter -ariant!, named We!tern non3inter$olation!"M Thi! !or(e indi(ate! that L,nl) one
%ree* @n(ial man!(ri$t i! (on!idered to tran!mit a We!tern te2t &or the &or %o!$el! and the
9oo* o& A(t! 3 the &i&th (entr) Code2 9e?aeK while the !i2th (entr) Code2 Claromontan! i!
(on!idered to tran!mit a We!tern te2t &or the letter! o& Saint 6al, and i! &ollowed in thi! b) two
ninth (entr) @n(ial!: # and %" 1an) SWe!ternS reading! are al!o &ond in the ,ld S)ria(
tran!lation! o& the %o!$el!, the Sinaiti( and the Cretonian, thogh o$inion! -ar) a! to whether
the!e -er!ion! (an be (on!idered witne!!e! to the We!tern te2t3t)$e" A nmber o& &ragmentar)
;
earl) $a$)ri &rom Eg)$t al!o ha-e We!tern reading!, p
/>
, p
5=
, p
4=
K and in addition, Code2
Sinaiti(! i! (on!idered to be We!tern in the &ir!t eight (ha$ter! o& John" The term SWe!ternS i!
a bit o& a mi!nomer be(a!e member! o& the We!tern te2t3t)$e ha-e been &ond in the
Chri!tian Ea!t, in(lding S)ria"M
Aland and Aland
/>
'1>=;+ are among tho!e that belie-e La !$e(ial LWe!ternM t)$e o& te2t i!
im$robable &rom the ot!et, and e-en it! mo!t $a!!ionate $ro$onent! ne-er re&er to it a!
LWe!ternM withot !ing Jotation mar*!"M The te2t i! (hara(teri?ed b) addition!
50
L!o that
where it read! a !horter te2t 'a! in the LWe!tern non3inter$olation!H+ it wa! $re!med to
$re!er-e the original reading!"M The!e athor! th! (on(lded that the main witne!! Code2
9e?ae Cantabrigien!i! L(an hardl) re$re!ent a LWe!ternM te2t o& the !e(ond (entr), rather, it
m!t ha-e been (o$ied &rom and e2em$lar written !hortl) be&ore A"<" 500 with -er) !igni&i(ant
re-i!ion!"M Similarl), the) (on!ider the S)ria( te2t! to be a &orth3(entr) re-i!ion"
1et?ger
51
'1>>/+ note! that the $rin(i$le athorit) &or thi! te2t3t)$e i! Code2 9e?ae and the ,ld
Aatin and ,ld S)ria( man!(ri$t!" Fe Jote! We!(ott and Fort a! belie-ing the We!tern te2t
to be Lalmo!t totall) (orr$t"M Fowe-er the LWe!ternM te2t (ir(lated widel) in Eg)$t, North
A&ri(a, .tal), #ran(e and Lin the Ea!tM" 1et?ger doe!, howe-er, !gge!t that !(holar! are now
loo*ing at Lall o& the $re37oine &orm! o& te2t L&or original reading! whi(h might be lo!t to the
other te2t3t)$e!"M
9e(a!e o& the (on(ern that thi! i! not a tre te2t3t)$e and the relati-el) &ew witne!!e!
a-ailable, it will not be di!(!!ed in the &ollowing (om$ari!on!" Fowe-er it i! intere!ting that thi!
te2t3t)$e ha! !ome o& the (hara(teri!ti(! o& a $ara$hra!e o& the 9ible in !imilar manner a!
$ara$hra!e! might be made toda)" .t doe! ma*e one wonder i& the te2t originated a! a
$ara$hra!ed tran!lation &rom %ree* to Aatin then a tran!lation &rom Aatin ba(* to %ree*"
Tran!lation ba(* into %ree* ha! ha$$ened be&oreK Era!m! a$$arentl) (om$o!ed %ree* &rom
Aatin in a &ew $la(e! in hi! New Te!tament and S(ri-ener a$$arentl) wor*ed ba(* to the %ree*
Te2t! :e(e$t! &rom the Engli!h 7ing Jame! -er!ion"
'.2.2. Caesarean
A((ording to 1et?ger
5/
'1>>/+ the Cae!arean te2t3t)$e L$robabl) originated in Eg)$t and wa!
broght b) ,rigen to Cae!area, &rom where it wa! (arried to Jer!alemNto the Armenian!N
and then(e to the %eorgian!NThe !$e(ial (hara(ter o& the Cae!arean te2t i! it! di!tin(ti-e
mi2tre o& We!tern reading! and Ale2andrian reading!NThere al!o !eem! to be !ome degree
o& a&&init) between the ,ld S)ria( 'S)r
!,(
+ and the Cae!arean te2t" .n !hort, the Cae!arean te2t
a$$ear! to be the mo!t mi2ed and the lea!t homogeno! o& an) o& the gro$! whi(h (an be
(la!!i&ied a! di!tin(t te2t3t)$e!"M
7en)on and Adam!
55
'1>;8+ note Lthe maBorit) o& the (hara(teri!ti( GCae!areanH reading! (an be
&ond either in Ale2andrian or We!tern witne!!e!, a! &or that matter i! the (a!e al!o with the
(hara(teri!ti( 9)?antine reading!"M
Aland and Aland
54
'1>=;+ do not belie-e there i! a Cae!arean te2t: L9t the widel) a((laimed
Cae!arean te2t o& the New Te!tament, we m!t in!i!t, i! th! &ar $rel) h)$otheti(al"M
=
'.2.'. +&e!andrian
Wi*i$edia
58
'Ale2andrianTte2t3t)$e+ ob!er-e! that L1o!t modern New Te!tament tran!lation!,
howe-er, now !e an E(le(ti( %ree* te2t that i! (lo!e!t to the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e"M #rther, it
i! noted: L1o!t te2tal (riti(! o& the New Te!tament &a-or the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e a! the
(lo!e!t re$re!entati-e o& the atogra$h! &or man) rea!on!" ,ne rea!on i! that Ale2andrian
man!(ri$t! are the olde!t we ha-e &ond, and !ome o& the earlie!t (hr(h &ather! !ed
reading! &ond in the Ale2andrian te2t" Another i! that the Ale2andrian reading! are adBdged
more o&ten to be the one! that (an be!t e2$lain the origin o& all the -ariant reading! &ond in
other te2t3t)$e!" Ne-erthele!!, there are !ome di!!enting -oi(e! to thi! general (on!en!!" A
&ew te2tal (riti(!, e!$e(iall) tho!e in #ran(e, arge that the We!tern te2t3t)$e, an old te2t &rom
whi(h the ,ld Aatin -er!ion! o& the New Te!tament are deri-ed, i! (lo!er to the original!"M
The wide a((e$tan(e o& thi! te2t3t)$e (an be !mmari?ed b) the !tatement o& 1(<onald
56

'/00=+: A.t i! now &air to !a) that mo!t bibli(al !(holar! $re&er the Ale2andrian te2t &amil), earlier
(alled the ANetral Te2t@ b) We!t(ott and Fort, o-er the Te2t! :e(e$t! %ree* te2t whi(h i!
m(h later and le!! a((rate than the man!(ri$t! &rom the Ale2andrian &amil)"@
Aland and Aland
5;
'1>=;+ note that their G!tandard te2tH 'at the time Ne!tle3Aland
/6
+, whi(h i!
largel) ba!ed $on the Ale2andrian te2t t)$e Li! a realit), and a! the !ole te2t di!tribted b) the
@nited 9ible So(ietie! and b) the (orre!$onding o&&i(e! o& the :oman Catholi( Chr(h 'an
in(on(ei-able !itation ntil Jite re(entl)+, it will !oon be(ome the (ommonl) a((e$ted te2t &or
re!ear(h and !td) in ni-er!itie! and (hr(he!
1et?ger
5=
'1>>/+ (ite! We!t(ott and Fort, who originall) made the te2t3t)$e $o$lar a! !a)ing:
L.t i! or belie& '1+ that the reading! o& 9 OCode2 Sinaiti(!, Code2 0ati(an!P !hold be
a((e$ted a! the tre reading! ntil !trong internal e-iden(e i! &ond to the (ontrar), and '/+ that
no reading! o& 9 (an !a&el) be reBe(ted ab!oltel)"M
7en)on and Adam!
5>
'1>;8+ (laim that thi! te2t3t)$e Lha! been the dominating in&len(e in all
modern (riti(al edition!"M The) do elaborate &rther howe-er, b) !tating
40
L.t doe! not now !eem
$o!!ible to regard the W te2t 'FortH! netral+ OAle2andrianP a! ha-ing de!(ended withot editorial
inter-ention and !b!tantiall) naltered &rom the original, bt rather it owe! it! $re!ent &orm to
(om$etent editorial treatment in a((ordan(e with the $rin(i$le! o& trained te2tal !(holar!hi$,
!(h a! we *now to ha-e e2i!ted at Ale2andria" We (an now !ee &rom the Che!ter 9eatt)
$a$)r! o& the E$i!tle! 'p
46
+ and the 9odmer A*e3John 'p
;8
+ that a te2t o& thi! t)$e wa! in
e2i!ten(e in Eg)$t b) or be&ore /00, and that it had (lo!e a&&initie! with 9 OCode2 0ati(an!P,
written 180 )ear! later"M
.n (ontra!t with the abo-e, Fill!
41
'1>=4+, a !$$orter o& the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e note! LTh!
the!e di!(o-erie! and the!e re!ear(he! into the New Te!tament te2t o& an(ient Eg)$t are
n&a-orable to the theor) o& We!(ott and Fort that the Ale2andrian te2t, and e!$e(iall) the te2t
o& $ OCode2 0ati(an!P, re$re!ent! the $re original New Te!tament te2t" #or, a! 7en)on
$ointed ot, the e-iden(e !how! that the Ale2andrian te2t wa! not dominant e-en in Eg)$t"
Clement ne-er !ed it, and ,rigen !ed it onl) !ome o& the time" Clearl) it i! wrong to !$$o!e
that the Ale2andrian te2t enBo)ed an o&&i(ial !tat! that *e$t it $re"M Thi! agree! with what
>
7en)on and Adam!
4/
'1>;8+ do, in &a(t, !a) L9t the (or!e o& di!(o-erie! in Eg)$t doe! not
(on&irm the theor) o& ni-er!al dominan(e"M and LNe-erthele!! it remain! that althogh that the
W OAle2andrianP te2t i! not the original te2t, it (ontain! more o& the original te2t than an) other, or,
to $t it another wa), the original te2t i! almo!t alwa)! (ontained in one o& it! (on!titent
member!, the &oremo!t o& whi(h i! 9 it!el&"M The la(* o& dominan(e o& the Ale2andrian te2t i!
!$$orted b) Wi*i$edia
45
'Ale2andrianTte2t3t)$e+: LThe e-iden(e o& the $a$)ri !gge!t! that D
in Eg)$t at lea!t D -er) di&&erent man!(ri$t reading! (o3e2i!ted in the !ame area in the earl)
Chri!tian $eriod" So, wherea! the earl) 5rd (entr) $a$)r! p
;8
witne!!e! a te2t in A*e and
John that i! -er) (lo!e to that &ond a (entr) later in the Code2 0ati(an!, the nearl)
(ontem$orar) p
66
ha! a m(h &reer te2t o& JohnK with man) niJe -ariant!K and other! that are
now (on!idered di!tin(ti-e to the We!tern and 9)?antine te2t3t)$e!, albeit that the bl* o&
reading! are Ale2andrian" 1o!t modern te2t (riti(! there&ore do not regard an) one te2t3t)$e a!
deri-ing in dire(t !((e!!ion &rom atogra$h man!(ri$t!, bt rather, a! the &rit o& lo(al
e2er(i!e! to (om$ile the be!t New Te!tament te2t &rom a man!(ri$t tradition that alread)
di!$la)ed wide -ariation!"M
'.2.*. .3antine
The 9)?antine '1aBorit), 7oine, Traditional, E((le!ia!ti(al, Con!tantino$olitan, or S)rian+ te2t3
t)$e i! re$re!ented b) the large!t nmber o& %ree* New Te!tament man!(ri$t!" .t i! the
&ondational te2t o& the GTe2t! :e(e$t!H %ree* te2t !ed &or mo!t :e&ormation3era tran!lation!
and hen(e o& the 7ing Jame! -er!ion o& the 9ible"
A((ording to Wi*i$edia
44
'9)?antineTte2t3t)$e+ L#or !ome time &ollowing the &orth (entr)
di&&erent t)$e! o& te2t were (rrent in the Ea!t, bt at the end the 9)?antine te2t Salmo!t wholl)
di!$la(ed the re!tMN"There are no (on!i!tent 9)?antine witne!!e! among!t the earl) New
Te!tament $a$)ri" Ne-erthele!!, in!tan(e! o& di!tin(ti-e 9)?antine reading! are not n!al in
the earlie!t te2t! D e-en thogh the) otherwi!e (on&orm more to other te2t3t)$e! or none"
Fen(e, man) 'and $o!!ibl) mo!t+ di!tin(ti-e 9)?antine reading! are li*el) to be earl) in date"M
Fill!
48
Jote! -on Soden '1>06+: LThe !b!tan(e o& the te2tNremain! inta(t throghot the
whole $eriod o& $erha$! 1/00 )ear!" ,nl) -er) !$oradi(all) do reading! &ond in other te2t3
t)$e! a$$ear in one or another o& the -arietie!"M
The $re&a(e in relati-el) new e(le(ti( 9)?antine %ree* te2t o& :obin!on and 6ier$ont
46
'/008+
!tate!: AThe 9)?antine Te2t&orm $re!er-e! with a general (on!i!ten() the t)$e o& New
Te!tament te2t that dominated the %ree*3 !$ea*ing world" Thi! dominan(e e2i!ted &rom at lea!t
the &orth (entr) ntil the in-ention o& $rinting in the !i2teenth (entr)" @nder the $re!ent
theor), thi! te2t al!o i! $re!med in (entrie! $rior to the &orth to ha-e dominated the $rimar)
%ree*3!$ea*ing region o& the :oman Em$ire"@
7en)on and Adam!
4;
'1>;8+ note that -on Soden attem$ted to (la!!i&) the 9)?antine
man!(ri$t! into three main di-i!ion!: 7
1
the earlie!t whi(h i! o& the eight (entr), 7
2
whi(h wa!
dominant &rom the tenth to the twel&th (entr) and 7
r
whi(h $re-ailed &rom the thirteenth (entr)
onward!" The) do note, thogh, that Lit i! al!o be(oming in(rea!ingl) re(ogni?ed that the later
O9)?antineP te2t ha! $re!er-ed here and there an(ient reading! whi(h ha-e largel) di!a$$eared
10
&rom other bran(he! o& the tradition, and whi(h otherwi!e ha-e onl) !light atte!tation among
earl) witne!!e!, or e-en none at all" .t doe! not &ollow that be(a!e a reading i! an(ient it i!
ne(e!!aril) (orre(t, bt it i! (lear that the later te2t de!er-e! &ar more attention than !o &ar it ha!
re(ei-ed" #or e2am$le, it ha! been remar*ed that X3t)$e O9)?antineP reading! are to be &ond in
the olde!t $a$)riDthi! i! noti(eabl) !o in the (orre(tion! o& p
66
, with their tenden() toward! a
!moother and more intelligible %ree*, bt the !ame $henomenon (an be !een in p
46
o& the
E$i!tle!" 6re-io!l) the!e reading! had been reBe(ted withot &rther ado a! late, and it i! o&
(or!e $o!!ible, indeed $robable, that !ome ma) be de to !(ribal and editorial (on(iden(e" 9t
not all"M
7en)on and Adam!
4=
'1>;8+ (laim that LThi! i! the te2t &ond in the great maBorit) o&
man!(ri$t!N" The e!!en(e o& the (a!e i! that thi! i! a te2t whi(h ha! !&&ered $rogre!!i-e
re-i!ion, not 'or onl) to a !light e2tent+ on do(trinal grond!, bt mainl) in the intere!t! o&
intelligibilit) and b) mean! o& -erbal and !t)li!ti( alteration! and b) the a!!imilation 'deliberate
or nintentional+ o& $arallel narrati-e!"M
A((ording to Aland and Aland
4>
: '1>=;+: LThe edition! o& Ti!(hendor& 'nmero! !maller
edition! &ollowed the $rinting o& hi! %ditio octava critica maior+ and o& We!t(ott and Fort were
!&&i(ient to ma*e the Te2t! re(e$t! ob!olete &or the !(holarl) world"M
'.2.-. Thou$hts
.n an) reading the literatre on te2t3t)$e!, the &oremo!t (on(l!ion i! that -irtall) all !(holar!
belie-e that the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e i! (lo!e!t to the original writing! o& the New Te!tament
whi(h i! wh) thi! te2t3t)$e i! now the ba!i! &or -irtall) all modern New Te!tament" So on the
ba!i! o& (riti(al e2$ert! alone, one wold ha-e to (on(lde that there reall) i! no other (hoi(e
bt to !e one o& the modern tran!lation! whi(h will be ba!ed $on the (rrent e(le(ti( %ree*
te2t 'a! &ond in the @nited 9ible So(iet), 4th ed" and Ne!tle3Aland, /;th ed"+"
The onl) note o& (ation that (ome! ot o& thi! !e(tion i! the ob!er-ation o& Fill! and other! that
the Ale2andrian te2t wa! not dominant, e-en in Eg)$t" Thi! (ontra!t! with the 9)?antine te2t
whi(h i! widel) re(ogni?ed a! ha-ing been the maBor %ree* te2t &rom 400 to a&ter 1=00 A"<"
Thi! de&i(ien() in the (laim to &ame o& the Ale2andrian te2t and the (orre!$onding (laim to &ame
o& the 9)?antine te2t ha! to ma*e one !erio!l) $onder the wi!dom o& ado$ting the Ale2andrian
te2t t)$e, a! de-elo$ed in the 1==1 %ree* edition o& We!t(ott and Fort, a! the ba!i! &or all
modern tran!lation!" The Je!tion (ertainl) (an be a!*ed GWold not tho!e Chri!tian! (lo!er to
the time o& Chri!t be in a better $o!ition to *now whi(h man!(ri$t! were more athoritati-e
than we are now4H 1a(<onald
80
'/00=+ $o!!ibl) !$ea*! to thi! Je!tion, both &or then, and &or
now: L.t i! more than li*el) that all o& the bibli(al man!(ri$t! that ha-e !r-i-ed antiJit) were
a((e$ted a! !a(red te2t! in the an(ient (ommnitie! o& &aithM"
'.'. Manuscripts
Wi*i$edia
81
'9ibli(alTman!(ri$t+ li!t! the nmber o& %ree* man!(ri$t! b) (entr) a! ta*en
&rom Aland and Aland '1>>8+"
9ibli(al 1an!(ri$t! b) (entr)
8/
#e$ Testa%ent Manuscri&ts 'ectionaries
11
(entury )a&yri *ncials Minuscule
s
*nicals Minuscule
s
/nd / 3 3 3 3
(" /00 4 3 3 3 3
/ndC5rd 1 1 3 3 3
5rd /= / 3 3 3
5rdC4th = / 3 3 3
4th 14 14 3 1 3
4thC8th = = 3 3 3
8th / 56 3 1 3
8thC6th 4 10 3 3 3
6th ; 81 3 5 3
6thC;th 8 8 3 1 3
;th = /= 3 4 3
;thC=th 5 4 3 3 3
=th / /> 3 // 3
=thC>th 3 4 3 8 3
>th 3 85 15 115 8
>thC10th 3 1 4 3 1
10th 3 1; 1/4 10= 5=
10thC11th 3 5 = 5 4
11th 3 1 4/> 18 //;
11thC1/th 3 3 55 3 15
1/th 3 3 888 6 4=6
1/thC15th 3 3 /6 3 1;
15th 3 3 84; 4 5>4
Earlie!t 9ibli(al man!(ri$t! b) New Te!tament boo*
85
Boo+ ,arliest
Manuscri&ts
-ate (on"ition
1atthew 664, 66;, 6104 (" /00 #ragment!
1ar* 648 (" /80 Aarge
#ragment!
A*e 64, 6;8 (" /00 #ragment
John 68/ (" 1/83160 #ragment
A(t! 65= earl) 5rd (ent" #ragment
:oman! 3 1
The!!alonian!
646 (" 1;83//8 #ragment!
/ The!!alonian! 6>/ 5rdC4th (ent" #ragment
1 Timoth) 4 (" 580 Com$lete
/ Timoth) 4 (" 580 Com$lete
Tit! 65/ (" /00 #ragment
6hilemon 6=; 5rd (ent" #ragment
Febrew! 646 (" 1;83//8 #ragment!
Jame! 6/5, 6/0 5rd (ent" #ragment
1 6eter, / 6eter 6;/ 5rdC4th (ent" #ragment!
1 John 6> 5rd (ent" #ragment
/ John 0/5/ 5rdC4th (ent" #ragment
1/
5 John 4 (" 580 Com$lete
Jde 6;/ 5rdC4th (ent" #ragment
:e-elation 6>=, 6118 (" /;8 #ragment
The abo-e table! demon!trate that there are not a lot o& earl) %ree* man!(ri$t! o& the New
Te!tament and that mo!t o& the earlie!t are $a$)ri"
'.'.1. +&e!andrian
A((ording to Wi*i$edia
84
'Ale2andrianTte2t3t)$e+ L !r-i-ing %ree* New Te!tament man!(ri$t!
&rom be&ore the >th (entr) are relati-el) rareK bt nine 3 o-er hal& o& the total that !r-i-e 3
witne!! a more or le!! $re Ale2andrian te2t" The!e in(lde the olde!t near3(om$lete
man!(ri$t! o& the New Te!tament Code2 0ati(an! %rae(! 1/0> O(ode2 9P and Code2
Sinaiti(! O(ode2 P 'belie-ed to date &rom the earl) 4th (entr) CE+" A nmber o& !b!tantial
$a$)r! man!(ri$t! o& $ortion! o& the New Te!tament !r-i-e &rom earlier !till, and tho!e that
(an be a!(ribed a te2t3t)$e 3 !(h a! p
66
and p
;8
&rom the earl) 5rd (entr) 3 al!o tend to witne!!
to the Ale2andrian te2t" "" Althogh the o-erwhelming maBorit) o& later min!(le man!(ri$t!
(on&orm to the 9)?antine te2t3t)$eK detailed !td) ha!, &rom time to time, identi&ied indi-idal
min!(le! that tran!mit the alternati-e Ale2andrian te2t" Arond 1; !(h man!(ri$t! ha-e
been di!(o-ered !o &ar 3 (on!eJentl) the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e i! witne!!ed b) arond 50
!r-i-ing man!(ri$t! 3 b) no mean! all o& whi(h are a!!o(iated with Eg)$t, althogh that area
i! where Ale2andrian witne!!e! are mo!t $re-alent""""" A((ording to the $re!ent (riti(! (odi(e!
the $a$)r! p
;8
and 9 O(ode2 0ati(an!P are the be!t Ale2andrian witne!!e!, whi(h $re!ent the
$re Ale2andrian te2t" All other witne!!e! are (la!!i&ied a((ording to whether the) $re!er-e the
e2(ellent $a$)r! p
;8
39 line o& te2t"M
,b!er-ation! o& 7en)on and Adam!
88
'1>;8+ wold !gge!t that the be!t te2tal e-iden(e that
te2tal (riti(! ha-e &or the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e a! being (lo!e!t to the original i! deri-ed &rom 9
OCode2 0ati(an!P and the $a$)r! p
;8
whi(h A!tand (lo!er than an) other two earl) witne!!e!@"
The &inding o& the $a$)r! demon!trated that the te2t3t)$e wa! in e2i!ten(e at or be&ore the end
o& the !e(ond (entr)" ASin(e their (ommon error! are rare, 9 i! not a dire(t (o$) o& p
;8
, nor in
trn are both (o$ie! o& the !ame ar(het)$e: genealogi(all) the) a$$ear to be at !ome di!tan(e
&rom ea(h other" The (on(l!ion &ollow! that the) both belong to an e!tabli!hed te2tal tradition,
(on!er-ati-e in (hara(ter, whi(h retained a remar*able $rit) in tran!mi!!ion"@
1et?ger
86
'1>>/+ li!ted the (hie& witne!!e! &or the $roto3Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e a! 1+ p
48
Oin A(t!P,
/+ p
46
O:oman! 3 1 Tim, FebP, 5+ p
66
OJohnP, 4+ p
;8
O&ragment! o& A*e and JohnP, 8+ OCode2
Sinaiti(!, New Te!tamentP, and 6+ 9 OCode2 0ati(an!, 1att 3 Feb, >, 14P" The!e man!(ri$t!
ha-e been dated Wi*i$edia
8;
'Categorie!To&TNewTTe!tamentTman!(ri$t!+ at a$$ro2imatel)
/80, /00, /00, /80, 580 and 5/8 A"<", re!$e(ti-el)"
1(<onald
8=
'/00=+ !tate! that LThe (hie& witne!!e! to thi! &amil) in(lde p
48
, p
46
, p
66
p
;;

O$robabl) !hold be p
;8
P, Code2 0ati(an! '9+, and Code2 Sinaiti(! '+"M
15
'.'.2. .3antine
The earlie!t %ree* man!(ri$t! !$$orting the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e are gi-en in the &ollowing
table"
Earl) 1an!(ri$t! o& the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e
8>
.i/n #a%e (entur
y
(ontent
A '0/+ Code2 Ale2andrin! 8th %o!$el!
C '04+ Code2 E$hraemi
:e!(ri$t!
8th %o!$el!
W '05/+ Code2 Wa!hingtonian! 8th 1att 13/=K A*e =:15
/4:85
Y '0/6+ Code2 %el&erb)tan! 9 8th A*eJohn
061 @n(ial 061 8th 1 Tim 5:18316K 4:135K 6:/3=
Ee '0;+ Code2 9a!ilen!i! =th %o!$el!
#e '0>+ Code2 9oreelian! >th %o!$el!
%e '011+ Code2 Seidelian! . >th %o!$el!
Fe '015+ Code2 Seidelian! .. >th %o!$el!
A '0/0+ Code2 Angeli(! >th A(t!, CE, 6aline E$i!tle!
0 '051+ Code2 1o!Jen!i! .. >th %o!$el!
Z '054+ Code2 1a(edonien!i! >th %o!$el!
T '05=+ Code2 7oridethi >th %o!$el! 'e2(e$t 1ar*+
S '0/=+ Code2 0ati(an! 584 >th %o!$el!
1/41 1in!(le 1/41 1/th onl) A(t!
14/4 1in!(le 14/4 >thC10th NT 'e2(e$t 1ar*+
A((ording to Wi*i$edia
60
'9)?antineTte2t3t)$e+ Ao& 8// (om$lete or nearl) (om$lete
man!(ri$t! o& the %eneral E$i!tle! (ollated b) the .n!titte &or New Te!tament Te2tal
:e!ear(h in 1[n!ter, %erman), 5;/ o& them atte!t the 9)?antine reading in at lea!t >0I o& >=
te!t $la(e!" Among!t the earlie!t !r-i-ing man!(ri$t!, the $o!ition i! re-er!ed" There are !i2
man!(ri$t! earlier than the >th (entr) whi(h (on&orm to the 9)?antine te2t3t)$eK o& whi(h the
8th (entr) Code2 Ale2andrin!, 'the olde!t+, i! 9)?antine onl) in the %o!$el! with the re!t o&
the New Te!tament being Ale2andrian" 9) (om$ari!on, the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e i! witne!!ed
b) nine !r-i-ing n(ial! earlier than the ninth (entr) 'in(lding the Code2 Ale2andrin!
ot!ide the %o!$el!+K and i! al!o !all) (on!idered to be demon!trated in three earlier
$a$)riN""M
The Wi*i$edia re&eren(e (ontine! LThere are no (on!i!tent 9)?antine witne!!e! among!t the
earl) New Te!tament $a$)ri" Ne-erthele!!, in!tan(e! o& di!tin(ti-e 9)?antine reading! are not
n!al in the earlie!t te2t! D e-en thogh the) otherwi!e (on&orm more to other te2t3t)$e! or
none" Fen(e, man) 'and $o!!ibl) mo!t+ di!tin(ti-e 9)?antine reading! are li*el) to be earl) in
date" Two broad e2$lanation! ha-e been o&&ered &or thi! ob!er-ation: that the 9)?antine te2t3
t)$e tran!mit! a te2t (lo!e!t to the $rimar) &orm o& the New Te!tament boo*!K who!e earl)
man!(ri$t witne!!e! ha-e not !r-i-ed, a! thi! te2t3t)$e $redominated in region! where the
(limate did not &a-or the $re!er-ation o& $a$)r!K that the 9)?antine te2t re$re!ent! a
(on!i!tent e2er(i!e in te2tal (om$ilation and (orre(tion &rom arond the 4th (entr), the editor!
14
ha-ing e(le(ti(all) !ele(ted tho!e reading! &rom a range o& earl) man!(ri$t!, that be!t
(on&ormed to their $re!$$o!ed !tandard! o& the (hara(teri!ti(! to be e2$e(ted in the New
Te!tament te2t"M
Althogh there are no $a$)ri are li!ted a! earl) witne!!e! in the abo-e table, thi! de!er-e! a
greater di!(!!ion" .t i! di&&i(lt to &ind re&eren(e to 9)?antine reading! in $a$)ri in re(ent wor*
e2(e$t in generalitie! !(h a! that abo-e Lin!tan(e! o& di!tin(ti-e 9)?antine reading! are not
n!al in the earlie!t te2t!M" Fowe-er a Gde&enderH o& thi! te2t t)$e, Fill!
61
, !tate!: LWhen the
Che!ter 9eatt) 6a$)ri were $bli!hed '1>5535;+, it wa! &ond that the!e earl) 5
rd
(entr)
&ragment! agree !r$ri!ingl) o&ten with the Traditional '9)?antine+ Te2t again!t all other t)$e! o&
te2t" LA nmber o& 9)?antine reading!,M '\nt? 1>85+ ob!er-e! Lmo!t o& them genine, whi(h
$re-io!l) were di!(arded a! GlateH, are anti(i$ated b) 6a$" 46"M And to thi! ob!er-ation he add!
the &ollowing !igni&i(ant note, LThe !ame i! tre o& the !i!ter3man!(ri$t 6a$"48K !ee, &or
e2am$le, 1att" /6:; and A(t!" 1;:15"M And the !ame i! tre al!o o& the 9odmer 6a$)ri
'$bli!hed 1>8636/+" 9ird!all '1>60+ a(*nowledge! that Lthe 9odmer 6a$)r! o& John '6a$)r!
66+ ha! not a &ew !(h 9)?antine reading!"M And 1et?ger '1>6/+ li!t! /5 in!tan(e! o& the
agreement! o& 6a$)ri 48, 46, and 66 with the Traditional '9)?antine+ Te2t again!t all other te2t3
t)$e!" And at lea!t a do?en more !(h agreement! o((r in 6a$)r! ;8"M
7en)on and Adam!
6/
'1>;8+ di!(!!ed the 9eatt) $a$)r! di!(o-erie! 'p
48
p
46
p
4;
, a((ording to
1et?ler, dating &rom the &ir!t hal& o& the third (entr), abot the )ear /00, and middle or latter
$art o& the third (entr), re!$e(ti-el)+ noting that the!e Lbetween them (o-er nearl) the whole
New Te!tament, and $ro-ide -alable and !b!tantial e-iden(e o& te2tal (ondition! in Eg)$t a
(entr) be&ore the 0ati(an and Sinaiti( (odi(e! with whi(h or man!(ri$t e-iden(e $re-io!l)
began"M The) li!t agreement! and di!agreement! with $rin(i$le man!(ri$t! a! gi-en in the
&ollowing Table" Nmeri(all) the greate!t agreement o& the!e $a$)ri i! with the 9)?antine te2t
Te2t! :e(e$t!Q
Alexan"rian
text
(o"ex
(.inaiticus)
Alexan"rian
text
B ((o"ex
0aticanus)
Western text
- ((o"ex
Be1ae)
By1antine
text
(Textus
ece&tus)
:eading! with $a$)r! 4/ 44 4> 88
:eading! again!t $a$)r! 10= 106 100 >4
Agreement a! I o& total /= /> 55 5;
7en)on and Adam!
65
'1>;8+ al!o di!(!! the 9odmer 6a$)ri whi(h the) a!!med, along with
the Che!ter 9eatt) (olle(tion, to ha-e (ome &rom the Lremain! o& Chri!tian librarie! whi(h
!r-i-ed the $er!e(tion o& <io(letian in 505"M The) indi(ate p
66
, whi(h the) dated at /00 'or
L$o!!ibl) earlierM+ a! $ro-iding the earlie!t (ontino! %o!$el te2t &ond ntil that time" Aland
and Aland
64
note thi! $a$)r! (ontain! John 1:1314:50 and that thi! Lwa! the &ir!t %ree* $a$)r!
boo* to ha-e been &ond with e-en it! !ewing almo!t inta(t"M A! noted abo-e, it i! al!o li!ted a!
one o& !i2 main witne!!e! o& the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e b) 1a(<onald '/00=+" A((ording to
7en)on and Adam!, p
66
wa! Lmainl) o& Ale2andrian t)$e, and here a$$arentl) (lo!e!t to "M
Thi! $a$)r! had nmero! (orre(tion!, th! a &ew $age! later the) (ontine L.n an
18
e2amination o& the (orre(tion! o& p
66
, %"<" #ee ha! !hown that when tho!e (orre(tion! whi(h
are de to the (arele!!ne!! o& the original !(ribe are !et a!ideand, a! ha! been remar*ed, he
wa! e2(eedingl) (arele!!Dthere remain! other! whi(h indi(ate that in going o-er hi! &ir!t
tran!(ri$t the !(ribe !ed &or (orre(tion a di&&erent 1S, al!o o& mi2ed Ale2andrian and We!tern
t)$e, bt with a !omewhat !maller We!tern element" Thi! (an be !een in the &ollowing table,
where, in relation to the 1S or 1SS o& the &ir!t (olmn Orow in table belowP, the !e(ond (olmn
OrowP gi-e! the nmber o& !(h reading! in p
66]
a&andoned b) the (orre(tor, and the third
(olmn OrowP the nmber o& tho!e reading! inserted b) the (orre(tor:M
Western
text
- ((o"ex
Be1ae)
Alexan"rian
text
(o"ex
(.inaiticus)
Alexan"rian
text
B ((o"ex
0aticanus)
By1antine text
P
23
Corre(tion!
abandoned b)
(orre(tor
5> 5/ 51 /; /0
Corre(tion!
in!erted b) the
(orre(tor
/; 41 45 46 40
I o& (orre(tion!
toward! te2t3
t)$e
41 86 8= 65 6;
N" Li"e" in thirt)3nine in!tan(e! the (orre(tor o& p
66
(hanged a < reading o& the &ir!t hand to
another, and in twent)3!e-en in!tan(e! altered the &ir!t hand into (on&ormit) with <" The
ot(ome wa! to bring the re!ltant bt !till mi2ed te2t (lo!er to p
;8
9 'in that order+ and awa)
&rom <" 1oreo-er, the a$$arent !hi&t toward! the 9)?antine te2t i! de to the (orre(torH!
$re&eren(e &or a !moother and more intelligible %ree*, whi(h in #eeH! o$inion i! e2$lained b)
(oin(iden(e o& !(ribal Bdgment rather than b) dire(t te2tal relatedne!! to the 9)?antine
tradition $ro$er" At the !ame time the!e G9)?antineH reading! !how that the!e !t)li!ti(
tenden(ie!, !o (hara(teri!ti( o& the later 1SS, were alread) at wor* in the !e(ond (entr)"M
.n another Jote &rom 7en)on and Adam!
68
, L.ndeed, it ma) be !aid a! a general rle that the
$a$)ri !$$ort the better man!(ri$t in two (a!e! ot o& three, and the in&erior man!(ri$t in the
third"M
.t i! o& intere!t that a !b!eJent $bli(ation b) 1et?er
66
'1>>/+ !tate! that p
48
i! Lnearer to the
Cae!arean &amil) than to either the Ale2andrian or the We!tern te2t3t)$e!"M With re!$e(t to p
46

he ob!er-e! L.n general the $a$)r! i! (lo!er to the Ale2andrian than to the We!tern t)$e o&
te2t"M #or p
66
he !tate! LThe te2t o& p
66
i! a mi2ed te2t, with element! whi(h are t)$i(all)
Ale2andrian and We!tern"M So an) re&eren(e to the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e ha! been dro$$ed b)
1et?ger" Thi! ma*e! !en!e &or the te2tal (riti(!Di& the 9)?antine te2t wa!nHt arond ntil the
4
th
(entr), how (an there be 9)?antine te2t 1;8 /80 A"<"4
16
'.'.'. Thou$hts
Althogh there are nmero! %ree* man!(ri$t! o& the New Te!tament, mo!t o& the!e are &rom
a relati-el) late $eriod" .t i! (lear that the earlie!t @n(ial man!(ri$t! and at lea!t one o& the
earlier $a$)ri are o& the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e" Thi! ha! to be one o& the !tronge!t argment! in
&a-or o& thi! te2t3t)$e"
.n (ontra!t, there are no @n(ial! be&ore the 8
th
(entr) !$$orting the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e"
Althogh it i! widel) (laimed that there are 9)?antine reading! in the earl) $a$)ri, thi! ha! been
down$la)ed in the literatre, with more re(ent athor! not e-en mentioning !$$ort &or an earl)
9)?antine te2t3t)$e &rom thi! !or(e" .n thi! regard, the &a(t that both the Che!ter 9eatt) and
9odmer $a$)ri 'p
48
, p
46
and p
66
K three o& the !i2 $rimar) witne!!e! that 1(<onald
6;
'/00=+ li!t!
&or the Ale2andrian te2t+ are li!ted a! !$$ort &or the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e i! at be!t
in(ongro! !in(e it wold a$$ear &rom data $ro-ided b) 7en)on and Adam! that the te2t t)$e
with the greate!t !$$ort in the 9eatt) $a$)ri i! the 9)?antine te2t t)$e" 1oreo-er, the /00 A"<"
9odmer p
66
$a$)r! wa! (orre(ted more towards the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e than toward! either
(ode2 0ati(an! or Sinaiti(!" Admittedl), there wa! e-en more (orre(tion toward! p
;8
whi(h i!
!$$o!edl) &airl) G$reH Ale2andrian te2t" Fowe-er, the mo-ement toward! p
;8
i! not a! great a!
the mo-ement toward! other te2t t)$e!K i"e" there were ;5 (orre(tion! toward! the 9)?antine
and We!tern te2t! in (om$ari!on with onl) 40 toward! p
;8
" The argment $t &orward b) %"<"
#ee that the 9)?antine reading! in the!e $a$)ri are de to Lthe a$$arent !hi&t toward! the
9)?antine te2t i! de to the (orre(torH! $re&eren(e &or a !moother and more intelligible %ree*, N
i! e2$lained b) (oin(iden(e o& !(ribal Bdgment rather than b) dire(t te2tal relatedne!! to the
9)?antine tradition $ro$erM doe! not a$$ear to be (on!i!tent with hi! a!!e!!ment that Lthe
!(ribe !ed &or a (orre(tion a di&&erent 1S, al!o o& mi2ed Ale2andrian and We!tern t)$eM" Fow
(reditable i! the argment that the!e (hange! were made in what wa! alread) written b) !ing
another man!(ri$t to (orre(t the &ir!t bt that the !(ribe at the !ame time &elt at libert) to
(hange the te2t a! he !aw &it4 To &rther !tret(h (reditabilit), it i! alleged that the !(ribe made
!imilar (hange! to that in a te2t whi(h wa! !$$o!edl) de-elo$ed /00 )ear! laterQ @n&ortnatel)
it i! thi! *ind o& (on-olted rea!oning that ma*e! it di&&i(lt to a((e$t withot re!er-ation the
a!!e!!ment that there wa! no 9)?antine te2t3t)$e $rior to the &orth (entr)"
.n !mmar), on the ba!i! o& the e-iden(e $re!ented b) te2tal (riti(! it wold a$$ear that the
earl) e-iden(e (old be li!ted a! p
;8
, 9 and &or the Ale2andrian te2t" .t wold a$$ear that p
48
,
p
46
and p
66
, i& an)thing, &a-or the 9)?antine te2t, $arti(larl) when the dire(tion o& (orre(tion o&
p
66
i! (on!idered"
'.*. +uthorship
'.*.1. +&e!andrian
Aland and Aland
6=
'1>=;+ noted that the te2t o& p
;8
Lwa! !o (lo!el) !imilar to that o& Code2
0ati(an! that it (old e-en be !!$e(ted o& being it! e2em$lar" With the di!(o-er) o& p
;8
we
ha-e at la!t &ond the *e) to nder!tanding the earl) hi!tor) o& the te2t"M A &ew $age! later
Aland and Aland
6>
gi-e the -iew that >earl)@ te2t tran!mi!!ion! were in the &orm o& a A!tri(t@ te2t
1;
with -er) &ew de-iation! &rom the original 'i"e" p
;8
+, a Anormal@ te2t whi(h tran!mitted the original
with a minimal amont o& -ariation, and a A&ree@ te2t 'e"g" p
48
p
46
p
66
+ whi(h had greater
-ariation, and al!o tran!itional te2t whi(h wa! a $re(r!or to the < te2t"
7en)on and Adam!
;0
!tate that the Ale2andrian te2t Lthere&ore i! now generall) regarded a! a
te2t $rod(edDor $erha$! it wold be better to !a) tran!mittedDin Eg)$t and $robabl) at
Ale2andria nder editorial (are"M The) &rther indi(ate
;1
L.& !o, the -iew, m(h (an-a!!ed in
re(ent )ear!, that the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e 'o& whi(h 9 and were the (hie& re$re!entati-e!+
wa! a third or &orth (entr) re(en!ion i"e" a deliberatel) re-i!ed or GmadeH te2t &ormed ot o&
the G$o$larH te2t! o& the !e(ond (entr) will need (on!iderable re-i!ion" .ndeed, FortH! theor)
that the GnetralH te2t o& 9 and e!$e(iall) 9Dwa! an an(ient te2t whi(h had !r-i-ed in
almo!t $re &orm, a$art &rom !(ribal error!, and withot !erio! editorial re-i!ion, now retrn!
into the &oregrond o& !erio! di!(!!ion"M
A((ording to 1(<onald
;/
'/00;+ Con!tantine reJe!ted '$erha$! (a" 5543556 A"<"+ that
E!ebi! $rod(e &i&t) (o$ie! o& the (hr(hH! S(ri$tre &or the (hr(he! o& the (it)" Fe note!
&rther that L.n &a(t, !ome !(holar! !gge!t that either Code2 0ati(an!, or Code2 Sinaiti(!, or
Wa!hington Code2 ma) be among the &i&t) (o$ie! $rod(ed b) E!ebi!" Code2 0ati(an! '9+
ma) be a de&e(ti-e (o$) reBe(ted b) E!ebi!, or a de!(ent o& one o& the &i&t) (o$ie!" 1ore
li*el), the *ind o& te2t em$lo)ing in the &i&t) (o$ie! i! a &orernner o& the 9)?antine 'maBorit)+
te2t"M
A((ording to 1et?ger
;5
'1>>/+ L.t i! widel) agreed that the Ale2andrian te2t wa! $re$ared b)
!*ill&l editor!, trained in the !(holarl) tradition! o& Ale2andria"@
Wi*i$edia
;4
'Ale2andrianTte2t3t)$e+ !tate! LJohann Aeonhard Fg '1;6831=46+ !gge!ted that
the Ale2andrian re(en!ion wa! to be dated abot the middle o& the third (entr), and it wa! the
$ri&i(ation o& a wild te2t, whi(h wa! !imilar to the te2t o& Code2 9e?ae" .n re!lt o& thi!
re(en!ion inter$olation! were remo-ed and !ome grammar re&inement! were made" The re!lt
wa! the te2t o& the (odi(e! 9, C, A, and the te2t o& Athana!i! and C)ril o& Ale2andria"M
'.*.2. .3antine
A((ording to the En()(lo$aedia 9ritanni(a
;8
A(ian o& Antio(h '(" /40351/+ L(reated the tradition
o& man!(ri$t! *nown a! the A(iani( 9)?antine or S)rian te2t" @ntil the de-elo$ment o& 1>
th

(entr) bibli(al (riti(i!m, it! (larit) made it the (ommon te2t"M
Wi*i$edia
;6
'9)?antine te2t3t)$e+ li!t! three $o!!ibilitie! o& athor!hi$ in the &ollowing Jotation:
LAmong tho!e who belie-e that the 9)?antine te2t i! onl) a !e(ondar) witne!! to the atogra$h,
there i! !ome debate (on(erning the origin o& the 9)?antine te2t and the rea!on &or it!
wide!$read !e" The !gge!tion! that ha-e been $t &orward are: That A(ian o& Antio(h !ed
hi! te2t (riti(al !*ill! to $rod(e a re(en!ion 'Jerome ma*e! !e$arate re&eren(e! to A(ianE!
re(en!ion! o& both old and new te!tament!+, That Con!tantine . $aid &or the wide di!tribtion o&
man!(ri$t! whi(h (ame &rom a (ommon !or(e 'There are !e-eral re&eren(e! in E!ebi! o&
Cae!area to Con!tantine $a)ing &or man!(ri$t $rod(tion+, That a&ter the We!tern :oman
Em$ire !to$$ed !ing %ree*, and be(a!e o& 9arbarian and 1!lim in-a!ion!, the onl) (hr(h
1=
to a(ti-el) $re!er-e the %ree* te2t wa! the 9)?antine (hr(h, whi(h e2er(i!ed (entral (ontrol
&rom the A$o!toli( See o& Antio(h and with!tood the 1!lim! ntil the 18th (entr)"M
1et?ger
;;
'1>>/+ !tate! that LThe rea!on that B!ti&ie! one in di!(arding the 7oine t)$e o& te2t i!
that it i! ba!ed on the re(en!ion $re$ared near the (lo!e o& the third (entr) b) A(ian o&
Antio(h, or !ome o& hi! a!!o(iate!, who deliberatel) (ombined element! &rom earlier t)$e! o&
te2t" <e!$ite the &a(t that it a$$ear! in a large maBorit) o& %ree* man!(ri$t! '&or it wa! ado$ted,
with !b!eJent modi&i(ation!, a! the re(ei-ed te2t o& the %ree* orthodo2 Chr(h+, the
abndan(e o& witne!!e! nmeri(all) (ont! &or nothing in -iew o& the !e(ondar) origin o& the
te2t3t)$e a! a whole"M
5"4"5" Thoght! on Athor!hi$ and the :ole o& the Ale2andrian Aibrar)
.t ma*e! )o wonder what the original atogra$h! were li*e" We *now that 6al wa! a !(holar"
Fe (lo!ed hi! letter to the %alatian! with L'e see how large a letter " have written unto you with
mine own hand(M '%al 6:11+" Similarl), A*e the $h)!i(ian wa! ob-io!l) well trained" 9t what
*ind o& an atogra$h wold 6eter or John the &i!hermen write4 .t doe! ma*e one thin* abot
role !(ribe! and the Fol) S$irit ha-e in the New Te!tament man!(ri$t! we ha-e re(ei-ed"
#rom the abo-e di!(!!ion, one (annot draw an) (on(l!ion (on(erning the !$eriorit) or
in&eriorit) o& athor!hi$" There i! no wa) to be !re how (lo!e to the original! or man!(ri$t!
are and how m(h editing ha! been done" .n &a(t, it i! (lear that mo!t $eo$le thin* that both the
Ale2andrian and 9)?antine te2t! are re(en!ion!" With re!$e(t to the 9)?antine te2t, it i! (lear
that there i! no *nown editor the !gge!tion that it i! an edited te2t re!t! $on (on(e$t! !(h
a! te2tal (riti(i!m and la(* o& older man!(ri$t!" .n term! o& the !gge!tion that A(ian o&
Antio(h made thi! re(en!ion, he wa! mart)red &or hi! &aith b) tortre and !tar-ation &or re&!ing
to eat meat ritall) o&&ered to the :oman god! dring the $er!e(tion o& the :oman Em$eror
1a2imin! whi(h gi-e! an) re(en!ion he might ha-e made good (reditabilit)" A biogra$h) o&
A(ian in Wi*i$edia
;=
'A(ianTo&TAntio(h+ !tate! in the (on(l!ion: SFe belie-ed in the literal
!en!e o& the bibli(al te2t and th! laid !tre!! on the need o& te2tal a((ra()S"
.t i! $o!!ible to !$e(late, a! man) ha-e, that the Ale2andrian te2t aro!e a! a re(en!ion in
Ale2andria, A&ri(a" We do *now &rom the En()(lo$edia 9ritanni(a
;>
that the &ir!t Chri!tian
.n!titte o& higher learning wa! &onded in the mid3/
nd
(entr), with 6anaen!, Clement and
,rigen a! !ome o& it! leader!" There wa! th! the (a$abilit) o& $rod(ing a re(en!ion" 9t the
!gge!tion that it wa! $rod(ed b) thi! gro$ i! !heer !$e(lation"
Fowe-er, it i! be(a!e o& the Ale2andrian Aibrar) and the milie o& !(holar! whi(h e2i!ted there
that we (an be almo!t 100I (ertain that a re(en!ion'!+ o& the New Te!tament wa! made, e-en
i& we do not *now whether !(h a re(en!ion ha! been tran!mitted to or $re!ent age"
Ale2andria wa! a !(holarl) (it) whi(h ho!ed the Aibrar) o& Ale2andria, whi(h wa!, a((ording to
En()(lo$aedia 9ritanni(a, the mo!t &amo! librar) o& (la!!i(al antiJit)" The New World
En()(lo$edia
=0
li!t! the librar) a! ha-ing been e!tabli!hed in /=5 9"C" and !toring 400,0003
;00,000 !(roll!" .n /004 ar(heologi!t! &ond a $art o& the librar) whi(h (old !eat 8,000
!tdent!" Thi! !or(e indi(ate! that the librar) obtained it! boo*! in a niJe wa): L9) de(ree
o& 6tolem) ... o& Eg)$t, all -i!itor! to the (it) were reJired to !rrender all boo*! and !(roll! in
1>
their $o!!e!!ionK the!e writing! were then !wi&tl) (o$ied b) o&&i(ial !(ribe!" The original! were
$t into the Aibrar), and the (o$ie! were deli-ered to the $re-io! owner!"M Thi! mean! that
(o$)ing o& man!(ri$t! wa! rotine" Al!o, it wold a$$ear that there were !b!tantial !ale! o&
boo*! &rom the librar)" To Jote the New World En()(lo$edia: LTh! Cae!arE! in-a!ion ma)
well ha-e led to the lo!! o& !ome 40,0003;0,000 !(roll! in a wareho!e adBa(ent to the $ort 'a!
A(iano Can&ora arge!, the) were li*el) (o$ie! $rod(ed b) the Aibrar) intended &or e2$ort+M"
The web!ite an!wer!"(om
=1
tend! to (on&irm that the Ale2andrian librar) wa! in the b!ine!! o&
editing and !elling boo*!, !a)ing that it wa! Lone o& the &ir!t and (ertainl) !tronge!t home! &or
!erio! te2tal (riti(i!m" A! the !ame te2t o&ten e2i!ted in !e-eral di&&erent -er!ion!,
(om$arati-e te2tal (riti(i!m wa! (r(ial &or en!ring their -era(it)" ,n(e a!(ertained, (anoni(al
(o$ie! wold then be made &or !(holar!, ro)alt) and wealth) biblio$hile! the world o-er, thi!
(ommer(e bringing in(ome to the librar)" The editor! at the Aibrar) o& Ale2andria are e!$e(iall)
well *nown &or their wor* on Fomeri( te2t!" The more &amo! editor! generall) al!o held the title
o& head librarian"M
Additional in&ormation (on(erning the librar) ha! been obtained &rom a boo* b) El3Abbadi
=/
" Fe
note! that the 6tolemie! wanted their Aibrar) to (ontain the bl* o& %ree* *nowledge, bt al!o
the writing! &rom all nation! to be ltimatel) tran!lated into %ree*" L,riental religion! !eemed to
ha-e had a great attra(tionM and the Se$tagint '%ree* tran!lation o& the ,ld Te!tament+ wa!
$rod(ed in the (it)" El3Abbadi re(ont! in&ormation (on(erning Arto!$hane!, who held the $o!t
o& (hie& librarian &rom //13/08 9"C" Fe i! noted &or the L&ndamental re(en!ionM o& te2t! o&
(la!!i(al %ree(e and introd(ed an editorial te(hniJe whi(h Lwa! !la-i!hl) emlated
a&terward!"M That editing o& boo*! wa! (ommon $ra(ti(e (an be ded(ed b) the ob!er-ation
that in the regi!tration o& boo*! &or the librar) L9e!ide the athorH! name wold be !tated the
name o& the !(holar who had G(orre(tedH or edited the te2t"M We *now that the Chri!tian ,rigen,
a leader o& the Chri!tian S(hool at Ale2andria, wold ha-e been e2$o!ed to !(h editing
$ra(ti(e! !in(e L6lotin!N!tdied, together with ,rigen, nder Ammoni! Sa((a!,N &rom /5/
to /45M A"<"" 1oreo-er we (an (on(lde that an) 9ibli(al man!(ri$t!, edited or otherwi!e, held
at the librar) '$robabl) in the 1o!eion whi(h had La &air (olle(tion o& boo*!M+ wold
ndobtedl) be !a&e &rom de!tr(tion and $re!er-ed !in(e L:oman em$eror! be!towed their
$rote(tion on it! member! O1o!eionP b) $er$etating their right o& !!tenan(e and e2em$tion
&rom ta2ationM"
The rotine natre o& editing man!(ri$t! in Ale2andria i! al!o (learl) demon!trated b) the
&ollowing !tatement b) 1a(leod
=5
: L9) the !e(ond (entr)N"e-entall), the name GAle2andrianH
be(ame a meton)m &or the (ra&t o& GeditingH, &or the $ra(ti(e o& (on!olidating and (orre(ting
!(holar!hi$ rather than (reating itD(riti(al, (!todial, $reo(($ied with the $rit) o& old &orm!,
rather than $r!ing the new"M
The (on(l!ion whi(h (an be drawn &rom the abo-e di!(!!ion i! that it i! -er) highl) $robable
that one or more edited -er!ion! o& New Te!tament man!(ri$t! wa! $re$ared at Ale2andria,
$robabl) b) librar) $er!onnel who ma) not ha-e been Chri!tian!, and that the man!(ri$t! the)
$re$ared were o& high Jalit)" #rther, there i! e-iden(e that Ale2andria wa! a di!tribtion $oint
&or man!(ri$t! !o an) edited te2t wold ha-e been widel) !$read" #inall), in the :oman
/0
$er!e(tion! o& Chri!tian! and the de!tr(tion o& their writing! 'di!(!!ed below+, it i! more
li*el) that the edited man!(ri$t! at the librar) wold ha-e been !$ared than New Te!tament
man!(ri$t! held b) Chri!tian!"
So with re!$e(t to athor!hi$, it a$$ear! that the !tat! o& the Ale2andrian and 9)?antine te2t i!
!imilar there i! no e-iden(e whi(h demon!trate! that the) were edited te2t!, bt the $re-ailing
o$inion i! that the) both were" .n &a(t it i! (ertainl) $o!!ible that what Fort ha! re&erred to a! the
GnetralH New Te!tament te2t and whi(h he and other! belie-ed wa! -er) (lo!e to the original i!
!im$l) the te2t $re$ared b) good and (on!i!tent editor! at Ale2andria"
'.-. Characteristics o% Te!t
'.-.1. +&e!andrian
A((ording to 1et?ger
=4
'1>>/+ the (hara(teri!ti(! o& the earlier &orm o& the Ale2andrian te2t are
that it i! generall) the !horte!t and doe! not a$$ear to ha-e ndergone the !)!temati(
grammati(al !t)li!ti( $oli!hing whi(h (hara(teri?e! other te2t3t)$e! in(lding the later &orm o&
the Ale2andrian te2t it!el&" 1(<onald
=8
'/00=+ note!: Lthe later Ale2andrian te2t &amil) i! *nown
&or it! greater $re(i!ion and (on!(io!ne!! o& (are in (o$)ing man!(ri$t! with a((ra(), whi(h
$robabl) re$rod(e! the earlie!t and mo!t reliable te2t o& the New Te!tament that i! $o!!ible"M
'.-.2. .3antine
Wi*i$edia
=6
'9)?antineTte2t3t)$e+ note!: LCom$ared to Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e man!(ri$t!, the
di!tin(t 9)?antine reading! tend to !how a greater tenden() toward !mooth and well3&ormed
%ree*, the) di!$la) &ewer in!tan(e! o& te2tal -ariation between $arallel S)no$ti( %o!$el
$a!!age!, and the) are le!! li*el) to $re!ent (ontradi(tor) or Sdi&&i(ltS i!!e! o& e2ege!i!"M
Fort 'a! (ited b) 1et?ger
=;
1>>/+ !tate!: LThe Jalitie! whi(h the athor! o& the S)rian
O9)?antineP te2t !eem to ha-e mo!t de!ired to im$re!! on it are l(idit) and (om$letene!!" The)
were e-identl) an2io! to remo-e all !tmbling3blo(*! ot o& the wa) o& the ordinar) reader, !o
&ar a! thi! (old be done withot re(or!e to -iolent mea!re!" The) were a$$arentl) eJall)
de!iro! that he !hold ha-e the bene&it o& in!tr(ti-e matter (ontained in all the e2i!ting te2t!,
$ro-ided it did not (on&!e the (onte2t or introd(e !eeming (ontradi(tion!" New omi!!ion!
a((ordingl) are rare, and where the) o((r are !all) &ond to (ontribte to a$$arent
!im$li(it)" New inter$olation! on the other hand are abndant, mo!t o& them being de to
harmoni!ti( or other a!!imilation, &ortnatel) (a$ri(io! and in(om$lete" 9oth in matter and in
di(tion the S)rian te2t i! (on!$i(o!l) a &ll te2t" .t delight! in $ronon!, (onBn(tion!, and
e2$leti-e! and !$$lied lin*! o& all *ind! a! well a! in more (on!iderable addition!" A!
di!tingi!hed &rom the bold -igor o& the GWe!ternH !(ribe!, and the re&ined !(holar!hi$ o& the
Ale2andrian!, the !$irit o& it! own (orre(tion! i! at on(e !en!ible and &eeble" Entirel) blamele!!
on either literar) or religio! grond! a! regard! -lgari?ed or nworth) di(tion, )et !hewing no
mar*! o& either (riti(al or !$irital in!ight, it $re!ent! the New Te!tament in a &orm !mooth and
attra(ti-e, bt a$$re(iabl) im$o-eri!hed in !en!e and &or(e, more &itted &or (r!or) $er!al or
re(itation than &or re$eated and diligent !td)"M
7en)on and Adam!
==
de!(ribe! the modern &eeling (on(erning the te2tal (hara(teri!ti(! in the
9)?antine te2t LThe e!!en(e o& the (a!e i! that thi! i! a te2t whi(h ha! !&&ered $rogre!!i-e
/1
re-i!ion, not 'or onl) to a !light e2tent+ on do(trinal grond!, bt mainl) in the intere!t! o&
intelligibilit) and b) mean! o& -erbal and !t)li!ti( alteration! and b) the a!!imilation 'deliberate
or nintentional+ o& $arallel narrati-e!" The $roo& o& it! !e(ondar) (hara(ter re!t! $artl) on
internal e-iden(e, whi(h !how! b) the a$$li(ation o& the ordinar) $rin(i$le! o& te2tal (riti(i!m
that it! reading!, when (om$ared with tho!e o& the earlier athoritie!, (an be e2$lained a!
!(ribal or editorial modi&i(ation o& them, while the o$$o!ite e2$lanation i! le!! $o!!ible or
im$o!!ibleK and $artl) on the e-iden(e o& the earl) #ather!, &rom whi(h it a$$ear! that reading!
(hara(teri!ti( o& thi! t)$e &ir!t begin to be noti(eable in the writing! o& Chr)!o!tom"M L:e-i!ion"""
wa! rather the re!lt o& &or(e! and tenden(ie! whi(h (ontined to o$erate o-er a long $eriod"""
and, in the !$$o!ed intere!t o& the reader, the in!ertion o& name! or $ronon! to ma*e a
me!!age more (lear, modi&)ing a $a!!age whi(h a$$eared o$en to mi!nder!tanding, or
obBe(tionable on grammati(al, !t)li!ti( or do(trinal grond!, remo-ing a$$arent (ontra(tion!
between two e-angeli!t!, a!!imilating the narrati-e o& one S)no$ti!t to that o& another, the
!b!tittion o& one word &or another, or the alteration o& word!"M
Walla(e
=>
de!(ribe! the 9)?antine te2t a! &ollow!: LTe2tal -ariant! are (!tomaril) $la(ed in
one o& &or (ategorie!: omi!!ion, addition, !b!tittion, and tran!$o!ition" The general (hara(ter
o& the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e i! normall) de!(ribed a! !mooth, (on&lated, harmoni!ti(, (om$lete"
1oorman
>0
$oint! ot !(holar! who e2$lain the !horter Ale2andrian te2t !a) that the 7ing Jame!
0er!ion G(on&latedH or (ombined reading! o& the di&&erent te2t t)$e! o& man!(ri$t gro$ing!" Fe
gi-e! a! an e2am$le that i& one te2t t)$e !a)! that L6eter wal*ed b) the !eaM and another !a)!
LJohn wal*ed b) the !eaM the Traditional te2t merel) (ombined the two into L6eter and John
wal*ed b) the !eaM" Thi! mean! that te2tal (riti(! generall) $re&er the !horter te2tK i"e" while
di!(!!ing the twel-e ba!i( rle! &or te2tal (riti(i!m, Aland and Aland
>1
indi(ate that LThe
-enerable ma2im le(tio bre-ior le(tio $otior 'Lthe !horter reading i! the more $robable readingM+
i! (ertainl) right in man) in!tan(e!M"
'.-.'. Tpe o% Greek Writin$4 ,oine versus +ttic Greek
.t wold !eem that it !hold be $o!!ible to e2amine the t)$e o& %ree* !ed in di&&erent
man!(ri$t! to determine whether a $arti(lar te2t aro!e in the &ir!t or &orth (entr)"
9a!ed $on the thoght! o& <aniel Walla(e
>/
'1>>6+, howe-er, thi! ma) not be $o!!ible" Fe
note! that the $eriod o& 7oine %ree* wa! roghl) 550 9"C" to 550 A"<" L<ei!!mann
demon!trated that the -a!t bl* o& NT -o(ablar) wa! to be &ond in the $a$)ri" The $ragmati(
e&&e(t o& <ei!mannH! wor* wa! to render ob!olete -irtall) all le2i(a and le2i(al (ommentarie!
be&ore the trn o& the (entr)"M Fe !gge!t! that at the time o& the New Te!tament there were
three t)$e! o& %ree*: 1+ -erna(lar or -lgar '$o$lar langage o& the da)+, &ond $arti(larl) in
Eg)$tian $a$)ri, /+ literar) 'i"e" !(holar!+, and 5+ (on-er!ational '!$o*en langage o& ed(ated
$eo$le+" The New Te!tament and !ome $a$)ri are li!ted a! e2am$le! o& the (on-er!ational
%ree*" Fi! a!!e!!ment i! that Lthe NT i! not on the !ame literar) le-el a! !(h athor! a!
Jo!e$h! or 6ol)bi!" .t largel) hold! to a middle grond between -lgar and literar)"M Fowe-er
Walla(e $oint! ot that !ome New Te!tament athor! are (lo!e to literar) 7oine in !enten(e
!tr(tre 'i"e" letter to Febrew!, A*e, A(t!, Jame!, 6a!toral!, 1 6eter, Jde+, other! are mo!tl)
G(on-er!ationalH 'mo!t o& 6al, 1atthew+, and the remainder are o& a m(h lower $lane,
//
Semiti(C-lgar 'e"g", :e-elation 1ar*, John, 135 John, / 6eter+, with the boo*! in bra(*et! being
in the de!(ending order o& $rit)" #rther he note! that althogh the %ree* NT i! (on-er!ational
%ree* in !)nta2, in it! !t)le it i! largel) Semiti( and it! -o(ablar) i! !imilar to the $a$)r!
do(ment! o& the da)"
.n (ontra!t, a 7ing Jame! de&endant, 1oorman
>5
, $oint! ot L9t a$art &rom the omi!!ion o&
!igni&i(ant word! and $a!!age! the 1odern 0er!ion Te2t i! !horter in another *ind o& wa)" .t i!
more ter!e and not a! l(id a! the :e(ei-ed Te2t O9)?antineP" And here it betra)! the !e(ret that
it i! not the original te2t o& the &ir!t (entr), bt rather one that i! altered and !e(ondar)" .n
9ibli(al time! there were two maBor *ind! o& %ree* diale(t: Cla!!i(al or Atti( 'the diale(t o&
Athen! on the Atti(a 6enin!la+, and Felleni!ti( or 7oine O(ommonP" Thogh ter!e and (om$a(t,
Atti( wa! (on!idered the more LelegantM o& the two" .t wa! the langage o& the golden age o&
%ree(e, and wa! in -oge &rom abot 4=0 to 5/5 9C" A&ter Ale2ander the %reat, the more
!im$le and e2$li(it 7oine 'meaning (ommon diale(t+ began to be !$o*en, and be(ame the
linga &ran(a o& the ea!tern 1editerranean region ntil the &orth (entr) A< when it wa!
!$er!eded b) 9)?antine %ree*" .m$ortantl) &or !, 7oine wa! the diale(t o& the New
Te!tament" Thi! i! remar*able e-iden(e o& %odH! $ro-iden(e" The Atti( le&t too m(h to the
imagination, wherea! 7oine with it! greater &llne!! (old be more $re(i!e" .t wa! !im$le, l(id,
$lain, and &llK )et withot the a&&e(ted $reten!e o& the Atti(" A! time $a!!ed there were attem$t!
to retrn the Atti( to it! &ormer $la(e" The !e(ond (entr) A< wa! *nown a! the L(entr) o&
Atti(i!mM when man) did re-ert ba(* to the Atti( bre-it)" And a! it wa! an o((a!ion &or atta(*
again!t the S(ri$tre! that the) were written in the le!! (ltred 7oine, a !igni&i(ant nmber o&
LChri!tianM !(holar! were (aght $ in thi!" A! we might e2$e(t, !ign! $oint to Ale2andria being
the $rime mo-er to bring the S(ri$tre Te2t into line with the Atti( diale(t" The man!(ri$t!
a!!o(iated with that lo(alit), (ertainl) be)ond all other!, &a-or the Atti(3li*e ter!ene!!" When
We!t(ott and Fort (on-in(ed te2tal !(holar!hi$ to re-i!e the NT awa) &rom the :e(ei-ed Te2t
and toward 0ati(an! and Sinaiti(!K the im$li(ation! o& Atti( and 7oine %ree* were not &ll)
nder!tood" Cla!!i(al bre-it) wa! to them an attra(tion" Sb!eJent re!ear(h ha! !hown how
wrong the) were: the !horter, not the longer, i! the altered te2tQM
The En()(lo$aedia 9ritanni(a
>4
doe! agree that there wa! a mo-ement ba(* to Atti( &rom 7oine
%ree*: LThi! gradal di-ergen(e &rom the langage o& 6lato and <emo!thene! wa! -iewed a! a
!$e(ie! o& lingi!ti( de(aden(e b) an in&lential !(hool *nown a! the Atti(i!t!, who n(ea!ingl)
(a!tigated the !e o& 7oine &orm! b) writer!" .t wa! th! that there de-elo$ed a ri&t between the
e-er)da) !$o*en langage and the ar(hai?ing, !$e(i&i(all) written langage" .t be(ame
&a!hionable to $bli!h manal! o& Lgood !ageM in whi(h the Atti( eJi-alent! o& 7oine
inno-ation! were re(ommended &or !tdentH! imitationM" @n&ortnatel) no timeline wa! $ro-ided
b) the En()(lo$aedia &or thi! trend"
7en)on and Adam!
>8
'1>;8+ !tate LSimilarl) with regard to Atti(i!m: there i! no dobt that the
(lti-ation o& the ar(hai( !t)le be(ame $re-alent in literatre (ir(le! in the &ir!t and !e(ond
(entrie! A"<", and ma) be e2$e(ted to ha-e in&len(ed the tran!mi!!ion o& the New Te!tament
te2t in !ome degree, bt whether it ine-itabl) &ollow! that !(ribal (hange wa! alwa)! in one
dire(tionDi"e", toward! the Atti(i!ing &orm333 i! another matter: !(ribe! ma) eJall) well in !ome
in!tan(e! ha-e $re&erred what the) regarded a! 9ibli(al idiom"M
/5
.t i! di&&i(lt &or a no-i(e to determine the di&&eren(e! between Atti( and 7oine %ree*, howe-er
the web!ite Aoido"org
>6
gi-e! !ome in!ight a! &ollow!" L<ring the :oman Em$ire there wa! a
literar) mo-ement to tr) to re(o-er the re&ined Atti( !t)le" A(ian Onot o& Antio(hK almo!t (ertainl)
re&erring to the an(ient %ree* rhetori(ian, athor, ( A< 1/031=0P i! one atti(i?ing athor, and
m(h o& hi! wor* !r-i-e!"M N LThe 7oine 'the S(ommon 'diale(t+S+ i! a langage o& em$ire" The
ba!e i! Atti(, with a to(h o& .oni(, bt the bigge!t di&&eren(e i! the m(h !im$li&ied grammar,
whi(h ha$$ened a! more and more non3nati-e !$ea*er! o& %ree* learned the langage" ,ne
entire !e(tion o& the -erbal !)!tem 'the o$tati-e mood+ di!a$$eared e2(e$t &or a hand&l o& !et
$hra!e!, and irreglar -erb! and non! had their irreglaritie! !moothed ot" .t al!o im$orted a
lot o& -o(ablar), &rom Aatin and &rom the Semiti( langage!"MN LStarting with the 7oine, $ro!:
)o get to read the New Te!tament in the originalK it i! the langage o& the Chr(h #ather!, a!
well a! the ba!e o& the literar) langage o& the 9)?antine em$ire" Starting with the 7oine, (on!:
be(a!e o& the 7oineE! !im$li&i(ation! o& mor$holog) and !)nta2, going ba(* to read Atti( or
E$i( %ree* i! m(h harder than mo-ing in the other dire(tion"M
'.-.*. Thou$hts
<i&&eren(e! between (hara(teri!ti(! o& the Ale2andrian and 9)?antine te2t3t)$e! a$$ear to ha-e
been a -er) im$ortant &a(tor in (on-in(ing te2tal (riti(! that the 9)?antine te2t i! a !e(ondar)
re(en!ion" .n thi! regard the e-iden(e (learl) $oint! in the o$$o!ite dire(tionQ The reliable
!or(e! Joted abo-e indi(ate that there wa! a mo-ement toward re$la(ing 7oine %ree* with
Atti( %ree* abot the time that Ale2andrian man!(ri$t! were written" What (old be more
natral than editor! $re$aring te2t with $3to3date langage4 .!nHt that what we do toda)4
.t i! e2tremel) intere!ting &or a no-i(e to (om$are the de!(ri$tion o& 7oine %ree* relati-e to Atti(
%ree* in the Aoido"org web!ite Othe &ir!t web!ite &ond di!(!!ing writing !t)le rather than B!t
grammati(al di&&eren(e! and dire(ted toward! %ree* $oetr) rather than an) religio!
(ontro-er!)P and then to (om$are the di&&eren(e! in the Ale2andrian and 9)?antine te2t3t)$e!"
A((ording to the web!ite 7oine %ree* ha! Lm(h !im$li&ied grammar N,ne entire !e(tion o&
the -erbal !)!tem 'the o$tati-e mood+ di!a$$eared NN irreglar -erb! and non! had their
irreglaritie! !moothed otN" .t al!o im$orted a lot o& -o(ablar), &rom Aatin and &rom the
Semiti( langage!"""" be(a!e o& the 7oineE! !im$li&i(ation! o& mor$holog) and !)nta2, going
ba(* to read Atti( or E$i( %ree* i! m(h harder than mo-ing in the other dire(tion"M
Now (om$are the abo-e with the (hara(teri!ti(! o& the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e: Lit $re!ent! the New
Te!tament in a &orm !mooth and attra(ti-e, bt a$$re(iabl) im$o-eri!hed in !en!e and &or(e,
more &itted &or (r!or) $er!al or re(itation than &or re$eated and diligent !td) 'We!t(ott and
Fort+K Lthi! i! a te2t whi(h ha! !&&ered $rogre!!i-e re-i!ion, not 'or onl) to a !light e2tent+ on
do(trinal grond!, bt mainl) in the intere!t! o& intelligibilit) and b) mean! o& -erbal and !t)li!ti(
alteration!M '7en)on and Adam!+" LThe general (hara(ter o& the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e i! normall)
de!(ribed a! !mooth, (on&lated, harmoni!ti(, (om$leteM 'Walla(e+" ,n the &li$ !ide, 1et?ger
!a)! o& the Ale2andrian te2t: it i! generall) the !horte!t and doe! not a$$ear to ha-e ndergone
the !)!temati( grammati(al !t)li!ti( $oli!hing"M ,& $arti(lar intere!t to tho!e endea-oring to
determine i& the Ale2andrian te2t ha! been GAtti(i!edH, are the word! L!moothed otM !ed in
de!(ribing the 7oine te2t in (om$ari!on with We!t(ott and FortH! de!(ri$tion o& the 9)?antine
te2t a! Lin a &orm !mooth and attra(ti-eM and Walla(e who !ed the term L!moothM to de!(ribe
/4
the te2t" Thi! (om$ari!on (learl) indi(ate! that the 9)?antine te2t i! (hara(teri!ti( o& 7oine
%ree* wherea! the Ale2andrian te2t ha! the (hara(teri!ti(! o& Atti( %ree* and i! th! a
re(en!ion $robabl) (reated between 100 and /00 A"<"
So, in (on(l!ion, the abo-e di!(!!ion ma*e! it (lear that the rea!on &or the di&&eren(e! in
9)?antine and Ale2andrian te2t !t)le i! be(a!e the Ale2andrian man!(ri$t! are (hara(teri?ed
b) the Atti( !t)le o& %ree* writing '100 /00 A"<"+ wherea! the 9)?antine te2t i! (hara(teri!ti(
o& the 9)?antine !t)le in !e at the time the New Te!tament wa! written" There (an be no
(on(l!ion other than that the writing !t)le (om$ari!on !trongl) &a-or! the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e
a! being (lo!er to the original atogra$h!"
'.5. 6se b Church 7athers
There are e2ten!i-e S(ri$tral Jotation! o& earl) (hr(h G#ather!H whi(h !hold $ro-ide !e&l
in&ormation with re!$e(t to whi(h te2t3t)$e o& the New Te!tament the) !ed" .n !$ite o& thi!,
(rrent !(holarl) wor* ma*e! onl) -er) limited re&eren(e to thi! a!$e(t o& determining the te2t o&
S(ri$tre"
Te2tal (riti(! !(h a! 1et?ger
>;
'1>>/+ (laim that L!o e2ten!i-e are the!e (itation! that i& all
other !or(e! &or or *nowledge o& the te2t o& the New Te!tament were de!tro)ed, The) wold
be !&&i(ient alone &or the re(on!tr(tion o& $ra(ti(all) the entire New Te!tament"M Fe doe!,
howe-er note that it i! !ometime! di&&i(lt to determine i& the athor meant to Jote the
S(ri$tral $a!!age -erbatim or merel) to $ara$hra!e it" L,rigen i! notorio! in thi! regard, &or he
!eldom Jote! a $a!!age twi(e in $re(i!el) the !ame word!" 1oreo-er, while di(tating to one o&
hi! !e-eral amanen!e!, ,rigen wold !ometime! re&er merel) to a &ew (at(hword! in the
S(ri$tre $a!!age whi(h had (ome to hi! mind a! an ill!tration o& thi! argmentK later the
amanen!i! wold hnt ot the $a!!age in a bibli(al man!(ri$t and in!ert it! word! at the
a$$ro$riate $la(e in ,rigenH! treati!e"M 1oreo-er, he note! LA! in the (a!e o& New Te!tament
man!(ri$t!, !o al!o the treati!e! o& the #ather! ha-e been modi&ied in the (or!e o& (o$)ing"
The !(ribe wa! alwa)! tem$ted to a!!imilate !(ri$tral Jotation! in the #ather! to the &orm o&
te2t whi(h wa! (rrent in the later man!(ri$t! o& the New Te!tamentDa te2t whi(h the !(ribe!
might well *now b) heart" When the man!(ri$t! o& a #ather di&&er in a gi-en $a!!age, it i!
!all) !a&e!t to ado$t the one whi(h di-erge! &rom the later e((le!ia!ti(al te2t 'the Te2t!
:e(e$t! or the 0lgate+"M
Aland and Aland
>=
'1>=;+ ha-e m(h to !a) on the $roblem o& determining te2t3t)$e &rom the
Jotation! o& the L#ather!H" Lthe te2t o& the lemma O(om$lete te2t $re(eding the (ommentar)P
wa! endangered &rom the !tart be(a!e it! -er) length o&&ered a (on!tant tem$tation to the
(o$)i!t to re$la(e it with a &amiliar &ormN"the lemma te2t ma) be a((e$ted a! athenti( onl)
when there i! $o!iti-e agreement, and e-en then onl) i& the editor ha! edited the te2t (orre(tl),
neither &ollowing a $oor tradition or !im$l) re$la(ing the man!(ri$t tradition with one $er!onall)
$re&erred"M Aater the) !a) LWith a %ree* man!(ri$t there i! no wa) o& *nowing the age o& the
e2em$lar it wa! (o$ied &rom, nor when we *now the $ro-enan(e o& a man!(ri$t 'a! we do in
e2(e$tional in!tan(e!+ i! there an) wa) o& *nowing the $ro-enan(e o& it! e2em$lar, whi(h i!
e-en more im$ortant"M
/8
7en)on and Adam!
>>
note! that the tre reading! o& S(ri$tre ma) not be &ond in !ome o&
the!e writing! be(a!e writer! o&ten Joted !hort $a!!age! &rom memor) !in(e the 9ible did not
ha-e (ha$ter and -er!e di-i!ion! and be(a!e and that later writer! ma) ha-e (hanged the te2t
to what the) were &amiliar with" A length) Jote &rom 7en)on and Adam! &ollow! to &amiliari?e
the reader with !ome o& the earl) &ather! and the t)$e o& S(ri$tre te2t whi(h the) !ed" LS(h
are a &ew $a!!age! whi(h a$$ear to !how a *nowledge o& the %o!$el! and 6aline E$i!tle! in
the E$i!tle! o& Clement, 9arnaba!, .gnati!, and 6ol)(ar$" #rom the !e(ond hal& o& the !e(ond
(entr) we ha-e the A$olog) o& J!tin 1art)r, the <iate!!aron o& Tatian '!o &ar a! it! te2t i!
re(o-erable+, and the e2ten!i-e Jotation! &rom 1ar(ion $re!er-ed in the writing! o& tho!e who
!oght to (on&te hi! here!ie!" ,& all the!e it (an be !aid that the e-iden(e, !o &ar a! it goe!,
!eem! to !how that the) !ed te2t! whi(h !how a (on!iderable amont o& de-iation &rom the
Ale2andrian t)$e" The !ame i! the (a!e with .renae!, who!e $rin(i$al wor*, a Con&ation o&
Fere!ie!, wa! $rod(ed between 1=1 and 1=>"""".renae! in hi! )oth heard 6ol)(ar$ in A!ia
1inor, bt li-ed and wor*ed mainl) at A)on! !o that the 1SS at hi! !er-i(e m!t ha-e been
tho!e (rrent in !othern %al" .n the %o!$el! and A(t! the) were o& a di!tin(ti-el) We!tern
t)$e !(h a! i! &ond in Code2 9e?ae" #rom Eg)$t or earlie!t $atri!ti( e-iden(e i! that o&
Clement o& Ale2andria '(" 1803/18+""""and it i! a noteworth &a(t, in -iew o& hi! $la(e o& re!iden(e,
that in the %o!$el! the) al!o are generall) not o& the 9 &amil), bt broadl) agree with the
We!tern t)$e &ond in <, the ,ld S)ria(, and ,ld Aatin" ,n the other hand in A(t! and the
6aline E$i!tle! Clement i! (lo!er to the Ale2andrian te2t, thogh with !ome old We!tern
reading!"",rigen wa! e!!entiall) a !(holar, with !ome (on(e$tion o& the $rin(i$le! o& te2tal
(riti(i!m""""" ,& the New Te!tament he made no edition, bt he wrote (ommentarie! on nearl)
e-er) boo*""" .n hi! earlier writing! he !ed 1SS $redominatel) o& the 9 t)$e, thogh reading!
o& a di&&erent (hara(ter are not wantingK both be&ore and a&ter hi! &inal de$artre to Cae!area he
!eem! to ha-e !ed %o!$el 1SS o& another t)$e" .n A(t! ,rigen alwa)! !ed a te2t o& the
Ale2andrian t)$e" """ At hi! death hi! man!(ri$t! remained at Cae!area, and be(ame the
n(le! o& a &amo! librar) &ormed b) hi! di!(i$le 6am$hil! 'd" 50>+""o& the Aatin writer! a&ter
.renae!, Tertllian '(" 1603//8+ and C)$rian '(" /0038=+ ha-e been mentioned""" in (onne(tion
with the ,ld Aatin -er!ion" """"Athana!i! 'died 5;5+ and C)ril o& Ale2andria 'died 444+, a! we
!hold e2$e(t, both !ed a good te2t o& the 9 t)$e" .n A!ia 1inor there were dring the &orth
(entr) 9a!il and the two %regorie!K in 6ale!tine and S)ria, C)ril o& Jer!alem 'bi!ho$ 5813=6+,
and e!$e(iall) Chr)!o!tom '(" 54;340;+ who wor*ed at Antio(h ntil 5>= and therea&ter at
Con!tantino$le, and in who!e -olmino! writing! we &ind, thogh b) no mean! ni&orml) !o,
the &ir!t !tage o& that re-i!ed te2t whi(h e-entall) be(ame the a((e$ted 9ible o& the 9)?antine
Chr(h"M
.n one re&eren(e to te2t3t)$e !ed b) the #ather! Wi*i$edia
100
'9)?antineTte2t3t)$e+ !tate! LThe
earlie!t Chr(h #ather to witne!! to a 9)?antine te2t3t)$e in !b!tantial New Te!tament
Jotation! i! John Chr)!o!tom '(" 54> 40;+"M .n an) (a!e, i& thi! i! tre, it i! indeed a good
argment again!t the Traditional Te2t" .n &a(t %ordon #ee a! (ited b) Jame! White
101
write! that
L,-er the $a!t eight )ear! . ha-e been (ollating the %ree* $atri!ti( e-iden(e &or A*e and John
&or the .nternational %ree* New Te!tament 6roBe(t" .n all o& thi! material . ha-e &ond one
in-ariable: A good (riti(al edition o& a &atherH! te2t, or the di!(o-er) o& earl) 1SS, alwa)! mo-e!
the &atherH! te2t o& the NT awa) &rom the T: OTe2t! :e(e$t!P and (lo!er to the te2t o& or
modern (riti(al edition!M"
/6
.n (ontra!t, (on!ider the argment! o& Fill!
10/
" L#or e2am$le, in 1att" /;:54 the Traditional Te2t
tell! ! that be&ore the !oldier! (r(i&ied Je!! the) ga-e Fim -inegar mingled with gall, th!
&l&illing the $ro$he() o& 6!alm 6>:/1" Fort thoght thi! to be a late reading !gge!ted b) the
6!alm" The tre reading, he (ontended, i! that &ond in Aleph 9 < et(", wine mingled with gall"
9rgon '1=>6+, howe-er, re&ted FortH! argment b) $ointing ot that the Traditional reading
-inegar wa! *nown not onl) to ,rigen bt al!o to the $agan $hilo!o$her Cel!! '(" 1=0+, who
!ed the $a!!age to ridi(le Je!!" .n hi! treati!e Again!t Cel!! ,rigen ta*e! note o& thi!
bla!$hem) and re$ro-e! it, bt he ne-er !gge!t that Cel!! ha! ado$ted a &al!e reading"""
Fen(e, (ontrar) to the a!!ertion! o& the natrali!ti( (riti(!, the di!tin(ti-e reading! o& the
Traditional '9)?antine+ Te2t were *nown to ,rigen, who !ometime! ado$ted them thogh
$erha$! not !all)" An)one (an -eri&) thi! b) !(anning the a$$arat! o& Ti!(hendor&" #or
in!tan(e, in the &ir!t 14 (ha$ter! o& the %o!$el o& John 'that i!, the area (o-ered b) 6a$)r! 66
and 6a$)r! ;8+ ot o& 8/ in!tan(e! in whi(h the Traditional te2t !tand! alone ,rigen agree!
with the Traditional Te2t /0 time! and di!agree! with it 5/ time!" The!e re!lt! ma*e the
$o!ition o& the (riti(! that ,rigen *new nothing o& the Traditional Te2t di&&i(lt indeed to maintain"
Natrali!ti( (riti(!, it i! tre, ha-e made a determined e&&ort to e2$lain awa) the Ldi!tin(ti-el)
Traditional reading! whi(h a$$ear in the New Te!tament Jotation! o& ,rigen 'and other earl)
#ather!+" .t i! arged that the!e Traditional reading! are not reall) ,rigenH! bt re$re!ent
alteration! made b) !(ribe! who (o$ied ,rigenH! wor*!" The!e !(ribe!, it i! maintained, re-i!ed
the original Jotation! o& ,rigen and made them (on&orm to the Traditional Te2t" The e-iden(e
o& the 9odmer 6a$)ri, howe-er, indi(ate! that thi! i! not an adeJate e2$lanation o& the
&a(t!""""Th! it (an hardl) be denied that the Traditional Te2t wa! *nown to ,rigen and that it
in&len(ed the wording o& hi! New Te!tament Jotation!"M
Another !$$orter o& the Traditional Te2t, Ja(* 1oorman
105
, ma*e! the &ollowing (omment!" L.n
thi! entire inJir) it (annot be o-er!tre!!ed that in earl) te2tal hi!tor) the :e(ei-ed Te2t i!
mo!t dire(tl) a!!o(iated with tho!e $la(e! that were either the !ender! or re(i$ient! o& the
original New Te!tament atogra$h!, i"e" Antio(h, A!ia 1inor, %ree(e, 1a(edonia" While
-olme! o& theologi(al literatre $ored ot o& Ale2andria, North A&ri(a and .tal), -er) little i!
a-ailable &or ! $rior to 580 &rom the ea!tern area!" Zet e-en with thi! di!ad-antage, the
:e(ei-ed O9)?antineP Te2t (an be !hown to $re-ail in the Ale2andrianCWe!tern
writing!""""(oming now to the inde2, 9rgon (ited 4,5=5 S(ri$tre Jotation! &rom ;6 writer! who
died be&ore the )ear 400 A<" Edward 1iller (arried on the wor* a&ter 9rgonH! death and $t the
material in a tablated &orm !howing the time! a Chr(h #ather witne!!e! &or and again!t the
:e(ei-ed Te2t" Fe &ond the :e(ei-ed Te2t had the greater !$$ort b) /,650 to 1,;85 or 5 to /"
7ee$ing in mind the Ale2andrian and We!tern lo(alitie! o& the!e ;6 #ather!, we ha-e here Jite
a !trong maBorit) &or the :e(ei-ed Te2t" Fad the Jotation! o& the Ea!tern #ather! been
a-ailable, all indi(ation! are that the !$$ort wold ha-e been o-erwhelming" 9t the abo-e
e-iden(e !how! (learl) al!o that there wa! a !trggle o-er the S(ri$tre in tho!e earl)
(entrie!" 9t, there wa! a (lear winnerQ 1iller (on(lded hi! re!ear(h with the &ollowing
(hallenge: LA! &ar a! the #ather! who died be&ore 400 A<" are (on(erned, the Je!tion ma)
now be $t and an!wered" <o the) witne!! to the Traditional Te2t a! e2i!ting &rom the &ir!t, or
do the) not4 The re!lt! o& the e-iden(e, both a! regard! the Jantit) and Jalit) o& the
te!timon), enable ! to re$l), not onl) that the traditional Te2t wa! in e2i!ten(e, bt that it wa!
$redominant, dring the $eriod nder re-iew" Aet an)one who di!$te! thi! (on(l!ion ma*e ot
/;
&or the We!tern te2t, or the Ale2andrian, or &or the Te2t o& 9 and Ale$h 'i"e" 0ati(an!,
Sinaiti(!+, a (a!e &rom the e-iden(e o& the #ather! whi(h (an eJal or !r$a!! that whi(h ha!
been now $la(ed be&ore or readerM" :egarding the attem$t to di!(redit 9rgonH! wor* b)
!a)ing that later editor! Lada$tedM the Chr(h #atherH! Jotation! to the Traditional Te2t,
Edward Fill! write!: L.n regard to m) re&eren(e! to the Chr(h #ather!, . am !re that i& )o
e2amine the note! to m) 7ing Jame! <e&ended and m) 9elie-ing 9ible Std)4 )o will !ee that
. ha-e ta*en (are to loo* $ all the 9rgonH! re&eren(e! in the mo!t modern edition! a-ailable"
<ring the )ear! 1>80388, . !$ent man) wee*! at thi! ta!*" .n &a(t, the newer %erman edition!
o& the Chr(h #ather! di&&er little &rom tho!e o& the 1;th and 1=th (entrie!" Certainl) not enogh
to a&&e(t 9rgonH! argment!M"
'.5.1. Thou$hts
Thi! i! one o& the !trange!t a!$e(t! o& the (om$ari!on between the!e two te2t3t)$e!" Te2tal
(riti(! a$$ear to ha-e -irtall) wi$ed ot an) re&eren(e to the 9)?antine te2t in the writing! o&
the #ather! be&ore 400 A"<" b) indi(ating that an) !(h re&eren(e! were (o$ied in later" Thi!
ha! to be a maBor hole in their (on(l!ion that the 9)?antine te2t wa! (reated a&ter the 5
rd

(entr) and it a$$ear! that (ontrar) e-iden(e !(h a! di!(!!ed abo-e i! not (on!idered
!erio!l) enogh at a !(hola!ti( le-el"
'.8. Trans&ations %rom the Greek Te!t
The &ollowing material ha! been $t together &rom in&ormation o& 7en)on and Adam! and Aland
and Aland a! (onterbalan(ed b) Fill!"
'.8.1. 1riac Versions
Tatian, a di!(i$le o& J!tin 1art)r at :ome, in abot 1;031=0 made a harmon) o& the %o!$el!
whi(h (ir(lated e2ten!i-el) in (hr(he! o& S)ria in S)ria( 'an Aramai( diale(t !imilar to that
whi(h wa! in !e in 6ale!tine in the time o& Chri!t+" 0on Soden and F"J" 0ogel! belie-ed that
thi! harmon) (a!ed m(h (on&!ion in the earlie!t 9ibli(al te2t! in other langage!" Thi! -iew
i! not widel) a((e$ted toda)"
An ,ld S)ria( -er!ion i! atte!ted to b) two man!(ri$t! bt, a!ide &rom a We!tern te2t
in&len(e, little (on(erning thi! tran!lation i! reall) *nown"
Another S)ria( -er!ion, the 6e!hitta, be(ame the o&&i(ial 9ible o& the S)ria( (hr(h" .t wa!
originall) thoght to be &rom the 5rd or e-en the /nd (entr) bt 9r*itt (laimed there wa! no
e-iden(e o& it! !e be&ore the 8th (entr)" 1et?ger al!o gi-e! it! $re$aration a! abot the
beginning o& the 8
th
(entr)" A((ording to Wi*i$edia '9)?antineTte2t3t)$e+
104
AThe earlie!t
tran!lation to witne!! to a %ree* ba!e (on&orming generall) to the 9)?antine te2t i! the S)ria(
6e!hittaK !all) dated to the 4th (entr)@" Aland and Aland $oint ot that !in(e it wa! a((e$ted
b) both !ide! o& a di-ided S)ria( (hr(h, it! origin and a((e$tan(e m!t ha-e o((rred be&ore
the di-i!ion 'i"e" mid 8th (entr) at the late!t+" The 6e!hitta !how! man) reading! o& the
9)?antine t)$e whi(h Aland and Aland (laim wa! a! a re!lt o& a re-i!ion o& the ,ld S)ria( te2t
&ollowing an e2em$lar o& a 'mainl)+ 7oine t)$e te2t" Fill! indi(ated that a&ter abot the middle o&
the 4th (entr) the whole S)rian Chr(h GretrnedH to the !e o& the an(ient 6e!hitta S)ria
-er!ion whi(h i! largel) o& the Traditional '9)?antine+ t)$e" .& indeed the 6e!hitta wa! written
/=
be&ore the 4th (entr), a! originall) belie-ed, it wold $!h ba(* the dating o& the Traditional
Te2t b) hndred! o& )ear! and de!tro) the $hilo!o$h) o& a late Traditional Te2t whi(h nderlie!
the modern tran!lation!"
'.8.2. Coptic
Co$ti( i! the an(ient langage o& Eg)$t whi(h ma) ha-e been !ed when Chri!tianit) !$read
among the nati-e $o$lation! in the 5rd (entr)" A((ording to Wi*i$edia
108
'Ale2andrianTte2t3
t)$e+ LThe earlie!t tran!lation o& the New Te!tament into an Eg)$tian Co$ti( -er!ion 3 the
Sahidi( o& the late /nd Centr) 3 !e! the Ale2andrian te2t a! a %ree* ba!eK althogh other /nd
and 5rd (entr) tran!lation! 3 into ,ld Aatin and S)ria( tend rather to (on&orm to the We!tern
te2t3t)$e"M
'.8.'. 9atin
7en)on and Adam! belie-ed that a (on!iderable $art o& the New Te!tament wa! (ir(lated in
A&ri(a in Aatin in the &ir!t hal& o& the third (entr)" The maBorit) o& ,ld Aatin te2t! are mi2ed te2t!
with m(h -ariet), $robabl) a! a re!lt o& &reJent re-i!ion!"
.n 5=/ 6o$e <ama!(! in-ited Jerome to nderta*e re-i!ion o& the Aatin 9ible and the 0lgate
re!lted" The Aatin te2t i! o& !igni&i(an(e be(a!e the 0lgate o& St" Jerome be(ame the
a((e$ted 9ible o& the We!tern World &or o-er 1000 )ear!" Thi! 9ible i! !aid to ha-e a
di!tin(ti-el) Ale2andrian (olor bt a((ording to Fill!
106
"""the !b!tittion o& JeromeH! -lgate &or
the ,ld Aatin -er!ion ma) &airl) be regarded a! a mo-ement toward the Traditional '9)?antine+
Te2t""" A((ording to Fort, one o& the %ree* man!(ri$t! whi(h Jerome !ed wa! (lo!el) related
to Code2 A whi(h i! o& the Traditional Te2t t)$eM"
'.8.*. Gothic
A((ording to Aland and Aland, a %othi( -er!ion o& the 9ible wa! begn !oon a&ter 541 'i& not
earlier+ when Wl&ila! (ame to 9)?antim a! a member o& a %othi( delegation" .t had !ome
We!tern and Aatin in&len(e with nderl)ing 9)?antine te2t in the e$i!tle!" Fill!
10;
Jote!
7en)on '1>1/+ a! !a)ing LThe t)$e o& te2t re$re!ented in itNi! &or the mo!t $art whi(h i! &ond
in the maBorit) o& %ree* man!(ri$t!"M Fill! (on(lde! L.n other word!, there m!t ha-e been
man) man!(ri$t! o& the Traditional t)$e on hand in the da)! o& @l&ila, man!(ri$t! whi(h !in(e
that time ha-e $eri!hed"M Con(erning thi! tran!lation 7en)on and Adam!
10=
'1>;8+ !tate L.n the
E$i!tle! the nderl)ing 9)?antine te2t ha! been more e2ten!i-el) a((ommodated to the ,ld
Aatin"M 1et?ger
10>
'1>>/+ note!: L@l&ila! !ed that &orm o& %ree* te2t whi(h wa! (rrent in
9)?antim abot A"<" 580 belonging to the earl) 7oine t)$e o& te2t"M
'.8.-. Thou$hts
.t a$$ear! that the Ale2andrian te2t wa! !ed in the late /
nd
(entr) a! the ba!e &or the Eg)$tian
Co$ti( -er!ion !o the $re!en(e o& thi! te2t wa! (on&irmed at thi! time" The earlie!t ndi!$ted
*nown tran!lation &rom the 9)?antine te2t wa! the %othi( tran!lation whi(h wa! !ometime
arond 580 A"<" Althogh thi! i! not terribl) earl) in the tradition, there i! no dobt that the te2t
wold not ha-e been !ed nle!! it wa! well a((e$ted at that time and had been &or a
!igni&i(ant length o& time be&ore then"
/>
'.:. )!p&anation %or Variabi&it in )ar& Manuscripts
A maBor $roblem in a!(ertaining with (ertaint) whi(h te2t3t)$e i! a!!o(iated with the original
atogra$h! o& the writer! i! the -ariabilit) in the te2t in the &ir!t throgh third (entrie!" Th!
1et?ler
110
'1>>/+ belie-e! that L@ntil the beginning o& the &orth (entr) the te2t o& the New
Te!tament de-elo$ed &reel)" .t wa! a Gli-ing te2t,M nli*e the te2t o& the Febrew ,ld Te!tament,
whi(h wa! !bBe(t to !tri(t (ontrol! be(a!e 'in oriental tradition+ the (on!onantal te2t wa! hol)"M
1(<onald
111
'/00=+ !gge!t! a !horter time and Jote! 7oe!ter that Lman), i& not mo!t, te2tal
-ariant! in the New Te!tament man!(ri$t! o((rred be&ore the )ear /00"M The $roblem! that
earl) -ariabilit) in New Te!tament te2t! (a!e! in the genealogi(al method o& e-alating te2t3
t)$e! i! addre!!ed b) 7en)on and Adam!
11/
a! &ollow!: L9t the e2treme $a(it) o& the
!r-i-ing earl) witne!!e! 'whi(h them!el-e! (annot be arranged on an) $re(i!e genealogi(al
ma$+ ma*e! !(h a re(on!tr(tion im$o!!ible" 1oreo-er, when we ha-e tra(ed the -ario!
line! o& tradition a &ar ba(* a! the) (an be ta*en, we are (on&ronted not with le!! -ariet) bt with
more, the Gbarrier o& the !e(ond (entr)H a! it ha! been (alled, the G(ommon re!er-oirH ot o&
whi(h the -ario! gro$! emerged"M
.n (ontra!t to thi! earl) $eriod, mo!t te2tal (riti(! belie-e that S(ri$tre ha! been relati-el)
!table" Th! a! !tated b) Aland and Aland
115
, LAnd )et balan(ing thi!, one o& the (hara(teri!ti(!
o& the New Te!tament te2tal tradition i! tena(it), i"e", the !tbborn re!i!tan(e o& reading! and
te2t t)$e! to (hange"M The) &rther !tate
114
L@ntil the beginning o& the &orth (entr)N"And the
New Te!tament te2t (ontined to be a Lli-ing te2tM a! long a! it remained a man!(ri$t
tradition!, e-en when the 9)?antine (hr(h molded it to the $ro(r!tean bed o& an
e((le!ia!ti(all) !tandardi?ed and o&&i(iall) $re!(ribed te2t"M Similarl), Fill!
118
Jote! -on Soden
'1>06+ with re&eren(e to the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e: LThe !b!tan(e o& the te2tNremain! inta(t
throghot the whole $eriod o& $erha$! 1/00 )ear!" ,nl) -er) !$oradi(all) do reading! &ond in
other te2t3t)$e! a$$ear in one or another o& the -arietie!"M
'.:.1. Variabi&it as )!p&ained b 1upporters o% +&e!andrian and .3antine Te!t"Tpes
1et?ger
116
de-ote! a whole (ha$ter to GThe (a!e! o& error in the tran!mi!!ion o& the te2t o& the
New Te!tament"H Fe (o-er! nintentional (hange! '&alt) e)e!ight, &alt) hearing, error! o& the
mind, error o& Bdgment+ and intentional (hange! '!$elling and grammar, harmoni!ti( (hange!,
&ini!hing abr$t ending!, (learing $ hi!tori(al and geogra$hi(al di&&i(ltie!, (on&lation o&
reading!, alteration! be(a!e o& do(trinal (on!ideration!, addition o& mi!(ellaneo! detail!+" The
ta*e3home me!!age &rom thi! i! that it i! -er) ea!) &or a !(ribe to ma*e a mi!ta*e in a
man!(ri$t and that !ometime! deliberate (hange! were introd(ed" A! an e2am$le o& the latter
t)$e o& modi&i(ation, a! di!(!!ed abo-e, dring the $eriod 10033/00 A"<" there wa! deliberate
mo-ement &rom 7oine to Atti( %ree* te2tDa mo-ement whi(h we (an a$$re(iate toda) !in(e
we (ontinall) mo-e toward! Gmore readableH tran!lation!"
Te2tal -ariabilit) m!t be loo*ed at in light o& what wa! ha$$ening at the time when the
-ariabilit) too* $la(e: in the $eriod &rom the mart)rdom o& Jame! to the reign o& Con!tantine in
506 A"<" Chri!tian! were (on!tantl) $er!e(ted in the *nown world, with S(ri$tre! being
de!tro)ed '!ee below+" Thi! lo!! o& S(ri$tre (an be (o$led with an in(rea!ed reJirement &or
S(ri$tre be(a!e o& an e2$anding Chri!tian $o$lation" New (o$ie! o& S(ri$tre were not ea!)
50
to get !in(e trained !(ribe! were e2$en!i-e '!ee below+ and &ew (o$ie! o& e2em$lar! wold
ha-e been a-ailable"
Then there wold be the role o& memori?ation in re(reating S(ri$tre lo!t throgh $er!e(tion"
The role o& oral tradition in $a!!ing on S(ri$tre wold ob-io!l) be(ome e2tremel) im$ortant
nder !(h (ir(m!tan(e!, whether it be in term! o& !mall &ragment! o& te2t! or in whole boo*!"
Thi! wold (reate a great deal o& -ariabilit) reading! o& the New Te!tament and be a (a!e o&
-ariant! 'Gli-ing te2tH+ e-en when S(ri$tre wa! held in high regard" .ndeed, it i! not im$o!!ible to
belie-e that in !ome (ommnitie! or geogra$hi(al area! a new te2t3t)$e (old ari!e in thi!
manner" S(ri$tre re(alled and written down wold not ha-e $er&e(t a((ra(), bt wold
ne-erthele!! be Jite a((rate !in(e oral tradition wa! well de-elo$ed at thi! time, and there
wa! m(h le!! relian(e $on the written word" There i! e-iden(e that $eo$le at thi! time were
well3-er!ed in oral tradition: 1et?ger
11;
'1>>/+ note! that LA((ording to the o!tra(on, Samel,
Ja(ob, and Aaron, who a$$lied to 9i!ho$ Abraham to be ordained a! dea(on!, were reJired
Gto ma!ter the %o!$el a((ording to John and learn it b) heart b) the end o& 6ente(o!t and to
re(ite itH" A$ho, 9i!ho$ o& ,2)rh)n(h!, i! !aid to ha-e reJired a dea(on at ordination to *now
twent)3&i-e 6!alm!, two E$i!tle! o& 6al, and a $ortion o& a %o!$el b) heartK a $rie!t had to
*now, in addition, $ortion! o& <eteronom), 6ro-erb!, and .!aiah"M A! e2am$le! o& the
im$ortan(e o& oral tradition in term! o& abilit) to re(reate S(ri$tre, 1(<onald
11=
'/00;+ !tate!
that L9arr ma*e! the intere!ting ob!er-ation that both 6lato and the 6hari!ee! had a L(ltral
$re!$$o!itionM that writing down o& $ro&ond trth wa! Lan unworthy mode o& tran!mi!!ion"M
#rther, L6latoN" !how! (on(ern that the mere writing o& !omething will ad-er!el) a&&e(t the
!$erior abilit) o& the mind to memori?eM" Along the !ame line! 1(<onald note! that LThe
rabbi! had !e-eral !a)ing! that !gge!ted that the Loral TorahM oght not to be $t into writingM"
Thi! ma*e! it (lear that it wold be $o!!ible &or !b!tantial $ortion! o& the New Te!tament to
ha-e been re(reated &rom memor)" .t wold al!o e2$lain wh) there i! more te2tal -ariabilit) in
the go!$el!K the) are le!! ea!) to memori?e than e$i!tle!"
When loo*ing at the to$i( o& Gli-ing te2tH and -ariabilit), one m!t remember that the maBorit) o&
%ree* New Te!tament writing! are not (om$lete man!(ri$t!, bt rather &ragment! o&
man!(ri$t!" .t i! Jite ea!) to imagine that $eo$le wold Bot S(ri$tre down that the) were -er)
intere!ted in and that !(h Botting! wold not be letter $er&e(t indeed that i! what we wold
e2$e(t"
,n the ba!i! o& the abo-e, it i! ea!) to !ee wh) there wold be a great deal o& -ariabilit) in the
te2t o& the New Te!tament be&ore /00 A"<" .ndeed, $er!e(tion alone (old a((ont &or the
re!lt! whi(h we !ee" @n&ortnatel), a! di!(!!ed below, a(ademi( !$$orter! o& the (riti(al
te2t generall) !$$ort a di&&erent rea!on &or the maBorit) o& -ariation in the Te2t o& the New
Te!tamentDla(* o& belie& in the !a(redne!! o& S(ri$tre b) the earl) (hr(h" .n (ontra!t,
!$$orter! o& the 9)?antine te2t generall) ha-e belie-ed that S(ri$tre i! %odH! Word and not to
be altered"
51
3.8.1.1. Critical Texts (Alexandrian) General Belief that Scriptural Variants Arose Throuh !ac" of
#espect for the Sacredness of Scripture
The &ollowing Jotation! demon!trate the -iew whi(h $redominate! among te2tal (riti(! i! that
the earl) New Te!tament te2t aro!e a! G&ree te2tH" Sin(e the!e !ame te2tal (riti(! are tho!e
who ha-e been in!trmental in the ado$tion o& the Ale2andrian te2t, their thoght! on the
tran!mi!!ion o& S(ri$tre m!t be (on!idered !erio!l)"
Sir #"%" 7en)on '7en)on and Adam!, 1>;8+
11>
a &ormer dire(tor o& the 9riti!h m!em loo*ed at
S(ri$tral te2t! in the &ollowing light: A.n the earlie!t da)! the Chri!tian! were a $oor
(ommnit), who wold !eldom ha-e been able to (ommand the !er-i(e! o& $ro&e!!ional
!(ribe!" There were no re(ogni?ed (entre! &or the $romlgation o& athori?ed (o$ie! o& the
S(ri$tre!" The New Te!tament boo*! were not indeed S(ri$tre! with a (a$ital S" The !a(red
boo*! o& the earlie!t Chri!tian! were tho!e o& the ,ld Te!tamentK the writing! o& 1ar* and A*e
and 6al were B!t memoir! and letter! &or $re!ent need!" Nor were there the !al literar)
!tandard! to $rote(t the integrit) o& their te2t!" The letter! o& 6al were, indeed, indi-idal
e2$re!!ion o& o$inion whi(h wold not lightl) be alteredK bt the anon)mo! %o!$el! and A(t!
were not regarded a! the literar) (om$o!ition! o& their athor!, bt a! narrati-e! o& the li&e o&
or Aord and the wor* o& hi! a$o!tle!, (om$lied with the $rel) $ra(ti(al obBe(t o& di!!eminating
the *nowledge o& their li-e! and tea(hing! among the Chri!tian (ommnit), and with no e)e to a
&tre whi(h in an) (a!e wold !oon be (rtailed b) the Se(ond Coming" There wa! no need to
be meti(lo! in -erbal a((ra()" The !b!tan(e wa! what mattered, and i& addition!, belie-ed
to athenti(, (old be made to it, wh) !hold the) not4 Then there were little mean!, e-en i& it
had been thoght need&l, to !e(re ni&ormit) o& tran!mi!!ion"""".n (ir(m!tan(e! !(h a!
the!e it wa! natral that -arietie! o& reading! !hold mlti$l)"@
The thoght! o& 7rt and 9arbara Aland
1/0
'1>=;+ are o& intere!t be(a!e 7rt &or man) )ear!
wa! at the .n!titte &or New Te!tament Te2tal :e!ear(h and the $rin(i$al editor o& the
Ne!tle3Aland edition o& No-m Te!tamentm %rae(e '%ree* New Te!tament+: A@ntil the
beginning o& the &orth (entr) the te2t o& the New Te!tament de-elo$ed &reel)" .t wa! a Ali-ing
te2t,@ nli*e the te2t o& the Febrew ,ld Te!tament, whi(h wa! !bBe(t to !tri(t (ontrol! be(a!e
'in the oriental tradition+ the (on!onantal te2t wa! hol)" And the New Te!tament te2t (ontined
to be a Ali-ing te2t@ a! long a! it remained a man!(ri$t tradition, e-en when the 9)?antine
(hr(h molded it to the $ro(r!tean bed o& an e((le!ia!ti(all) !tandardi?ed and o&&i(iall)
$re!(ribed te2t" E-en &or later !(ribe!, &or e2am$le, the $arallel $a!!age! o& the %o!$el! were
!o &amiliar that the) wold ada$t the te2t o& one %o!$el to that o& another" The) al!o &elt
them!el-e! &ree to ma*e (orre(tion! in the te2t, im$ro-ing it b) their own !tandard! o&
(orre(tne!!, whether grammati(all), !t)li!ti(all), or more !b!tanti-el)" Thi! wa! all the more
tre o& the earl) $eriod, when the te2t had not )et attained (anoni(al !tat!, e!$e(iall) in the
earlie!t $eriod when Chri!tian! (on!idered them!el-e! &illed with the S$irit" A! a (on!eJen(e
the AEarl) te2t@ wa! man)3&a(eted, and ea(h man!(ri$t had it! own $e(liar (hara(ter"""
0ariant reading! in the New Te!tament te2t whi(h are not de to !im$le !(ribal error 'or to the
(on&!ion o& !imilar !ond! when tran!(ribing &rom di(tation in a !(ri$torim+ ma) be e2$lained
b) it! (hara(ter a! a Ali-ing te2t@" While it i! tre that &rom at lea!t the third (entr) the !(ribe!
tried to (o$) their e2em$lar! &aith&ll) to the letter, the) al!o &ollowed the meaning a! the)
5/
tran!(ribed the te2t 'whi(h the) *new $ra(ti(all) b) heart+, and thi! ga-e ri!e to -ariant!@" The)
&rther !tate that onl) L!ome 10 to /0 $er(ent o& the %ree* man!(ri$t! o& the %ree*
man!(ri$t! ha-e $re!er-ed &aith&ll) the di&&erent te2t t)$e! o& their -ario! e2em$lar!, e-en in
the late!t $eriod when the dominan(e o& the 9)?antine .m$erial te2t be(ame !o thoroghl)
$er-a!i-e" Thi! i! what ma*e! it $o!!ible to retra(e the original te2t o& the New Te!tament
throgh a broad range o& witne!!e!"M
9r(e 1et?ger
1/1
'1>>/+, who wa! on the board o& the Ameri(an 9ible So(iet) and an editor o&
the @nited 9ible So(ietie!E !tandard %ree* New Te!tament, the !tarting $oint &or nearl) all
re(ent New Te!tament ha! made the &ollowing (omment!: AThe a((ra() o& the new (o$)
wold, o& (or!e, de$end $on the degree o& the !(ribe!=! &amiliarit) with the langage and
(ontent o& the man!(ri$t being tran!(ribed, a! well a! $on the (are e2er(i!ed in $er&orming
the ta!*" .n the earl) )ear! o& the Chri!tian Chr(h, mar*ed b) ra$id e2$an!ion and (on!eJent
in(rea!ed demand b) indi-idal! and b) (ongregation! &or (o$ie! o& the S(ri$tre!, the !$eed)
mlti$li(ation o& (o$ie!, e-en b) non3$ro&e!!ional !(ribe!, !ometime! too* $re(eden(e o-er
!tri(t a((ra() o& detail" .n n(ial %ree* !(ri$t (ertain letter! re!emble other letter!, and i& the
e2em$lar wa! worn and the (ondition o& the in* $oor, one (an nder!tand that a !(ribe might
ea!il) (on&!e the letter! ^, _, o, and ("""" Another $o!!ible !or(e o& error wold (on&ront the
!(ribe when two adBa(ent or nearl) adBa(ent line! o& writing in the e2em$lar ha$$ened to end
with the !ame word or !eJen(e o& letter!" .n !(h (ir(m!tan(e! the !(ribe, in loo*ing ba(* to
the e2em$lar, might inad-ertentl) omit the inter-ening line or line!"""""The other mode o&
$rod(ing boo*! wa! that &ollowed at a !(ri$torim"""#or e2am$le, """"in the (or!e o& time the
$ronn(iation o& the %ree* $ronon! o& the &ir!t and !e(ond $er!on! $lral be(ame
indi!tingi!hable" Con!eJentl), in the New Te!tament it i! !ometime! di&&i(lt or im$o!!ible to
de(ide on the ba!i! o& di-ergent e-iden(e in the man!(ri$t! whi(h &orm wa! originall) intended
b) the athor" ,n the whole, howe-er, man) !(h error! in tran!(ri$tion wold be (aght b) the
`aob_cdef '>(orre(tor=+ o& the !(ri$torim, who in!$e(ted &or a((ra() the &ini!hed wor* o&
indi-idal !(ribe!"@
1a(<onald
1//
'/00;+ write! A#rom the beginning, howe-er, the $ro(lamation abot the death
and re!rre(tion o& Je!!, a! well a! hi! li&e and tea(hing, (ir(lated among the Chri!tian
(hr(he! in oral &orm" While !ome o& thi! tradition wa! written down Jite earl) '(a" 80368+,
m(h o& it wa! tran!mitted orall) &or a (on!iderable time" A! late a! the !e(ond (entr), &or
e2am$le, 6a$ia! (old !till !a) that he $re&erred oral (ommni(ation! abot Je!! to the written
me!!age! o& boo*!: A#or . did not !$$o!e that in&ormation &rom boo*! wold hel$ me !o m(h
a! the word o& a li-ing and !r-i-ing -oi(e@"@ Fe &rther note!
1/5
" A.nitiall), the NT writing! were
not treated a! S(ri$tre in the !ame wa) that ,T boo*! were, and man) tran!lator! &reel) made
(hange! to their te2t! &or $ra(ti(al or theologi(al rea!on!"@
The the!i! o& a boo* b) Ehrman
1/4
i! that L!(ribe! o((a!ionall) altered the word! o& their
!a(red te2t! to ma*e them more $atentl) orthodo2 and to $re-ent their mi!!e b) Chri!tian!
who e!$o!ed aberrant -iew!N"".n the te(hni(al $arlan(e o& te2tal (riti(i!m 333 whi(h . retain
&or it! !igni&i(ant ironie! 333 the!e !(ribe! L(orr$tedM their te2t! &or theologi(al rea!on!"M Aater
'$age! /;83/;6+ he !tate! L. nonethele!! ta*e m) o-erar(hing the!i! to be e!tabli!hed: $roto3
55
orthodo2 !(ribe! o& the !e(ond and third (entrie! o((a!ionall) modi&ied their te2t! o& S(ri$tre
in order to ma*e more (lo!el) with the Chri!tologi(al -iew! embra(ed b) the $art) that wold
!eal it! -i(tor) at Ni(ea and Chal(edon"M A! an a!ide, it i! o& intere!t that it i! the Gorthodo2H
Chri!tian! who are o&ten a((!ed o& altering S(ri$tre to e2alt Chri!t wherea! it i! the!e $eo$le
who are mo!tl) li*el) to hold !(ri$tre a! !a(red and in-iolableQ .t i! al!o im$ortant to note that
he a$$ear! to !tand alone in hi! the!i! that !igni&i(ant modi&i(ation o& S(ri$tre! o((rred &or the
$r$o!e o& !$$orting a $arti(lar do(trine 333 in hi! (on(l!ion he !tate! L#or the $a!t (entr)
man) te2tal !(holar! ha-e !tood beneath the me!meri?ing ga?e o& the might) Fort, who
Bdged that a$art &rom 1ar(ion, !(ribe! did not e&&e(t theologi(al (hange! in their (o$ie! o&
S(ri$tre"M
1(<onald
1/8
'/00=+ !tate! LThere a$$ear! to be little (orrelation between the a((ra() o& the
an(ient bibli(al man!(ri$t! and the re(ognition o& their !a(redne!!"M
,n the ba!i! o& the abo-e (omment! it i! (lear that man) agree with 1(<onald
1/6
'/00=+ who
ha! !tated LThe &a(t that there were !o man) -ariant! initiall) !trongl) !gge!t! that the later
-iew! o& the in!$iration that &o(! on the in-iolabilit) o& the bibli(al te2t where not )et in $la(e"M
.&, howe-er, the New Te!tament man!(ri$t! ha-e ari!en a! a re!lt o& being de-elo$ed a! G&ree
te2tH it i! dobt&l that there will be m(h $rogre!! on getting (lo!er to the original nle!! new,
and earlier, di!(o-erie! o& man!(ri$t! o((r" Th! 1(<onald
1/;
'/00=+ note!: L1an) te2tal
!(holar! toda) ha-e al!o abandoned ho$e o& e-er re(o-ering the Loriginal te2tM o& the New
Te!tamentM althogh L,ther !(holar!, howe-er, (ontine to a&&irm the $r!it o& the original
te2t"M Fe (ite! S(hnabel
1/=
'/004+ a! ma*ing the ob!er-ation that L!ome belie-e that the) are
now abot a! (lo!e to !(h a te2t a! the) will e-er get"M
3.8.1.$. The B%&antine ('a(orit%)Tradition) Text*General Belief that Scripture +as Sacred in the
,arl% Church
The abo-e material !gge!t! that New Te!tament Gwriting!H were not (on!idered to be S(ri$tre
in the &ormati-e )ear! o& the (hr(h" Thi! i! !im$l) not -alid" Chri!tian! who too* the Word o&
%od !erio!l) wold ha-e regarded the S(ri$tre a! !a(red te2t 'e"g", 1att 8:1=, /4:58, John
10:58, / Tim 5:18316, 1 6et 1:/8+" .ndeed the -er) word! o& the New Te!tament tea(h the -ale
o& what i! writtenK the $hra!e Lit i! writtenM a$$ear! 65 time! in the New Te!tament 7ing Jame!
tran!lation o& the 9ible" S(ri$tre !a)! A*e wrote 'A*e 1:15K A(t! 1:1+, the a$o!tle 6al wrote
letter! to man) (hr(he! '1 Cor 4:14, 14:5;K / Cor 1:15, /:>, >:1, 15:/, 15:10K %al 1:/K 6hil 1:5K
1 The! 4:>, 8:1K / The! 5:1;K 1 Tim 5:14+, 6eter wrote 1 6eter 8:1/, / 6eter 5:1+, John wrote
'Bohn /0:51K 1 John 1:4, /:1, /:;, /:=, /:1/, /:15K / John 1/315+, Jde wrote 'Jde 5+, and
:e-elation wa! written ':e- 1:11, 1:1>+" 6eter a(*nowledged the writing! o& 6al a! S(ri$tre
A%ven as our &elieved &rother )aul also according to the wisdom given unto him hath written
unto you* As also in all his epistles, speaking in them of these things* in which are some things
hard to &e understood, which they that are unlearned and unsta&le wrest, as they do also the
other scriptures, unto their own destruction@ '/ 6eter 5:18316+"
The earl) (hr(h &ather had a -er) high -iew o& S(ri$tre a! the Jotation! below demon!trateK
6ol)(ar$
1/>
'6>3188 A"<"+:
54
L#or neither ., nor an) other !(h one, (an (ome $ to the wi!dom o& the ble!!ed and
glori&ied 6al" Fe, when among )o, a((ratel) and !ted&a!tl) taght the word o& trth in
the $re!en(e o& tho!e who were then ali-e" And when ab!ent &rom )o, he wrote )o a
letter, whi(h i& )o (are&ll) !td), )o will &ind to be the mean! o& bilding )o $ in that
&aith whi(h ha! been gi-en )oM
J!tin 1art)r
150
'1053168 A"<"+:
LAnd we a((ordingl) m!t diligentl) !(rtini?e all that we meet with, in order to gi-e or
a!!ent to tho!e thing! whi(h the S(ri$tre! (om$el ! Oto belie-eP"M
Clement o& Ale2andria
151
'1853/1; A"<"+ :
3L9t tho!e who are read) to toil in the mo!t e2(ellent $r!it!, will not de!i!t &rom the
!ear(h a&ter trth, till the) get the demon!tration &rom the S(ri$tre! them!el-e!"M
3LFe, then, who o& him!el& belie-e! the S(ri$tre and -oi(e o& the Aord, whi(h b) the
Aord a(t! to the bene&iting o& men, i! rightl) OregardedP &aith&l"M
3 L9t the trth i! not &ond b) (hanging the meaning! '&or !o $eo$le !b-ert all tre
tea(hing+, bt in the (on!ideration o& what $er&e(tl) belong! to and be(ome! the
So-ereign %od, and in e!tabli!hing ea(h one o& the $oint! demon!trated in the
S(ri$tre! again &rom !imilar S(ri$tre!"M
3L#or tho!e are !loth&l who, ha-ing it in their $ower to $ro-ide them!el-e! with $ro$er
$roo&! &or the di-ine S(ri$tre! &rom the S(ri$tre! them!el-e!, !ele(t onl) what
(ontribte! to their own $lea!re!"M
Clement o& Ale2andria
15/
'1853/1; A"<"+:
LThe 6rimiti-e #ather! ne-er dream o& an)thing a! dogma whi(h (annot be $ro-ed b)
the S(ri$tre!, !a-e onl) that the a$o!toli( tradition!, (learl) $ro-ed to be !(h,M
.ranae!
155
'/
nd
(entr) A"<" (" /0/ A"<"+ :
La! there !hall be no light $ni!hment Oin&li(tedP $on him who either add! or !btra(t!
an)thing &rom the S(ri$treM"
.renae!
154
'/
nd
(entr) A"<" (" /0/ A"<"+:
L#or how !hold it be i& the a$o!tle! them!el-e! had not le&t ! writing!4M
There (old be nmero! other re&eren(e! here" #or e2am$le a((ording to 1a(<onald
158

'/00;+, althogh 1ar(ion '(a 140 160 A"<"+ wa! -er) !ele(ti-e in weeding ot an) S(ri$tre
whi(h !$$orted the Jew!, he Lli*e man) o& hi! (ontem$orarie!, re(ogni?ed the im$ortan(e o& a
(olle(tion o& athoritati-e Chri!tian writing! &or wor!hi$ and tea(hing in hi! (ommnit) o&
(hr(he!"M S(h re&eren(e! (ertainl) $oint! to the re(ognition o& the im$ortan(e and -ale o&
S(ri$tre among earl) Chri!tian!"
There i! al!o (on!iderable hi!tori(al e-iden(e, m(h ari!ing &rom the :oman $er!e(tion!, that
S(ri$tre wa! loo* $on a! !a(red"
1(<onald
156
'/00;+ Jote! #rend
15;
'1>=4+: LContrar) to <io(letianH! original $lan, howe-er,
man) Chri!tian! died when the) re&!ed to trn o-er their !a(red S(ri$tre!M" 1(<onald &rther
de!(ribe! a 1a) 505 A"<" attem$t b) :oman athoritie! to de!tro) S(ri$tre! at a $la(e Lwhere
the Chri!tian! !ed to meetM in Ale2andria Eg)$t" The Chri!tian! were told to L9ring ot the
writing! o& the law and an)thing el!e )o ha-e here, a((ording to the order, !o that )o ma)
obe) the (ommand"M A Chri!tian re$lied that the Greader!H had the S(ri$tre! bt the) wold
58
bring ot what the) had" L,ne -er) large -olmeM wa! $rod(ed and again the) reiterated that
the reader! Lha-e the boo*!M" Sb!eJentl) &or boo*! were &ond at the ho!e o& Egeni!"
#or boo*! were $rod(ed Lwithot demrM b) the !i2 remaining reader!" 1(<onald $oint! ot
that dring thi! $er!e(tion, Chri!tian! who )ielded and handed o-er their !(ri$tre! to the
:oman athoritie! were (alled traditores and that A<onati!t! (ondemned all traditor (lerg) a!
tho!e who had (ommitted a !a(rilegio! a(t worth) o& damnation in an e-erla!ting &ire be(a!e
the) !oght Ato de!tro) the te!tament! and di-ine (ommand! o& Almight) %od and or Aord
Je!! Chri!t@" .t i! e2tremel) im$ortant to note that the time $eriod wa! in the <io(letian
$er!e(tion, and it wa! not B!t ,ld Te!tament S(ri$tre whi(h were nder (on!ideration, the
S(ri$tre! were tho!e that had Lthe te!tament! and di-ine (ommand! o& Almight) %od and or
Aord Je!! Chri!tM"
#o2e! 9oo* o& 1art)r!
15=
ha! the &ollowing Jote whi(h i! -er) in&ormati-e abot how the
S(ri$tre! were -iewed in 504 A"<": ATimoth) a dea(on o& 1aritania, and 1ara hi! wi&e, had
not been nited together b) the band! o& wedlo(* abo-e three wee*!, when the) were
!e$arated &rom ea(h other b) the $er!e(tion" Timoth), being a$$rehended a! a Chri!tian, wa!
(arried be&ore Arrian!, the go-ernor o& Thebai!, who, *nowing that he had the *ee$ing o& the
Fol) S(ri$tre!, (ommanded him to deli-er them $ to be brntK to whi(h he an!wered, AFad .
(hildren, . wold !ooner deli-er them $ to be !a(ri&i(ed, than $art with the Word o& %od"@
#rom the abo-e di!(!!ion it i! not rea!onable to !gge!t that the Chri!tian! did not (on!ider
their te2t! a! Gathoritati-eH" What (an be debated, thogh, i! the availa&ility o& the!e
Gathoritati-eH te2t! to the a-erage belie-er"
'.:.2. Thou$hts
.t i! a$$arent that there are a $lethora o& -alid rea!on! &or di-er!it) in New Te!tament
man!(ri$t!, in(lding $er!e(tion and de!tr(tion o& S(ri$tre!, !(ribal error, Botting! o&
im$ortant te2t! b) Chri!tian!, re$la(ement o& lo!t te2t! &rom memor), deliberate &al!i&i(ation,
et(", whi(h ma*e! it nne(e!!ar) to re!ort to the (on(e$t that the word! o& Chri!t and the
A$o!tle! were not (on!idered S(ri$tre b) the earl) (hr(h" Th! the (on(e$t o& te2tal (riti(!
that Chri!tian! did not (on!ider New Te!tament writing! (learl) mi!!e! the mar*" S(ri$tre,
hi!tori(al writing!, $er!e(tion, a willingne!! to die &or a belie& '!ee below+, and B!t a $lain
nder!tanding o& hman natre !$$ort thi! a!!ertion"
So wh) do te2tal (riti(! loo* to la(* o& !a(redne!! a! the main &a(tor in e2$laining -ariabilit) in
New Te!tament man!(ri$t! in the &ir!t three (entrie!4 Sin(e the idea i! !o (ontrar) to
hi!tori(al, religio! or $!)(hologi(al (on!ideration!, one $o!!ibilit) i! that in the earl) !tage! o&
the 9ibli(al te2t (ontro-er!) it wold be m(h ea!ier to (hange $eo$le &rom (om$lete
de$enden(e $on the 9)?antine 'Te2t! :e(e$t!C7ing Jame!+ a2i! i& the) (old be mo-ed into
a((e$ting a G&ree te2tH at the !tart o& the te2tal tran!mi!!ion" #or i& !a(redne!! o& te2t didnHt
matter m(h at the !tart, it i! hard to arge that it !hold matter m(h in the end eitherQ Another
$o!!ibilit) i! that tho!e who $t &orward the argment o& la(* o& !a(redne!! o& S(ri$tre and
attribte it! later Gtena(it)H to e((le!ia!ti(al (on!ideration donHt reall) nder!tand the im$ortan(e
o& &aith in $eo$leH! li-e!"
56
The re$etition b) nmero! writer! o& the (on(e$t o& the earl) la(* o& !a(redne!! o& S(ri$tre
again!t all e-iden(e n&ortnatel) doe! not add (reditabilit) to their argment! &or the (riti(al
te2t" To add a $er!onal note, thi! dread&l and nne(e!!ar) argment wa! the initial rea!on that
. $er!onall) mo-ed ba(* to the 7ing Jame! tran!lation &rom the New Ameri(an Standard
tran!lation"
.& in the earl) !tage! o& Chri!tianit), S(ri$tre wa! re-eren(ed a! the -er) Word o& %od there
might be ho$e o& obtaining a New Te!tament whi(h i! at lea!t -er) (lo!e to the originall) written
word! !in(e e-er) e&&ort will ha-e been made to $re!er-e it" Thi! wold not be $o!!ible i&
Chri!tian! didnHt belie-e what wa! written wa! !a(red" Al!o, and $o!!ibl) e-en more
im$ortantl), it mean! that e-en i& we do not ha-e, and ne-er will obtain, the e2a(t word! on the
original atogra$h!, we will ha-e !omething whi(h ha! ari!en &rom $eo$le who re-eren(ed
writing! a! the -er) word o& %od and who were willing to be mart)red &or it" Thi! !rel) will gi-e
a !en!e o& awe, re-eren(e, and athorit) toward! the Fol) S(ri$tre whi(h ne-er (old be
a(hie-ed i& the New Te!tament had ari!en !im$l) a! G&ree te2tH and (on!idered to be Lnot indeed
S(ri$tre! with a (a$ital SM"
'.;. +re the O&dest Necessari& the <.est< Manuscripts#
Age o& the man!(ri$t i! the &a(tor whi(h !eem! to (arr) the mo!t weight with $eo$le in de(iding
whi(h man!(ri$t i! li*el) to re$re!ent the original writing! and hen(e to be mo!t athoritati-e"
The &ollowing thoght! are intended to (hallenge the a!!m$tion o& a relation!hi$ between age
and athorit)"
.t wold !eem that the $rimar) and mo!t (on-in(ing argment in &a-or o& the Ale2andrian Te2t
i! that it i! -alidated b) the olde!t man!(ri$t!" Code2 Sinaiti(! wa! written 5503560 A"<" and
Code2 0ati(an! '9K 1att" 3 Fbr >, 14+ wa! written 5/83580 A"<" 6a$)ri man!(ri$t! o& thi! te2t3
t)$e range ba(* to /00 A"<" The earlie!t a((e$ted 9)?antine !or(e! a$$ear to ha-e been &i-e
man!(ri$t! written between 400 and 800 A"<" whi(h (ontain onl) o& the go!$el! and 1
Timoth), althogh it i! widel) noted that 9)?antine reading! a$$ear earlier"
So i& the olde!t i! the be!t then the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e i! the (lo!e!t to the original" Fowe-er,
(on!idering how &ar remo-ed either te2t t)$e i! &rom the original writing, it (an legitimatel)
arged that &a(tor! other than age o& the do(ment! are o& m(h greater im$ortan(e" Some o&
the limitation! o& eJating GageH to Ga((ra()H are gi-en below"
'.;.1. +$e 2oes Not (rovide +n 2irect )vidence o% +uthenticit
1o!t $eo$le atomati(all) a!!me that be(a!e one man!(ri$t i! older than another that the
olde!t will be the mo!t reliable" Fowe-er, age b) it!el& (annot be !ed a! $roo&Dit (an onl) be
!ed a! !$$ortK e-en i& !omething i! (on&irmed a! being a$$ro2imatel) the right age, thi! age
m!t be inter$reted in light o& hi!tori(al e-iden(e to &it an h)$othe!i!" A! an e2am$le, !$$o!e a
$oor (o$) or e-en a &al!i&ied do(ment wa! made on the ba!i! o& the original, and that thi! wa!
made -er) (lo!e to the time when the original wa! $rod(ed and then (o$ie! were made o& the
(o$ie!" .& !(h man!(ri$t! had !olid in&ormation (on(erning date! o& writing whi(h e2tended
-irtall) to the time o& the original date, wold we be B!ti&ied in (on(lding that the!e (o$ie!
were (lo!er to the original than another te2t3t)$e &or whi(h the hi!tor) wa! lo!t4 ,& (or!e notQ
The relati-e -ale o& the more an(ient man!(ri$t! will de$end more on almo!t an) other
5;
known &a(tor than on age" That i! not to !a) that age o& 9ibli(al man!(ri$t! i! not im$ortant B it
i! B!t a warning age b) it!el& i! o& limited !e"
3.-.1.1. A difference of 1.. %ears is not sinificant
.t i! a!!med that older te2t! are (lo!er to the original than newer te2t!" .m$li(it in thi!
a!!m$tion i! the idea that the 9ible ha! (hanged o-er time and that (o$ie! o& (o$ie! will !how
mar*ed deterioration" Fowe-er i& the 9ibli(al te2t ha! not (hanged o-er time then age ha! -er)
little bearing on the relati-e merit o& the di&&erent te2t!"
The main te2t! o& the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e were $rod(ed o-er /00 )ear! a&ter original! were
written 'Sinaiti(! R5503560K 0ati(an! R5/83580 A"<"+ wherea! the earlie!t te2t! identi&ied a!
9)?antine '1aBorit)+ were $rod(ed R100 )ear! later R 4003800 A"<"+" .! thi! time di&&eren(e
enogh to (om$letel) endor!e the !$$o!edl) more an(ient te2t! or are other &a(tor! more
im$ortant in in&len(ing the -era(it) o& the te2t3t)$e!4
#ortnatel) the <ead Sea S(roll! $ro-ide an e2am$le that we (an draw on an hi!tori(al
e2am$le to demon!trate that a di&&eren(e o& R100 )ear! in age o& S(ri$tre i! m(h le!!
im$ortant than other &a(tor!" 6rior to the di!(o-er) o& the!e !(roll! in 1>4;, the earlie!t
man!(ri$t a-ailable &or the 1a!oreti( Te2t o& the ,ld Te!tament wa! dated at ( >=0 A"<"
A((ording to Ga$ologeti(!$re!!"orgH
15>
: SThe well3$re!er-ed .!aiah !(roll &rom Ca-e 1 ill!trate!
the tender (are with whi(h the!e !a(red te2t! were (o$ied" Sin(e abot 1;00 )ear! !e$arated
.!aiah in the 1T O1a!oreti( Te2tP &rom it! original !or(e, te2tal (riti(! a!!med that (entrie!
o& (o$)ing and re(o$)ing thi! boo* m!t ha-e introd(ed !(ribal error! into the do(ment that
ob!(red the original me!!age o& the athor"M NThe .!aiah !(roll! &ond at Ymran (lo!ed that
ga$ to within 800 )ear! o& the original man!(ri$t" .ntere!tingl), when !(holar! (om$ared the
1T o& .!aiah to the .!aiah !(roll o& Ymran, the (orre!$onden(e wa! a!tonding" The te2t! &rom
Ymran $ro-ed to be word3&or3word identi(al to or !tandard Febrew 9ible in more than >8
$er(ent o& the te2t" The 8 $er(ent o& -ariation (on!i!ted $rimaril) o& ob-io! !li$! o& the $en and
!$elling alteration! 'Ar(her, 1>;4, $" /8+" #rther, there were no maBor do(trinal di&&eren(e!
between the a((e$ted and Ymran te2t! '!ee Table 1 below+" Thi! &or(ibl) demon!trated the
a((ra() with whi(h !(ribe! (o$ied !a(red te2t!, and bol!tered or (on&iden(e in the 9ibleE!
te2tal integrit) '!ee Zama(hi, 1>;/, $" 150+" The <ead Sea S(roll! ha-e in(rea!ed or
(on&iden(e that &aith&l !(ribal tran!(ri$tion !b!tantiall) ha! $re!er-ed the original (ontent o&
.!aiah"S With re!$e(t to the data in Table 1, it wa! noted that there are 166 Febrew word! in
.!aiah 85 and that onl) 1; letter! di&&er &rom the 1a!oreti( te2t '10 letter! 3 !$elling di&&eren(eK 4
letter! 3 !t)li!ti( (hange!K 5 letter! 3 added word &or SlightS and in all o& the!e 1; letter! there wa!
no e&&e(t on 9ibli(al tea(hing+"
So i& the te2t o& .!aiah wa! $re!er-ed with that degree o& a((ra() o-er 1/00 )ear! o& hi!tor)
when e-er) other *nown original wa! de!tro)ed, it m!t be (on(lded &a(tor! other than time o&
$rod(tion are more im$ortant in tran!mi!!ion, e!$e(iall) when man!(ri$t! are $rod(ed /00
or 500 )ear! a&ter the original a! i! !$$o!ed in the (a!e o& the Ale2andrian and 9)?antine te2t
t)$e!" To reiterate, the ltimate le!!on whi(h (an be learned &rom the <ead Sea S(roll! with
re!$e(t to the $re!er-ation o& S(ri$tre !(h a! the New Te!tament i! that the te2t (an be -er)
5=
(lo!e to the original, %od3breathed S(ri$tre e-en i& there are no original !$$orting
man!(ri$t! &or $eriod! o& hndred! o& )ear!"
.n the word! o& Aland and Aland
140
, LAnd )et balan(ing thi!, one o& the (hara(teri!ti(! o& the
New Te!tament te2tal tradition i! tena(it), i"e", the !tbborn re!i!tan(e o& reading! and te2t
t)$e! to (hange"M
3.-.1.$. /e+er Texts are preferred 0% 'odern Scholars
We atomati(all) thin* that the olde!t i! be!t howe-er, in $ra(ti(eK te2tal (riti(! ma) $re&er
newer do(ment! to older man!(ri$t!" Some e2am$le! are li!ted below:
Aland and Aland
141
$la(e $a$)r! ;4 in the >highe!t= (ategor), along with all other $a$)ri
whi(h are dated be&ore the thirdC&orth (entr), e-en thogh $a$)r! ;4 i! &rom the ;
th
(entr)
Abe(a!e o& it! te2tal Jalit)@"
The new, modern Engli!h tran!lation! are $re&erred o-er the older -er!ion! !(h a! W)e(li&&
and 7ing Jame!" Zet, who wold dobt that !(holar! a millennim or !o &rom now wold $i(*
the olde!t tran!lation! a! the (lo!e!t to the original4
S(holar! $re&er the modern /1
!t
(entr) %ree* E(riti(al te2tE -er!ion o& the %ree* New Te!tament
'Ne!tle3Aland! edition! 3 NA/;C@S9 4+ to an) other %ree* man!(ri$t o& the 9ible 3 e-en the
4rd (entr) Sinaiti(! whi(h the) originall) (laimed wa! almo!t $er&e(t"
S(holar! $re&er their /1
!t
(entr) re(en!ion o& the New Te!tament to the supposed A(ian
edited te2t e-en thogh the A(ian re(en!ion wa! !$$o!edl) made 1600 (entrie! (lo!er to
the writing o& the original! b) !omeone who wold ha-e a((e!! to earlier man!(ri$t!"
'.1=. The (rob&em o% Missin$ Manuscripts
1(h em$ha!i! ha! been $la(ed on the &a(t that althogh there are e2am$le! o& the 9)?antine
te2t3t)$e within te2t on $a$)ri, no (learl) 9)?antine man!(ri$t! ha-e been &ond $rior to the 4
th

(entr)" So the Je!tion be(ome!, i& thi! i! the original te2t t)$e i! thi! ab!en(e 9)?antine te2t
t)$e in the earl) New Te!tament man!(ri$t! $la!ible and, moreo-er, i! !(h an ab!en(e to
be e2$e(ted4 The an!wer i! )e! on both (ont! a! di!(!!ed below"
'.1=.1. >istorica& (recedents %or Missin$ Manuscripts
There are other e2am$le! in hi!tor) o& mi!!ing original te2t! and witne!!e! (lo!e to the age o&
the mi!!ing te2t!" Some e2am$le! where the original i! !e$arated &rom (o$ie! b) man)
(entrie! are gi-en below"
A-ailable (o$ie! o& original man!(ri$t! a! gi-en b) Wi*i$edia
14/
'9ibli(alTman!(ri$t+
Manuscri&t ,xa%&les 'an/ua/e -ate of
(o%&osition
4l"est (o&y
<ead Sea
S(roll!
Tana*h at Ymran Febrew, 6aleo
Febrew and
%ree*
'Se$tagint+
(" 180 9CE 3
;0 CE
(" 180 9CE 3 ;0 CE
1a!oreti( Ale$$o Code2, Febrew (a" 100 CE 10th (entr) CE
5>
Aeningrad Code2 and
other in(om$lete m!!
Se$tagint Code2 0ati(an!,
Code2 Sinaiti(! and
other earlier $a$)ri
%ree* 5003100 9CE /nd (entr) 9CE
'&ragment!+, 4th (entr)
CE '(om$lete+
0lgate Aatin ("5=/ CE
145
earl) 8th (entr) CE
Samaritan
6entate(h
Samaritan
al$habet
/003100 9CE ,lde!t e2tant m!! ("11th
(entr) CE, olde!t m!!
a-ailable to !(holar! 16th
(entr) CE
#rom the abo-e it wold a$$ear that &or religio! do(ment! mi!!ing witne!!e! near the date o&
the original a$$ear to be the rle, rather than the e2(e$tion" The !ame i! tre &or the wor*! o&
e-en the greate!t $eo$le o& earl) time!K &or e2am$le the En()(lo$aedia 9ritanni(a
144
!tate! that
A,& Ari!totle=! O5/435// 9"C"P man) wor*!, 4; remain"""The &orm, title!, and order o& the e2tant
te2t! were gi-en to them b) an editor almo!t three 5 (entrie! a&ter the $hilo!o$her=! death"@
So we might (on(lde that it i! not n!al &or there to be mi!!ing witne!!e! (lo!e to the time o&
the original writing o& a do(ment arond the time the New Te!tament man!(ri$t! were
originall) gi-en" A! a matter o& &a(t, the abo-e in&ormation wold !trongl) indi(ate that mi!!ing
witne!!e! !hold be e2$e(ted, rather than being &ond, e!$e(iall) i& there are additional
hi!tori(al rea!on! &or their ab!en(e"
'.1=.2. Non"durabi&it o% (apri Manuscripts
At the time the New Te!tament wa! written the te2t (old ha-e been written on $ar(hment or
$a$)r!" The <ead Sea S(roll! were mainl) written on $ar(hment
148
'<eadT!eaT!(roll!+ whi(h
!r-i-e! &or relati-el) long $eriod! o& time" Fowe-er a((ording to Aland and Aland
146
it wa!
e2$en!i-e: A.n &a(t, a man!(ri$t o& the New Te!tament re$re!ented a !mall &ortne"""when
$ar(hment wa! !tained with $r$le and in!(ribed with !il-er and gold lettering 'and !e-eral !(h
man!(ri$t! ha-e !r-i-ed &rom the !i2th (entr)+, (learl) the man!(ri$t! m!t ha-e been
(ommi!!ioned b) $er!on! o& the $$er (la!!e! who (old a&&ord to ignore the e2$en!e" The &a(t
that the te2t o& the!e man!(ri$t! i! withot e2(e$tion o& the 9)?antine t)$e !im$l)
demon!trate! the te2tal $re&eren(e o& the $er!on! who (ommi!!ioned them"@
Th! it i! generall) a((e$ted that ntil the &orth (entr) man!(ri$t! were mainl) written on
$a$)r!, a reed that grew in the Eg)$tian Nile <elta" A((ording to Wi*i$edia
14;
L6a$)r!
e-entall) be(ome! brittle and deteriorate! with age" The dr) (limate o& Eg)$t allowed !ome
$a$)r! man!(ri$t! to be $artiall) $re!er-ed, bt, with the e2(e$tion o& 6
;;
, no New Te!tament
$a$)r! man!(ri$t i! (om$leteK man) (on!i!t onl) o& a !ingle &ragmented $age"@ Similarl)
Aland and Aland
14=
, !$ea*ing abot 6
66
noted ANo one had e-er thogh it $o!!ible that a
$a$)r! man!(ri$t (old !r-i-e o-er 1;80 )ear! 'it wa! dated abot A" <" /00+ in !(h good
(ondition"@
There&ore the ine!(a$able (on(l!ion i! that i& the earlie!t New Te!tament man!(ri$t! were
written on $a$)ri the) (old not ha-e !r-i-ed in more hmid region! o& 6ale!tine, .tal),
40
Con!tantino$le, et(" Thi! i! an hi!tori(all) -alid rea!on a! to wh) onl) &ragment! o& $a$)ri
(ontaining earl) 9)?antine te2t t)$e ha-e been &ond in Eg)$t and (om$lete $a$)r!
man!(ri$t! (ontaining thi! te2t t)$e &rom other lo(ation! are n*nown"
'.1=.'. 2estruction o% 1criptures in 0oman (ersecutions
.t i! al!o well *nown that there wa! tremendo! $er!e(tion again!t Chri!tian! in the earl)
(hr(h in the :oman Em$ire" Who ha! not heard o& the (ata(omb!, Chri!tian! &a(ing lion!, et("
.n&ormation &rom three !or(e! i! li!ted below to gi-e an idea o& the e2tent o& thi! $er!e(tion"
E!ebi!
14>
note! that Son(e NeroE! O8436= A"<"P $ower wa! &irml) e!tabli!hed, he $lnged into
ne&ario! -i(e! and too* arm! again!t the %od o& the ni-er!e"S 6al wa! beheaded in :ome
it!el& and 6eter wa! al!o (r(i&ied" Con!iderabl) later, in what he (all! the %reat 6er!e(tion
'505 3 511 A<+, he !tate!
180
that S. !aw with m) own e)e! the ho!e! o& wor!hi$ demoli!hed to
their &ondation!, the in!$ired and !a(red S(ri$tre! (ommitted to &lame! in the middle o& the
$bli( !Jare!S" YS.n 1ar(h the nineteenth )ear o& <io(letianE! reign Othat i!, 1ar(h 505 A<P,
when the &e!ti-al o& the Sa-iorE! $a!!ion OEa!terP wa! a$$roa(hing, an im$erial edi(t wa!
annon(ed e-er)where ordering that the (hr(he! be demoli!hed and the S(ri$tre! de!tro)ed
b) &ire"S E!ebi! li!t! mart)r! in A!ia 1inor, 6ale!tine, 6hoen(i(ia, Eg)$t, S)ria, Arabia,
1e!o$otamia, Antio(h, and Ni(omedia"
Similarl), the En()(lo$aedia 9ritanni(a li!t! a -ariet) o& :oman em$eror! who ha-e been
(onne(ted to the mart)ring o& Chri!tian!" Thi! !or(e !tate! that Nero '8436=+ be(ame
in&amo! Aon dobt&l e-iden(e, &or hi! brning o& :ome and $er!e(tion! o& Chri!tian!"@
<e(i! '/4>3/81+ Ain!titted the &ir!t organi?ed $er!e(tion o& Chri!tian! throghot the
em$ire""""9e&ore <e(i!= reign, $er!e(tion o& the Chri!tian! in the em$ire had been !$oradi(
and lo(al, bt arond the beginning o& Janar) /80 he i!!ed an edi(t ordering all (iti?en! to
$er&orm religio! !a(ri&i(e in the $re!en(e o& (ommi!!ioner!" A large nmber o& Chri!tian!
de&ied the go-ernment, &or whi(h the bi!ho$! o& :ome, Jer!alem, and Antio(h lo!t their li-e!,
and man) other! were arre!ted""""$bli( o$inion (ondemned the go-ernment=! -iolen(e and
a$$laded the $a!!i-e re!i!tan(e o& the mart)r!"@ .n /853/60 0alerian AA! em$eror he
-igoro!l) renewed <e(i!= $er!e(tion o& the Chri!tian!, e2e(ting, among other!, 9i!ho$
C)$rian o& Carthage and 9i!ho$ g)!t! 'Si2t! ..+ o& :ome"@ Thi! !or(e! !a)! o& <io(letian
'/=83508+ SFi! reign i! al!o noted &or the la!t great $er!e(tion o& the Chri!tian!""""""led
<io(letian to $bli!h the &or edi(t! o& 5053504, $romi!ing all the while that he wold not !$ill
blood" Fi! -ow went nheeded, howe-er, and the $er!e(tion! !$read throgh the em$ire with
an e2treme -iolen(e that did not !((eed in annihilating Chri!tianit) bt (a!ed the &aith o& the
mart)r! to bla?e &orth in!tead"S
#o2e! 9oo* o& 1art)r!
181
li!t! 10 $er!e(tion! &rom Nero to <io(letian" .t i! noted that the
$er!e(tion o& Nero wa! general throghot the whole :oman Em$ire" The !e(ond li!ted
$er!e(tion wa! nder <omitian 'A"<" =1+" .n the &orth $er!e(tion, nder (o3em$eror 1ar(!
Areli! Antonin! AThe (reltie! !ed in thi! $er!e(tion were !(h that man) o& the
!$e(tator! !hddered with horror at the !ight, and were a!toni!hed at the intre$idit) o& the
!&&erer!" 6ol)(ar$""""wa!"""(ondemned, and brnt in the mar*et $la(e""""Thi! a&&air o((a!ioned
the $er!e(tion to !b!ide &or time, at lea!t in tho!e $art! immediatel) nder the in!$e(tion o&
41
the em$erorK bt we &ind that it !oon a&ter raged in #ran(e, $arti(larl) at A)on!, where the
tortre! to whi(h man) o& the Chri!tian! were $t, almo!t e2(eed the $ower! o& de!(ri$tion"@ .n
the !i2 $er!e(tion nder 1a2im! Thra2, 'A< /583/5=+, @.n Ca$$ado(ia, the $re!ident,
Seremian!, did all he (old to e2terminate the Chri!tian! &rom that $ro-in(e""""" <ring thi!
$er!e(tion, rai!ed b) 1a2imin!, nmberle!! Chri!tian! were !lain withot trial, and bried
indi!(riminatel) in hea$! !ometime &i&t) or !i2t) being (a!t into a $it together"@ The !e-enth
$er!e(tion wa! li!ted to be nder <e(i! 'A< /4>3/81+ where it i! !aid" AThe!e rea!on!
!timlated <e(i! to attem$t the -er) e2tir$ation o& the name o& Chri!tianK and it wa!
n&ortnate &or the %o!$el, that man) error! had, abot thi! time, (re$t into the Chr(h: the
Chri!tian! were at -arian(e with ea(h other""""The $er!e(tion raged in no $la(e more than the
.!land o& Crete""",rigen, the (elebrated $re!b)ter and (ate(hi!t o& Ale2andria, at the age o&
!i2t)3&or wa! !ei?ed@ The eighth $er!e(tion wa! nder 0alerian 'A< /8;+ AThe mart)r! that
&ell in thi! $er!e(tion were innmerable""".n A&ri(a the $er!e(tion raged with $e(liar -iolen(eK
man) tho!and! re(ei-ed the (rown o& mart)rdom"@ The la!t great $er!e(tion mentioned in
thi! !or(e wa! that o& <io(letian, '/=43508+" AThe &atal da) &i2ed $on the (ommend the blood)
wor*, wa! the twent)3third o& #ebrar), A" <" 505"""",n the a$$ointed da), the $er!e(tion
began in Ni(omedia""""The whole o& thi! tran!a(tion wa! in the $re!en(e o& <io(letian and
%aleri!, who, not (ontented with brning the boo*!, had the (hr(h le-eled to the grond" Thi!
wa! &ollowed b) a !e-ere edi(t, (ommanding the de!tr(tion o& all other Chri!tian (hr(he! and
boo*!K and an order !oon !((eeded, to render Chri!tian! o& all denomination! otlaw!"""The
$er!e(tion be(ame general in all the :oman $ro-in(e!, bt more $arti(larl) in the ea!tK and
a! it la!ted ten )ear!, it i! im$o!!ible to a!(ertain the nmber! mart)red, or to enmerate the
-ario! mode! o& mart)rdom"""" .n the )ear 504, when the $er!e(tion rea(hed S$ain,
Satrnin!, a $rie!t o& Albitina, a town o& A&ri(a, a&ter being tortred, """" <io(letian re!igned the
im$erial diadem, and wa! !((eeded b) Con!tanti! and %aleri!K the &ormer a $rin(e o& the
mo!t mild and hmane di!$o!ition and the latter eJall) remar*able &or hi! (relt) and t)rann)"
Th!e di-ided the em$ire into two eJal go-ernment!, %aleri! rling in the ea!t, and
Con!tanti! in the we!tK and the $eo$le in the two go-ernment! &elt the e&&e(t! o& the
di!$o!ition!"@
The im$ortan(e o& $er!e(tion! in te2tal tradition ha! not been lo!t $on modern te2tal (riti(!,
e-en i& the) might not rel) $on it a! m(h a! the) !hold a! an e2$lanation o& te2tal
-ariabilit)" Th! a((ording to Aland and Aland
18/
: LThe $er!e(tion b) <io(letian le&t a dee$ !(ar
not onl) in (hr(h hi!tor) bt al!o in the hi!tor) o& the New Te!tament te2t" .nnmerable
man!(ri$t! were de!tro)ed dring the $er!e(tion! and had to be re$la(ed" E-en more were
need to !$$l) the &lood o& new (hr(he! whi(h !$rang $ in the age o& Con!tantine" Thi!
$rod(ed the (ondition! ne(e!!ar) &or e!tabli!hing (hr(h !(ri$toria in all the dio(e!an (enter!,
or at lea!t in all the $ro-in(e! o& the (hr(h" The &orm o& te2t or the $arti(lar man!(ri$t! whi(h
were !ed a! e2em$lar! and ndobtedl) ma!! $rod(ed in the!e !(ri$toria now be(ame a
determinati-e in&len(e" And !o Eg)$t, where the mo!t -aried te2t! had been in (ir(lation, !aw
the de-elo$ment o& what we *now a! the Ale2andrian te2t, whi(h wa! to de-elo$ &rther 'nder
the in&len(e o& the 7oine te2t+ and the (or!e o& (entrie! be(ome the Eg)$tian te2t" And in the
di&&erent $art! o& the em$ire what i! (alled the 7oine te2t 'later to be(ome the 9)?antine
.m$erial te2t+ !$read ra$idl) a! !tdent! &rom the e2egeti(al !(hool at Antio(h, who o(($ied
4/
man) o& the im$ortant !ee! o& the time, either ado$ted the te2t o& Antio(h &or their newl)
e!tabli!hed dio(e!an !(ri$toria, or !ed it to re$la(e the earlier !tandard e2em$lar where a
!(ri$torim alread) e2i!ted" Yite nder!tandabl), tre to the tena(it) o& the New Te!tament
te2tal tradition, an) lo(al tradition! wold (ontine to be $re!er-ed along!ide the te2t $romoted
b) a (hr(h (enter"M
3.1..3.1. Thouhts
,& $arti(lar intere!t in the!e a((ont i! the $er!e(tion o& <i(letian who (on(entrated on
brning S(ri$tre! and (hr(he!" Th! we read in #o2e! 9oo* o& 1art)r! that Ato the (hr(h o&
the Chri!tian!, where, ha-ing &or(ed o$en the door!, the) !ei?ed $on all the !a(red boo*!, and
(ommitted them to the &lame!@"""@the whole o& thi! tran!a(tion wa! in the $re!en(e o& <i(letian
and %aleri!, who,, not (ontented with the brning the boo*!, had the (hr(h le-eled with the
grond"@ Similarl) E!ebi!
185
(laim! A. !aw with m) own e)e! the ho!e! o& wor!hi$
demoli!hed to their &ondation!, the in!$ired and !a(red !(ri$tre! (ommitted to &lame !in the
middle o& the $bli( !Jare!@" Al!o 1(<onald
184
'/00;+ note! A@nli*e the earlier <e(ian
$er!e(tion '/803/81+, whi(h reJired Chri!tian! to !a(ri&i(e to the em$eror, the <io(letian
$er!e(tion !oght to de!tro) the organi?ation and li&e o& the (hr(h b) eliminating the boo*!,
bilding!, and o&&i(e! o& the Chri!tian!" Contrar) to <io(letian=! original $lan, howe-er, man)
Chri!tian! died when the) re&!ed to trn o-er their !a(red S(ri$tre!@"
So, when (on!idering wh) no earlier man!(ri$t! o& the New Te!tament are a-ailable in the
9)?antine langage be&ore the 8
th
(entr), one m!t alwa)! remember the might o& the :oman
Em$ire wa! dire(ted toward! de!tro)ing S(ri$tre! and that thi! de!tr(tion e2tended toward!
more or le!! the whole Em$ire" <e!tr(tion o& all S(ri$tre! wold be relati-el) ea!) be(a!e
there wold not be that man) (o$ie! and the a-ailable (o$ie! were lo(ated in (hr(he! and in
the ho!e! o& reader!" Then, when thi! i! (o$led with the almo!t im$o!!ibilit) o& the $a$)ri
writing material to !r-i-e ntil or time!, the ab!en(e o& man!(ri$t! i! o& no !r$ri!e" And
&inall), i!nEt thi! e2a(tl) what wa! e2$erien(ed b) the Jew! throgh their $er!e(tion! and the
re!ltant lo!! o& an) an(ient man!(ri$t o& the ,ld Te!tament $rod(ed be&ore R>=0 A"<" ntil
the di!(o-er) o& the <ead Sea S(roll!4
.n (on(l!ion, de!tr(tion o& S(ri$tre! adeJatel) e2$lain! the -ariabilit) in New Te!tament
te2t and the almo!t (om$lete la(* o& e2tant (o$ie!" There&ore the ab!en(e o& an(ient
man!(ri$t! in a $arti(lar te2t3line (annot be !ed a! an im$ortant rea!on wh) that $arti(lar
te2t3t)$e !hold not be a((e$ted a! the original" .ndeed, one (old ma*e a (a!e that an) *nown
man!(ri$t! whi(h did !r-i-e thi! $eriod m!t ha-e been o& in&erior Jalit) or m!t ha-e been
$rote(ted b) being in the Ale2andrian Aibrar)C1o!eion"
'.1=.*. 9oss o% books b +rabs
#ew original Chri!tian writing! wold ha-e e!(a$ed the :oman $er!e(tion" Fowe-er there wa!
another !(orge whi(h &ollowedDthe ri!e o& .!lamDwhi(h ndobtedl) de(imated the &ew
remaining man!(ri$t!" A((ording to El3Abbadi
188
there wa! a great re-i-al in (la!!i(al learning
in the We!t in the ele-enth and twel&th (entrie! and librarie! were e!tabli!hed in #ran(e, .tal),
England and %erman)" Thi! (oin(ided with the !ale o& boo*! &rom the 1!lim ,rient to the
we!t" When one remember! that it wa! the time o& titani( !trggle! between 1o!lem! and
45
Chri!tian!, it wold be e2$e(ted that in man) in!tan(e! Chri!tian writing! wold be $rged
be&ore !(h !ale! too* $la(e" A! an e2am$le, when a &amine o((rred in Eg)$t arond 10;0 El3
Abbadi note! that #atimid Cali&$h Al31!tan!ir wa! &or(ed to !ell tho!and! o& boo*! to $a) hi!
!oldier!" ,n one o((a!ion 1=,000 boo*! were !old and on another da) he (arried ot o& the
librar) /8 (amel3load! o& boo*!" Sb!eJentl) '11;1 A"<"+ Saladin a(tioned o&& the #atimid
librar) in a !ale whi(h la!ted o-er !e-eral )ear!" A((ording to one e!timate thi! librar) (ontained
o-er / million -olme!" .n a !imilar -ein, the librar) in S)rian (it) o& Amed on the $$er
E$hrate! whi(h (ontained more than a million boo*! wa! di!$er!ed b) Saladin in 11=5 A"<",
with !ale! going on o-er a $eriod o& !e-en )ear!"
.n !mmar), there i! no dobt that man), man) earl) Chri!tian man!(ri$t! in(lding 9ible!
were lo!t dring thi! time and th! are not a-ailable toda) to !hed light on the te2tal debate"
'.11. 0ep&acement o% 9ost Manuscripts
,ne o& the &a(tor! that we in the modern world donHt reall) a$$re(iate i! the $roblem &or
belie-er! who wanted to obtain a (o$) o& the New Te!tament" 1et?ger
186
note! that it wa! not
ntil the (hange &rom n(ial to min!(le $rint 'R>
th
(entr)+ that boo*! be(ame more a-ailable
&or the $eo$le with limited e(onomi( mean!" Fe note! that in 501 A"<" the (o!t o& $rod(ing one
(om$lete 9ible wa! abot 50,000 denarii" Thi! i! a (on!iderable !m !in(e 1et?ger note! that a
(entr) earlier a legionar) wa! $aid a !ti$end o& ;80 denarii $er )ear in addition to hi!
maintenan(eQ #rther, !(ribal rate! were !et a((ording to the Jalit) o& writingK Em$eror
<io(letian $re!(ribed a $ri(e o& /8 denarii &or 100 line! o& good Jalit) writing and /0 denarii &or
!e(ond Jalit) writing" Th! it i! ea!) to !ee that there wold be a -er) limited !$$l) o& 9ible!
in the !itation where Chri!tianit) wa! ra$idl) e2$anding" 6eo$le wold th! be willing to a((e$t
!e(ond Jalit), or e-en third Jalit), do(ment! rather than to ha-e no 9ible" Again, thi!
demon!trate! that :oman $er!e(tion! wold ha-e had a !igni&i(ant e&&e(t on -ariabilit) o&
!r-i-ing New Te!tament man!(ri$t!"
'.12. Te!tua& Criticism
#rom the abo-e di!(!!ion it i! -er) (lear that te2tal (riti(i!m i! the main &a(tor a!ide &rom age
o& man!(ri$t! whi(h ha! re!lted in the a((e$tan(e o& the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e a! the mo!t
re$re!entati-e o& the original New Te!tament atogra$h!" @n&ortnatel) it i! o&ten di&&i(lt to
thin* or to $bli!h !omething whi(h i! not well a((e$ted dogma !o a G&ollow3the3leaderH mentalit)
o&ten de-elo$! in hman a(ti-itie!" Thi! m!t be *e$t in mind when e-alating the
$redominatel) GAle2andrian &a-orableH te2tal (riti(i!m re!lt!"
@n&ortnatel) the no-i(e (annot ho$e to be(ome an e2$ert in te2tal (riti(i!m in a !hort time
$eriod" Th! there i! no wa) o& e-alating the re!lt! &rom te2tal (riti(i!m, e2(e$t in term! o&
what other !imilar (riti(! might be !a)ing" The method! b) whi(h the) arri-e at (on(l!ion! (an,
howe-er, be e2amined b) loo*ing at their te(hniJe! a! gi-en below"
'.12.1. (rincip&es o% Te!tua& Criticism as 6sed b Westcott and >ort
The (riti(al method !ed b) We!t(ott and Fort whi(h originall) ga-e ri!e to the dominan(e o&
the Ale2andrian te2t ha! been !mmari?ed b) 1et?ger
18;
: LThe mo!t rdimentar) &orm o&
(riti(i!m Ohe write!P (on!i!t in dealing with ea(h -ariation inde$endentl), and ado$ting at on(e in
44
ea(h (a!e ot o& two or more -ariant! that whi(h loo*! the mo!t $robableN .nternal E-iden(e o&
:eading! i! o& two *ind!, whi(h (annot be too !har$l) di!tingi!hed &rom ea(h otherK a$$ealing
re!$e(ti-el) to .ntrin!i( 6robabilit), ha-ing re&eren(e to the athor, and what ma) be (alled
Tran!(ri$tional 6robabilit), ha-ing re&eren(e to the (o$)i!t!" .n a$$ealing to the &ir!t, we a!*
what an athor i! li*el) to ha-e written: in a$$ealing to the !e(ond, we a!* what (o$)i!t! are
li*el) to ha-e made him !eem to write"M Fort enn(iated the $rin(i$le Lthat G*nowledge o&
do(ment! !hold $re(ede &inal Bdgment $on reading!"M 1et?ger (ontine! O$re!mabl) (iting
FortP LThe ne2t !te$ in-ol-e! the e2amination o& the relation!hi$! o& !e-eral witne!!e! to one
another" 1an!(ri$t! ma) be gro$ed and (on!idered &rom the !tand$oint o& their
genealog)N"The (leare!t e-iden(e in tra(ing the genealog) o& witne!!e! i! the $re!en(e o&
(on&late reading!, that i!, reading! whi(h ha-e ari!en &rom the (ombination o& element! whi(h
had e2i!ted $re-io!l) in !e$arate man!(ri$t!"M #inall), Fort i! !aid to (on!ider the Ginternal
e-iden(e o& gro$!HNM!o the general (hara(teri!ti(! o& a gi-en group o& witne!!e! (an be
determined and e-alated in relation to other gro$!"M .n !mmar), a$$arentl) Fort !ed the
internal e-iden(e o& do(ment!, genealogi(al e-iden(e and the internal e-iden(e o& gro$! in
hi! (riti(al anal)!i!"
'.12.2. (rincip&es o% Te!tua& Criticism as Given b +&and and +&and
Aland and Aland
18=
'1>=;+ gi-e their twel-e rle! &or te2tal (riti(i!m a! &ollow!: 1+ ,nl) one
reading (an be original, /+ onl) the reading whi(h !ati!&ie! both e2ternal and internal (riteria (an
be original, 5+ (riti(i!m o& the te2t m!t alwa)! begin &rom the e-iden(e o& man!(ri$t tradition,
4+ internal (riteria '(ontent o& $a!!age, !t)le, -o(ablar)+ (an ne-er be the !ole ba!i! o&
de(i!ion, 8+, man!(ri$t! !hold be weighed and not (onted, with no !ingle man!(ri$t or
gro$ o& man!(ri$t! &ollowed me(hani(all), ;+ the reading !hold be &ond in more than a
!ingle man!(ri$t, =+ the genealogi(al $rin(i$le i! an im$ortant de-i(e be(a!e the reading
whi(h (an mo!t ea!il) e2$lain the deri-ation o& the other &orm! i! mo!t li*el) the original, >+
-ariant! m!t be treated in the (onte2t o& the tradition, 10+ the more di&&i(lt reading i! the more
$robable reading, 11+ the !horter reading i! the more $robable reading i! right in man) bt not
all in!tan(e!, and 1/+ &amiliarit) with New Te!tament man!(ri$t! i! the be!t training &or te2tal
(riti(i!m"
'.12. '. (rincip&es o% Te!tua& Criticism as Given b Met3$er
1et?ger
18>
'1>>/+ otlined the (hie& (riteria to be ta*en into a((ont in e-alating -ariant
reading!:
1+ E2ternal e-iden(e !(h a! date o& witne!!, geogra$hi(al di!tribtion o& witne!! and
genealogi(al relation!hi$ o& te2t! and &amil)
/+ .nternal e-iden(e !(h a!:
a+ Tran!(ri$tional $robabilitie! !(h a! detail! and habit! o& !(ribe!" Th!
3 more di&&i(lt reading! are $re&erred
3 in general !horter reading! are $re&erred
3reading! whi(h !tand in -erbal di!!iden(e with the other'!+ are $re&erred
3!(ribe! !ometime! re$la(ed n&amiliar word! with !)non)m!, alter a le!! re&ined &orm in a((ord
with Atti(i?ing $re&eren(e! or add $ronon!, (onBn(tion!, and e2$leti-e! to ma*e a !mooth te2t
b+ .ntrin!i( $robabilitie! !(h a! what the athor wa! more li*el) to ha-e written
3!t)le o& athor
3(onte2t
48
3 harmon) o& !age
3Aramai( ba(*grond in tea(hing o& Je!!
3$riorit) o& 1ar*H! go!$el
3in&len(e o& Chri!tian (ommnit) on the tran!mi!!ion o& the $a!!age
Aittle (an be !aid (on(erning the te2tal (riti(i!m method! other than all three (ontain the
(on(e$t e!$o!ed b) Aland and Aland that (riti(i!m o& the te2t m!t alwa)! in-ol-e e-iden(e o&
man!(ri$t traditionK thi! $rin(i$le a$$ear! to be the giding $rin(i$le !ed b) the (riti(!"
'.12.*. Thou$hts on the $enea&o$ica& method
The genealogi(al method a$$ear! to be a $rimar) method !ed b) Fort and i! mentioned b) all
three o& the abo-e a! being !e&l"
.n thi! regard, 7en)on and Adam!
160
(on(lde Lthe genealogi(al method ha! $ro-ed to be o&
m(h more limited a$$li(ation in tra(ing the earl) hi!tor) o& the New Te!tament te2t than wold
a$$ear &rom We!t(ott and FortH! theor)" The method a!!me! the $rior e2i!ten(e o& a limited
nmber o& ar(het)$e! at no great di!tan(e &rom the original te2t, &rom whi(h the main line! o&
tradition are de!(ended, and that the!e ar(h3t)$e! (an be re(on!tr(ted" 9t the e2treme
$a(it) o& the !r-i-ing earl) witne!!e! 'whi(h them!el-e! (annot be arranged on an) $re(i!e
genealogi(al ma$+ ma*e! !(h a re(on!tr(tion im$o!!ible" 1oreo-er, when we ha-e tra(ed
the -ario! line! o& tradition a &ar ba(* a! the) (an be ta*en, we are (on&ronted not with le!!
-ariet) bt with more, the Gbarrier o& the !e(ond (entr)H a! it ha! been (alled, the G(ommon
re!er-oirH ot o& whi(h the -ario! gro$! emerged" A (on!eJen(e o& thi! i! that in re(ent
)ear! there ha! been a mar*ed em$ha!i! on other (riteria than tho!e (hie&l) rel)ing on the
e-alation o& te2tal gro$! and o& $arti(lar man!(ri$t! within tho!e gro$!: in other word!
there ha! been a rea(tion awa) &rom what We!t(ott and Fort (alled Gdo(mentar) atte!tationH in
&a-or o& the Ginternal e-iden(e o& reading!H, and to &re!h !(rtin) o& -ariant reading! in relation
to !(ribal habit! and &ailing!, the *nown !t)li!ti( and grammati(al !age and -o(ablar) o& the
di&&erent new Te!tament writer! and 'eJall) im$ortant+ o& tho!e who tran!mitted themN" Sin(e,
a! we ha-e !een, no man!(ri$t or gro$ i! in&allible, it &ollow! that the original reading ma) be
!r-i-ed in an) $art o& the tradition, and (on!eJentl) all -ariant! m!t be (on!idered on their
merit!N Thi! method o& (riti(i!m, de!(ribed b) it $ro$onent! a! GrationalH or Ge(le(ti(H, i! al!o
!ometime! re&erred to a! the G!bBe(ti-eH method, and in dealing with !(h matter! a! !t)le and
-o(ablar) m(h might !eem to de$end on the (riti(H! own intition!" .n $ra(ti(e, howe-er, the
a$$eal i! generall) to !tati!ti(al anal)!i! o& the $arti(lar athorH! !ageN"M
A((ording to Walla(e
161
L.t i! well *nown that FortE! Sa$$roa(h to the te2tal $roblem! in the
New Te!tamentS wa! the genealogi(al a$$roa(h" That i!, he re(on!tr(ted the relation!hi$ o&
the te2t3t)$e! a((ording to reading! (ontained in them" Fi! -iew o& the !$eriorit) o& and 9
!Jarel) re!ted on hi! own Bdgment! a! to the !$eriorit) o& their reading!" Thi! a$$roa(h,
Fodge! maintain!, i! the re!lt o& rationali!m" Th! the maBorit) te2t ad-o(ate!33Fodge!
in(lded33$re&er a more obBe(ti-e a$$roa(h, one ba!ed on e2ternal rather than internal
e-iden(e" Thi! i! the moti-e behind Fodge!E! &ir!t $rin(i$le o& SmaBorit) rle"S
#rom the abo-e (omment! it wold a$$ear that althogh the genealogi(al method ma) be
!e&l in, &or e2am$le, e!tabli!hing relation!hi$! between $a$)r! p
;8
and Code2 0ati(an! it i!
o& no !e in determining the ltimate line o& tran!mi!!ion be&ore /00 A"<" #rther, it a$$ear!
46
that !bBe(ti-e a!!e!!ment! are !ed be(a!e o&Cin !$ite o& thi! a$$roa(h whi(h !e-erel) limit!
the -alidit) o& re!lt!"
'.12.-. Thou$hts on ?Con%&ation@ and >ence the 1econdar Nature o% the .3antine Te!t
All (riti(! a$$ear to rel) hea-il) on the G!horte!t i! be!tH rle" A! an e2am$le, a((ording to Fort,
the (leare!t e-iden(e o& genealog) i! the $re!en(e o& G(on&late reading!H, i"e", the (ombining o&
reading! &rom di&&erent !or(e!" .n &a(t it a$$ear! that thi! ha! been the main &a(tor !ed in
(on(lding that the 9)?antine te2t i! a !e(ondar) !or(eDi& it i! a (on&late reading ba!ed $on
two di&&erent !or(e! then the other two !or(e! m!t ha-e been $re!ent be&ore the one in
Je!tion"
.t wold be e2$e(ted that i& (on&lation wa! o((rring then the (on&lated te2t wold be longer
than the non3(on&lated te2t!" S(h an argment ha! been !ed to !$$ort (on&lation a! the
rea!on &or the longer te2t in the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e '15=,0/0 word! in NA/; te2t -!" 140,188
word! in 9)?antine te2t, ri(oblog
16/
, /006+" Walla(e
165
ha! (ommented on thi! a! &ollow!:
LTe2tal -ariant! are (!tomaril) $la(ed in one o& &or (ategorie!: omi!!ion, addition,
!b!tittion, and tran!$o!ition" The general (hara(ter o& the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e i! normall)
de!(ribed a! !mooth, (on&lated, harmoni!ti(, (om$lete" There&ore one wold e2$e(t it e!$e(iall)
to imbibe in the error o& addition" That i!, !in(e it i! an allegedl) later &orm o& te2t, it m!t ha-e
ada$ted and ado$ted earlier tradition!" 9t o& the 6,8;; di&&eren(e! between the 1aBorit) Te2t
and the (riti(al te2t!, in onl) 1,8=> $la(e! i! the 1aBorit) Te2t longer than the (riti(al" Thi! i! le!!
than one3&orth o& the total di&&eren(e!" #rther, the 1aBorit) Te2t i! !ometime! !horter than the
(riti(al te2t" Thogh thi! i! generall) a(*nowledged, it i! !e-erel) down$la)ed33b) both &riend
and &oe" Fort, &or e2am$le, !gge!t! that while Sinter$olation! " " " are abndant,S Somi!!ion! " " "
are rare"S 1et?ger, in a !gge!ti-e !td) on the $arallel! between the te2tal (riti(i!m o& the
New Te!tament on the one hand, and The .liad and The 1ahabharata on the other, Jote! with
a$$robation #ran*lin Edgerton, one o& the editor! o& The 1ahabharata: L. ha-e (ome to belie-e
that an) $a!!age, long or !hort, whi(h i! mi!!ing in an) re(en!ion or im$ortant gro$ o&
man!(ri$t! a! a whole, m!t be -er) !erio!l) !!$e(ted o& being a !e(ondar) in!ertion " " "
$robabl) not one o& the !ome &i&t) 1SS" OthatP . ha-e !tdied &or 9oo* /, nor an) o& their
genealogi(al an(e!tor!, e-er deliberatel) or intentionall) omitted a !ingle line o& the te2t" " " " .t
a$$ear! that no !(ribe, no reda(tor, e-er *nowingl) !a(ri&i(ed a !ingle line whi(h he &ond in hi!
original"M 1et?ger draw! the $arallel &or New Te!tament te2tal (riti(i!m that the rle that the
!horter reading i! to be $re&erred 'bre-ior le(tio $rae&erenda e!t+ i! generall) !ond and that b)
thi! (anon the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e, in being long, (ome! $ !hort" ,n the other !ide 6i(*ering
arge! again!t the (anon o& the !horter reading" Fe (on(lde! that Sthe E&llne!!E o& the
Traditional Te2t, rather than a $roo& o& in&eriorit), emerge! a! a $oint in it! &a-or"S Not on(e doe!
he !gge!t that the !horter reading i! at time! to be $re&erred or that the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e
(ontain! !horter reading!" Fodge! ta*e! a more (atio! a$$roa(h, !a)ing that one m!t be
agno!ti( abot the $rin(i$le! o& internal (riti(i!m at the $re!ent time" Zet he (ite! bt two
!tdie!, both o& whi(h are !ed to demon!trate the in-alidit) o& bre-ior le(tio" The im$re!!ion
one get!, thogh ne-er e2$li(itl) !tated, i! that the (riti(al te2t will rarel) i& e-er ha-e a longer
reading than the maBorit) te2t, and the maBorit) te2t will rarel) i& e-er ha-e a !horter one" .ndeed,
the battle line almo!t !eem! to be drawn at thi! i!!e" 9t what i! the e-iden(e4 .n thi! writerE!
(ont, there are 68; $la(e! where the 1aBorit) Te2t i! !horter than the (riti(al" ,b-io!l) one
4;
(annot both in-o*e 'or reBe(t+ thi! (anon me(hani(all) and maintain an eJall) me(hani(al
$re&eren(e &or a gi-en te2t3t)$e" Zet raw !tati!ti(! (an be tantali?ingl) de(e$ti-e" .& the
9)?antine te2tE! Saddition!S are &reJentl) de to harmoni?ation or (on&lation, while the
Ale2andrian te2t 'whi(h !all), thogh not alwa)!, !tand! behind the (riti(al te2t+ Sadd!S an
arti(le here or a $ronon there 'whi(h (old ea!il) dro$ ot -ia homoioteleton or &or !t)li!ti(
rea!on! in the 9)?antine tradition+, then the !igni&i(an(e o& the!e !tati!ti(! i! greatl) alteredN
,ne in(on!i!ten() ha! alread) been mentioned whi(h a$$lie! to maBorit) te2t ad-o(ate! in
general33a! well a!, to !ome degree, to rea!oned e(le(ti(i!t!" That in(on!i!ten() i! that too
dogmati( an a$$eal to the !$eriorit) o& !horter or longer reading! in toto a(tall) !o&ten! the
dogmati( a$$eal to a $re&erred te2t3t)$e"M
.n a rebttal o& the theor) o& G(on&lationH o& the 9)?antine te2t and hen(e o& it! !e(ondar) natre,
Fill!
164
$oint! ot that a((ording to <ean 9rgonH! We!t(ott and Fort (old onl) li!t eight
e2am$le! o& !$$o!ed (on&lation '1ar* 6:55, =:/6, >:5= >:4>, A*e >:10, 11:84, 1/:1=, and
/4:85+, that the) did not gi-e an) other! when a!*ed, and that 7en)on '1>1/+ (andidl) admitted
that he didnHt thin* there were man) more" Fill! Jote! 9o!!et a Lradi(al %erman !(holar
nited with the (on!er-ati-e! in reBe(ting the (on(l!ion! o& the!e two (riti(!"M Fe agreed with
We!t(ott and Fort in onl) one o& the eight in!tan(e! and in the three other! he regarded the
de(i!ion a! dobt&l" LWe!(ott and FortH! (hie& $roo&,M he ob!er-ed, Lha! almo!t been trned
into it! o$$o!ite"M .t i! o& intere!t in thi! regard, that that Aland and Aland
168
di!(!! G(on&lateH
reading! and do not on(e mention an) o& the -er!e! gi-en b) We!t(ott and Fort" .& indeed the
(on(e$t o& (on&lation wa! their (hie& $roo& o& the !e(ondar) natre o& the 9)?antine te2t, then
the) at lea!t ha-e &ailed to ma*e their (a!e"
E2am$le o& GCon&lationH
,b-io!l) it wold ta*e (on!iderable time &or an) indi-idal to de(ide &or them!el-e! the -alidit)
o& the (on&lation argment and hen(e the !e(ondar) natre o& the 9)?antine te2t" ,ne !hold
not, howe-er, &eel that the to$i( need! to be le&t to the Ge2$ert!H !in(e thi! $t! too m(h $ower
in the hand! o& too &ew $eo$le" The e2am$le below, (ho!en at random &rom the wor* o&
1et?ger, i! meant to demon!trate that the $rimar) reJirement &or arri-ing at the (orre(t
(on(l!ion in 9ibli(al (riti(i!m i! the a$$li(ation o& logi( whi(h i! !omething that an)one (an
a$$l)" E2amination o& a &ew !(h e2am$le! !hold gi-e an indi-idal a G&eelH &or the -alidit) o&
the te2tal argment that the 9)?antine te2t i! (hara(teri?ed b) (on&lation"
The e2am$le i! &rom 1et?ger
166
'1>>/+ and (on(ern! 1 The!!alonian! 5:/" Thi! -er!e i! !hown
below with &i-e di&&erent in!ert! 're$la(ing the bra(*eted nderlined word!+ a! &ond in di&&erent
%ree* and other !or(e!"
LAnd sent Timotheus, our &rother, and +minister of God, and our fellowla&ourer, in the gospel of
Christ, to esta&lish you, and to comfort you concerning your faith-. '1 The!! 5:/ 7J0+" The
di&&erent reading! in the bra(*eted !e(tion are: 1+ L%odH! &ellow wor*erM, /+ L&ellow wor*erM, 5+
L%odH! !er-antM, 4+ L!er-ant and %odH! &ellow wor*erM, and 8+ L%odH! !er-ant and or &ellow
wor*erM" 1et?ger !a)! o& the 9)?antine reading '8+: LThe reading $la(ed la!t in the li!t, thogh
!$$orted b) the great maBorit) o& witne!!e!, i! ob-io!l) a !e(ondar) reading that wa! &ormed
b) Boining reading! '5+ and '/+NThi! (on&late reading, !o t)$i(al o& the 7oine t)$e o& te2t, lie!
4=
behind the rendering o& the -er!e in the 7ing Jame! -er!ion" The &orth reading i! al!o a t)$e o&
(on&lated readingN"We are le&t there&ore with reading! '1+, '/+, and '5+M A&ter two $age! o&
di!(!!ion on thi! -er!e the athor (on(lde! that the mo!t li*el) reading i! '/+ whi(h i!
!$$orted b) Code2 0ati(an! and E$hraem 'in (ontra!t with item 5 whi(h i! !$$orted b) 1/
other witne!!e! in(lding and the %ermani( %othi( tran!lation whi(h i! &rom the 9)?antine
te2t3t)$e+"
,ther Engli!h tran!lation!, with the e2(e$tion o& TA9, li!t onl) one o& the two $hra!e! &ollowing
GbrotherH whi(h i! indi(ati-e o& their !$$ort &or the (riti(al rather than 9)?antine te2t: Lor brother
and %odE! &ellow wor*er in !$reading the go!$elM 'N.0+, Lor brother and %odE! &ellow wor*er in
the go!$elM 'NAS9+, Lor brother and &ellow3wor*man nder %odM '<arb)+, Lor brother and
%odE! mini!ter in the go!$el 'AS0+, Lor brother and &ellow wor*er, %odE! mini!ter, toM 'TA9+"
Noti(e that the reBe(tion o& the 9)?antine reading b) 1et?ger wa! on a $hilo!o$hi(al ba!i! i"e",
that be(a!e te2tal (riti(! belie-e the !horte!t reading i! be!t then the longe!t reading m!t be
a G(on&latedH reading and th! !e(ondar) in natre" Con!ider the alternati-e $hilo!o$hi(al
argment &or whi(h a -er) !trong (a!e (an be made: Ggood editing !(h a! that $ra(ti(ed in
Ale2andria will generall) re!lt in a !horter te2tH" Thi! argment almo!t (ertainl) be(ome! a
tri!m i& the (o!t o& $rod(ing one 9ible i! eJi-alent to the )earl) !ti$end! o& 40 legionar) a! it
wa! in earl) New Te!tament time! 'di!(!!ed nder Gman!(ri$t!H abo-e+Q
There are at lea!t three &a(tor! whi(h !$$ort the longer 9)?antine te2t and hen(e !gge!t that
the Ale2andrian te2t i! the one whi(h i! !e(ondar) in natre: 1+ other e2am$le! o& 6aline
!age, /+ !imilaritie! between word! whi(h wold lead to !hortening b) editing, and 5+ the
wea*ening o& the Ale2andrian witne!!e! and hen(e o& S(ri$tre i& the Ale2andrian reading! are
!ed"
#ir!tl), it i! hel$&l to determine i& the A$o!tle 6al ha! !ed word! !imilar to the 9)?antine te2t
in other, non3di!$ted, writing!" And, in &a(t, he ha! in Colo!!ian! 4:; a! demon!trated below"
LAll my state shall Tychicus declare unto you, who is a &eloved &rother, and a faithful
minister and fellowservant in the #ord-. '7J0+ OCom$are with 1 The!!alonian!
5:/: And !ent Timothe!, or brother, and mini!ter o& %od, and or
&ellowlaborer in the go!$el o& Chri!t '7J0+P
LTychicus will tell you all the news a&out me( /e is a dear &rother, a faithful minister and
fellow servant in the #ord(. 'N.0+
LAs to all my affairs, Tychicus, our &eloved &rother and faithful servant and fellow &ond0
servant in the #ord, will &ring you information(. 'NAS9+
Althogh the la!t o& the three nderlined word! '&ellow!er-ant -!" &ellowlaborer in the 7J0+ are
di&&erent between the!e two -er!e! it wold not be $ro$er to !e G&ellowlaborerM in Colo!!ian!
!in(e it i! Lin the #ordM th! G&ellow!er-antH i! !ed to indi(ate the !er-anthood nder the Aord" .n
a !imilar -ein, G&ellow!er-antH i! !ed in The!!alonian! !in(e it i! Lin the gospel of ChristM and the
idea i! not to be a !er-ant to the %o!$elK &ellow3wor*man in the go!$el i! there&ore a$$ro$riate"
So there (an be little dobt that 1 The!!alonian! 5:/ i! Gt)$i(alH 6aline writing and that the
9)?antine reading in 1 The!!alonian! 5:/ i! &ll) !$$orted b) other reading! in the New
Te!tament"
4>
Se(ondl), we (an loo* at wh) an editor wold ma*e the!e word (hange! when (om$iling the
Ale2andrian te2t" .& there i! a logi(al rea!on, and i& we ha-e rea!on to belie-e that the
Ale2andrian te2t i! edited, then the Ale2andrian te2t wold a(tall) !$$ort the $rima() o& the
9)?antine te2t" E2amine the meaning o& the word! in 1 The!!alonian! 5:/" A((ording to
Tha)erE! %ree* Ae2i(on '6C Std) 9ible &ormatted Ele(troni( <ataba!e" Co$)right h /006 b)
9ible!o&t, .n("+ in the &ir!t $hra!e Gmini!terC!er-antH '`aijklklK NT:1/4> Gdia*ono!H+ i! Lo&
n(ertain originM and mean! Lone who e2e(te! the (ommand! o& another, e!$e(iall) o& a
ma!terK a !ergeant, attendant, mini!ter"M Fowe-er in the di!(!!ion o& !)non)m!, it i! noted that
the word Lre$re!ent! the !er-ant in hi! a(ti-it) &or the wor*K not in hi! relation, either !er-ile"""or
more -olntar)M" Thi! i! !$$orted b) 0ine: LS$ea*ing broadl), dia*ono! -iew! a !er-ant in
relation to hi! wor*M" So th! we ha-e two -er) !imilar $hra!e!K 6al and Timoth) engaged in
the a(ti-it) &or the wor* 'i"e" two $eo$le in-ol-ed in the wor* o& %od, e"g" the go!$el+, and
&ellowlaborer!C&ellow3wor*man 'mnl^boplK NT 4>04 G!nergo!H+ in the go!$el o& Chri!t" So it i!
ea!) to !ee wh) an editor wold &eel Jite B!ti&ied in Je!tioning wh) both $hra!e! are needed"
.n one editing $ro(e!! the idea o& %odH! !er-ant wa! retained and in the other '%odH!+ &ellow3
wor*er wa! *e$t"
The third (on!ideration on 1 The!!alonian! 5:/ i! that the two Golde!t and be!tH main witne!!e!
o& the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e di!agree among them!el-e! with re!$e(t to whi(h o& the!e two
$hra!e! are in(lded" Code2 0ati(an! read! L&ellow wor*erM and Code2 Sinaiti(! read!
L%odH! !er-antM" There i! no !imilarit) between the!e two reading! !o reBe(tion o& the !$$o!ed
G(on&latedH 9)?antine reading mean! that the athorit) o& the!e Ale2andrian witne!!e! ha! to be
!e-erel) downgraded" .n other word!, i& the !hortened te2t i! (orre(t then one o& the!e two
Ale2andrian witne!!e! m!t be in(orre(t and th! m!t not gi-e the tre Word o& %od in thi!
$arti(lar $la(e"
.n (on(lding the di!(!!ion on thi! e2am$le, it i! (lear that it i! ea!ie!t and mo!t logi(al to
belie-e that the two di&&erent $hra!e! were in the original '9)?antine te2t+ and that the !hortened
-er!ion! in the Ale2andrian te2t are the re!lt o& editing 'mo!t li*el)+ or that one o& the two
$hra!e! were inad-ertentl) le&t ot 'al!o -er) li*el) be(a!e o& their !imilarit) bt a di&&erent
$hra!e wold ha-e to be le&t ot in the two di&&erent te2t3t)$e!+" #rther, it wold a$$ear that
logi( and (ommon !en!e (an be a$$lied in the te2tal (riti(i!m debate e-en b) !omeone who
doe!nHt nder!tand the original langage o& the New Te!tament" .t wold a$$ear that the
(on(l!ion! !ing the logi(al a$$roa(h are !$erior to that obtained when the $rel)
$hilo!o$hi(al theor) i! !ed that G!horter i! betterH" 1oreo-er, althogh onl) one e2am$le o&
!$$o!ed G(on&lationH wa! e2amined in thi! $a$er, the re!lt agree! with that di!(!!ed abo-e
where it wa! noted that 9o!!ett (on(lded LWe!(ott and FortH! (hie& $roo&,M N Lha! almo!t
been trned into it! o$$o!ite"M #inall), i& there i! agreement that the 1 The!!alonian! 5:/
e2am$le i! more indi(ati-e o& !hortening rather than lengthening o& the original te2t then there
(an be no other (on(l!ion than that the 9)?antine te2t i! the original te2t and the Ale2andrian
te2t i! !e(ondar)" @ltimatel), then, the (on(l!ion o& the te2tal (riti(! that it i! the 9)?antine
te2t whi(h i! !e(ondar) (ome! ba(* $rimaril) to being a G!bBe(ti-eH o$inion a! alleged b)
Fodge!" A !bBe(ti-e o$inion i! not enogh to de(ide the te2tal debate i!!e e!$e(iall) when
logi( and (ommon !en!e and S(ri$tral reliabilit) a$$ear to be on the other !ide"
80
'.1' .ias
Fi!tor) (on&irm! that S(ri$tre ha! been a&&e(ted b) deliberate &al!i&i(ation" 1(<onald
16;
'/00=+
Jote! Ehrman a! writing Lthe te2t! o& the!e boo*! were b) no mean! in-iolableK to the
(ontrar), the) were altered with relati-e ea!e and alarming &reJen()" 1o!t o& the (hange!
were a((identalNother! were intentional, and re&le(t the (ontro-er!ial milie with whi(h the)
were $rod(ed"M #rther, 1(<onald
16=
'/00;+ Jote! Tertllian: L1ar(ion e2$re!!l) and o$enl)
!ed the *ni&e, not the $en, !in(e he made !(h an e2(i!ion o& the S(ri$tre! a! !ited hi! own
!bBe(t matterM '1ar(ion wa! a(ti-e 140 160 A"<" and wa! noted &or reBe(ting the Jdai!ti(
in&len(e! on Chri!tianit)+"
<eliberate &al!i&i(ation o& S(ri$tre i! one thing, bia! i! le!! ob-io! bt ma) al!o re!lt in onl)
one !ide o& a do(trine or i!!e being $re!ented" Tho!e that &irml) !$$ort the 9)?antine te2t are
o&ten $a!!ionate in their !$$ort and -er) negati-e toward! the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e" ,ne o&
the earl) (riti(!, 9rgon '1=1531===+ a((ording to 1et?ger
16>
L!ed e-er) rhetori(al de-i(e at hi!
di!$o!al to atta(*N" The %ree* Te!tament o& We!(ott and Fort" 9rgonH! argment wa!
ba!i(all) theologi(al and !$e(lati-eN"What 9rgon wa! a$$arentl) nable to (om$rehend wa!
the &or(e o& the genealogi(al method, b) whi(h the later, (on&lated te2t i! demon!trated to be
!e(ondar) and (orr$tN"" 9rgon maintained thatN""the two man!(ri$t! honored b)
We!t(ott and Fort are the mo!t de$ra-ed"M Fe i! Joted a! !a)ing Lwithot a $arti(le o&
he!itation, that 9 < are three o& the mo!t !(andalo!l) (orr$t (o$ie! e2tant:333 e2hibit the
mo!t !hame&ll) mtilated te2t! whi(h are an)where to be met with:33ha-e be(ome, b) whate-er
$ro(e!! '&or their hi!tor) i! wholl) n*nown+, the de$o!itorie! o& the large!t amont o& &abri(ated
reading!, an(ient blnder!, and intentional $er-er!ion! o& Trth333 whi(h are di!(o-erable in an)
*nown (o$ie! o& the Word o& %od"M
Similarl) the 9)?antine te2t !$$orter, Fodge!, a! Joted b) Walla(e
1;0
'/004K !ome3!e(ond3
thoght!3maBorit)3te2t+ !a)!: L1odern te2tal (riti(i!m i! $!)(hologi(all) Saddi(tedS to We!t(ott
and Fort" We!t(ott and Fort, in trn, were rationali!t! in their a$$roa(h to the te2tal $roblemO!P
in the New Te!tament and em$lo)ed te(hniJe! within whi(h rationali!m and e-er) other *ind
o& bia! are &ree to o$erate" The re!lt o& it all i! a methodologi(al Jagmire where obBe(ti-e
(ontrol! on the (on(l!ion! o& (riti(! are nearl) none2i!tent" .t goe! withot !a)ing that no 9ible3
belie-ing Chri!tian who i! willing to e2tend the im$li(ation! o& hi! &aith to te2tal matter! (an
ha-e the !lighte!t grond! &or (on&iden(e in (ontem$orar) (riti(al te2t!"M
There are !trong o$inion! and an a$$arent nwillingne!! to e2amine the other !ide o& the i!!e
in the Ale2andrian (am$ a! well" #or e2am$le, 1et?ger
1;1
'1>>/+ a$$ear! nwilling to e-en
(on!ider the 9)?antine te2t !in(e he (omment!: L.n the e-alation o& reading whi(h are
!$$orted b) onl) one (la!! o& witne!!e!, the !tdent will $robabl) &ind that tre reading!
!r-i-e &reJentl) in the Ale2andrian te2t alone, le!! &reJentl) in the We!tern gro$ alone, and
-er) rarel) on in the Cae!arean witne!!e!N"The $o!!ibilit) m!t alwa)! be *e$t o$en that the
original reading ha! been $re!er-ed alone in an) one gro$ o& man!(ri$t!, e-en, in e2tremel)
rare in!tan(e!, in the 7oine or 9)?antine te2t"M
Similarl), Walla(e
1;/
'/004K !ome3!e(ond3thoght!3maBorit)3te2t+ di!$la)ed !ome rather !trong
&eeling! abot !$$orter! o& the 9)?antine te2t and the 7ing Jame! de&ender!: LSe(ond,
81
althogh it i! o&ten a!!erted that hereti(! $rod(ed !ome o& the New Te!tament 1SS we now
ha-e in or $o!!e!!ion, there i! onl) one gro$ o& 1SS *nown to be $rod(ed b) hereti(!:
(ertain 9)?antine 1SS o& the boo* o& :e-elation" Thi! i! !igni&i(ant be(a!e the 9)?antine te2t
!tand! behind the 7J0Q The!e 1SS &ormed $art o& a m)!ter) (lt te2tboo* !ed b) -ario! earl)
(lt!" 9t 7J0 ad-o(ate! (on!tantl) ma*e the (harge that the earlie!t 1SS 'the Ale2andrian
1SS+ were $rod(ed b) hereti(!" The !ole ba!i! the) ha-e &or thi! (harge i! that (ertain
reading! in the!e 1SS are di!agreeable to themQ N Tho!e who -ili&) the modern tran!lation!
and the %ree* te2t! behind them ha-e e-identl) ne-er reall) in-e!tigated the data" Their
a$$eal! are ba!ed largel) on emotion, not e-iden(e" A! !(h, the) do an inB!ti(e to hi!tori(
Chri!tianit) a! well a! to the men who !tood behind the 7ing Jame! 9ible"M
Aland and Aland
1;5
'1>=;+ !tate LThe !(o$e o& an ni(alH! te2t, howe-er i! no *e) to it!
im$ortan(e" A &ragment with a -alable te2t i! &ar more !igni&i(ant than a newl) &ond (om$lete
n(ial man!(ri$t with a 9)?antine te2tNN9t it !hold al!o be remembered that the date o& a
man!(ri$t i! no more a (le to it! !igni&i(an(e than it! length" Th! &rom the !i2th (entr) there
ha-e been $re!er-ed !e-eral man!(ri$t! o& (on!mmate arti!tr) '$ar(hment !tained $r$le,
in!(ribed with !il-er letter!, and illminated with gold+, and )et !in(e the) o&&er nothing more
than a 9)?antine te2t e-en in the renowned Code2 :o!!anen!i! '(&" $late 5/+ the) are in
(on!eJen(e Jite irrele-ant &or te2tal (riti(i!m" .n term! o& age, onl) n(ial man!(ri$t! whi(h
deri-e &rom the thirdC&orth (entr) or earlier ha-e an inherent !igni&i(an(e, i"e", tho!e o& the
$eriod &efore the de-elo$ment o& the great te2t t)$e!"M
.n !$ite o& the!e &irml) held $o!ition!, Wi*i$edia
1;4
'Ale2andrianTte2t3t)$e+ (on(lde! LSome o&
tho!e arging in &a-or o& 9)?antine $riorit) &rther a!!ert that the Ale2andrian (hr(h wa!
dominated b) the gno!ti(! who generall) had either do(eti( Othe hereti(al do(trine 'a!!o(iated
with the %no!ti(!+ that Je!! had no hman bod) and hi! !&&ering! and death on the (ro!!
were a$$arent rather than realP -iew! o& Je!!, or (on!idered hi! li&e to B!t be an allegor) that
wa! not ba!ed on &a(t!" Ale2andrian $ro$onent! (onter that the 9)?antine (hr(h wa!
dominated b) Ariani!m Ohereti(al do(trine taght b) Ari! that a!!erted the radi(al $rima() o&
the #ather o-er the SonP arond the time that we &ir!t !ee e-iden(e o& the 9)?antine te2t
emerging" Fowe-er, mo!t !(holar! generall) agree that there i! no e-iden(e o& !)!temati(
theologi(al alteration in an) o& the te2t t)$e!"M
'.1'.1. Thou$hts
Althogh mo!t e2$ert! !gge!t that there ha! been no !)!temati( bia! in the New Te!tament
whi(h we now ha-e, di!$ted reading! o$en the door to !(h !gge!tion!" Th! Ehrman
1;8

'1>>6+ in hi! (on(l!ion !tate! L#or the $a!t (entr) man) te2tal !(holar! ha-e !tood beneath
the me!meri?ing ga?e o& the might) Fort, who Bdged that a$art &rom 1ar(ion, !(ribe! did not
e&&e(t theologi(al (hange! in their (o$ie! o& S(ri$tre"M Fe goe! on, howe-er, to $oint ot that L.t
might al!o be ob!er-ed that the!e te2tal $roblem! a&&e(t broader i!!e! that ha-e o(($ied
New Te!tament S(holar! &or the better $art o& or (entr)" The &ollowing li!t i! !gge!ti-e rather
than e2ha!ti-e: Ndoe! A*e ha-e a do(trine o& atonement4 N J!t how LhighM i! the
Chri!tolog) in the &orth go!$el4""" .! Je!! e-er (alled %od in the New Te!tament4M So, one
m!t (on(lde that a! long a! there i! di!agreement abot New Te!tament te2t, thi! will lead to
do(trinal (ontro-er!)" .t i! al!o $robabl) a tri!m that generall) tho!e that ha-e a GlowerH -iew o&
8/
Chri!t will a!!me that te2tal di&&eren(e! that ha-e ari!en were in(or$orated to e2alt Fim and
-i(e -er!a"
6ra(ti(all), e-en i& there i! no o-ert do(trinal bia!, $er(e$tion o& te2t t)$e! and man!(ri$t
athenti(it) (an ha-e a maBor e&&e(t on what i! (on!idered S(ri$tre" A (a!e in $oint (on(ern!
1ar* 16:>3/0" The!e -er!e! are mar*ed a! dobt&l in the (riti(al te2tK a((ording to 1et?ger
1;6

'1>>/+ thi! i! be(a!e LThe la!t twel-e -er!e! o& 1ar* '2-i3>3/0+ are la(*ing in the two earlie!t
$ar(hment (odi(e! 9 and , in the old Aatin man!(ri$t *, the Sinaiti( S)ria(, man) man!(ri$t!
o& the old Armenian -er!ion!, the Ad)!h and ,$r?a man!(ri$t o& the ,ld %eorgian -er!ion, and
a nmber o& man!(ri$t! o& the Ethio$i( -er!ion!"M ,n thi! ba!i! mo!t in&ormed 9ible reader!
wold Je!tion thi! !e(tion o& S(ri$tre" Thi! i! in !$ite o& the &a(t that mo!t !(holar! agree that
1ar* 16:= (annot be the la!t $art o& 1ar* whi(h wold then (lo!e with Nneither said they any
thing to any man* for they were afraid"M Fowe-er in !$ite o& thi! (on(ern and the &a(t that
a((ording to Aland and Aland
1;;
'1>=;+, L.t i! tre that the longer ending o& 1ar* 16:>3/0 i!
&ond in >>I o& the %ree* man!(ri$t! a! well a! the re!t o& traditionM the Glong endingH o& 1ar*
ha! e!!entiall) been eliminated &or !erio! 9ible !td) be(a!e o& the dobt! (a!t $on it"
FillH!
1;=
'1>=4+ !mmar) o& the wor* o& 9rgon with regard to the di!$ted -er!e! whi(h i! a!
&ollow!" Lthe) are &ond in all the %ree* man!(ri$t! e2(e$t Ale$h and 9 and in all the Aatin
man!(ri$t! e2(e$t k" All the S)ra( -er!ion! (ontain the!e -er!e!, with the e2(e$tion o& the
Sinaiti( S)ria(, and !o doe! the 9ohairi( -er!ion" And, e-en more im$ortant, the) were Joted
a! S(ri$tre b) earl) Chr(h #ather! who li-ed one hndred and &i&t) )ear! be&ore 9 and Ale$h
were written, namel), J!in 1art)r '(" 180+, Tatian '( 1;8+, .renae! '( 1=0+ and Fi$$ol)t! '("
/00+ Th! the earlie!t e2tant te!timon) in on the !ide o& the!e la!t twel-e -er!e!"M Fill! note!
that the long ending i! mi!!ing in !ome man!(ri$t! 'he gi-e! the !ame li!t a! 1et?ger, bt li!t!
the Armenia man!(ri$t! whi(h donHt ha-e thi! ending a! 6/ in!tead o& =+" Fe doe! indi(ate that
a !horter ending whi(h omit! the $o!t3re!rre(tion a$$earan(e! o& Chri!t i! &ond in !e-eral
man!(ri$t! in(lding the ,ld Aatin man!(ri$t k 'the k man!(ri$t al!o Lgi-e! a hereti(al,
do(eti( a((ont o& the re!rre(tion o& Chri!tN in 1ar* 16:4+" Fill! $ro-ide! a great deal more
anal)!i! o& thi! to$i( !$$orting the longer ending in 1ar* and then (on(lde! with: L.t i!
!ometime! !aid that the la!t twel-e -er!e! o& 1ar* are not reall) im$ortant, !o that it ma*e! little
di&&eren(e whether the) are a((e$ted or reBe(ted" Thi!, howe-er, i! hardl) the (a!e" #or 1ar*
16:>3/0 i! the onl) $a!!age in the go!$el! whi(h re&er! !$e(i&i(all) to the !bBe(t whi(h i!
attra(ting !o m(h attention toda), namel) tonge!, healing!, and other !$irital gi&t!" The la!t
-er!e o& thi! $a!!age i! $arti(larl) de(i!i-e '1ar* 16:/0+" Fere we !ee that the $r$o!e o& the
mira(le! $romi!ed b) or Aord wa! to (on&irm the $rea(hing o& the di-ine Word b) the
A$o!tle!"M
.n (on(l!ion, whate-er we might thin* abot the la!t 1/ -er!e! in 1ar*, thi! i! an e2am$le
where a $arti(lar $hilo!o$hi(al -iew$oint !$$orted b) le!! than 1I o& all %ree* man!(ri$t!
ha! $r$orted to determine what i! a(tall) S(ri$tre 'a(tall) it a$$ear! that onl) two
man!(ri$t! donHt ha-e the!e -er!e!K th! the reBe(tion o& the!e -er!e! i! ba!ed $on 0"04I o&
%ree* man!(ri$t!Q+" Thi! i! a (a!e &or !erio! (on(ern &or tho!e intere!ted in the a((ra() o&
the New Te!tament man!(ri$t! whi(h we ha-e re(ei-ed, e!$e(iall) i& !(h the !trong !$$ort
&or the Ale2andrian te2t do(ment! 9 and i! $rimaril) a! a re!lt o& a !bBe(ti-e ba!i!"
85
'.1*. Conc&udin$ Thou$hts
Almo!t no re(ogni?ed te2tal !(holar toda) wold !$$ort the theor) that the 9)?antine %ree*
te2t3t)$e o& the New Te!tament i! (lo!er to the original atogra$h! than the Ale2andrian te2t3
t)$e" #or thi! rea!on e!!entiall) all (rrent Engli!h tran!lation! are ba!ed $on (riti(al %ree*
te2t! whi(h in trn are ba!ed $rimaril) $on the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e o& %ree*" An)one who
!e! a tran!lation ba!ed $on the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e !(h a! the 7ing Jame! 9ible i! th! in a
-er) !mall minorit) o& Chri!tian! and reJire! e-iden(e to -alidate their de(i!ion" The &ir!t $art o&
thi! arti(le $ro-ide! !$$ort b) demon!trating that %odH! Word i! !reDthe -ariation between
di&&erent te2t3t)$e! i! relati-el) !mall and there are no maBor do(trinal $roblem! a!!o(iated with
!ing an) $arti(lar te2t3t)$e" That in it!el& i! -er) en(oraging" Al!o, althogh it wa! not, and
$robabl) ne-er will be, $ro-en that the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e i! the be!t, nothing wa! &ond whi(h
rled it ot a! being (lo!e!t to the original atogra$h!" #inall), the $o!ition o& the 9)?antine te2t3
t)$e i! enhan(ed b) the &a(t that !$$orter! o& the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e either (anHt adeJatel)
addre!! $roblem! a!!o(iated with their te2t3t)$e, or ha-e (ho!en not to, whi(h ha! red(ed the
(reditabilit) o& their te2t a! an alternati-e to the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e" Some o& the $roblem!
whi(h reJire elaboration are di!(!!ed below"
The main (ontribtion o& thi! wor* i! to enter em$ha!i?e the $robable role that non3Chri!tian! at
the Ale2andrian Aibrar) (om$le2 had in the tran!mi!!ion o& the New Te!tament te2t '!e(tion
5"4"5+" S(h a role doe! not a$$ear to ha-e been !erio!l) e2amined $re-io!l)" .n thi! regard,
there i! !(h a high $robabilit), indeed it i! almo!t a (ertaint), that edited (o$ie! o& the New
Te!tament man!(ri$t! were made at the librar)" Al!o, there i! a -er) high $robabilit) that: a+
(o$ie! o& the!e edited man!(ri$t! were !old throghot the :oman Em$ire, and b+ be(a!e o&
$rote(tion o& the Aibrar) b) :oman athoritie!, New Te!tament man!(ri$t! in the Aibrar)
(om$le2 wold ha-e e!(a$ed de!tr(tion dring the :oman $er!e(tion o& Chri!tian!" The!e
man!(ri$t! ma) th! well be the !or(e o& or man!(ri$t tradition toda)"
#rom the literatre it i! a$$arent that there i! wide belie& that both the Ale2andrian and
9)?antine te2t3t)$e! are ba!ed $on edited te2t!" Fowe-er i& a te2t wa! edited in the !(holarl),
non3Chri!tian milie o& the Ale2andrian Aibrar) (om$le2, and i& the main $r$o!e wa! &or the
!ale o& (o$ie!, the t)$e o& editing wold be di&&erent than i& a Chri!tian editor wa! tr)ing to
(a$tre the nan(e! o& %odH! Word or wa! theologi(all) in&len(ed to ma*e a (ertain $oint"
@!ing thi! a! a $hilo!o$hi(al $er!$e(ti-e it i! $o!!ible to e2amine the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e &or
e-iden(e o& a $otential !e(ondar) natre $rod(ed b) non3Chri!tian e2$ert editor!" .& there i!
e-iden(e &or thi!, it doe! in trn ma*e it more di&&i(lt to arge that the 9)?antine te2t !hold be
di!(arded be(a!e o& it! !$$o!ed !e(ondar) natre"
.n e2amining -ario! alternati-e!, !r$ri!ingl) it i! the 9)?antine !$$orter! who a$$ear to be
more balan(ed in their a$$roa(h" .t i! n&ortnate that !$$orter! o& the Ale2andrian te2t
a$$arentl) donHt &eel obligated to e2$lain or de&end their te2t3t)$e with regard! to $roblem! or in
(om$ari!on! with the 9)?antine te2t" Thi! i! $robabl) be(a!e the debate i! in the later !tage!
and i! a!!med to ha-e been won"
,ne item o& (on(ern i! that in the (rrent writing! o& (riti(! there i! now almo!t no
a(*nowledgement that 9)?antine reading! are $re!ent in the earl) $a$)ri '!e(tion 5"5"/+" Thi!
84
i! omi!!ion i! $arti(larl) !tri*ing in the (a!e o& the $a$)ri p
48
p
46
, whi(h are li!ted a! two ot o&
the !i2 main witne!!e! &or the Ale2andrian te2t when it i! noted b) 7en)on and Adam! that
the!e $a$)ri a(tall) (ontain more 9)?antine reading! than Ale2andrian reading!Q .t i! !im$l)
not hel$&l to (all the!e reading! G&ree te2tH 'Aland and Aland+ withot (lari&)ing that the) are the
!ame a! 9)?antine reading! whi(h !$$o!edl) were de-elo$ed /00 )ear! a&terward!" Similarl),
there !hold ha-e been at lea!t a(*nowledgment b) Aland and Aland a! well a! 1et?ger o& the
$roblem! $o!ed &or the Ale2andrian te2t ari!ing &rom the *nown editing in $a$)r! p
66
arond
/00 A"<" toward the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e" Again, thi! e-iden(e in the third o& the !i2th $a$)ri
li!ted a! Ale2andrian witne!!e! !gge!t! that thi! $a$)r! !hold ratherCal!o be li!ted a!
!$$orting the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e" Thi! mean! wold mean that there are at lea!t three earl)
witne!!e! &or the 9)?antine te2t t)$e in (om$ari!on with three &or the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e"
E-en more im$ortantl), the p
66
$a$)r! $ro-ide! -er) !trong e-iden(e that the 9)?antine te2t3
t)$e wa! preferred at arond /00 A"<" Thi! !$$ort o& the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e be(ome! an e-en
more (on-in(ing when the editing o& the Sinaiti(! man!(ri$t '!gge!ted to be the mo!t
(orre(ted man!(ri$t in e2i!ten(e+ toward! the 9)?antine te2t Lbetween the 4
th
and 1/
th

(entrie!M
1;>
i! (on!idered" The ob-io! (on(l!ion i! that ntil 1==1 A"<" the Ale2andrian te2t
t)$e wa! (on!idered to be in&erior to the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e throghot re(orded hi!tor)"
Similarl), it i! n&ortnate that the Je!tion o& Atti( -er!! 7oine %ree* i! not di!(!!ed b)
modern te2tal (riti(! '!e(tion 5"8"5+" .t i! e2$e(ted that New Te!tament man!(ri$t! wold
ha-e been written in (ommon, or 7oine, %ree*" .n thi! regard, the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e ha! been
gi-en the name G7oineH te2t t)$e b) man) te2tal (riti(! in(lding 7en)on and 1et?ger whi(h
(on&irm! that it i! more 7oine in natre than the Ale2andrian te2t whi(h ha! later GAtti(H
(hara(teri!ti(!" A! thi! man!(ri$t wa! being de-elo$ed it be(ame ob-io! that the Ale2andrian
te2t wa!, in &a(t, an edited te2tK the !imilaritie! o& de!(ri$tion o& thi! te2t with the de!(ri$tion o&
the Atti( t)$e o& a! gi-en b) a %ree* $oetr) web!ite %ree* 'e-en to the degree o& !ing the
!ame de!(ri$ti-e word!Q+ (on&irmed thi! h)$othe!i!, at lea!t to me"
A((ording to im$re!!ion! le&t b) man) te2tal (riti(!, the writing! o& the (hr(h G#ather!H
(ontained onl) We!tern, Ale2andrian and &ree te2t ntil the time o& Chr)!o!tomK hen(e
Wi*i$edia '9)?antineTte2t3t)$e+ !tate!: LThe earlie!t Chr(h #ather to witne!! to a 9)?antine
te2t3t)$e in !b!tantial New Te!tament Jotation! i! John Chr)!o!tom '(" 54> D 40;+M '!ee
Se(tion 5"6+" Thi! !ond! Jite de&initi-e ntil (omment! made b) 1et?ger !tart to ma*e the
reader wonder (on(erning it! (ertaint): LA! in the (a!e o& New Te!tament man!(ri$t!, !o al!o
the treati!e! o& the #ather! ha-e been modi&ied in the (or!e o& (o$)ing" The !(ribe wa! alwa)!
tem$ted to a!!imilate !(ri$tral Jotation! in the #ather! to the &orm o& te2t whi(h wa! (rrent in
the later man!(ri$t! o& the New Te!tamentDa te2t whi(h the !(ribe! might well *now b) heart"
When the man!(ri$t! o& a #ather di&&er in a gi-en $a!!age, it i! !all) !a&e!t to ado$t the one
whi(h di-erge! &rom the later e((le!ia!ti(al te2t 'the Te2t! :e(e$t! or the 0lgate+"M .n
(ontra!t, a(tal re&eren(ed data i! b) the 7ing Jame! de&ender 1oorman: LFe &ond the
:e(ei-ed Te2t had the greater !$$ort b) /,650 to 1,;85 or 5 to /" 7ee$ing in mind the
Ale2andrian and We!tern lo(alitie! o& the!e ;6 #ather!, we ha-e here Jite a !trong maBorit) &or
the :e(ei-ed Te2t" Fad the Jotation! o& the Ea!tern #ather! been a-ailable, all indi(ation! are
that the !$$ort wold ha-e been o-erwhelming"M .n (om$aring the!e two -iew$oint! the
88
nbia!ed reader ha! to arri-e at the -iew that there i! -er) good e-iden(e o& 9)?antine reading!
in the writing! o& the #ather! be&ore Chr)!o!tom" .& !(h a !$$o!ition i! a((e$ted it $ro-ide!
additional $o!iti-e $roo& and -alidit) that thi! te2t t)$e wa! $re!ent be&ore the &orth (entr) in
(ontra!t with (laim! b) te2tal (riti(!"
The greate!t argment in &a-or o& the Ale2andrian te2t th! a$$ear! to be that the 9)?antine
te2t i! G!e(ondar)H te2t and th! (annot be (on!idered a! being the (lo!e!t to the original
atogra$h! 'Se(tion 15"1/"8+" .t i! not readil) a$$arent how te2tal arri-ed at the (on(l!ion o&
the G!e(ondar)H natre o& the te2t bt it i! a$$arentl) on the ba!i! o& !(ribe! !ing G(on&lationH
'(ombining o& thoght! in two di&&erent original!, rather than lea-ing either thoght ot+"
Fowe-er, a! di!(!!ed in the $re(eding material, the original e2am$le! o& !$$o!ed (on&lation
in the 9)?antine te2t gi-en b) We!t(ott and Fort did not !tand $ to !(rtin)" Similarl), it i! le&t
to the reader to a!(ertain i&, in light o& the *nown $rod(tion o& edited te2t! in Ale2andria, the 1
The!! 5:/ e2am$le !ed b) 1et?ger di!(!!ed abo-e i! more li*el) to be an e2am$le o&
!hortening b) editing 'Ale2andrian te2t+ or lengthening b) (on&lation" ,& $o!!ible im$ortan(e in
arri-ing at a (on(l!ion, i! that the !horter Ale2andrian te2t wold be !lightl) (hea$er to $bli!hQ
O.t ma) be hel$&l to *now that when . &ir!t loo*ed at thi! e2am$le, . h)$othe!i?ed that in a
*nown well3edited te2t !(h a! the Ale2andrian there !hold be !imilaritie! between the two
di!$ted $hra!e! whi(h allowed the te2t to be !hortened" The !imilarit) between G!er-antH and
G&ellowlaborerH (on&irmed the h)$othe!i!K i& two di-ergent idea! were (ombined then it wold
ha-e indi(ated (on&lation in the 9)?antine te2t" .n(identall), i& m) h)$othe!i! i! a((e$ted the
(on(l!ion m!t be that in thi! e2am$le the 9)?antine te2t i! more $rimar) and the Ale2andrian
te2t i! more !e(ondar)"P .n an) (a!e, what doe! be(ome (lear i! that the (on(l!ion whi(h i!
arri-ed at will be the re!lt o& the $hilo!o$hi(al ba!i! that i! !tarted with" With re!$e(t to the
abilit) o& te2tal (riti(! to determine whi(h te2t3t)$e i! (lo!e!t to the original te2t b) other mean!,
n&ortnatel) e-en te2tal (riti(! them!el-e! !a) that the genealogi(al method o& Fort ha! been
o& no !e in determining the tre te2t line o& the New Te!tament &rther ba(* than /00 A"<" We
are th! le&t with the (on(l!ion that the rea!on &or the reBe(tion o& the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e in
&a-or o& the Ale2andrian te2t t)$e i! $rimaril) de to !bBe(ti-e anal)!i!, ba!ed $on two or
three man!(ri$t!, &or whi(h onl) a -er) &ew $eo$le in the world wold ha-e enogh e2$erti!e to
adeJatel) e-alate the e-iden(e" With thi! ba(*grond it i! rele-ant to remember that te2tal
(riti(! ha-e not been able to agree on whether 6al wrote Febrew! e-en thogh the) ha-e
man) e2am$le! o& hi! other writing!" Can the) be e2$e(ted to ha-e enogh (ertaint) to ma*e a
de&initi-e rling on the Ale2andrian -!" 9)?antine te2t3t)$e with !o &ew man!(ri$t! a-ailable
and with no original to (om$are with4
#inall), mo!t wold agree that on(e )o re!ort to G&aithH in a !(holarl) argment )o lo!e"
Fowe-er, in a !(holarl) argment it i! $o!!ible to ma*e the mi!ta*e o& di!(onting &aith whi(h
(an be eJall) &atal" .n thi! regard, almo!t all modern te2tal (riti(! ha-e a$$eared to di!(ont
&aith in the in-iolabilit) and athorit) o& S(ri$tre! a! ha-ing $la)ed a role in the tran!mi!!ion o&
the New Te!tament in the earl) da)! o& Chri!tianit) 'Se(tion 5"="1"1+" The !tatement o& 7en)on
and Adam! (a$tre! thi! -iew: LThe New Te!tament boo*! were not indeed S(ri$tre! with a
(a$ital S" The !a(red boo*! o& the earlie!t Chri!tian! were tho!e o& the ,ld Te!tamentK the
writing! o& 1ar* and A*e and 6al were B!t memoir! and letter! &or $re!ent need!"M S(h a
(on(e$t i! not (on!i!tent with the athorit) either the athor! or S(ri$tre it!el& (laim! &or the
86
writing!, or with the hi!tori(all) re(orded willingne!! o& Chri!tian! to die &or the writing! a! &ond
in their S(ri$tre" .ndeed, the idea that e!!ential! o& an) !trong religio! &aith will e-er be ta*en
in a (a-iler manner (annot be B!ti&ied on the ba!i! o& an) !(ien(e o& hman beha-ior"
There&ore thi! $hilo!o$hi(al ba!i! m!t be *e$t in mind when a((e$ting or reBe(ting the
(on(l!ion! o& !(h athoritie!"
.n (on(l!ion, it i! (lear, and (ommonl) a((e$ted, that the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e whi(h i! the
ba!i! o& or modern Engli!h tran!lation! ha! been edited to a (on!iderable e2tent" Al!o,
althogh the argment ha! been ad-an(ed that the 9)?antine te2t (ame into e2i!ten(e in the 4
th
(entr) A"<" and that it wa! a !e(ondar) te2t, there i! abndant e-iden(e that it wa! $re!ent
m(h earlier" Th! thi! te2t3t)$e (annot be rled ot a! the te2t3t)$e mo!t (lo!el) related to the
original!" At thi! time, then, there i! no legitimate !(holarl) rea!on wh) one need! to mo-e awa)
&rom the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e 'and hen(e the 7ing Jame! tran!lation+ toward! the Ale2andrian
te2t3t)$e" .ndeed, $o!!ibl) be(a!e the origin o& the 9)?antine te2t i! !hroded in m)!ter) it i!
$o!!ible to bild a m(h !tronger (ir(m!tantial argment that the Ale2andrian te2t i!
!e(ondar), and that be(a!e o& e2ten!i-e editing it thi! te2t t)$e whi(h ha! de-elo$ed into a
L!tandardi?edM te2t whi(h &ind! the greate!t a((e$tan(e in the /1!t (entr)"
'.1-. 1ummar
The di!(!!ion in the $re(eding $age! ha! been !mmari?ed in the table below with GnegH and
G$o!H indi(ating the degree o& !$$ort &or the $arti(lar te2t t)$e" Althogh the!e rating! are
!bBe(ti-e and th! o$en to di!(!!ion, the ba!i! &or them will be &ond in the abo-e material"
The) do, howe-er, Je!tion the -alidit) o& the (laim that 9)?antine te2t3t)$e !hold be reBe(ted
ot3o&3hand" The (omment! al!o $oint ot area! that need to be addre!!ed b) !$$orter! o&
either te2t3t)$e i& the) want to in(rea!e !$$ort &or their $o!ition"
.tem
Ale2andrian
Neg 6o!
9)?antine
Neg 6o! Comment
Athoritie! ]]] ]]] Ale2andrian te2t i! !$$orted b) almo!t all
9ibli(al !(holar!" There i! e-iden(e o& G&ollow
the leaderH mentalit)"
1an!(ri$t! ]] ] Ale2andrian te2t i! (laimed to ha-e 6 witne!!e!
be&ore 400 A"<" (om$ared with 0 &or 9)?antine
te2t" Fowe-er the a$$earan(e o& more
9)?antine than Ale2andrian reading! in two o&
the!e (p
48
p
46
+, and the (orre(tion o& another
'p
66
+ arond /00 A"<" with man) 9)?antine
reading! and a net mo-ement awa) &rom the
Ale2andrian te2t !gge!t that the!e three $a$)ri
are better witne!!e! o& the 9)?antine te2t than
the Ale2andrian" Th! throghot all re(orded
8;
.tem
Ale2andrian
Neg 6o!
9)?antine
Neg 6o! Comment
hi!tor), with the e2(e$tion o& &rom 1==1 ntil the
$re!ent, there i! hi!tori(al e-iden(e &or the
mo-ement awa) &rom the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e
in man!(ri$t! whi(h alread) (ontain thi! te2t3
t)$e"
Athor!hi$ ] ] 9oth are widel) (on!idered to be edited te2t!
and th! re(en!ion!" Fi!tori(al e-iden(e
indi(ate! that an edited New Te!tament te2t
wold ha-e been $re$ared, and $robabl)
di!tribted and $re!er-ed, at the Aibrar) o&
Ale2andria" Thi! (annot be ignored a! a &a(tor
(ontribting to the e2i!ten(e and !e o& the
Ale2andrian te2t" Al!o, i& both are edited te2t!,
the !gge!tion that the 9)?antine te2t wa!
$re$ared b) A(ian o& Antio(h !hold in theor)
ma*e it more reliable than e-en or $re!ent
(riti(al te2t! !in(e he wa! m(h (lo!er to
te2tal tradition! '/40351/ A"<"+ and wa!
mart)red &or hi! &aith"
T)$e o& %ree*
writing
]] ]] 9)?antine te2t i! (alled G7oineH '(ommon+ te2t
b) man) !(holar!" .n (ontra!t, Ale2andrian te2t
ha! man) (hara(teri!ti(! o& later GAtti(H te2t,
indi(ating that it ha! ndergone !b!tantial
editing"
@!e b)
Chr(h
#ather!
]] ]] There i! (lear e-iden(e that Ale2andrian te2t3
t)$e ha! been !ed" 9)?antine reading! are
&ond bt the (laim i! that the!e reading! were
not the original or that the) are not indi(ati-e o&
te2t3t)$e" Fowe-er Ale2andrian !$$orter!
$ro-ided no e-iden(e wherea! !$$orter! o&
the 9)?antine te2t indi(ate that 9)?antine are
the mo!t $re-alent b) a &a(tor o& 5:/"
,ther
tran!lation!
]] ]] Clear e-iden(e o& Ale2andrian te2t t)$e in earl)
tran!lation! bt no tran!lation! (learl) be&ore
R580 A"<" &or 9)?antine te2t3t)$e"
:ea!on &or
man!(ri$t
-ariabilit)
]]] ]] S$$orter! o& (riti(al 'mainl) Ale2andrian+ te2t
!gge!t a maBor !or(e o& -ariabilit) wa! la(* o&
earl) belie& in !a(redne!! o& te2t" 9)?antine
8=
.tem
Ale2andrian
Neg 6o!
9)?antine
Neg 6o! Comment
be&ore /00
A"<"
!$$orter! arge belie-e te2t wa! (on!idered
!a(red and arge editing to ma*e Ale2andrian
re(en!ion'!+ and need &or more man!(ri$t! &or
(hr(h growth and to re$la(e original! lo!t
throgh $er!e(tion hel$! e2$lain! both
-ariabilit) and the -er) &ew man!(ri$t! whi(h
are a-ailable"
Te2tal
(riti(i!m
] ] Thi! i! (learl) the $rimar) rea!on &or the (rrent
dominan(e o& the Ale2andrian te2t3t)$e"
Fowe-er it ha! been im$o!!ible to $ro-e the
originalit) o& the Ale2andrian Te2t t)$e b)
genealog) and the (on(l!ion that the
9)?antine te2t3t)$e i! G!e(ondar)H be(a!e o&
G(on&lationH ha! al!o been !hown to be
n!$$orted in man) (a!e!" Th! te2tal
(riti(i!m i! largel) G!bBe(ti-eH at the $re!ent
time"
S(holarl) bia! ]] ] There i! a $er(e$tion that !$$orter! o& the
9)?antine te2t3t)$e are bia!ed bt !(holar! o&
thi! $er!a!ion a$$ear to at lea!t ta(*le
$roblem! b) gi-ing a de!(ri$tion o& the other
!ide o& the argment" .n (ontra!t, !$$orter! o&
the (riti(al 'mainl) Ale2andrian+ te2t either do
not $re!ent (on&li(ting e-iden(e or di!mi!! it a!
!howing !(ribal bia!"
8>
*.=. +ddendum
#rom the abo-e di!(!!ion a (a!e (an be made &or !ing the 9)?antine te2t3t)$e a! a ba!i! &or
an Engli!h 9ible tran!lation" Fowe-er the two !(h tran!lation! a-ailable toda) !&&er &rom
maBor $roblem!" The 7ing Jame! -er!ion ha! remained -irtall) n(hanged !in(e 1;6> and
th! need! $3dating !in(e word! ha-e (hanged meaning!, et(" The New 7ing Jame! wa!
meant to be an $date bt !&&er!, a! one o& it! di!ad-antage!, &rom being (o$)righted"
Chri!tian! are Lto &e su&ject to principalities and powers, to o&ey magistratesM 'Tit! 5:1+ whi(h
mean! that, a! &ar a! i! $o!!ible, the) !hold obe) (o$)right rle!" Co$)right rle! !a) that
more than 800 -er!e! (anHt be Joted withot $ermi!!ion i& the N.0 or NAS9 i! !ed '1000 &or
the N7J+" #rther, the initial! &or the 9ible tran!lation 'i"e", N.0, NAS9, N7J0+ m!t be !ed i& a
-er!e i! Joted in (hr(h blletin!, new!letter!, et(" Thi! mean! that man), man) Chri!tian! are
gilt) o& brea*ing the law on a wee*l) ba!i! when the) !e %odH! word 'note that 800 -er!e!
!ond! li*e a lot bt i& !omeone ha! a Snda) !(hool (la!!C(ongregationCet(" o& B!t 100 $eo$le
and gi-e! ot !i2 -er!e! to ea(h $er!on the) are in -iolation o& the law+" There are man)
additional $roblem! with ha-ing %odH! Word (o$)righted in(lding the $er(e$tion that it i! manH!
word in!tead o& %odH! and the &a(t that an) new -er!ion ha! to be di!tin(t &rom an) older
-er!ion th! more and more -ariation i! o((rring in S(ri$tre with it! negati-e in&len(e on
$bli( reading!, memori?ation, et(" ,ne rea!on &or !ing the 7ing Jame! -er!ion i! that it i! not
(o$)righted 'A((ording to Wi*i$edia, LThroghot mo!t o& the world, the Athori?ed 0er!ion ha!
$a!!ed ot o& (o$)right and i! &reel) re$rod(ed" .n the @nited 7ingdom, the 9riti!h Crown
re!tri(t! $rod(tion o& the Athori?ed 0er!ion $er tran!itional e2em$tion! &rom the Co$)right A(t
1;;8 'whi(h im$lemented thi! (la!e+ in the Co$)right, <e!ign! and 6atent! A(t 1>==
'S(hedle 1, !e(tion 15'1++, whi(h e2$ire in /05>" Cambridge @ni-er!it) 6re!!, ,2&ord
@ni-er!it) 6re!!, Far$erCollin! and the YeenE! 6rinter! ha-e the right to $rod(e the
Athori?ed 0er!ion"M+"
9a!ed $on the $roblem! with (rrent -er!ion!, and the abo-e -alidation o& the 9)?antine te2t3
t)$e, it wold be -er) timel) i& an Engli!h tran!lation ba!ed $on thi! te2t3t)$e (old be
$rod(ed" A $rimar) obBe(ti-e wold be to $ro-ide a Gte2tall) !tableH non3(o$)righted
tran!lation" .t i! en-i!aged that $eo$le with e2$erti!e (old be enli!ted b) ha-ing the -er!ion a!
a (ontrolled Go$en !or(eH -er!ion whi(h wold ob-iate the need &or (o$)righting to re(o-er the
(o!t! o& $rod(tion '(o$)righting o& the name $robabl) wold ma*e !en!e+" ,ne $roblem with a
newer tran!lation i! that with the trend toward! ea!ier readabilit), (on!iderable additional
in&ormation in the original langage! ma) be lo!t" Th! it wold be ideal i& the $ro$o!ed
tran!lation in(lded ea!il) t)$ed mar*ing! !o that e2tra in&ormation &or tho!e wi!hing to a(tall)
!td) the 9ible (old be $ro-ided withot a&&e(ting the readabilit) o& the te2t" A! an e2am$le, &or
the -er!e Lor &y grace are ye saved through faith 'E$he!ian! /:=+ mar*ing! in the Newberr)
9ible, whi(h i! ba!ed $on the 7ing Jame! te2t, indi(ate that G!a-edH i! a G$er&e(t $arti(i$leH
indi(ating Gha-ing been and beingH !a-ed" S(h mar*ing! ma) be one wa) o& $re!er-ing
in&ormation !(h a! the $lralit) o& %od in %ene!i! 1:1, and o& G)eH in !tatement! !(h a! L'e
must &e &orn againM 'John 5:;+, or in *nowing that in the original Febrew hea-en i! a(tall) dal
'two+ in the !tatement LGod created the heaven and the earthM '%en 1:1+"
60
-.=. )ndnotes
61
1
" 1et?ger, 9"1" 1>>/" The te2t o& the New Te!tament" .t! tran!mi!!ion, (orr$tion, and re!toration" 5rd
ed" ,2&ord @ni-er!it) 6re!!, ,2&ord" 510 $$"
/
" Ehrman, 9" <" 1>>6" The ,rthodo2 Corr$tion o& S(ri$tre: The E&&e(t o& Earl) Chri!tologi(al
Contro-er!ie! on the Te2t o& the New Te!tament" ,2&ord @ni-er!it) 6re!!, New Zor* and ,2&ord $"5/=
5
" .!lam3awarene!!"org" htt$:CCwww"i!lami(3awarene!!"orgC9ibleCTe2tC9iba((ra()"html a((e!!ed
1a) /010"
4
" Aland, 7 and Aland, 9arbara" 1>=;" The te2t o& the New Te!tament" An introd(tion to the (riti(al
edition! and to the theor) and $ra(ti(e o& modern te2tal (riti(i!m" Tran!lated b) E"#" :hode!" W"9" Eerdman!,
%rand :a$id!" $$ /=350"
8
" 1(<onald, A"1" /00=" "n Craig A" E-an! and E" To-, ed" E2$loring the origin! o& the 9ible"
Canon &ormation in hi!tori(al, literar), and theologi(al $er!$e(ti-e" 9a*er A(ademi(, %rand :a$id!,
1i(higan" $"//4"
6
" Wi*i$edia '9ibli(alTman!(ri$t!+ htt$:CCen"wi*i$edia"orgCwi*iC9ibli(alTman!(ri$t a((e!!ed in
1a) /010
;
" Wi*i$edia '1an!(ri$t!To&TtheTbible+ htt$:CCen"wi*i$edia"orgCwi*iC1an!(ri$t!To&TtheT9ible
a((e!!ed in 1a) /010
=
" 1(<onald, A"1" /00=" "n Craig A" E-an! and E" To-, ed" E2$loring the origin! o& the 9ible"
Canon &ormation in hi!tori(al, literar), and theologi(al $er!$e(ti-e" 9a*er A(ademi(, %rand :a$id!,
1i(higan" $"//="
>
" Walla(e, <"9" /00>" htt$:CCbible"orgCarti(leCnmber 3te2tal 3-ariant! 3e-angeli(al 3mi!(al(latio n
'043153/00>+ a((e!!ed in 1a), /010"
10
" The Com$rehen!i-e New Te!tament" htt$:CCwww"(orner!tone$bli(ation!"orgC$rod01"htm a((e!!ed 1a)
/010"
11
" New 7ing Jame! 9ible"1>>;" Thoma! Nel!on, .n("
1/
" Aland, 7 and Aland, 9arbara" 1>=;" The te2t o& the New Te!tament" An introd(tion to the
(riti(al edition! and to the theor) and $ra(ti(e o& modern te2tal (riti(i!m" W"Eerdman!, %rand :a$id!"
$ /="
15
" Aland, 7 and Aland, 9arbara" 1>=;" The te2t o& the New Te!tament" An introd(tion to the (riti(al
edition! and to the theor) and $ra(ti(e o& modern te2tal (riti(i!m" W"Eerdman!, %rand :a$id!" $$ /=350"
14
" Fnter, A"1" 1>;/" .ntrod(ing the New Te!tament" 5rd :e- Ed" We!tmin!ter 6re!!, 6hiladel$hia" $" 15"
18
" :i(oblog" htt$:www"!$a*oo"(omCri(*Cri(oblogC/006C10C06CWordAndAetterCont!.nThe%ree*NewTe!tament"a!$2
a((e!!ed 1a) /010"
16
" Aland, 7 and Aland, 9arbara" 1>=;" The te2t o& the New Te!tament" An introd(tion to the (riti(al
edition! and to the theor) and $ra(ti(e o& modern te2tal (riti(i!m" W"Eerdman!, %rand :a$id!" $$ /63/="
1;
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