What is Grammar?

The word Grammar has been derived from French word

gramaire or Latin word grammatical or Greek word
grammatika which means relating to letter or according
to F.R Palmer the word grammar means to write
Grammar is the system of rules by which words are
formed and ut together to make sentence or grammar is
the branch of linguistic which deal with the relationshi
between words and the structure of sentence
Ten Types of Grammar
Linguists are !uick to remind us that there are different
varieties of grammar""that is# different ways of describing
and analy$ing the structures and functions of language.
Comparative Grammar
The analysis and comarison of the grammatical structures
of related languages. %ontemorary work in comarative
grammar is concerned with &a faculty of language that
rovides an e'lanatory basis for how a human being can
ac!uire a first language . . .. (n this way# the theory of
grammar is a theory of human language and hence
establishes the relationshi among all languages.&
Generative Grammar
The rules determining the structure and interretation of
sentences that seakers accet as belonging to the
language. &)imly ut# a generative grammar is a theory of
cometence* a model of the sychological system of
unconscious knowledge that underlies a seaker+s ability to
roduce and interret utterances in a language.&
Mental Grammar
The generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a
seaker to roduce language that other seakers can
understand. &,ll humans are born with the caacity for
constructing a -ental Grammar# given linguistic
e'erience. this caacity for language is called the
Language Faculty /%homsky# 01234. , grammar
formulated by a linguist is an ideali$ed descrition of this
-ental Grammar.&
Pedagogical Grammar
Grammatical analysis and instruction designed for second"
language students. &Pedagogical grammar is a sliery
concet. The term is commonly used to denote /04
edagogical rocess""the e'licit treatment of elements of
the target language systems as /art of4 language teaching
methodology. /54 edagogical content""reference sources of
one kind or another that resent information about the
target language system. and /64 combinations of rocess
and content.& /7. Little# &8ords and Their Proerties*
,rguments for a Le'ical ,roach to Pedagogical
Grammar.&
Performance Grammar
, descrition of the synta' of 9nglish as it is actually used
by seakers in dialogues. &:P;erformance grammar . . .
centers attention on language roduction. it is my belief
that the roblem of roduction must be dealt with before
roblems of recetion and comrehension can roerly be
investigated.&
Reference Grammar
, descrition of the grammar of a language# with
e'lanations of the rinciles governing the construction of
words# hrases# clauses# and sentences. 9'amles of
contemorary reference grammars in 9nglish include ,
%omrehensive Grammar of the 9nglish Language# by
Randolh <uirk et al. /01=34# the Longman Grammar of
)oken and 8ritten 9nglish /01114# and The %ambridge
Grammar of the 9nglish Language /5>>54.
Theoretical Grammar
The study of the essential comonents of any human
language. &Theoretical grammar or synta' is concerned
with making comletely e'licit the formalisms of
grammar# and in roviding scientific arguments or
e'lanations in favor of one account of grammar rather
than another# in terms of a general theory of human
language.&
Traditional Grammar
The collection of rescritive rules and concets about the
structure of the language. &8e say that traditional grammar
is rescritive because it focuses on the distinction between
what some eole do with language and what they ought to
do with it# according to a re"established standard. . . . The
chief goal of traditional grammar# therefore# is eretuating
a historical model of what suosedly constitutes roer
language
Transformational Grammar
, theory of grammar that accounts for the constructions of
a language by linguistic transformations and hrase
structures. &(n transformational grammar# the term +rule+ is
used not for a recet set down by an e'ternal authority but
for a rincile that is unconsciously yet regularly followed
in the roduction and interretation of sentences. , rule is a
direction for forming a sentence or a art of a sentence#
which has been internali$ed by the native seaker.&
Universal Grammar
The system of categories# oerations# and rinciles shared
by all human languages and considered to be innate.
&Taken together# the linguistic rinciles of ?niversal
Grammar constitute a theory of the organi$ation of the
initial state of the mind@brain of the language learner""that
is# a theory of the human faculty for language.&
Punctuation
Punctuation Rules
End Marks ? !
A9very sentence must end with an end mark. /Period#
<uestion -ark# or 9'clamation -ark4
Commas "
0. ?se commas before the conBunction to searate two
indeendent clauses in a comound sentence.
5. ?se commas to searate items in a series.
6. ?se commas to searate adBectives of e!ual rank.
C. ?se commas after an introductory word# hrase# or
clause.
(ntroductory words /Do#4
Douns of 7irect ,ddress /Eon#4
%ommon 9'ressions /Ff course#4
(ntroductory ,dverbs /Fbviously#4
Preositional Phrases G two or more
Particiial Phrases /Euming over the fence#
the horse fell.4
(nfinitive Phrases /To buy things on the
(nternet# a credit card is often re!uired.4
,dverb %lauses /8hen 8orld 8ar (( ended#
shoing centers became oular.4
3. ?se commas to set off arenthetical e'ressions.
, arenthetical e'ression is a word or a hrase
that is unrelated to the rest of the sentence and
interruts the general flow of the sentence.
ADames of eole being addressed* 7on# Eudge
Hurke# my son
A%onBunctive ,dverbs* also# besides#
furthermore# however# indeed# instead# moreover#
nevertheless# otherwise# therefore# thus
A%ommon 9'ressions* by the way# ( feel# in my
oinion# in the first lace# of course# on the other
hand# you know
A%ontrasting 9'ressions* not that one# not there#
not mine
2. ?se commas to set off nonessential e'ressions.
I. ?se a comma when a geograhical name is made u
of two or more arts.
=. ?se a comma when a date is made u of two or
more arts.
1. ?se a comma when a name is followed by one or
more titles.
0>.?se a comma after each item in an address of two
or more arts.
00.?se a comma after the salutation in a ersonal
letter and after the closing in all letters.
05.?se a comma with numbers of more than three
digits after every third digit starting from the right.
06.?se a comma to indicate the words left out of an
ellitical sentence. 9J. 7eveloed countries buy
food from the grocery store. undeveloed
countries# the market.
0C.?se commas to set off a direct !uotation from the
rest of the sentence.
Punctuation Rules
#emicolons $
1. ?se a semicolon to Boin indeendent clauses that are
not already Boined by a conBunction.
2. ?se a semicolon to Boin indeendent clauses
searated by either a conBunctive adverb or a
transitional e'ression. /)ee %ommas K3 for list.4
3. ?se a semicolon to avoid confusion when
indeendent clauses already contain commas.
4. ?se a semicolon between items in a series if the
items themselves contain commas.
Colons %
1. ?se a colon before a list of items following an
indeendent clause.
2. ?se a colon to introduce a !uotation that is formal
or lengthy or a !uotation that does not contain a he
said@she said e'ression.
3. ?se a colon to introduce a sentence that summari$es
or e'lains the sentence before it.
4. ?se a colon to introduce a formal aositive that
follows an indeendent clause.
5. ?se a colon when writing the time.
6. ?se a colon between volume numbers and age
numbers when referring to a eriodical.
7. ?se a colon between the title and subtitles of books.
8. ?se a colon after a salutation in a business letter.
&uotation Marks '(irect &uotations) * +
1. ?se !uotation marks to set off direct !uotes.
2. ?se a comma or colon after an introductory
e'ression.
3. ?se a comma# a !uestion mark# or an e'clamation
mark after a !uotation followed by a concluding
e'ression.
4. ?se a comma after art of a !uoted sentence
followed by an interruting e'ression. ?se
another comma after the e'ression.
5. ?se a comma# a !uestion mark# or an e'clamation
mark after a !uoted sentence that comes before an
interruting e'ression. ?se a eriod after the
e'ression.
6. ?se a comma or a eriod inside the final !uotation
mark.
7. ?se a semicolon or colon outside the final !uotation
mark.
8. ?se a !uestion mark or e'clamation mark inside the
final !uotation mark if the end mark is art of the
!uotation.
9. ?se a !uestion mark or e'clamation mark outside
the final !uotation mark if the end mark is not art
of the !uotation.
10. 8hen writing dialogue# begin a new aragrah
with each change of seaker.
11. For !uotations longer than a aragrah# ut
!uotation marks at the beginning of each aragrah
and at the end of the final aragrah.
12. ?se single !uotation marks for a !uotation within
a !uotation.
Punctuation Rules
,ther uses of &uotation Marks * +
0. ?se !uotation marks around the titles of short
written works* short stories# chaters from books#
short oems# essays# articles# eisodes# songs# arts
of musical comositions.
5. 7F DFT underline or lace in !uotation marks the
name of the Hible# its books# divisions# or versions
or the names of other holy scritures# such as the
Loran.
6. 7F DFT underline or lace in !uotation marks the
titles of government charters# alliances# treaties#
acts# statutes# or reorts.
Underlining ---------
1. ?nderline the titles of long written works and the
titles of ublications that are ublished as a single
work* books# lays# maga$ines# Bournals# amhlets#
newsaers# long oems
2. ?nderline the titles of movies# television and radio
series# lengthy works of music# aintings# and
sculture.
3. ?nderline the names of individual air# sea# sace#
and land craft.
4. ?nderline foreign words not yet acceted into
9nglish.
5. ?nderline numbers# symbols# letter# and words used
to name themselves. 9J. (s that first letter a G or
and )M
(ashes .
1. ?se dashes to indicate an abrut change of thought#
a dramatic interruting idea# or a summary
statement. /Page 21= in grammar book4
2. ?se dashes to set off a nonessential aositive or
modifier when it is long# when it is already
unctuated# or when you want to be dramatic.
3. ?se dashes to set off a arenthetical e'ression
when it is ling# already unctuated# or esecially
dramatic.
Parentheses ' )
1. ?se arentheses when the material is not essential
or when it consists of one or more sentences.
2. ?se arentheses to set off numerical e'lanationsN
such as dates of a ersonOs birth and deathNand
around numbers and letter marking a series.
3. 8hen a hrase or declarative sentence interruts
another sentence# do not use an initial caital or end
mark inside the arentheses.
4. 8hen a !uestion or an e'clamation interruts
another sentence# use both and initial caital and an
end mark inside the arentheses.
5. 8ith any sentence that falls between two comlete
sentences# use both an initial caital and an end
mark inside the arentheses.
6. (n a sentence that includes arentheses# lace any
unctuation belonging to the main sentence after the
arenthesis.
Punctuation Rules
/yphens .
1. ?se a hyhen when writing out two"word numbers
from twenty"one through ninety"nine.
2. ?se a hyhen with fractions used as adBectives.
3. ?se a hyhen after a refi' that is followed by a
roer noun or adBective.
4. ?se a hyhen in words with the refi'es all"# e'"#
and self" and in words with the suffi' Gelect.
5. ?se a hyhen to connect two or more words that are
used as one word unless the dictionary gives a
contrary selling.
6. ?se a hyhen to connect a comound modifier that
comes before a noun.
7. 7o not use hyhens with comound modifiers that
include words ending in Gly or with comound
roer adBectives or comound roer nouns acting
as adBectives.
8. ?se a hyhen within a word when a combination of
letter might otherwise be confusing.
9. ?se a hyhen between words to kee the reader
from combining them erroneously.
Using hyphens at the end of lines .
10. (f a word must be divided# always divide it
between syllables.
11. (f a word contains word arts# it can almost
always be divided between the refi' and the root
or the root and the suffi'.
12. 7o not divide a word so that a single letter stands
alone.
13. (t is referable not to divide roer nouns and
roer adBectives.
14. 7ivide a hyhenated word only after the hyhen.
15. 7o not divide a word so that art of the word is
on age and the remainder is on the ne't age.
0postrophes 1
1. ,dd an aostrohe and s to show the ossessive
case of most singular nouns.
2. ,dd an aostrohe to show the ossessive case of
lural nouns ending in s or es.
3. ,dd an aostrohe and s to show the ossessive
case of lural nouns that do not end in s or es.
4. ,dd an aostrohe and s to the last word of a
comound noun to form the ossessive.
5. To form ossessives involving time# amounts# or the
word sake# use an aostrohe and s or Bust an
aostrohe if the ossessive in lural.
6. To show Boint ownershi# make the final noun
ossessive.
7. To show individual ownershi# make each noun
ossessive.
8. ?se an aostrohe and s with indefinite ronouns to
show ossession.
9. 7o not use an aostrohe with the ossessive forms
of ersonal ronouns.
10. ?se an aostrohe in a contraction to indicate the
osition of the missing letter or letters.
11. ?se an aostrohe and Gs to write the lurals of
numbers# symbols# letters# and words used to name
themselves.
.
Princile 7ivision Ff Grammar*
0. Frthograhy*. (t treats of letters. (t relate to correct
selling. )elling with reference to correctness.
5. 9tymology *. The study of the origins and historical
develoment of the words
6. )ynta'* (t treats to arrange the sentence or the
grammatical rules.
The Parts of #peech
Traditional grammar classifies words based on eight arts
of seech* the verb# the noun# the ronoun# the adBective#
the adverb# the reosition# the conBunction# and the
interBection. 9ach art of seech e'lains not what the word
is# but how the word is used. (n fact# the same word can be
a noun in one sentence and a verb or adBective in the ne't.
The ne't few e'amles show how a word+s art of seech
can change from one sentence to the ne't# and following
them is a series of sections on the individual arts of
seech# followed by an e'ercise
What is a 2oun?
, noun is a word used to name a erson# animal# lace#
thing# and abstract idea. 9'amle .,slam# Pen# Peshawar
etc.
, noun can function in a sentence as a subBect# a direct
obBect# an indirect obBect# a subBect comlement# an obBect
comlement# an aositive# an adBective or an adverb.
3unction of 2oun%
Douns functions as a head of nouns hrase# in subBect#
obBect# subPcomliment# FbBect comliment and
comliment of reosition for e'amle
0. the chairman reached the deartment /subBect4
5. he raised the chairman /direct obBect4
6. they elected him the chairman /obBect comliment4
C. he is the chairman /subBect comliment4
3. she gave the chairman a dairy/obBect indirect4
2. he was with the chairman /reositional hrase4
(ependents%
Douns take determiners# adBective and also restricted
relative clause as their deendents for e'amle
0. The girl /determiner acting as deendent4
5. Tall girls /adBective acting as deendent4
6. The girl# who had reddened her lis was Dasima /relative
clause4
4e5ical morphology%
The most roductive noun forming suffi'es are#
Dess# Ty# 9r# 9e# ,tion# -ent. 9'amles are
04 %leanness.54 sensibility.64 sleeer# 9ater .C4 9mloyee.
34 9ducation.24 7eveloment.
6nflection of 2oun%
(nflection of nouns are contrasted on the basis of number
i.e. )ingular and Plural Hut there are number of nouns
which are either available only in singular form# for
e'amle#(nformation#9!uiment etc or either lural form
for e'amle#arm#brains#sirits#Dews etc
.
7 2oun Gender
-any common nouns# like &engineer& or &teacher#& can
refer to men or women. Fnce# many 9nglish nouns would
change form deending on their gender "" for e'amle# a
man was called an &author& while a woman was called an
&authoress& "" but this use of gender"secific nouns is very
rare today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to
refer to occuational categories# as in the following
sentences.
)aeed was a very rominent eighteenth"century actor.
Dadeem was at the height of her career as an actress in the
0I=>s.
The manager was trying to write a want ad# but he couldn+t
decide whether he was advertising for a &waiter& or a
&waitress&
5. 2oun Plurals
-ost nouns change their form to indicate number by
adding &"s& or &"es&# as illustrated in the following airs of
sentences*
8hen ,slam was small he rarely told the truth if he
thought he was going to be unished.
-any eole do not believe that truths are self"evident.
There are other nouns which form the lural by changing
the last letter before adding &s&. )ome words ending in &f&
form the lural by deleting &f& and adding &ves#& and words
ending in &y& form the lural by deleting the &y& and adding
&ies#& as in the following.
Possessive 2ouns
(n the ossessive case# a noun or ronoun changes its form
to show that it owns or is closely related to something else.
?sually# nouns become ossessive by adding a combination
of an aostrohe and the letter &s.&
Qou can form the ossessive case of a singular noun that
does not end in &s& by adding an aostrohe and &s#& as in
the following sentences*
04 The red suitcase is %assandra+s.
54 The only luggage that was lost was the rime minister+s.
64 The e'hausted recruits were woken before dawn by the
drill sergeant+s screams.
C4 The miner+s face was covered in coal dust.
Qou can form the ossessive case of a singular noun
that ends in &s& by adding an aostrohe alone or by
adding an aostrohe and &s#& as in the following
e'amles*
04 The bus+s seats are very uncomfortable.
54 The bus+ seats are very uncomfortable.
64 The film crew accidentally crushed the latyus+s eggs.
C4 The film crew accidentally crushed the latyus+ eggs.
34 Felicia Remans+s oetry was once more oular than
Lord Hyron+s.
24 Felicia Remans+ oetry was once more oular than
Lord Hyron+s.
Using Possessive 2ouns
8hen you read the following sentences# you will notice
that a noun in the ossessive case fre!uently functions as an
adBective modifying another noun*
The miner+s face was covered in coal dust.
Rere the ossessive noun &miner+s& is used to modify the
noun &face& and together with the article &the#& they make
u the noun hrase that is the sentence+s subBect.
The concert was interruted by the dogs+ barking# the
ducks+ !uacking# and the babies+ s!ualling.
(n this sentence# each ossessive noun modifies a gerund.
The ossessive noun &dogs&+ modifies &barking#& &ducks&+
modifies &!uacking#& and &babies&+ modifies &s!ualling.&
The film crew accidentally crushed the latyus+s eggs.
(n this e'amle the ossessive noun &latyus+s& modifies
the noun &eggs& and the noun hrase &the latyus+s eggs&
is the direct obBect of the verb &crushed.&
-y uncle sent many hours trying to locate the s!uirrels+
nest.
(n this sentence the ossessive noun &s!uirrels&+ is used to
modify the noun &nest& and the noun hrase &the s!uirrels+
nest& is the obBect of the infinitive hrase &to locate.&
Types ,f 2ouns
There are many different tyes of nouns. ,s you know# you
caitali$e some nouns# such as &%anada& or &Louise#& and
do not caitali$e others# such as &badger& or &tree& /unless
they aear at the beginning of a sentence4. (n fact#
grammarians have develoed a whole series of noun tyes#
including the roer noun# the common noun# the concrete
noun# the abstract noun# the countable noun. the non"
countable noun and the collective noun. Qou should note
that a noun will belong to more than one tye* it will be
roer or common# abstract or concrete# and countable or
non"countable or collective. Hut the maBor classification of
noun are concrete noun and ,bstract noun.
. Concrete 2ouns
, concrete noun is a noun which names anything /or
anyone4 that you can erceive through your hysical
senses* touch# sight# taste# hearing# or smell. , concrete
noun is the oosite of a abstract noun. The highlighted
words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns*
04 The Budge handed the files to the clerk..
54 The book binder relaced the flimsy aer cover with a
sturdy# cloth"covered board
(ts further classified into the following nouns.
04 Proper 2ouns
Proer noun is the name of a secific erson# lace# or
thing. The names of days of the week# months# historical
documents# institutions# organi$ations# religions# their holy
te'ts and their adherents are roer nouns. , roer noun is
the oosite of a common noun(n each of the following
sentences# the roer nouns are highlighted*
, llama (!bal# <uaid"e",$am.Pakistan.,merica..
54 .Common 2ouns
, common noun is a noun referring to a erson# lace# or
thing in a general sense "" usually# you should write it with
a caital letter only when it begins a sentence. , common
noun is the oosite of a roer noun.
,slam.Eawad.,sima#en.house.ba$$ar etc.
.8) Collective 2oun
, collective noun is the name of a number of ersons or
things# taken together and soken of as one whole* For
e'amle crowd# army# team# family# nation# committee#
arlimament.class.
0. The olice arrested the thief.
5. , herd of cattle is assing.
9) Material noun
, material noun is the name of a matter or substance of
which anything is made# For e'amle# )ilver# (ron# Gold#
%otton# -ilk# Rice etc
0. This table is made of steel.
5. -ilk is a comlete diet
0:stract 2ouns
,n abstract noun is a noun which names anything which
you can not erceive through your five hysical senses# and
is the oosite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words
in the following sentences are all abstract nouns* 9'amles#
04 Huying the fire e'tinguisher was an afterthought.
54 ,sima is amused by eole who are nostalgic about
childhood.
Counta:le 2ouns
, countable noun /or count noun4 is a noun with both a
singular and a lural form# and it names anything /or
anyone4 that you can count. Qou can make a countable
noun lural and attach it to a lural verb in a sentence.
%ountable nouns are the oosite of non"countable nouns
and collective nouns. (n each of the following sentences.
the highlighted words are countable nouns*
04 8e ainted the table red and the chairs blue...
54 -iriam found si' silver dollars in the toe of a sock.
2on.Counta:le 2ouns
, non"countable noun /or mass noun4 is a noun which does
not have a lural form# and which refers to something that
you could /or would4 not usually count. , non"countable
noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Don"
countable nouns are similar to collective nouns# and are the
oosite of countable nouns. The highlighted words in the
following sentences are non"countable nouns*
04 7awood discovered o'ygen.
The word &o'ygen& cannot normally be made lural.
F'ygen is essential to human life.
)ince &o'ygen& is a non"countable noun# it takes the
singular verb &is& rather than the lural verb &are.&
8e decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with us
when we moved.
Qou cannot make the noun &furniture& lural.
The furniture is heaed in the middle of the room.
)ince &furniture& is a non"countable noun# it takes a
singular verb# &is heaed.&
The crew sread the gravel over the roadbed.
Qou cannot make the non"countable noun &gravel& lural.
What is a ;er:?
, verb is used to show an action or a state of being and
give us information about subBect is called verb. )uch as*
Bum# run# cook and drive. Rashid bites his victims on the
neck.
The verb &bites& describes the action Rashid
takes..
There are three types of ver:s%
action verbs#
linking verbs# and
heling verbs
0CT6,2 ;ER<#% ,ction verbs are words that e'ress
action /e'* give# eat# walk# etc.4 or ossession /have, own#
etc.4. ,ction verbs
can be either
transitive or
intransitive.
TR02#6T6;E ;ER<#
, transitive verb always has a noun that receives the action
of the verb. This noun is called the direct o:=ect.
9J,-PL9* ,sima raises her hand.
/The verb is raises. Her hand is an obBect receiving the
verbOs action. Therefore# raises are atransitive verb.4
Transitive verbs sometimes have indirect o:=ects# which
name the obBect to whom or for whom the action was done.
9J,-PL9* Dadeem gave Hushra the encil.
/The verb is given. The direct obBect is the pencil. :8hat
did he giveM the pencil;. The indirect obBect is Bushra..
62TR02#6T6;E ;ER<#
,n intransitive verb never has a direct or indirect obBect.
,lthough an intransitive verb may be followed by an
adverb or adverbial hrase# there is no obBect to receive its
action.
9J,-PL9* ,sima rises slowly from her seat.
/The verb is the word# rises. The words# slowly from her
seat# modify the verb. Hut there is no obBect that receives
the action.4
TR02#6T6;E ,R 62TR02#6T6;E?
To determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive#
follow these two stes*
04 Find the verb in the sentence.
9J,-PL9 0* ,brahim will lay down his book. 8hat is
the actionM
will lay 9J,-PL9 5* Ris book will lie there all day. 8hat
is the actionM 8ill lie
7etermine whether the verb has a direct obBect. ,sk
yourself# 8hat is receiving the action of the verbM
(f there is a noun receiving the action of the verb# then the
verb is transitive
(f there is no direct o:=ect to receive the action# and if the
verb does not make sense with a direct obBect# then it is
intransitive
9J,-PL9 0* ,brahim will lay down his book. ,brahim
will lay down what?
Ris book. )ince the verb can take a direct obBect# it is
transitive
9J,-PL9 5* Ris book will lie there all day.Ris book will
lie what? Nothing.
It does not make sense to lie something. )ince the verb
does not make sense with a
7irect obBect# it is intransitive
, linking ver: connects the subBect of a sentence to a
noun or ad=ective that
Renames or describes it.This noun or adBective is called the
su:=ect complement .
E>0MP4E#% Rashid :ecame a :usiness ma=or 'The
ver:" became" links the su:=ect" Rashid" to its
complement" a business major ) /ina is in love ?ith
Rashid
'The ver:" is " links the su:=ect" Hina, to the su:=ect
complement" in love with Rashid " ?hich descri:es Hina
) The most common linking verb is the verb to be in all of
its forms /am# are# is# was# were, etc.4. This verb may also
be used as a heling verb.
Two other common linking verbs# to become and to seem#
are taken as linking verbs
/E4P62G ;ER<#
/elping ver:s are used before action or linking verbs to
convey additional information regarding asects of
ossibility /can # could # etc.4 or time /was # did # has #
etc.4.They are also called au5iliary ver:s. The main verb
with its accomanying heling verb is called a verb hrase.
9J,-PL9)* Reema is /heling verb4 going /main verb4
to ,merica. The tri might /heling verb4 :e /main verb4
dangerous. The following words# called modals# always
function as heling verbs*/%an#may#must#shall#will#could#
might #ought to# should# would4
!"#$%&' Rubina could learn to fly helicoters. /(ould
hel the main verb# learn.4 Raheela will drive to %ar
tomorrow. /)ill hels the main verb# drive.4
!"#$%&' Rubina could learn to fly helicoters. /(ould
hel the main verb# learn.4
Raheela will drive to (daho tomorrow. /)ill hels the main
verb# drive.4
(n addition# the following forms of the verbs to be# to do#
and to have sometimes served as heling verbs. /Dote* (n
other cases# they may serve as action or linking verbs.4,m#
be# being# do# had# have# was# are# been# did# does# has# is#
were
6nflection ,f ;er:%
The great maBority of Serb contains si' inflection forms.
For e'amle the verb / go4
0. Re goes.
5. Re went.
6. They go.
C. Re# )he.They /shall# will# should# would4 go.
3. Re# )he /is4 they are going.
2. Re# )he /has4 they have gone.
(n 6 and C we have used Go twice called )yncretism.
3unction ,f ;er:%
Serb as head#restrict#the range of others elements in the
clause. The base form head verb hrase#function in various
kind of clausesO
0. Fen the door. /(merative@ commond4
5. clauses may also function as comliment to the -odle
,u'illary# can#may etc. e.g Re may be here soon.
6. %lauses may also take infinitives / 4 e.g (t
is imortant to read both the coies.
(ependents%
Serb takes a wider range of deendents. For e'amle a
transitive verb takes a direct obBect as deendent.
0. )he is eating a Pumkin./direct obBect4
5. Re Gave her a diamond ring./7irect obBect@(ndirect.
FbBect4
6. )he considered him a fool./ obBect@ obBect
comliment4.Hecause Foll can not take lace of subBect
in Passive voice so it can not be an obBect.
4e5ical Morphology%
Serb can be derived from other arts of seech in a number
of ways.For e'amle# by adding#()e#(fy to an adBective.
0. Dational /Doun4 PPPPPPPPPPDationalise. /Serb4
5. Private /D4 PPPPPPPPPPPPPPrivatise. /S4
6. )ynthesis /D4 PPPPPPPPPPPP)ynthesise /S4
C. Heauty /D4 PPPPPPPPPPPPPHeautify. /S4
3. FbBect /D4 PPPPPPPPPPPPPPFbBectify. /S4
#u:=ect and Predicate
9very comlete sentence contains two arts* a subBect and a
redicate. The subBect is what /or whom4 the sentence is
about# while the redicate tells something about the subBect.
(n the following sentences# the redicate is enclosed in
braces # while the subBect is highlighted.
,$i$TrunsU.
E,$i$ and her dog Trun on the beach every morningU.
To determine the subBect of a sentence# first isolate the verb
and then make a !uestion by lacing &whoM& or &whatM&
before it "" the answer is the subBect.
The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wraings
and silled ocorn.
The verb in the above sentence is &littered.& 8ho or what
litteredM The audience did. &The audience& is the subBect of
the sentence. The redicate /which always includes the
verb4 goes on to relate something about the subBect* what
about the audienceM (t &littered the theatre floor with torn
wraings and silled ocorn.&
?nusual )entences
(merative sentences /sentences that give a command or an
order4 differ from conventional sentences in that their
subBect# which is always &you#& is understood rather than
e'ressed.
)tand on your head. /&Qou& is understood before &stand.&4
He careful with sentences that begin with &there& lus a
form of the verb &to be.& (n such sentences# &there& is not
the subBect. it merely signals that the true subBect will soon
follow.
There were three stray kittens cowering under our orch
stes this morning.
(f you ask whoM or whatM Hefore the verb /&were
cowering&4# the answer is &three stray kittens#& the correct
subBect.
)imle )ubBect and )imle Predicate
9very subBect is built around one noun or ronoun /or
more4 that# when stried of all the words that modify it# is
known as the simle subBect. %onsider the following
e'amle*
, iece of eeroni i$$a would satisfy his hunger.
The subBect is built around the noun &iece#& with the other
words of the subBect "" &a& and &of eeroni i$$a& ""
modifying the noun. &Piece& is the simle subBect.
Likewise# a redicate has at its centre a simle redicate#
which is always the verb or verbs that link u with the
subBect. (n the e'amle we Bust considered# the simle
redicate is &would satisfy& "" in other words# the verb of
the sentence.
, sentence may have a comound subBect "" a simle
subBect consisting of more than one noun or ronoun "" as
in these e'amles*
Team ennants# rock osters and family hotograhs
covered the boy+s bedroom walls.
Rer uncle and she walked slowly through the (nuit art
gallery and admired the owerful scultures e'hibited
there.
The second sentence above features a comound redicate#
a redicate that includes more than one verb ertaining to
the same subBect /in this case# &walked& and &admired&4.
What is a Pronoun?
, roer noun is used to name a secific erson# lace or
thing. )uch as Hill Gates# Dew Qork and the Rudson River.
, roer noun is always caitali$ed. . Qou use ronouns
like &he#& &which#& &none#& and &you& to make your
sentences less cumbersome and less reetitive.
Grammarians classify ronouns into several tyes#
including the ersonal ronoun# the demonstrative ronoun#
the interrogative ronoun# the indefinite ronoun# the
relative ronoun# the refle'ive ronoun# and the intensive
ronoun.
7) Personal Pronouns% , ersonal ronoun refers to a
secific erson or thing and changes its form to indicate
erson# number# gender# and case.
#u:=ective Personal Pronouns , subBective ersonal
ronoun indicates that the ronoun is acting as the subBect
of the sentence. The subBective ersonal ronouns are &(#&
&you#& &she#& &he#& &it#& &we#& &you#& &they.&
(n the following sentences# each of the highlighted words is
a subBective ersonal ronoun and acts as the subBect of the
sentence*
( was glad to find the bus ass in the bottom of the green
knasack.
Qou are surely the strangest child ( have ever met.
8hen she was a young woman# she earned her living as a
coal miner.
,fter many years# they returned to their homeland.
8e will meet at the %alcutta at 6*6> .m.
,:=ective Personal Pronouns ,n obBective ersonal
ronoun indicates that the ronoun is acting as an obBect of
a verb# comound verb# reosition# or infinitive hrase.
The obBective ersonal ronouns are* &me#& &you#& &her#&
&him#& &it#& &us#& &you#& and &them.&
Rere the obBective ersonal ronoun &me& is the obBect of
the reosition &to.&
(+m not sure that my contact will talk to you.
)imilarly in this e'amle# the obBective ersonal ronoun
&you& is the obBect of the reosition &to.&Rehan was
surrised to see her at the race..
Rere the obBective ersonal ronoun &her& is the obBect of
the infinitive hrase &to see.&
@) Possessive Personal Pronouns , ossessive ronoun
indicates that the ronoun is acting as a marker of
ossession and defines who owns a articular obBect or
erson. The ossessive ersonal ronouns are &mine#&
&yours#& &hers#& &his#& &its#& &ours#& and &theirs.& Dote that
ossessive ersonal ronouns are very similar to ossessive
adBectives like &my#& &her#& and &their.&
(n each of the following sentences# the highlighted word is
a ossessive ersonal ronoun* The smallest gift is mine.
Rere the ossessive ronoun &mine& functions as a subBect
comlement.
This is yours. Rere too the ossessive ronoun &yours&
functions as a subBect comlement.
Ris is on the kitchen counter.
(n this e'amle# the ossessive ronoun &his& acts as the
subBect of the sentence.
Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.
(n this sentence# the ossessive ronoun &theirs& is the
subBect of the sentence.
Furs is the green one on the corner. Rere too the ossessive
ronoun &ours& function as the subBect of the sentence.
8) 0 demonstrative pronoun oints to and identifies a
noun or a ronoun. &This& and &these& refer to things that
are nearby either in sace or in time# while &that& and
&those& refer to things that are farther away in sace or
time.
The demonstrative ronouns are &this#& &that#& &these#& and
&those.& &This& and &that& are used to refer to singular
nouns or noun hrases and &these& and &those& are used to
refer to lural nouns and noun hrases. Dote that the
demonstrative ronouns are identical to demonstrative
adBectives# though# obviously# you use them differently. (t
is also imortant to note that &that& can also be used as a
relative ronoun.
(n the following sentences# each of the highlighted words is
a demonstrative ronoun*
This must not continue.
Rere &this& is used as the subBect of the comound verb
&must not continue.&
This is uny. that is the tree ( want.
(n this e'amle &this& is used as subBect and refers to
something close to the seaker. The demonstrative ronoun
&that& is also a subBect but refers to something farther away
from the seaker.
Three customers wanted these.
Rere &these& is the direct obBect of the verb &wanted.&
9) 6nterrogative Pronouns
,n interrogative ronoun is used to ask !uestions. The
interrogative ronouns are &who#& &whom#& &which#&
&what& and the comounds formed with the suffi' &ever&
/&whoever#& &whomever#& &whichever#& and &whatever&4.
Dote that either &which& or &what& can also be used as an
interrogative adBective# and that &who#& &whom#& or
&which& can also be used as a relative ronoun.Qou will
find &who#& &whom#& and occasionally &which& used to
refer to eole#&which& and &what& used to refer to things
and to animals.&8ho& acts as the subBect of a verb# while
&whom& acts as the obBect of a verb# reosition# or a
verbal. The highlighted word in each of the following
sentences is an interrogative ronoun*
8hich wants to see the dentist firstM
&8hich& is the subBect of the sentence.
8ho wrote the novel RockboundM
)imilarly &who& is the subBect of the sentenceM
8hom do you think we should inviteM
(n this sentence# &who& is the obBect of the verb &invite.&
To whom do you wish to seakM
Rere the interrogative ronoun &whom is the obBect of the
reosition &to.&
8ho will meet the delegates at the train stationM
(n this sentence# the interrogative ronoun &who& is the
subBect of the comound verb &will meet.& To whom did
you give the aerM (n this e'amle the interrogative
ronoun &whom& is the obBect of the reosition &to.&
8hat did she sayM Rere the interrogative ronoun &what& is
the direct obBect of the verb &say.&
A) Relative Pronouns
Qou can use a relative ronoun is used to link one hrase or
clause to another hrase or clause. The relative ronouns
are &who#& &whom#& &that#& and &which.& The comounds
&whoever#& &whomever#& and &whichever& are also relative
ronouns.
Qou can use the relative ronouns &who& and &whoever& to
refer to the subBect of a clause or sentence# and &whom& and
&whomever& to refer to the obBects of a verb# a verbal or a
reosition. (n each of the following sentences# the
highlighted word is a relative ronoun. Qou may invite
whomever you like to the arty. The relative ronoun
&whoever& is the direct obBect of the comound verb &may
invite. The candidate who wins the greatest oular vote is
not always elected.
(n this sentence# the relative ronoun is the subBect of the
verb &wins& and introduces the subordinate clause &who
wins the greatest oular vote.& This subordinate clause
acts as an adBective modifying &candidate.
B) 6ndefinite Pronouns an indefinite ronoun is a ronoun
referring to an identifiable but not secified erson or thing.
,n indefinite ronoun conveys the idea of all# any# none# or
some. The most common indefinite ronouns are &all#&
&another#& &any#& &anybody#& &anyone#& &anything#& &each#&
&everybody#& &everyone#& &everything#& &few#& &many#&
&nobody#& &none#& &one#& &several#& &some#& &somebody#&
and &someone.& Dote that some indefinite ronouns can
also be used as indefinite adBectives. The highlighted words
in the following sentences are indefinite ronouns* -any
were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed u. Rere
&many& acts as the subBect of the comound verb &were
invited. The office had been searched and everything was
thrown onto the floor.
(n this e'amle# &everything& acts as a subBect of the
comound verb &was thrown.&
8e donated everything we found in the attic to the
woman+s shelter garage sale.
(n this sentence# &everything& is the direct obBect of the
verb &donated.&
,lthough they looked everywhere for e'tra coies of the
maga$ine# they found none.
Rere too the indefinite ronoun functions as a direct obBect*
&none& is the direct obBect of &found. -ake sure you give
everyone a coy of the amended bylaws.
(n this e'amle# &everyone& is the indirect obBect of the
verb &give& "" the direct obBect is the noun hrase &a coy
of the amended bylaws.&
Give a registration ackage to each. Rere &each& is the
obBect of the reosition &to.&
C) Refle5ive Pronouns Qou can use a refle'ive ronoun to
refer back to the subBect of the clause or sentence. The
refle'ive ronouns are &myself#& &yourself#& &herself#&
&himself#& &itself#& &ourselves#& &yourselves#& and
&themselves.& Dote each of these can also act as an
intensive ronoun.
9ach of the highlighted words in the following sentences is
a refle'ive ronoun*
,slam give themselves insulin shots several times a day.
The Eaved often does the hotocoying herself so that the
secretaries can do more imortant work. ,fter the arty# (
asked myself why ( had fa'ed invitations to everyone in my
office building.Gul usually remembered to send a coy of
his e"mail to himself.
,lthough the landlord romised to aint the aartment# we
ended u doing it ourselves.
D) 6ntensive Pronouns ,n intensive ronoun is a ronoun
used to emhasi$e its antecedent. (ntensive ronouns are
identical in form to refle'ive ronouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are
intensive ronouns*
( myself believe that aliens should abduct my sister.
The Prime -inister himself said that he would lower ta'es.
They themselves romised to come to the arty even
though they had a final e'am at the same time.
What 6s 0n 0d=ective?
,n adBective modifies a noun or a ronoun by describing#
identifying# or !uantifying words. ,n adBective usually
recedes the noun or the ronoun which it modifies.
(n the following e'amles# the highlighted words are
adBectives*
The truck"shaed balloon floated over the treetos.
-rs. Daheela aered her kitchen walls with hideous wall
aer.
The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.
The coal mines are dark and dank.
The back room was filled with large# yellow rain boots.
,n adBective can be modified by an adverb# or by a
hrase or clause functioning as an adverb. (n the
sentence
-y husband knits intricately atterned cotton.
for e'amle# the adverb &intricately& modifies the adBective
&atterned.&
)ome nouns# many ronouns# and many articile
hrases can also act as adBectives. (n the sentence
,slam listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden
under her illow.
For e'amle# both highlighted adBectives are ast
articiles.
6nflection%
-ost of the adBective take inflection for grad ability with a
three term aradigm. For e'amle.
PositivePPPPPPPPPP%omarativePPPPPPPPPPPPPPP)uerla
tive.
Tall Taller
Tallest
Qoung Qounger
Qoungest.
The comarative and )uerlative degree may be e'ressed
either inflectionally or analytically i.e. more@most.
3unction%
,dBective function as head of adBective hrase. Hroadly
they have three main functions.
04 ,ttributive /54 Predicative /64 Post osed
,ttributive*
8here it comes before a noun or verb. e.g. / ,n
intelligent girl4.
Predicative*
8here it comes after the Serb. e.g. /The girl is
intelligent4.
Post osed*
Post osed comes immediately after the noun and
before Serb.e.g./)ome one intelligent ublished the book4.
(ependents%
-ost adBective are gradable. )yntactically they take degree
e'ression as deendents i.e. Too# 9r# 9st# -ore# -ost# a
bitetc
,ll adBective are not gradable# and such adBectives
reresent categorical rather then scale roerties. For
e'amle# /04 ,tomic )cientist /54 -edical )tudent.
Le'ical -orhology*
, number of suffi'es derive adBective from nouns e.g.
)uffi'es. Douns.PPPPP,dBectives.
0.
FullPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPHeautyPPPPPPPPPPPPHeautiful.
5.
LessPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP-otionPPPPPPPPPPPP-otionles
s.
6. LyPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPFriendPPPPPPPPPPPPFriendly.
C. LikePPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP%hildPPPPPPPPPPPPP%hild
like.
3.
,lPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPoliticsPPPPPPPPPPPPPolitical.
What is an 0dver:?
,n adverb can modify a verb# an adBective# another adverb#
a hrase# or a clause. ,n adverb indicates manner# time#
lace# cause# or degree and answers !uestions such as
&how#& &when#& &where#& &how much&.
8hile some adverbs can be identified by their
characteristic &ly& suffi'# most of them must be identified
by untangling the grammatical relationshis within the
sentence or clause as a whole. ?nlike an adBective# an
adverb can be found in various laces within the
sentence.(n the following e'amles# each of the highlighted
words is an adverb*
The seamstress !uickly made the mourning
clothes.
(n this sentence# the adverb &!uickly& modifies the verb
&made& and indicates in what manner /or how fast4 the
clothing was constructed.
The midwives waited atiently through a long labour.
)imilarly in this sentence# the adverb &atiently& modifies
the verb &waited& and describes the manner in which the
midwives waited..
Rere the adverb &more& modifies the adverb
&e'editiously.&
?nfortunately# the bank closed at three today.
(n this e'amle# the adverb &unfortunately& modifies the
entire sentence.
The #i5 Types of 0dver:s
70dver:s of Manner * ,dverbs of manner rovide
information on how someone does something. For
e'amle* Eack drives very carefully.
,dverbs of -anner* ,dverbs of manner are laced after the
verb or entire e'ression /at the end of the sentence4. For
e'amle* Their teacher seaks !uickly.
@0dver:s of Time ,dverbs of time rovide information
on when something haens. For e'amle* 8e+ll let you
know our decision ne't week.
,dverbs of Time* ,dverbs of time are laced after the verb
or entire e'ression /at the end of the sentence4.For
e'amle* )he visited her friends last year.
80dver:s of 3reEuency * ,dverbs of fre!uency rovide
information on how often something haens. For e'amle*
They usually get to work at eight o+clock. ,dverbs of
Fre!uency* ,dverbs of fre!uency are laced before the
main verb /not the au'iliary verb4. For e'amle* Re often
goes to bed late. 7o you sometimes get u earlyM
90dver:s of (egree * ,dverbs of degree rovide
information concerning how much of something is done.
For e'amle* They like laying golf a lot. ,dverbs of
7egree* ,dverbs of degree are laced after the verb or
entire e'ression /at the end of the sentence4. For e'amle*
)he+ll attend the meeting as well.
A0dver:s of Comment* ,dverbs of comment rovide a
comment# or oinion about a situation. For e'amle*
Fortunately# there were enough seats left for the concert.
,dverbs of %omment* ,dverbs of comment are laced at
the beginning of a sentence. For e'amle* Luckily# ( was
able to come to the resentation
B0dver: 3ormation+,dverbs are usually formed by
adding +"ly+ to an adBective.For e'amle* !uiet " !uietly#
careful " carefully# careless G carelessly
0d=ectives ending in F.leF change to F.lyF
For e'amle* ossible " ossibly# robable " robably#
incredible " incredibly
0d=ectives ending in F.yF change to F.ilyF .
For e'amle* lucky " luckily# hay " haily# angry "
angrily
0d=ectives ending in F.icF change to F.icallyF .
For e'amle* basic " basically# ironic " ironically# scientific
" scientifically some adBectives are irregular. The most
common irregular adverbs are* good " well# hard " hard# fast
"fast
Con=unctive 0dver:s%
Qou can use a conBunctive adverb to Boin two clauses
together. )ome of the most common conBunctive adverbs
are &also#& &conse!uently#& &finally#& &furthermore#&
&hence#& &however#& &incidentally#& &indeed#& &instead#&
&likewise#& &meanwhile#& &nevertheless#& &ne't#&
&nonetheless#& &otherwise#& &still#& &then#& &therefore#& and
&thus.& , conBunctive adverb is not strong enough to Boin
two indeendent clauses without the aid of a semicolon.
6nllection%
-ost adverb are gradable# but maBority of them take
erihrastic forms /-ore@ -ost4 e.g.
)lowlyPPPPPPPPmore slowlyPPPPPPPPPPPPPmost slowly.
)imilarly most of them take inflection like adBective e.g.
soonPPPsoonerPPPPsoonest.
FastPPPPPPPFasterPPPPPPPPFastest.
3unction%
-any adverbs are gradable# like adBectives e.g.
Sery slowlly# more slowly. -ost slowly# but they are
different from each other between of their function in
hrases.
Le'ical -orhology*
, large number of adverbs derived from adBective by
suffi'ation of ly.e.g
Ly /suffi'4 PPPPPPPPP)low
/adBective4PPPPPPPPPPPPPP)lowly./adverb4
What is a Preposition?
, reosition links nouns# ronouns and hrases to other
words in a sentence. The word or hrase that the
reosition introduces is called the obBect of the
reosition.
, reosition usually indicates the temoral# satial or
logical relationshi of its obBect to the rest of the sentence
as in the following e'amles*
The book is on the table.
The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
The book is beside the table.
)he held the book over the table.
)he read the book during class.
(n each of the receding sentences# a reosition locates the
noun &book& in sace or in time. , reositional hrase is
made u of the reosition# its obBect and any associated
adBectives or adverbs. , reositional hrase can function
as a noun# an adBective# or an adverb. The most common
reositions are &about#& &above#& &across#& &after#&
&against#& &along#& &among#& &around#& &at#& &before#&
&behind#& &below#& &beneath#& &beside#& &between#&
&beyond#& &but#& &by#& &desite#& &down#& &during#&
&e'cet#& &for#& &from#& &in#& &inside#& &into#& &like#& &near#&
&of#& &off#& &on#& &onto#& &out#& &outside#& &over#& &ast#&
&since#& &through#& &throughout#& &till#& &to#& &toward#&
&under#& &underneath#& &until#& &u#& &uon#& &with#&
&within#& and &without.&
What is a Con=unction?
Qou can use a conBunction to link words# hrases# and
clauses# as in the following e'amle*
( ate the i$$a and the asta.
%all the movers when you are ready.
Co.coordinating Con=unctions
Qou use a co"coordinating conBunction /&and#& &but#&
&or#& &nor#& &for#& &so#& or &yet&4 to Boin individual
words# hrases# and indeendent clauses. Dote that
you can also use the conBunctions &but& and &for& as
reositions.
(n this e'amle# the co"coordinating conBunction &for& is
used to link two indeendent clauses.
#u:ordinating Con=unctions
, subordinating conBunction introduces a deendent
clause and indicates the nature of the relationshi
among the indeendent clause/s4 and the deendent
clause/s4.
The most common subordinating conBunctions are &after#&
&although#& &as#& &because#& &before#& &how#& &if#& &once#&
&since#& &than#& &that#& &though#& &till#& &until#& &when#&
&where#& &whether#& and &while.&
9ach of the highlighted words in the following sentences is
a subordinating conBunction*
,fter she had learned to drive# ,lice felt more indeendent.
The subordinating conBunction &after& introduces the
deendent clause &,fter she had learned to drive.&
*6f the paper?ork arrives on time" your cheEue
?ill :e mailed on Tuesday+
)imilarly# the subordinating conBunction &if& introduces the
deendent clause &(f the aerwork arrives on time.&
Gerald had to :egin his thesis over again
?hen his computer crashed+
The subordinating conBunction &when& introduces the
deendent clause &when his comuter crashed.&
What is an 6nter=ection?
,n interBection is a word added to a sentence to convey
emotion. (t is not grammatically related to any other art of
the sentence. Qou usually follow an interBection with an
e'clamation mark. (nterBections are uncommon in formal
academic rose# e'cet in direct !uotations.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are
interBections*
Fuch# that hurtV
Fh no# ( forgot that the e'am was today.
ReyV Put that downV
( heard one guy say to another guy# &Re has a new car# ehM&
( don+t know about you but# good lord# ( think ta'es are too
highV
#u:=ect * The subBect is the agent of the sentence in the
active voice. it is
The erson or thing that does the action of the sentence#
and it normally
Precedes the verbThe subBect may be a single
noun.9'amle* (offee is delicious .
#ilk contains calcium .
The subBect may be a noun hrase. , noun hrase is a
grou of words
9nding with a noun. /(t cannot begin with a reosition.4
9'amle* That new# red car is EohnOs.
-ini"test*
0. George likes boats.
5. -ary# Eohn# George# and ( went to a restaurant last night.
6. The weather was very bad yesterday.
C. The chemistry rofessor cancelled class today.
3. The bank closed at two oOclock.
(n some sentences there is not a true subBect. Rowever# it
and there can often
,ct as seudo"subBects and should be considered as subBect
when rules call for
-oving the subBect of a sentence.
It is a nice day today.
*here was a fire in that building last month.
*here were many students in the room.
It is raining right now.
Complement * %omlement comletes the verb. (t is
similar to the subBect
Hecause it is usually a noun or noun hrase. however# it
generally follows the
Serb when the sentence is in the active voice.
9'amles of comlements*
Eohn bought a cake yesterday. /8hat did Eohn buyM4
Eill was driving a new car. /8hat was Eill drivingM4
Re wants to drink some water. /8hat does he want to
drinkM
)he saw "sif the movies last night. /8hom did she see at
the -oviesM4
They called #ary yesterday. /8hom did they callM4
Re was smoking a cigarette. /8hat was he smokingM4
Modifier * , modifier tells the time# lace# or manner of the
action. Sery
Fften it is a reositional hrase. , reositional hrase is
a grou of words
That begins with a reosition and ends with a noun.
9'amle of reositional hrases*
(n the morning# at the university# on the table
, modifier can also be an adverb or an adverbial hrase.
Last night# hurriedly# ne't year# outdoors# yesterday
9'amle of modifiers*
,slam bought a book at the bookstore. /8here did ,slam
buy a bookM4
,rif was swimming in the pool yesterday. /8here was ,rif
swimmingM4
,nd /8hen was Eill swimmingM4
)he drove the car on #ain &treet. /8here did she driveM4
8e ate dinner at seven o+clock. /8hen did we eat dinnerM4
Dote* The modifier normally follows the comlement# but
not always.
Rowever# the modifier# esecially when it is a reositional
hrase# usually
%annot searate the verb and the comlement.
The 2oun Phrase
The noun hrase is a grou of words that ends with a noun.
(t can contain
7eterminers /the# a# this# etc.4# adBectives# adverbs# and
nouns. (t cannot begin
8ith a reosition. Remember that both subBects and
comlements are generally noun hrases. %ount and non"
count nouns* (t is ossible# however# to count some no
count
Douns if the substance is laced in a countable container.
Glass of milk"one glass of milk# two glasses of milk W
What is Tense?
Tense /noun4* a form of a verb used to indicate the time#
and sometimes the continuation or comleteness# of an
action in relation to the time of seaking. Time4.Tense is a
method that we use in 9nglish to refer to timeNast#
resent and future. -any Languages use tenses to talk
about time. Fther languages have no tenses# but of course
they can still talk about time# using different methods. )o#
we talk about time in 9nglish with tenses. <ut# and this is a
very big :ut* 8e can also talk about time without using
tenses /for e'amle# going to is a)ecial construction to
talk about the future# it is not a tense4 Fne tense does not
always talk about one time.Rere are some of the terms used
in discussing verbs and tenses.
Mood
7) 6ndicative mood e'resses a simle statement of fact#
which can be ositive /affirmative4 or negative
( like coffee.
( do not like coffee.
@) 6nterrogative mood e'resses a !uestion.8hy do you
like coffeeM
8) 6mperative mood e'resses a command .#it do?n!
9) su:=unctive mood e'resses what is imagined or wished
or ossible
XYThe President ordered that he attend the meeting.
Voice
Soice shows the relationshi of the subBect to the action. (n
the active voice# the subBect does the action /cats eat mice4.
(n the passive voice# the subBect receives the action /mice
,re eaten by cats4. ,mong other things# we can use voice
to hel us change the focus of
,ttention.
Aspect
The action or state referred to by the verb is comleted /and
often still relevant4#
For e'amle*
( have emailed the reort to Eane. /so now she has the
reort4
/This is called perfective aspect# using erfect tenses.4
The action or state referred to by the verb is in rogress or
continuing /that is#
?ncomleted4# for e'amle*
8e are eating.
/This is called progressive aspect# using rogressive
:continuous; tenses.4
(eterminer%
, determiner is a word that determines noun use. it is a
word such is *a" the" this" each" some" either" my" and"
your"+ that aears before any descritive and decides the
kind of reference that a man has.
There are three classes of determiners*
0. Pre.determiner%
Pre"determiner comes before a determiner. or in more
technical 8ord Pre"determiner a word which roceeds and
!ualifies another determiner# as both# dose in# both my
hand
9'amles* /all# both# half# double# twice# three# one"third
etc4
0. ,ll this money
5. Hoth my hand.
6. Ralf this milk.
5. Central determiner%
%entral determiner comes in the center of a re"determiner#
such as an# the# those
9'amles*
0. ,ll those work.
5. Hoth these sisters.
8 Post.determiner%
These are items which follow determiner but roceed
adBectives# such as other# two# first#
There are three tyes of ost"determiner /04 %ardinal
Dumerals /54 Frdinal Dumerals /64 <uantifiers.
E5amples%
0. %ardinal Dumerals /Fne# two threeWW..4
5. Frdinal Dumerals /first# second# thirdW..4
6. <uantifiers. /-any# few# several# much# little#4
The ;er: Phrases%
, verb hrase consists of a main verb receded by one or
more heling verbs. These heling verbs work together
with main verb as a unit. For e'amle
0. (s leaving. 5. Rad seemed. 6. -ay become. .C. %ould
Bum.3.)hould moveM 9tc
(irect ,:=ect%
, direct obBect is the word or hrase in the sentence that
indicates somebody or something directly affected by the
action of the verb# such as %at in )he fed the cat
6ndirect ,:=ect%
(ndirect is the erson or thing action is done to. (f function
as the reciient of the action shown by a verb and its direct
obBect# for e'amle the cat in she gave the cat a meal
,:=ect Complement%
,n obBect comlement is the comlement that refers to
obBect. (t is a noun# Pronun#or adBective that is a
comlement of a verb and !ualifies its direct obBect# For
e'amle#
,ngry in Re make me angry
0. Re made them hay.
5. They elected him their leader.
Conditional #imple
Use
8e use it for something that might haen.
8e use it in the main clause in tye (( of the %onditional
sentences.
Form
?ould Z infinitive
Example
( ?ould fly to )ydney if ( had the money.
Conditional Progressive
Use
8e use it for something that might haen.
8e use it in the main clause in tye (( of the %onditional
sentences.
Form
?ould Z :e Z infinitive Z ing
Example
( ?ould :e going home if you came with me.
Conditional Perfect
Use
8e use it for something that might have haened in the
ast.
8e use it in the main clause in tye ((( of the if clauses.
Form
?ould Z have Z past participle
past participle "[ /infinitive Z .ed4 or /8rd column of the
table of the irregular verbs4
Example
( ?ould have phoned you if you hadn+t switched your
mobile off.
Conditional Perfect Progressive
Use
8e use it for something that might have haened in the
ast.
8e use it in the main clause in tye ((( of the if ,clauses.
Form
?ould Z have Z :een Z infinitive Z ing
Example
-aria ?ould have :een singing if there had been more
eole in the church.
Conditional Clause and Main Clause
(f ( have enough money#
conditional clause
( will go to Eaan.
main clause
( will go to Eaan#
main clause
if ( have enough money
conditional clause
3irst" #econd" and Third Conditional
7 3irst
conditional%
(f ( have enough money# ( will go to
Eaan.
@ #econd
conditional%
(f ( had enough money# ( would go to
Eaan.
8 Third
conditional%
(f ( had had enough money# ( would
have gone to Eaan.

Conditional clause Main clause
7 (f Z Present Tense
will Z inf @ resent tense @
imerative
a. (f you hel me with the dishes /if Z res4#
( will hel you with your homework. /will Z inf4
b. (f the sum of the digits of a number is divisible by
three#
the number is divisible by three /Pres. tense4
c. (f you see -r Fo' tonight# tell him ( am ill.
/imerative4.
@ (f Z Past Tense would Z inf
8 (f Z Past Perfect
Tense
would have Z ast articile
8e do not normally use will or would in the conditional
clause#
only in the main clause.
Uses of the Conditional
7 3irst conditional
a. Dature* Fen condition# what is said in
the condition is ossible.
b. Time* This condition refers either to
resent or to future time.
e.g. (f he is late# we will have to go
without him.
(f my mother knows about this# we are in
serious trouble.
@ #econd conditional
a. Dature* unreal /imossible4 or imrobable
situations.
b. Time* resent. the T9D)9 is ast# but we
are talking about the resent# now.
e.g. (f ( knew her name# ( would tell you.
(f ( were you# ( would tell my father.
(ompare' (f ( become resident# ( will
change the social security system. /)aid
by a residential candidate4
(f ( became resident# ( would change the
social security system. /)aid by a
schoolboy* imrobable4
(f we win this match# we are !ualified for
the semifinals.
(f ( won a million ounds# ( would sto
teaching. /imrobable4
8 Third conditional
a. Dature* unreal
b. Time* Past /so we are talking about a
situation that was not so in the ast.4
e.g. (f you had warned me# ( would not
have told your father about that arty./Hut
you didn+t# and ( have4.
Remember!
7 The conditional construction does not normally
use will or would in if"
clauses. !($*I,N' (f will or would e'ress
willingness# as in re!uests# they can be used in if"
clauses.
e.g. (f you will come this way# the manager will see
you now.
( would be grateful if you would give me a little hel.
/\ ] lease# come this way. lease# give me...4
@ For the second conditional# were relaces was'
(f ( were a rich man...
8 ,fter if# we can either use &some/"one# "where...4&
or &any/"one# "where...4.
(f ( have some sare time ne't weekend....or *
(f ( have any sare time...
9 (nstead of if not, we can use unless.
e.g. (+ll be back tomorrow unless there is a lane
strike.
Re+ll accet the Bob unless the salary is too low.
AThere is a &mi'ed tye& as well# for the resent
results of an unreal condition in the ast*
(f Z Past Perfect " would Z inf.
(f you had warned me :then;# ( would not be in rison
:now;.

3unctional English
Functional 9nglish is usage of the 9nglish language
re!uired to erform a secific function. This is tyically
taught as a foundation subBect as a good command of
9nglish is often re!uired for academic study and career
rogression.
4etter
, character reresenting one or more of the sounds used in
seech. any of the symbols of an alhabet.
Word
, single distinct meaningful element of seech or writing#
used with others /or sometimes alone4 to form a sentence
and tyically shown with a sace on either side when
written or rinted
#tructure
There are two striking features of language that any
scientific theory of this !uintessentially human behavior
must account for.
The first is that we do not all seak the same language. This
would be a shocking observation were not so commonlace
The second striking feature of language is that when you
consider the sace of ossible languages# most languages
are clustered in a few tiny bands. That is# most languages
are much# much more similar to one another than random
variation would have redicted.
For instance# in languages with fi'ed word order# the
subBect almost always comes before the obBect. )SF
)ince we became aware of Bust how tightly the variation in
human language constrained is# researchers have struggled
to find an e'lanation. Perhas the most famous account is
%homsky+s ?niversal Grammar hyothesis# which argues
that humans are born with innate knowledge about many of
the features of language /e.g.# languages distinguish
subBects and obBects4# which would not only e'lain cross"
linguistic universals but also erhas how language
learning gets off the ground in the first lace. Fver the
years# ?niversal Grammar has become increasingly
controversial for a number of reasons# one of which is the
arbitrariness of the theory
Language rocessing faces similar challenges. 8e have
different streams of information* what words were uttered
and what order they were uttered in. (t+s easier to bind the
order information to the right word in )SF languages like
9nglish because the subBect and obBect are far aart /there is
a verb in between4# much as the crowding roblem in the
e'amle above is ameliorated by sacing the letters out*
The 3our #entence #tructures
7 #imple #entences
, simle sentence contains only one indeendent clause.
,n indeendent clause is a grou of words /with a subBect
and a verb4 that e'resses a comlete thought.
I drink coffee.
I drink coffee is an indeendent clause. (t contains a subBect
/I4 and a verb /drink4# and it e'resses a comlete thought.
Learn more about the simle sentence here.
@ Compound #entences
, comound sentence contains at least two indeendent
clauses. These clauses are Boined by a coordinating
conBunction or a semicolon.
, coordinating conBunction is a word that glues words#
hrases# or clauses together.
&he cooked and he cleaned.
&he cooked is an indeendent clause. He cleaned is also an
indeendent clause. "nd is a coordinating conBunction
Boining the two indeendent clauses. &he cooked and he
cleaned is a comound sentence. Learn more about
the comound sentence here.
PsstV 8hen you Boin two indeendent clauses with only a
comma# it+s called a comma splice. ,void comma slices.
8 Comple5 #entences
, comle' sentence contains a subordinate clause and an
indeendent clause.
, subordinate clause is a grou of words that has a subBect
and a verb but does not e'ress a comlete thought.
I washed the dishes after I ate breakfast.
I washed the dishes is an indeendent clause. "fter I ate
breakfast is a deendent adverb clausemodifying the
verb washed. I washed the dishes after I ate breakfast is a
comle' sentence.
)ometimes# it can be hard for eole to tell the difference
between comound sentences and comle' sentences. Qou
can learn more telling the difference here.
Learn more about the comle' sentence here.
9 Compound.Comple5 #entences
, comound"comle' sentence contains at least two
indeendent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.
I would have purchased the cheese that you like,
but it was too e-pensive.
I would have purchased the cheese and it was too
e-pensive are both indeendent clauses. They are being
Boined by the conBunction but.
*hat you like is a deendent adBective clause modifying the
noun cheese. The whole sentence is a comound"comle'
sentence. Learn more about the comound"comle'
sentence here.
Phrases
, hrase is a grou of related words that does not contain a
subBect and a verb in combination.
Generally# a hrase is used in the sentence as a single art
of seech. (n this section we will be concerned with
reositional hrases# gerund hrases# articiial hrases#
and infinitive hrases.
7 Prepositional Phrases
The preposition is a single /usually small4 word or a cluster
of words that show relationshi between the obBect of the
reosition and some other word in the sentence. )ome
e'amles of single word reositions* at, by, up, beneath,
over, in, upon, to, under, of, throughout. )ome hrasal
reositions* according to, in regard to, in spite of, by
virtue of. The prepositional phrase, the most common tye
of hrase in 9nglish# begins with a reosition
and is followed by a noun or ronoun# called the obBect of
the reosition# and any modifiers of the obBect. Preosition
modifiers obBect of the reosition in my shiny# black urse
according to the syllabus over a dee river Preositional
hrases function in the sentence like adBectives or adverbs.
Dote the following* -uch of his money was made in
9uroe. /The first hrase is used as an adBective to modify
the ronoun much. the second is used as an adverb to
modify made.4 The color of the car on the street clashes
with my new suit. /Ff the car is used as an adBective to
modify the noun color. on the street is used as an adBective
to modify the noun car. with my new suit is used as an
adverb to modify the verb clashes.4 8hen discussing the
function of a reositional hrase# we say that it has either
an ,dBective Phrase /,dBP4 function or an ,dverbial Phrase
/,dvP4 function.
@ ;er: Phrases %
Three kinds of hrases make use of a verbal# a word
formed from a verb but
Functioning like a different art of seech. There are three
kinds of verbals* the gerund# the articile# and the
infinitive
a. Gerund Phrases
, gerund can be recogni$ed by the ending "ing# either on a
simle form /reading4# or on an au'iliary /having read#
being read# having been read4. To be a gerund# one of these
forms must be used as a noun within the sentence""as a
subBect# direct obBect# subBect comlement# obBect of the
reosition# aositive# etc. 9'amles* )wimming is fun.
Re fears being failed. , gerund phrase consists of the
gerund us its modifiers and@or comlements. Dote the
following e'amles*
Re enBoys walking to school at dawn.
Re enBoys creating sentence diagrams.
Re enBoyed being selected outstanding student of his class.
)tudying 9nglish grammar demands most of my time.
Re was accused of having not read the book.
-y main activity is studying.
Remember# the gerund hrase can be used in a sentence
where you would normally use a noun or noun hrase.
b. Particiial Phrases
The participle is identical in form with the gerund forms /"
ing ending4. in addition# there is a ast articile form
/studied# broken4 and a rogressive form /having been
studying4. The difference the gerund and the articile is in
use# or how it functions within the sentence* the between
gerund is always used as a noun while the articile is used
as an adBective modifier. 9'amle* The inBured bird clung
to the swaying branch.
The participial phrase# consisting of the articile lus its
modifiers and@or comlements# can be used at the
beginning of the sentence# at the end of the sentence# or
within the sentence immediately following the noun it
modifies. 9'amles* Raving once been a football coach#
Hill could e'lain the lay to us. The olice removed the
man creating the disturbance.
8 6nfinitive Phrases
,n infinitive is a verbal consisting of the simle stem of the
verb# generally receded by to/which is called the sign of
the infinitive4. 9'amles* to study# to have studied# to be
studying# to be studied# to go# and to dance. ,n infinitive
phrase consists of an infinitive lus its modifiers and@or
comlements. (nfinitive
Phrases may be used a nouns# adBectives# or adverbs. Dote
the following e'amles* To leave the arty early will be
imossible. /Doun subBect4
8anted to give )alam a second chance. /Doun direct
obBect
( am hay to make your ac!uaintance. /,dverb modifier4
Clause
, clause is a combination of words containing a subBect
and a verb. (f the clause can stand by itself as a sentence# it
is called an indeendent clause. (f it cannot stand alone# it
is called deendent /or subordinate4 clause. 8e will be
concerned here with several tyes of deendent clauses. ,
deendent clause contains a subBect and a verb# but it
functions as a single art of seech /as an adBective# an
adverb# or a noun4 within the sentence. Dote the following
e'amles* -r. Eones announced that he had resigned. /noun
direct obBect4
( must leave when the bell rings. /adverb4
8hen ( will be leaving is not yet clear. /noun subBect4
The test that ( Bust took was easy. /adBective4
7 2oun Clauses
8hen a deendent clause is used as a noun it is called a
noun clause. -ost noun clauses are used as subBects# as
direct obBects# as subBect comlements# and as obBects of
reositions. Dote the following*
8hat he told us is very convincing. /subBect4
Re believes whatever is told to him. /direct obBect4
This is what he told me. /subBect comlement4
Give it to whoever oens the door. /obBect of the
reosition4
The words that serve as subordinators of noun clauses are
conBunctions /that# if# whether4.
ronouns /who, whom, what, which , whoever, whatever,
whichever4. adBectives /whose, which , what/. and adverbs
/when, where, why, how4. The subordinating word always
stands at or near the beginning of the clause. The
conBunction that is !uite commonly not e'ressed in a noun
clause* ( hoe /that4 you are mistaken.
@ 0d=ective Clauses
,n adBective clause modifies or limits or oints out a noun
or ronoun. The normal osition for an adBective clause is
immediately following the noun or ronoun it modifies*
Re bought one of those houses that have Bust been built in
)ilverlake.
( like a man who has lenty of initiative.
The car is one that you can be roud to drive.
The subordinating words that connect adBective clauses to
the words they modify are called elatives /hence these are
often called relative clauses4. The relative is a kind of
substitute for the noun or ronoun being modified. Dearly
all adBective clauses will use who# whom# that# which#
whose# where# when# or why as subordinators.
8 0dver:ial Clauses
,n adverbial clause may come before# after# or in the
interior of a main clause# but they are used like adverbs.
they describe the action of the main clause by telling
certain things about it. Like adverbs# adverbial clauses may
modify verbs# adverbs# or adBectives. The use of adverbial
clauses# together with some of their most common
conBunctions are listed below*
Time /when, before, after, since, while, until, as4
Qou must not talk while you eat.
-anner /as, as if, as though4
Place /where, wherever/
8e arted where the aths searated.
Result /that, so that4
Re was so late that he might have missed the lecture.
%ause /because, since, as4
)he !uit school because her mother was ill.
Purose /that, in order that/
They died that their countrymen might live.
%ondition /if, unless, provided that, on condition that4
)to me if you have heard this before.
%omarison /than, as4
Gold is heavier than iron /is4.
%oncession /although, though, even if4
( will trust him though he betray me.
ing& verb. (t is customary to refer to this whole structure.
resent ro!ressive " Use
7) actions happening at the moment of speaking
Peter is reading a book now.
@) fi5ed plan in the near future
)he is going to Hasel on )aturday.
8) temporary actions
Ris father is ?orking in Rome this month.
9) actions happening around the moment of speaking
'longer actions)
-y friend is preparing for his e'ams.
A) trends
-ore and more eole are using their comuters to listen
to music.
B) repeated actions ?hich are irritating to the
speaker /with always# constantly# forever4
,ndrew is always coming late.
Form
to :e 'am" are" is) Z infinitive Z .ing
Examples#
$ am pla%in! &ootball#
$ am not pla%in! &ootball#
present continuous tense
The continuous and rogressive asects are grammatical
asects that e'ress incomlete action or state in rogress
at a secific time* they are non"habitual# imerfective
asects. (n the grammars of many languages the two terms
are used interchangeably.
Rules ,u'iliary verb am or is or are is used in sentence.
0st form of verb or base verb Z ing /resent articile4 is
used as main verb in sentence.
)tructure of sentence

Positive #entence
^ )ubBect Z au'iliary verb Z main verb"ing /Present
articile4 Z obBect
^ )ubBect Z am@is@are Z /0st form of verb or base verb Z
ing4 Z obBect
(f the subBect is ( then au'iliary verb am is used after
subBect in sentence.
(f the subBect is Re# )he# (t# singular or roer name then
au'iliary verb is is used after subBect in sentence.
(f subBect is Qou# They or lural then au'iliary verb are
is used after subBect in sentence.
The articile ing is added to the 0st form of verb i.e.
going /go4 writing /write4
6 am ?riting a letter
Pakistan is developing
#entence
^ )ubBect Z au'iliary verb Z not Z main verb"ing
/Present articile4 Z obBect
^ )ubBect Z am@is@are Z not Z /0st form of verb Z ing4 Z
obBect
.
6nterrogative #entences
^ ,u'iliary verb Z )ubBect Z main verb"ing /Present
articile4 Z obBect
^ ,m@is@are Z )ubBect Z /0st form of verb or base verb Z
ing4 Z obBect
For making interrogative sentences# the sentence is started
with au'iliary verb rather than utting au'iliary verb inside
the sentence. (f the subBect is ( the sentence starts with
au'iliary verb am. (f the subBect is Re# )he# (t# singular
or roer name the sentence starts with au'iliary verb is.
(f subBect is Qou# They or lural the sentence starts with
au'iliary verb are.
(s she is loughing at me.
(s he is going to school.
Present Perfect Tense

(t is used to e'ressed an action which haened or
comleted in ast but usually the action which haened or
comleted at a short time before now /near ast4 not a very
long time before now. )ecific time such as two years ago#
last week or that day is usually not used in the sentences of
in this tense. (t means that this tense e'resses the action
whose time when it haened# is not e'actly secified but it
sounds to refer to some action that haened or comleted
in near ast.
Rules* ,u'iliary verb has or have is used in sentence. 6rd
form of verb /ast articile4 is used as main verb in
sentence.

)tructure of )entence
Positive
^ )ubBect Z ,u'iliary verb Z main verb /ast
articile4 Z )ubBect
^ )ubBect Z has@have Z 6rd form of verb or ast
articile Z subBect
(f the subBect is Re# )he# (t# singular or roer name then
au'iliary verb has is used after subBect in sentence.
(f subBect is Qou# They or lural then au'iliary verb
have is used after subBect in sentence.
9'amle
( have eaten meal.
)he has washed the clothes.
2egative
^ )ubBect Z ,u'iliary verb Z DFT Z main verb /ast
articile4 Z )ubBect
^ )ubBect Z has@have Z DFT Z 6rd form of verb or ast
articile Z subBect
Rules for using au'iliary verb has or have in negative
sentence are same as mentioned above.
)he has not washed the clothes.
( have not eaten the meal.
6nterrogative
^ ,u'iliary verb Z )ubBect Z main verb /ast
articile4 Z )ubBect
^ Ras@have Z )ubBect Z 6rd form of verb or ast
articile Z subBect
(nterrogative sentence starts with au'iliary verb. (f the
subBect is Re# )he# (t# singular or roer name then the
sentence starts with au'iliary verb has.
(f subBect is Qou# They or lural then the sentence starts
with au'iliary verb have.
Rave ( eaten the mealM
Ras she washed the clothesM
Future %ontinuous tense

(t is used to e'ress a continued or an ongoing action in
future. For e'amle# ( will be waiting for you tomorrow#
it conveys ongoing nature of an action /waiting4 which will
occur in future.

Rules. ,u'iliary verb will be is used in sentence. 0st
form of verb Z ing /resent articile4 is used as main verb
in sentence.

)tructure of sentence
Positive sentence
^ )ubBect Z au'iliary verb Z main verb /resent articile4
Z obBect
^ )ubBect Z will beZ 0st form of verb or base formZing
/resent articile4 Z obBect
E5amples
Qou will be feeling well tomorrow.
( will be felling well tomorrow.
2egative sentence
^ )ubBect Z not between au'iliary verbsZ not Z main
verb /resent articile4 Z obBect
^ )ubBect Z will not be Z 0st form of verb or base
formZing /resent articile4 Z obBect
To make negative sentence not is written between
au'iliary verbs will and be in sentence.
E5amples

Qou will not be feeling well tomorrow.
( will not be feeling well tomorror.
6nterrogative sentence
^ ,u'iliary verb Z subBect Z au'iliary verb Z main verb
/resent articile4 Z obBect
^ 8ill Z subBect Z beZ 0st form of verb or base formZing
/resent articile4 Z obBect
8ill you be feeling well tomorrowM
8ill ( be waiting for youM
Present Perfect %ontinuous tense

(t is used to e'ress a continued or ongoing action that
started in ast and is continued until now. There will be a
time reference# such as since 01=># for three hours etc
from which the action has been started. , sense of time
reference is found in these sentences which gives an idea
that action has been continued from some time in ast till
now. )uch time reference or sense of time reference is the
identity of Present erfect continuous tense because it tells
that action has started from a articular time in ast. For
e'amle# Re has been reading in this school since 5>>3#
so the it means that he has started his education in this
school in 5>>3 and he is studying in this school till now.

2ote% (f there is not time reference or sense of time
reference then it is not Present erfect continuous tense
because there is no hint about the time of action when it
started in ast and it seems Bust an ongoing action at resent
time which resembles resent %ontinuous tense. )o the
reference of time differentiates between $resent perfect
continuous tense and $resent continuous tense.

Rules% ,n au'iliary verb has been or have been is used
in sentence. 0st form of verb /base verb4 Zing /resent
articile4 is used as main verb in sentence. )ince or
for is used before the time reference in sentence. (f the
time reference is e'actly known such as 0113# C FOclock
then since is used before the time in sentence. (f the time
reference is not e'actly known such as three hours# si'
years# four days# then for is used before the time in
sentence. Time reference such as 6 hours or 3 days is not
e'actly known because we donOt know that about which
three hours a day is told in sentence or about which 3 days
in a month is told in sentence. 8hile the 0113 is e'actly
known time.

)tructure of sentence.
Positive #entence
^ )ubBect Z ,u'iliary verb Z main verb /Present articile4
Z FbBect Z Time reference
^ )ubBect Z has been@have been Z /0st form of verb or base
verb Z ing4 Z obBect Z time reference
E5amples.
Re has been watering the lants for two hours.
( have been studying since 6 FOclock

2egative #entence
^ )ubBect ZDot between the ,u'iliary verb Z main verb
/resent articile4 Z FbBect Z Time reference
^ )ubBect Z has not been@have not been Z /0st form of verb
or base verb Z ing4 Z obBect Z time reference
To make negative sentence# the word not is written
between the au'iliary verbs# so it becomes like has not
been or have not been. The rule for using au'iliary verb
has been or have been in negative sentences is as same as
mentioned above.
E5amples.
Re has not been watering the lants for two hours.
( have not been studying since 6 FOclock.

6nterrogative #entence
^ ,u'iliary verb Z )ubBect Z ,u'iliary verb Z main verb
/resent articile4 Z obBect Z time reference
^ Ras@have Z )ubBect Z been Z /0st form of verb or base
verbZing4 Z obBect Z time reference
(nterrogative sentence starts with au'iliary verb. (f the
subBect is Re# )he# (t# singular or roer name then the
sentence starts with au'iliary verb has and au'iliary verb
been is used after subBect
(f subBect is Qou# They or lural then the sentence starts
with au'iliary verb have and been is used after subBect
Ras he been watering the lants for two hoursM
Rave ( been studying since 6 FOclockM
Ras he been watering the lants for two hoursM
Rave ( been studying since 6 FOclockM
Past erfect tense

(t is used to e'ress an action which has occurred in ast
/usually# a long time ago4 and action which has occurred in
ast before another action in ast.

For e'amle#
( had lived in ,merica. /The sense of time in this sentence
refers to a comleted action in ast and esecially a long
time ago4

The students had gone before the teacher came. /The first
art of sentence The student has gone is sentence of ast
erfect tense# it says about an action which occurred before
another action in ast which is the teacher came. The
second art the teacher came is sentence of ast simle
tense. )o such a sentence which e'ress an action in ast
before another action in ast comrises two arts where the
first art of sentence is ast erfect tense4

Rules ,u'iliary verb had is used in sentence. 6rd form
of verb /ast articile4 is used as main verb in sentence

)tructure of sentence.
Positive sentence
^ )ubBect Z au'iliary verb Z main verb /ast articile4
Z obBect
^ )ubBect Z had Z 6rd form of verb or ast articile Z
obBect
E5amples.
, thief had stolen my watch.
Re had taken the e'am lt year.
2egative sentence
^ )ubBect Z au'iliary verb Z DFT Z main verb /ast
articile4 Z obBect
^)ubBect Z had Z not Z 6rd form of verb or ast
articile Z obBect
Dot is written after au'iliary verb in negative sentence.
E5amples.

, thief had not stolen my watch.
Re had taken the e'am last year
6nterrogative sentence
^ ,u'iliary verb Z subBect Z main verb /ast articile4
Z obBect
^ Rad Z subBect Z 6rd form of verb or ast articile Z
obBect
E5amples.
Rad he taken the e'am last year
Rad a thief stolen my watchM
Rad he taken the e'am last yea
Future Perfect tense

(t is used to e'ress an action which will occur in future
and is thought to be comleted in future. (t e'resses a
sense of comletion of an action which will occur in future.
For e'amle# Eohn will have gone tomorrow. (t shows a
sense of comletion of an action /go4 which will occur in
future /tomorrow4.

Rules ,u'iliary verb will have is used in sentence. 6rd
form of verb or ast articile form of verb is used as main
verb in sentence.

)tructure of sentence
Positive sentence
^ )ubBect Z au'iliary verb Z main verb /ast articile4
Z obBect
^ )ubBect Z will have Z 6rd form of verb or ast
articile Z obBect
E5ample
0 6nformal communication* (nformal communication is
casual and sontaneous. (nformal communication comes
from communication activities outside of those formally
learned through disciline or at school through education#
or in business through related e'eriences and formal
training. (t comes from the social communication of home
family culture# casual conversations and graevines#
rumors# inter"relational activities outside of the formal or
ublic arenas. 8e do not behave the same way at work as
we do at home or at lay. ( always say that eole are at
their best at work. 8e really don+t know someone until
we+ve stayed with them outside of work for a few days "" or
even a few hours with some eole. (nformal
communication may not be as reliant as formal
communication. (nformal communication may be
vulnerable to being decetive and imrecise in its
casualness " "consciously or unconsciously. (n an informal
setting# the !uality of communication may be affected by
the more rela'ed or careless attitude or behavior. (nformal
communication is what takes lace without the formal
addition of conventions and ceremonies. (n order to
understand the difference between formal and informal
communication# we need to look at both and comare some
of the variances between the two. )o let+s now take a look
at formal communication.
@3ormal communication% Formal communication is more
thought"out and reared from learned e'eriences or
organi$ed training that resent rules and conventions
authorities by business and formal eti!uette. 8ith formal
communication# more accountability is e'ected. (n an
organi$ational setting# such as business# cororations or
associations and the like# communication is connected with
official status"!uo or rotocols of the formal channels of
structure and comany culture which the line of
manager@subordinate reorting system is e'ectedly
acceted. (n business# the different forms of formal
communication including deartmental functionality#
activities taking lace within meeting and conference
settings# verbal and written communication through
telehone# memos# letters and bulletins# etc.# all add u to
the formality. (n a formal setting# eole take the time to
recogni$e the conse!uences of transmitting any wrong or
incomlete information. Rowever# both formal and
informal communication is found in an organi$ation#
deending on the level of business e'erience and training
one ossesses in his or her ersonal life. ,n organi$ation
can make efficient use of informal communication by
confirming and affirming that which is being
communicated by the less trained individual.
#i5 Golden Rules for E5cellent Comprehension
Reading comrehension strategies are tools that everyone
can use to hel understand the meaning of what they read.
%omrehension deends on the comle'ity of the te't# or
the sohistication of vocabulary. )ome te'ts# like 7r. )euss
&%at in the Rat& are very simle to understand. Fther te'ts#
such as &The ,merican %onstitution& are very difficult to
comrehend as they contain comle' words and long
sentences. (n the last twenty years there has been a focus in
the business world to simlify the use of language in all
forms of documentation. Legal contracts have become
much easier to read. Husiness letters are less rosaic and
more direct. Gone are the days where a single sentence
contained four hundred words and si' comound clausesV
These are the days of &lain 9nglish&. 7esite this trend#
we are faced with the onerous task of having to
comrehend iles of notes# books# emails# letters and
reorts. ,lthough the format may be simler# the amount of
information we have to digest in these modern times is
unrecedented.
Golden Rule 7 0nalyGe the 2on ;er:als
Hefore commencing reading you should take a few
moments to look at the non"verbal forms of communication
in the document you wish to comrehend. The non"verbals
are the messages that are not contained in the words# but
rather in the design of the document. Qou should flick
through the document and first look at the hotograhs#
ictures# charts and grahs. )crutini$e these items and build
a mental icture of what the document is saying. Pictures
allow a very raid way of comrehending material and the
human brain is tyically much better at remembering
ictures than words and verbal concets. Look at the
!uality of the document. 7oes it have a rofessional
layoutM (s it well structuredM Siewing the non verbals is an
imortant relude to the ne't hase as it reares our mind
to receive and analy$e information.
Golden Rule @ Gain an overvie?
, golden rule of great comrehension is to gain an
overview of the document you wish to read. This means
reading selective arts of the document until you gain a
ersective. Read the headings. Look through the table of
contents. Peruse the inde'. Read highlighted oints. Read
the first and last aragrah. Read emhasi$ed words in the
document. 9'amine the cations on ictures# grahs and
tables. Fnce you have gained a mental icture of the
document you can then decide what to do with itV
Golden Rule 8 Understand Purpose
8hen reading it is imortant to consider two things. First#
what knowledge do you want to e'tract from the te'tM
7o you want to read the te't for enBoymentM
7o you wish to memori$e the informationM
7o you wish to gain an overview of the informationM
7o you need to erform a detailed analysisM
7o you need to !uickly sift through the te't to see if it
contains any references to a articular subBectM
7o you want an obBective reviewM
)econd# what did the author set out to achieve in writing
the te'tM
8ere they trying to describe somethingM
8ere they writing an informative te'tM
8ere they e'laining somethingM
,re they writing instructionsM
,re they trying to ersuade you to a oint of viewM
Fnce you recogni$e what you need from the information
and also what the author.s urose was for writing the te't
you see if there is a match. (f you are seeking an obBective
review of a subBect and it is clear that the author is trying to
ersuade you to one oint of view# the document is at cross
uroses with your needs. Qou could reBect the document
and seek a better source. (f you are hay with the match#
then you can roceed with more detailed reading.
Golden Rule 9 (ecide on your response
Heing an effective reader is not about reading and
understanding everything that comes your way. (t is about
matching your resonse to information with its relevance
and imortance. The time"tested => @ 5> rule alies to
reading too. Fnly 5>_ of the information ushed your way
needs to be read with high comrehension. The other =>_
can be thrown away# delegated to others to read# or ut on
file. Hecoming a great reader means identifying the
information that re!uires detailed# high comrehension
reading. From this information# you might want to take
notes# aly a colored highlighter# and reare action items
after you read it. Qou may want to immediately make
calendar entries# reare emails or add toics to your to"do
list.
Golden Rule A /igh Comprehension Reading
,t this stage you have gained an overview of the document
by viewing the non verbals# and by building a mental
summary of the document by reading the key arts. Qou
have decided that this document is imortant and is worth
reading to gain a first"rate understanding. Dow you are
motivated. -otivation is critical for great comrehension as
motivation leads to focus and concentration# both of which
are essential ingredients necessary to engage your memory
into .learning mode&. Qou need to read it. Qou are ready.
)tart readingV ,s you are reading involve as many senses as
you can in the reading rocess. this will greatly contribute
to your understanding and recall*
make notes
draw ictures of the information# eg mind mas
highlight key words
scribble notes in the margin
say out the key hrases to yourself
,dditionally# as you read you should build a se!uence of
ictures to reresent the information you are reading. 8e
remember ictures much better than wordsV
Fnce you have finished reading attend to your action items.
send emails# udate your schedule# add calendar items.
Golden Rule# /ighest Comprehension Reading
This last ste is a little known secret in the business world.
)ome information is so imortant that it re!uires the very
highest level of comrehension and retention. (t may be
information that you need to use and aly every day as a
core art of your studies or career. The secret to the highest
comrehension reading is reinforcement. (f you wait two or
three days and re"read the original information# your long
term comrehension and memory of the information will be
imroved significantly. 9ach time involve your senses by
making notes and voicing out the information and ideas to
yourself. (f you aly this kind of reinforcement three or
four times# you will enBoy the highest comrehension.
Te'tual cohesion
0s ?e already mentioned" an authentic translation
involves more than =ust translating sentences" ho?ever
grammatically accurate ,ne has also to :ear in mind
the interaction :et?een these sentences" and the
semantic and stylistic implications of this interaction
<esides the thematic and information structure of a
te5t" another important element is textual cohesion#
Cohesion can :e defined as the property that
distinguishes a seEuence of sentences that form a
discourse from a random seEuence of sentences 6t is a
series of le5ical" grammatical and other relations
?hich provide links :et?een the various parts of a
te5t 6n studying cohesion ?e should make a
distinction :et?een *linguistic cohesion+ and
*pragmatic cohesion+ or coherence
Consider the follo?ing e5changes%
'a)Hohn likes /elen
':)#he" ho?ever hates him
'c)(o you have coffee to go?
'd)Cream and sugar?
6n the first case the link :et?een 'a)
and ':) is provided :y
pronominaliGation" ?hich is a purely
linguistic link$ in the second" the
connection :et?een 'c) and 'd)
depends on kno?ledge and e5perience
of the real ?orld
4inguistic presupposition and pragmatic
presupposition differ in a similar manner While in
linguistic presupposition the information can :e
e5tracted from the linguistic conte5t" in the case of
pragmatic presupposition" the information is deduced
from outside the linguistic conte5t
E5ample%
Hohn gave his :rother t?o :ooks
4inguistic presupposition% Hohn has a :rother
Possi:le pragmatic presupposition% HohnIs :rother
likes :ooks
We shall start from linguistic cohesion
/alliday and /asan have identified five kinds of
cohesive devices in English%
Reference# substitution# ellisis# conBunction and le'ical
cohesion
Reference
The term reference is traditionally used in semantics
to define the relationship :et?een a ?ord and ?hat it
points to in the real ?orld" :ut in /alliday and
/asanIs model it simply refers to the relationship
:et?een t?o linguistic e5pressions
6n the te5tual sense" though" reference occurs ?hen
the readerJlistener has to retrieve the identity of ?hat
is :eing talked a:out :y referring to another
e5pression in the same conte5t
References to the *shared ?orld+ outside a te5t are
called e5ophoric references
References to elements in the te5t are called
endophoric references
,nly the second ones are purely cohesive" although
:oth of them are important to create te5ture
There are times ?hen the reference is not e5plicit in
the te5t itself" :ut it is o:vious to those in a particular
situation This is called e5ophoric reference
For he's a joll% !ood &ellow
And so sa% all o& us#
0s outsiders" ?e donIt kno? ?ho the he is" :ut" most
likely" the people involved in the cele:ration are a?are
of the he that is :eing referred to" and therefore" can
find te5ture in the sentences
0nother type of reference relation that is not strictly
te5tual is co"re&erence#
0 chain of co.referential items such as Mrs Thatcher
K the Prime Minister K The 6ron 4ady K Maggie
reveals that co.reference is not strictly a linguistic
feature :ut depends on real.?orld kno?ledge Lou
need some e5ternal information to realiGe that the
terms refer to the same person
0t the level of te5tual co.reference" there is a
continuum of cohesive elements that can :e used for
referring :ack to an entity already mentioned This
continuum goes from full repetition to pronominal
reference" through synonym" superordinate and
general ?ord
6 sa? a :oy in the gardenThe :oy 'repetition)?as
clim:ing a tree 6 ?as ?orried a:out the child
'superordinate)The poor lad 'synonym)?as o:viously
not up to it The idiot 'general ?ord) ?as going to fall
if he 'pronoun)didnIt take care
Patterns of reference can vary considera:ly :oth
?ithin and across languages Within the same
language" te5t type seems to :e an important factor in
determining the choice of pattern
Each language has general preferences for some
patterns of reference as ?ell as specific references
according to te5t type
Endophoric referencing can :e divided into three
areas% anaphoric" cataphoric" and esphoric
0naphoric refers to any reference that *points
:ack?ards+ to previously mentioned information in
te5t
Cataphoric refers to any reference that *points
for?ard+ to information that ?ill :e presented later in
the te5t
Esphoric is any reference ?ithin the same nominal
group or phrase" a 2P
that *is formally definite :ut in
fact realiGes presenting
rather than presuming referenceM 'pseudo.definite 2P
in unmarked e5istential constructions)
Va!uel%, he saw the &orm o& a man#
$n a room outside the court he
tal(ed with the French prosecutin!
counsel#
3or cohesion purposes" anaphoric referencing is the
most relevant as it *provides a link ?ith a preceding
portion of the te5t+
3unctionally speaking" there are three main types of
cohesive references% personal" demonstrative" and
comparative
Personal reference keeps track of function through
the speech situation using noun pronouns like *he"
him" she" her+" etc and possessive determiners like
*mine" yours" his" hers+" etc
0ll languages have certain linguistic items ?hich
they use as a reference in the te5tual sense
6n English the most common are personal pronouns
'su:=ect and o:=ect)" determiners and possessives
Third person pronouns are often used to refer :ack"
and sometimes for?ard" to a participant that has
already :een introduced or ?ill :e introduced into
the discourse
The prime minister has resigned He announced his
decision this morning
)ash and core six coo(in! apples# ut them into a
&ireproo& dish#
These are :oth cases of endophoric reference ?hich
signals to the reader that he or she needs to look
:ack in the te5t to find its meaning
Unlike English" ?hich tends to rely heavily on
pronominal reference in tracing participants" 6talian"
?hich inflects ver:s for person and num:er 'like
3rench" #panish and German)" generally seems to
prefer le5ical repetition or co.reference
7emonstrative reference
(emonstrative reference keeps track of information
through location using pro5imity references like *this"
these" that" those" here" there" then" and the+
$ alwa%s drin( a lot o& beer when $ am in En!land#
*here are man% lovel% pubs there#
*his is not acceptable
%omarative reference
Comparative reference keeps track of identity and
similarity through indirect references using ad=ectives
like *same" eEual" similar" different" else" :etter"
more+" etc and adver:s like *so" such" similarly"
other?ise" so" more+" etc
A similar view is not acceptable#
)e did the same
+o the% said#
)ubstitution and ellisis
Whereas referencing functions to link semantic
meanings ?ithin te5t" su:stitution and ellipsis differ in
that they operate as a linguistic link at the
le5icogrammatical level #u:stitution and ellipsis are
used ?hen *a speaker or ?riter ?ishes to avoid the
repetition of a le5ical item and dra? on one of the
grammatical resources of the language to replace the
item+

)ubstitution
There are three general ?ays of su:stituting in a
sentence% nominal" ver:al" and clausal 6n nominal
su:stitution" the most typical su:stitution ?ords are
*one and ones+ 6n ver:al su:stitution" the most
common su:stitute is the ver: *do+ ?hich is
sometimes used in con=unction ?ith *so+ as in *do so+
,et's !o and see the bears# *he polar ones are over on
that roc(#
-id Mar% ta(e that letter. +he mi!ht have done#
6n clausal su:stitution" an entire clause is su:stituted#
$& %ou/ve seen them so o&ten, %ou
!et to (now them ver% well#
$ believe so
Ever%one thin(s he/s !uilt%# $& so, no doubt he/ll
resi!n#
)e should reco!nise him when we see him#
0es, but supposin! not1 what do we do.
9llisis
Ellipsis 'Gero su:stitution) is the omission of elements
normally reEuired :y the grammar ?hich the
speakerJ?riter assumes are o:vious from the conte5t
and therefore need not :e raised
6f su:stitution is replacing one ?ord ?ith another"
ellipsis is the a:sence of that ?ord" Msomething left
unsaidM Ellipsis reEuires retrieving specific
information that can :e found in the preceding te5t
There are three types of ellipsis too% nominal"
ver:al" and clausal
'a) (o you ?ant to hear another song? 6 kno? t?elve
more NsongsO
':) #ue :rought roses and Hackie N:roughtO lilies
'c) 6 ran A miles on the first day and D on the second
0 translator needs only :e a?are that there are
different devices in different languages for creating
*te5ture+ This has clear implications in practice
Usually ?hat is reEuired is re?orking the methods of
esta:lishing links to suit the te5tual norms of the
target language and of each genre
7iscourse markers and conBunctions
0 third ?ay of creating cohesion is through discourse
markers and con=unctions (iscourse markers are
linguistic elements used :y the speakerJ?riter to ease
the interpretation of the te5t" freEuently :y signalling
a relationship :et?een segments of the discourse"
?hich is the specific function of con=unctions They
are not a ?ay of simply =oining sentences Their role
in the te5t is ?ider that that" :ecause they provide the
listenerJreader ?ith information for the interpretation
of the utterance$ that is ?hy some linguists prefer to
descri:e them as discourse markers
Con=unction acts as a cohesive tie :et?een clauses
or sections of te5t in such a ?ay as to demonstrate a
meaningful pattern :et?een them" though
con=unctive relations are not tied to any
particular seEuence in the e5pression Therefore"
amongst the cohesion forming
devices ?ithin te5t" con=unction is the least directly
identifia:le relation
Con=unctions can :e classified according to four main
categories% additive" adversative" causal and temporal
0dditive con=unctions act to structurally coordinate
or link :y adding to the presupposed item and are
signalled through *and" also" too" furthermore"
additionally+" etc 0dditive con=unctions may also act
to negate the presupposed item and are signalled :y
*nor" andnot" either" neither+" etc
0dversative con=unctions act to indicate *contrary to
e5pectation+ and are signalled :y *yet" though" only"
:ut" in fact" rather+" etc
Causal con=unction e5presses *result" reason and
purpose+ and is signalled :y *so" then" for" :ecause"
for this reason" as a result" in this respect" etc+
The last most common con=unctive category is
temporal and links :y signalling seEuence or time
#ome sample temporal con=unctive signals are
*then" ne5t" after that" ne5t day" until then" at the
same time" at this point+" etc
The use of a con=unction is not the only device for
e5pressing a temporal or causal relation 3or
instance" in English a temporal relation may :e
e5pressed :y means of a ver: such as &ollow or
precede" and a causal relation :y ver:s such as cause
and lead Moreover" temporal relations are not
restricted to seEuence in real time" they may also
reflect stages in the te5t 'e5pressed :y &irst, second,
third, etc#2
E5amples% time.seEuence
A&ter the battle, there was a snowstorm#
*he% &ou!ht a battle# A&terwards, it snowed#
*he battle was &ollowed b% a snowstorm#
0 more comprehensive list of con=unctions
could :e the follo?ing%
#ome languages 'like 6talian) tend to e5press relations
through su:ordination and comple5 structures
,thers 'like English)prefer to use simpler and shorter
structures and present information in relatively small
chunks
Whether a translation has to conform to the source.
te5t pattern of cohesion ?ill depend on its purpose
and the freedom the translator has to reorganiGe
information
Le'ical %ohesion
4e5ical cohesion differs from the other cohesive
elements in te5t in that it is non.grammatical 4e5ical
cohesion refers to the *cohesive effect achieved :y the
selection of voca:ulary+ We could say that it covers
any instance in ?hich the use of a le5ical item recalls
the sense of an earlier one
The t?o :asic categories of le5ical cohesion are
reiteration and collocation
Reiteration is the repetition of an earlier item" a
synonym" a near synonym" a superordinate or a
general ?ord" :ut it is not the same as personal
reference" :ecause it does not necessarily involve the
same identity
0fter the seEuence%
6 sa? a :oy in the gardenThe :oy 'repetition)?as
clim:ing a tree 6 ?as ?orried a:out the child
'superordinate)The poor lad 'synonym)?as o:viously
not up to it The idiot 'general ?ord) ?as going to fall
if he 'pronoun)didnIt take care
We could conclude :y saying% *<oys can :e so silly+
This ?ould :e an instance of reiteration" even
though the t?o items ?ould not :e referring to the
same individual's)
0s ?e have already seen" collocation pertains to
le5ical items that are likely to :e found together
?ithin the same te5t 6t occurs ?hen a pair of ?ords
are not necessarily dependent upon the same
semantic relationship :ut rather they tend to occur
?ithin the same le5ical environment
E5amples
,pposites 'manJ?oman" loveJhate" tallJshort)
Pairs of ?ords from the same ordered series 'days of
the ?eek" months" etc)
Pairs of ?ords from unordered le5ical sets" such as
meronyms%
part.?hole ':odyJarm" carJ?heel)
part.part 'handJfinger" mouthJchin)
or
co.hyponyms ':lackJ?hite" chairJta:le)
0ssociations :ased on a history of co.occurrence 'rain"
pouring" torrential)
3ohn drove up in his old estate wa!on# *he car had
obviousl% seen a lot o& action# 4ne hubcap was missin!,
and the exhaust pipe was nearl% eaten up with rust#
4e5ical cohesion is not only a relation :et?een pairs of
?ords 6t usually operates :y means of le5ical chains
that run through a te5t and are linked to each other in
various ?ays
The notion of le5ical cohesion provides the :asis for
?hat /alliday and /asan call instantial meanin!
The importance of this concept for translators is
o:vious 4e5ical chains do not only provide cohesion"
they also determine the sense of each ?ord in a given
conte5t
3or e5ample" if it co.occurs ?ith terms such as
*universe" stars" gala5y" sun+" the ?ord *earth+ must
:e interpreted as *planet+ and not as *ground+
6n a target te5t" it is not al?ays possi:le to reproduce
net?orks of le5ical cohesion ?hich are identical to
those of the source te5t" for e5ample :ecause the
target language lacks a specific item" or :ecause the
chain is :ased on an idiom that cannot :e literally
translated 'e5 6t ?as raining cats and dogs and the
dogs ?ere :arking) 6n this case one has to settle for a
slightly different meaning or different associations
Cohesion is also achieved :y a variety of devices other
than those ?e have mentioned These include" for
instance" continuity of tense" consistency of style and
punctuation devices like colons and semi.colons
?hich" like con=unctions indicate ho? different parts
of the te5t relate to each other
6n the approach to te5t linguistics :y de <eaugrande
P (ressler '7QD7)" te5t" oral or printed" is esta:lished
as a communicative occurrence" ?hich has to meet
seven standards of te5tuality 6f any of these standards
are not satisfied" the te5t is considered not to have
fulfilled its function and not to :e communicative
5ohesion and coherence are te5t.centred notions
Cohesion concerns the ?ays in ?hich the components
of the surface te5t 'the actual ?ords ?e hear or see)
are mutually connected ?ithin a seEuence Coherence"
on the other hand" concerns the ?ays in ?hich the
components of the te5tual ?orld" ie the concepts and
relations ?hich underlie the surface te5t" are relevant
to the situation
The remaining standards of te5tuality are user.
centred" concerning the activity of te5tual
communication :y the producers and receivers of
te5ts%
$ntentionalit% concerns the te5t producerIs attitude
that the set of occurrences should constitute a cohesive
and coherent te5t instrumental in fulfilling the
producerIs intentions
Acceptabilit% concerns the receiverIs attitude that the
set of occurrences should constitute a cohesive and
coherent te5t having some use or relevance for the
receiver
$n&ormativit% concerns the e5tent to ?hich the
occurrences of the te5t are e5pected vs une5pected or
kno?n vs unkno?n
+ituationalit% concerns the factors ?hich make a te5t
relevant to a situation of occurrence
$ntertextualit% concerns the factors ?hich make the
utilisation of one te5t dependent upon kno?ledge of
one or more previously encountered te5ts
The a:ove seven standards of te5tuality are called
constitutive principles" in that they define and create
te5tual communication as ?ell as set the rules for
communicating
There are also at least three regulative principles that
control te5tual communication% the e&&icienc% of a te5t
is contingent upon its :eing useful to the participants
?ith a minimum of effort$ its e&&ectiveness depends
upon ?hether it makes a strong impression and has a
good potential for fulfilling an aim$ and its
appropriateness depends upon ?hether its o?n setting
is in agreement ?ith the seven standards of te5tuality
/o? to ?rite a formal letter?
(t is very imortant# therefore# that your letters have the
desired effect on the reader. (n order to achieve this# they
should be*
in the correct format
short and to the oint
relevant
free of any grammatical or selling mistakes
olite# even if youOre comlaining
well resented
This guide will give some general advice on letter writing
and includes some samle letters.
(f you are relying to a letter it can be a good idea to note
how that letter has been formatted and e'ressed.
1. Qour address# but not your name# usually goes in
the to right hand corner. Qou would not
usually include your telehone number or email
address here# but this would be
ermissible.
2. The name and address of the erson youOre
writing to goes below this# on the left. (f
you donOt have a secific name# always at least
try to ut some sort of title. Qou
should always# however# address the letter to a
articular erson if at all ossible.
3. The osition of the date is more fle'ible. (t can
go on the left or the right# usually below
the addressee details. The format of the date is
also fle'ible. it could be written
3 ,ril 5>>6# 3th ,ril 5>>6# 3@C@>6 or >3@>C@>6.
,void utting the day and month the
other way round.
4. The salutation at the beginning of the letter
deends on whether or not you have the
name of the erson.
(f you do# write 7ear -r. Fchs# 7ear -rs. Hae$# 7ear -iss
Perhacs# or# if you donOt know
the marital status of a woman# or if she has written this#
7ear -s. Hunyan. (t is ossible
to write 7ear Robert Fri or 7ear ,lison )tatton# but
many eole consider this
awkward. (f the erson has a secific title# use this* 7ear
7r. Rammill.
(f you donOt know the name of the erson# you would
traditionally write 7ear )ir. This
is clearly somewhat se'ist# so many eole refer 7ear
)ir@-adam or 7ear )ir or -adam.
The ending of the letter deends on how you have started*
see below.
5. (t is common now to ut the subBect of the letter
directly below the salutation. This
would be in bold or underlined. The urose is to
give the reader an idea of what the
letter is about before reading it# and to be able to
ass it on to a more aroriate
erson if necessary.
(f you are relying to a letter which had a reference /or ref.4
on it# you should reeat this
on your letter# robably on the same line as the date# but on
the other side of the age.
8rite Qour refrence.
6. The content of your letter should be as short as
ossible# divided into short# clear
aragrahs.
7. (t is common to end your letter with a hrase
such as ( look forward to hearing from
you. (tOs FL to do this# but itOs a bit meaningless.
8. To end the letter# you would normally write
Qours sincerely if you have started the
letter with the name of the erson# or Qours
faithfully if you have started with
something like 7ear )ir.
<rief ,vervie? on the Essay Writing
Helow are brief summaries of each of the ten stes to
writing an essay. )elect the links for more info on any
articular ste# or use the blue navigation bar on the left to
roceed through the writing stes. How *o )rite an
ssay can be viewed se!uentially# as if going through ten
se!uential stes in an essay writing rocess# or can be
e'lored by individual toic.
0. Research* Hegin the essay writing rocess by researching
your toic# making yourself an e'ert. ?tili$e the internet#
the academic databases# and the library. Take notes and
immerse yourself in the words of great thinkers.
5. ,nalysis* Dow that you have a good knowledge base#
start analy$ing the arguments of the essays you+re reading.
%learly define the claims# write out the reasons# the
evidence. Look for weaknesses of logic# and also strengths.
Learning how to write an essay begins by learning how to
analy$e essays written by others.
6. Hrainstorming* Qour essay will re!uire insight of your
own# genuine essay"writing brilliance. ,sk yourself a
do$en !uestions and answer them. -editate with a en in
your hand. Take walks and think and think until you come
u with original insights to write about.
C. Thesis* Pick your best idea and in it down in a clear
assertion that you can write your entire essay around. Qour
thesis is your main oint# summed u in a concise sentence
that lets the reader know where you+re going# and why. (t+s
ractically imossible to write a good essay without a clear
thesis.
3. Futline* )ketch out your essay before straightway
writing it out. ?se one"line sentences to describe
aragrahs# and bullet oints to describe what each
aragrah will contain. Play with the essay+s order. -a out
the structure of your argument# and make sure each
aragrah is unified.
2. (ntroduction* Dow sit down and write the essay. The
introduction should grab the reader+s attention# set u the
issue# and lead in to your thesis. Qour intro is merely a
buildu of the issue# a stage of bringing your reader into the
essay+s argument.
0Note' *he title and first paragraph are probably the most
important elements in your essay. *his is an essay1writing
point that doesn2t always sink in within the conte-t of the
classroom. In the first paragraph you either hook the
reader2s interest or lose it. ,f course your teacher, who2s
getting paid to teach you how to write an essay, will read
the essay you2ve written regardless, but in the real world,
readers make up their minds about whether or not to read
your essay by glancing at the title alone./
I. Paragrahs* 9ach individual aragrah should be focused
on a single idea that suorts your thesis. Hegin aragrahs
with toic sentences# suort assertions with evidence# and
e'ound your ideas in the clearest# most sensible way you
can. )eak to your reader as if he or she were sitting in
front of you. (n other words# instead of writing the essay#
try talking the essay.
=. %onclusion* Gracefully e'it your essay by making a
!uick wra"u sentence# and then end on some memorable
thought# erhas a !uotation# or an interesting twist of
logic# or some call to action. (s there something you want
the reader to walk away and doM Let him or her know
e'actly what.
1. -L, )tyle* Format your essay according to the correct
guidelines for citation. ,ll borrowed ideas and !uotations
should be correctly cited in the body of your te't# followed
u with a 8orks %ited /references4 age listing the details
of your sources.
0>. Language* Qou+re not done writing your essay until
you+ve olished your language by correcting the grammar#
making sentences flow# incoorating rhythm# emhasis#
adBusting the formality# giving it a level"headed tone# and
making other intuitive edits. Proofread until it reads Bust
how you want it to sound. 8riting an essay can be tedious#
but you don+t want to bungle the hours of concetual work
you+ve ut into writing your essay by leaving a few sliy
missellings and ourly wordedd hra$ies..
Mr. Syed Alam Lecturer in English Govt. college
Peshawar ( Male).
MS in Linguistics from Bacha han !niversity.
M.A.(Literature and A""lie Linguistic from
#!ML)
B.Ed and M.Ed from university Peshawar.
Email: Syedalam.khan@gmail.com
Contact No: