Heat Transfer

Model 1:

2A. Define BTU and its uses in industry? Convert 150 BTU into joules.

Ans: DEFINITIONS:
1) A BTU is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound (0.454 kg) of liquid
water by 1 F (0.56 C) at a constant pressure of one atmosphere.
[1]
2) It is the amount of energy needed to cool or heat one pound of water by one degree
Fahrenheit.
USES:

USES IN INDUSTRY:







Industrial
20.6%
42% Petroleum
40% Natural Gas
9% Coal
10% Renewable Energy
INDUSTRIAL:
Approximately one-third of total U.S. delivered energy in 2012, 23.6 quadrillion Btu, was consumed in the
industrial sector, which includes manufacturing, agriculture, construction, and mining. In
theAEO2014 Reference case, total industrial delivered energy consumption grows to 30.2 quadrillion Btu
in 20401.5 quadrillion Btu, or 5%, higher than the AEO2013 Reference case projection. The industrial
sector becomes the largest energy consuming sector by 2018 and remains so for the rest of the
projection period.
The growth rate for total industrial energy consumption in the AEO2014 Reference case is greater than
in AEO2013 as a result of lower natural gas prices, which boost industrial production, and greater
availability of natural gas liquids (NGL).
24
The industry that consumes the most energy is bulk chemicals,
where total energy consumption grows from 5.5 quadrillion Btu in 2012 to 7.0 quadrillion Btu in 2040. In
the AEO2014 Reference case, energy consumption by the bulk chemicals industry in 2040 is 1.2
quadrillion Btu higher than projected in AEO2013.
Total manufacturing shipments in the AEO2014 Reference case also increase more rapidly than in
the AEO2013 Reference case, from $4.5 trillion in 2012 to $8.4 trillion in 2040, or 87%. The growth rate for
shipments in energy-intensive manufacturing is one-half the rate for non-energy-intensive manufacturing,
reflecting the continuing shift toward less energy-intensive manufacturing, such as transportation
equipment, computers, and other durable metal goods. The rate of growth in all manufacturing industries
is higher from 2012 to 2025 than after 2025, as a result of increased international competition in the later
years of the projection.
Shipments in the energy-intensive industriesrefining, food, paper, bulk chemicals, glass, cement and
lime, iron and steel, and aluminumgrow from $1.6 trillion in 2012 to $2.3 trillion in 2040 in
the AEO2014 Reference case, an annual rate of growth of 1.3%, compared to 1.0% in
the AEO2013Reference case. The rate of increase in AEO2014 is much faster from 2012 to 2025 (2.0%
per year) than from 2025 to 2040 (0.7% per year). Shipments of bulk chemicals, iron and steel, and
aluminum peak in the late 2020s and decline thereafter, as export growth slows. Total energy
consumption in the energy-intensive industries increases by 0.7% per year from 2012 to 2040, with
almost all the growth occurring in the 2012-25 period.
Energy use for heat and power in the energy-intensive industries grows from 11.5 quadrillion Btu in 2012
to 13.1 quadrillion Btu in 2040, averaging 0.9% per year from 2012 to 2025 and 0.1% per year from 2025
to 2040. With energy intensity declining in the energy-intensive industries, largely because of
improvements in efficiency, the growth of energy use for heat and power is slower than the growth of
shipments. In the bulk chemicals and petroleum refining industries, demand for feedstockswhich
include HGL,
25
petroleum (usually naphtha), and natural gasgrows by 1.3% per year on average, from
3.5 quadrillion Btu in 2012 to 5.0 quadrillion Btu in 2040, with average increases of 2.9% per year from
2012 to 2025 followed by a decline from 2025 to 2040 averaging 0.1% per year.
Only the bulk chemical industry uses liquid feedstocks (HGL and petrochemical feedstocks), which are
used to produce organic chemicals, inorganic chemicals, resins, synthetic rubber, and fibers. With
demand for bulk chemicals higher in the AEO2014 Reference case than in AEO2013, consumption of liquid
feedstocks also is higher in AEO2014. HGL feedstocks and petrochemical feedstocks (naphtha and
heavier inputs) often can be interchanged to some degree, depending on price and the product slate. In
the AEO2014 Reference case, HGL feedstock consumption totals 2.2 quadrillion Btu in 2012, 2.9
quadrillion Btu in 2025, and 2.7 quadrilion Btu in 2040; and petrochemical feedstock use totals 0.8
quadrillion Btu in 2012, 1.5 quadrillion Btu in 2025, and 1.6 quadrillion Btu in 2040.
Shipments from the nonenergy-intensive manufacturing sector increase by 2.7% per year from $2.9
trillion in 2012 to $6.1 trillion in 2040 in the AEO2014 Reference case, with growth rates of 3.2% per year
from 2012 to 2025 and 2.3% per year after 2025. Energy consumption for nonenergy-intensive
manufacturing grows from 3.6 quadrillion Btu in 2012 to 4.9 quadrillion Btu in 2040, averaging 1.0% per
yearthe same rate as in the AEO2013 Reference case. In parallel with the growth of shipments, energy
consumption in the nonenergy-intensive manufacturing sector grows more rapidly from 2012 to 2025
(1.3% per year) than from 2025 to 2040 (0.8% per year).
In the nonmanufacturing industriesagriculture, construction, and miningshipments grow by 1.6% per
year from 2012 to 2040 in the AEO2014 Reference case, slightly less than the annual growth rate of 1.8%
in the AEO2013 Reference case over the same period. Growth in the AEO2014Reference case averages
2.8% per year from 2012 to 2025 and slows to 0.7% per year after 2025. Energy consumption by
nonmanufacturing industries grows by 1.2% per year, from 4.8 quadrillion Btu in 2012 to 6.8 quadrillion
Btu in 2040. While energy intensity declines somewhat in the agriculture and construction industries, it
increases in the mining industry as exploration activities move over time to less desirableand more
energy-intensiveresources.

ENERGY CONVERSION FROM BTU INTO JOULES:
Energy (BTU
IT
) Energy (J)
1 BTU 1055.055853 J

IF 1 BTU = 1055.055 J
THEN
150 BTU =1055.055 (150 ) J
=158258.37789 J




2B. What are the constituents of Total Energy of a substance?
Ans:



3A. What are the methods of heat transfer into
substances?
ANS: Methods of Heat Transfer
Introduction to Thermal Physics
Temperature and Thermometers
Thermometers as Speedometers
What is Heat?
Methods of Heat Transfer
Rates of Heat Transfer
If you have been following along since the beginning of this lesson, then you
have been developing a progressively sophisticated understanding of
temperature and heat. You should be developing a model of matter as
consisting of particles which vibrate (wiggle about a fixed position), translate
(move from one location to another) and even rotate (revolve about an
imaginary axis). These motions give the particles kinetic energy. Temperature
is a measure of the average amount of kinetic energy possessed by the
particles in a sample of matter. The more the particles vibrate, translate and
rotate, the greater the temperature of the object. You have hopefully adopted
an understanding of heat as a flow of energy from a higher temperature
object to a lower temperature object. It is the temperature difference
between the two neighboring objects that causes this heat transfer. The heat
transfer continues until the two objects have reached thermal equilibrium and
are at the same temperature. The discussion of heat transfer has been
structured around some everyday examples such as the cooling of a hot mug
of coffee and the warming of a cold can of pop. Finally, we have explored a
thought experiment in which a metal can containing hot water is placed within
a Styrofoam cup containing cold water. Heat is transferred from the hot water
to the cold water until both samples have the same
temperature.
Now we should probe some of the following
questions:
What is happening at the particle level when
energy is being transferred between two objects?
Why is thermal equilibrium always established when two objects transfer
heat?
How does heat transfer work within the bulk of an object?
Is there more than one method of heat transfer? If so, then how are they
similar and different than one another?
Heat transfer by conduction relies on direct contact between atoms or
molecules. The precise method depends on the state of the matter
(solid, liquid or gas) and the material involved.
Solids (non-metallic)
This is the classic form of conduction that tends to be taught in school
and as far as it goes it is accurate.
Imagine a bar of (non-metallic) material, say wood, plastic, glass or
maybe even a ceramic. As one end is heated in a Bunsen burner flame
that end gets hot.
In a solid each particle is locked in place by chemical bonds. The
particles can however vibrate on the spot (and in the case of molecular
materials the shape of the molecules can vibrate).

Example Vibrational Modes in an Atomic and a Molecular Solid
As one end is heated the amplitude of the random vibrations of the
particles there increases. However the bonds allow energy to pass
along the chain to the unheated end. The result is that heat is
conducted through the non-metallic solid.
The easiest way to imagine this is to think of the atoms of the solid as
being connected by a series of springs or elastic bands. As one end of
the chain is shaken the vibration is passed throughout the whole of the
solid.

Conduction in a Non-Metallic Solid
One thing to remember about non-metallic solids is that their thermal
conductivity is usually quite poor. In fact if the heated end of a bar is hot
enough it is likely to burn, decompose or melt before significant
amounts of heat have been passed to the cool end. If this were not the
case then lighting a match would always be a painful process.
Liquids
Liquids are also tightly packed materials and so the particles are not
really free to move about. They can however rotate or tumble, as well as
vibrate on the spot like solids.

Example Rotational Modes in a Molecular Liquid
The result is that the particles are constantly colliding with their closest
neighbours and this causes the energy of the particles to spread from
the hot, energetic end to cool, relatively inactive end. This should mean
that a liquid is as good a conductor as a non-metallic solid. However
gravity usually gets in the way and a far more efficient mechanism,
convection, takes over. Because of this we rarely get to see liquids
conducting heat. If we can stop the liquid from flowing then conduction
replaces convection.
An example of this is in a wet suit. A thin layer of water fills the fleecy
lining of the wet suit but once there is unable to flow out through the
rubber skin. Water is a poor conductor of heat and so the result is that
you stay warm even though you are surrounded by cold water. You
need to be careful though if you keep the wet suit on after you get out of
the water and it is a hot day. The wet suit stops your body from losing
heat by convection as it normally would and heat exhaustion and even
the far more serious heat stroke can result.

Conduction in a Liquid (with convection suppressed)
What is Convection? "Convection is the transfer of heat
energy by the movement of matter." There are a few points in that short
statement that aren't quite right but it is adequate for most situations.
For thermal convection to occur we have to have the following:
Some matter that can flow, literally a fluid. This is usually a gas or a
liquid but in extreme cases even rock will flow, this happens in the
Earth's mantle and leads to the plate tectonics that have shaped our
world.
The fluid must change its density as its temperature changes. It is
usually assumed that materials will expand when it heated but this is not
always the case, the density of water is highest at around 4C as a
result if you put ice cubes in a drink on a hot day the bottom of the drink
won't drop below 4C unless you stir it; the cooled drink stays at the top
of the glass along with the ice cubes!
The fluid must be able to flow. This isn't always the case as fluids can
be trapped by porous materials such as sponges or the fluid may be too
viscous; convection isn't usually very effective in cold treacle or bitumen!
There must be a gravitational difference so that the less dense material
will rise due to buoyancy. This breaks down in some situations; an
extreme case would be a flame inside a spacecraft sitting on an
asteroid, the force of gravity would be so weak that convection would be
very weak, assuming that it worked at all. This situation can be
reproduced on or close to the Earth by making use of the microgravity
produced in freefall. Again a flame will behave very oddly under these
conditions.
If all the conditions are met then the warm fluid will expand and rise carrying
the heat energy with it.

Convection in a Liquid
What is Radiation?
All radiation, including the thermal radiation covered here is just energy
carried by photons, packets of light of various wavelengths. Each photon
carries a fixed amount of energy:

Where h is Plancks Constant = 6.63 x 10
-34
J s and f is the frequency of the
light.
It is not obvious to the naked eye that light is quantised, that is
made up of individual packets. Calculate how many individual
photons are released by a 1 mW helium neon laser (wavelength
632.8 nm), assuming that all the power output of the laser is at
this wavelength.
How does Radiation Occur? Whenever a charged
particle, such as an electron is accelerated then it will radiate energy.
This can be put to use in equipment such as radio transmitters and
microwave ovens in order to emit a tightly defined, tuned radiation. In
hot objects though the accelerations can be thought of as coming from
the random motion of the electrons near the surface of the hot object.
This is what is called a classical explanation as it treats the electrons
as if they were small, charged balls. A fuller explanation requires the use
of quantum mechanics and is best left to be dealt with in a university
physics course.
The thing that distinguishes thermal radiation from other sources is its
spectrum. Its shape follows a fairy complicated mathematical form that you
are unlikely to need to understand before your university studies:

The important things are the shape, namely a steep curve up to a peak
followed by a gradual exponential decline, together with some important facts
about the way the shape depends on the temperature of the object:

The shape of the curve depends only on the temperature of the object.
The peak of the curve has a wavelength that can be calculated Wiens
Displacement Law:

where T is the temperature in Kelvin.
The total area under the curve equals the power emitted per square
metre of the object (also called the flux) and is given by the Stefan
Boltzmann Law:

where T is the temperature in Kelvin and sigma is a constant, equal to 5.67 x
10
-8
J s
-1
m
-2
K
-4
. For the total power emitted by the entire object the equation
becomes:

Less often mentioned is the fact that the height of the peak of the curve
is proportional to the fifth power of the temperature:

The implications of these observations are that for an object that is glowing
purely due to its temperature:
The hotter the object is the more energy (and so the more photons) it
radiates and so the brighter it is (assuming that we can see the radiation
it is emitting).
The hotter the object is the bluer the object appears (it emits
increasingly large
amounts of shorter
wavelength
radiation).


Even this is a simplification as it applies only to a perfect radiator called a
black body. Very close approximations to a perfect black body radiator include
the heart of a coal fire and a high temperature furnace; looking into the depths
of the coals you can see no detail of the individual coals, just a uniform colour
dependant on the temperature.
For each of the following calculate the total power radiated from
the object and the wavelength at which it radiates most strongly.
In what part of the electro-magnetic spectrum is the peak?
Assume that all the objects are perfect black body radiators.
The Sun, diameter 1.392 x 10
9
m, surface temperature 5778 K.
A section of a lightning strike, 1 cm
2
and at a temperature of 30,000 K.
A circular pool of molten iron in a furnace of diameter 2.0 m and
temperature 1550 C.
The body of a survivor buried in the rubble after an earthquake. The
temperature of the skin is 30 C and 0.75 m
2
is visible to a potential
rescuer.
3B. Explain vapor compression Cycle in detail.
ANS: VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE:





C. What is mean by saturate air, absolute humidity, dew point depression, wet bulb
depression? http://maths.ucd.ie/met/msc/fezzik/Phys-Met/Ch03-Slides-5.pdf

Model 2:

3A Define wienes Law, Stefan Boatman Law.
ANS: Wiens Law:
Wiens Law tells us where (meaning at what wavelength) the star's brightness is at a maximum.
See the picture below
the red dot under the word visible is the peak for the 6000 K object. In other words, Wien's
law tells us what color the
object is brightest at. As the surface temperature rises, this peak intensity (brightness) shifts
toward the bluer end of the
spectrum. As the surface temperature decreases, the peak intensity/brightness will shift more
towards the redder end of
the spectrum as shown by the red dot in the picture below.
Official Definition: Wiens Law (also called Wiens Displacement Law) is defined as so: For a
blackbody (or star), the
wavelength of maximum emission of any body is inversely proportional to its absolute
temperature (measured in Kelvin).
As a result, as the temperature rises, the maximum (peak) of the radiant energy shifts toward
the shorter wavelength
(higher frequency and energy) end of the spectrum (bluer). This is what the equation looks like:
Peak Intensity (Max Brightness) occurs at this Wavelength
(max) (in meters) = 0.0029 meters.K / T (in Kelvin)
The wavelength lambda(max) is where the intensity is a maximum; T is the stars average
surface temperature measured in
Kelvin; and the 0.0029 meters x Kelvin is known as Wiens constant:.
(http://mintaka.sdsu.edu/faculty/wfw/CLASSES/ASTROBIO/LECTURES/wien_law.pdf)
The Stefan Boltzmann Law:
There is no more important law in environmentally relevant physics than the
relationship between the power radiated by a dense hot body and the temperature:
P =e A T4 watts (1)
where T is the absolute temperature, A is the surface area of the radiator, and e is the
emissivity, a function of emitted wave length. For a perfect black body e = 1. The Stefan
Boltzmann Constant, , is equal to 5.67 x 10-8 W/(m2 K4).
Note that this notation is widely used and hence is preferable, but Serway
unfortunately refers to the emitted power (P/A) as e, and the emissivity e as a.
To investigate this T4 dependence we need a source of radiation and a detector of
radiation. Our source is a light bulb with a tungsten filament. There is really nothing
special about this light bulb -- in fact, it is a common automotive headlight bulb -- but it
is set up to allow convenient measurement of the current passing through it and the
voltage across it. We can vary the filament temperature by adjusting the voltage, and
we can determine that temperature by calculating the resistance R = V/I at each voltage
setting. The resistance of the filament is highly temperature dependent and serves as a
thermometer.
Our detector is a device known as a thermopile. It has a very wide range,
detecting with equal efficiency radiation from 0.5 microns to 25 microns in wavelength.
This covers the visible range (0.5 to 0.8 microns) and a large stretch of the infrared
region. At the temperatures at which the filament can operate (T < 3000K) most of the
radiation is in the infrared region.
(http://physics.bu.edu/ulab/modern/Stefan_Boltzmann.pdf)

3B. Define BTU and its uses in industry? Convert 150 BTU into joules.
3C. What are the constituents of Total Energy of a substance?
4A. What is mean by saturate air, absolute humidity, dew point depression, wet bulb
depression?
4B. Define Newtons law of cooling and Kirchhoffs Law.
ANS: A) Newton's Law of Cooling
Newton's Law of Cooling states that the rate of change of the temperature of an object is proportional to
the difference between its own temperature and the ambient temperature (i.e. the temperature of its
surroundings).
Newton found, experimentally, that
the rate of cooling of the surface of a solid, immersed in a colder fluid, was proportional to the
difference between the temperature of the surface of the solid and the temperature of the
cooling fluid. This is known as Newton's Law of Cooling
( www.nzifst.org.nz/unitoperations/httrtheory3.htm )

Aim
1. The aim of the experiment is to verify Newton's Law of Cooling of different materials and
different liquids.
2. To draw the cooling curve.

Theory
Temperature difference in any situation results from energy flow into a system or energy
flow from a system to surroundings. The former leads to heating, whereas latter leads to
cooling of an object.
Newtons Law of Cooling states that the rate of temperature of the body is proportional to
the difference between the temperature of the body and that of the surrounding medium.
This statement leads to the classic equation of exponential decline over time which can be
applied to many phenomena in science and engineering, including the discharge of a
capacitor and the decay in radioactivity.
Newton's Law of Cooling is useful for studying water heating because it can tell us how fast
the hot water in pipes cools off. A practical application is that it can tell us how fast a water
heater cools down if you turn off the breaker when you go on vacation.
Suppose that a body with initial temperature T
1
C, is allowed to cool in air which is
maintained at a constant temperature T
2
C.
Let the temperature of the body be TC at time t.
Then by Newtons Law of Cooling,
(1)


Where k is a positive proportionality constant. Since the temperature of the body is higher
than the temperature of the surroundings then T-T
2
is positive. Also the temperature of the
body is decreasing i.e. it is cooling down and rate of change of temperature is negative.

The constant k depends upon the surface properties of the material being cooled.
Initial condition is given by T=T
1
at t=0
Solving (1)


(2)
Applying initial conditions;

Substituting the value of C in equation (2) gives

This equation represents Newtons law of cooling.

If k <0, lim t --> , e
-kt
= 0 and T= T
2
,

Or we can say that the temperature of the body approaches that of its surroundings as time
goes.
The graph drawn between the temperature of the body and time is known as cooling curve.
The slope of the tangent to the curve at any point gives the rate of fall of temperature.


In general,


where,

T(t) = Temperature at time t,
T
A
= Ambient temperature (temp of surroundings),
T
H
= Temperature of hot object at time 0,
k = positive constant and
t = time.
Example of Newton's Law of Cooling:


This kind of cooling data can be measured and plotted and the results can be used to
compute the unknown parameter k. The parameter can sometimes also be derived
mathematically.
Applications
1. To predict how long it takes for a hot object to cool down at a
certain temperature.
2. To find the temperature of a soda placed in a refrigerator by a
certain amount of time.
3. It helps to indicate the time of death given the probable body
temperature at the time of death and current body temperature.
B) Kirchhoffs Law:
In 1845, German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff first described two laws that became central to
electrical engineering. The laws were generalized from the work of Georg Ohm. The laws
can also be derived from Maxwells equations, but were developed prior to Maxwells work.
Kirchhoffs Laws
1. KCL Kirchhoffs Current Law 2. KVL Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
The first law, also called Kirchhoffs current
law, states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering and leaving any point in a circuit is
equal to zero.
There was an old saying that went something
like, All roads go to Grandmas House Well, if
all currents entered a single point in a circuit
then we would have an equation like
Ia + Ib= 0
The algebraic sum of current into any junction is zero.
Since current is the flow of electrons through a conductor, it cannot build up at a junction,
meaning that current is conserved: what comes in must come out. When performing
calculations, current flowing into and out of the junction typically have opposite signs. This
allows Kirchhoff's Current Law to be restated as:
The sum of current into a junction equals the sum of current out
of the junction.
Kirchhoff's Current Law in action
In the picture to the right, a junction of four conductors (i.e. wires) is shown. The
currents i
2
and i
3
are flowing into the junction, while i
1
and i
4
flow out of it. In this example,
Kirchhoff's Junction Rule yields the following equation:
i
2
+ i
3
= i
1
+ i
4


1. Kirchhoffs Laws
Introduction
The circuits in this problem set are comprised of unspecified circuit elements. (We dont
know if
a particular circuit element is a resistor or a voltage source or something else.) The current
and
voltage of each circuit element is labeled, sometimes as a value and sometimes as a
variable.
Some of these problems ask that we determine the value of a particular voltage or current.
Other
problems ask for the values of the power supplied or received by a particular circuit
element.
Kirchhoffs laws are used to determine values of currents or voltages. The passive
convention is used to decide if the product of a particular element current and voltage is
the power supplied or received by the circuit element.
The passive convention is discussed in Section 1.5 of Introduction to Electric Circuits (7e) by
R.
C. Dorf and J. A. Svoboda and summarized in Table 1.5-1. Kirchhoffs laws are discussed in
Section 3.2 of Introduction to Electric Circuits.
Worked Examples
Example 1:
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1. Determine the power supplied by element D and the
power received by element F.

Solution: Figure 1 provides a value for the current in element D but not for the voltage, v,
across
element D. The voltage and current of element D given in Figure 1 do not adhere to the
passive
convention so the product of this voltage and current is the power supplied by element D.
Similarly, Figure 1 provides a value for the voltage across element F but not for the current,
i, in
element F. The voltage and current of element F given in Figure 1 do adhere to the passive
convention so the product of this voltage and current is the power received by element F.
1 We need to determine the voltage, v, across element D and the current, i, in element F.
We will
use Kirchhoffs laws to determine values of v and i. First, we identify and label the nodes of
the
circuit as shown in Figure 2.

Apply Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL) to the loop consisting of elements C, E, D and B to get
3 + 6 + v + (3) = 0 v = 6 V
The value of the current in element D in Figure 2 is 6 A. The voltage and current of element
D
given in Figure 2 do not adhere to the passive convention so
pD = v (6) = (6) (6) = 36 W
is the power supplied by element D. (Equivalently, we could say that element D receives 36
W.)
Next, apply Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) at node c to get
6 + i = 1 i = 7 A
The value of the voltage across element F in Figure 2 is -6 V. The voltage and current of
element
F given in Figure 2 adhere to the passive convention so
pF = (6) i = (6) (7) = 42 W

is the power received by element F. (Equivalently, we could say that element F supplies 42
W.) http://people.clarkson.edu/~jsvoboda/Syllabi/ES250/ckts/KCL_KVL.pdf
4C. Define 2nd Law of Thermodynamics and how heat is transferred one body to another
body. (Methods of Heat transfer)
ANS: The Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics asserts that processes occur in a certain direction and
that the energy has quality as well as quantity.
The first law places no restriction on the direction of a process, and satisfying the first law
does not guarantee that the process will occur. Thus, we need another general principle
(second law) to identify whether a process can occur or not.

Fig. 1: Heat transfer from a hot container to the cold surroundings is possible; however,
the reveres process (although satisfying the first law) is impossible.
A process can occur when and only when it satisfies both the first and the second laws of
thermodynamics.
The second law also asserts that energy has a quality. Preserving the quality of energy is a
major concern of engineers. In the above example, the energy stored in a hot container
(higher temperature) has higher quality (ability to work) in comparison with the energy
contained (at lower temperature) in the surroundings.
The second law is also used in determining the theoretical limits for the performance of
commonly used engineering systems, such as heat engines and refrigerators etc.

Machine Design
Model 1:

1A. State the terms Elasticity, Plasticity, Toughness and Malleability.
ANS: Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape after the load is
removed. Theoretically, the elastic limit of a material is the limit to which a material can be
loaded and still recover its original shape after the load is removed.
Plasticity is the ability of a material to deform permanently without breaking or rupturing. This
property is the opposite of strength. By careful alloying of metals,
the combination of plasticity and strength is used to manufacture large structural members.
Toughness is the property that enables a material to withstand shock and to be deformed
without rupturing. Toughness may be considered as a combination of strength and plasticity.
Malleability is the property that enables a material to deform by compressive forces without
developing defects. A malleable material is one that can be stamped,
hammered, forged, pressed, or rolled into thin sheets.
(http://www.mae.ncsu.edu/zhu/courses/mae316/lecture/1b-Materials.pdf)

1B. What is the heat treatment and what are the aims of heat treatment?
Ans: Definition of heat treatment:
Heat treatment is an operation or combination of operations involving heating at a specific rate, soaking
at a temperature for a period of time and cooling at some specified rate. The aim is to obtain a desired
microstructure to achieve certain predetermined properties (physical, mechanical, magnetic or
electrical).
Objectives of heat treatment (heat treatment processes)
The major objectives are :
to increase strength, harness and wear resistance (bulk hardening, surface hardening)
to increase ductility and softness (tempering, recrystallizationannealing)
to increase toughness (tempering, recrystallization annealing)
to obtain fine grain size (recrystallization annealing, full annealing, normalising)
to remove internal stresses induced by differential deformation by cold working, non-uniform cooling
from high temperature during casting and welding (stress relief annealing) 6 to improve machineability
(full annealing and normalising)
to improve cutting properties of tool steels (hardening and tempering)
to improve surface properties (surface hardening, corrosion resistance-stabilising treatment and high
temperature resistance-precipitation hardening, surface treatment)
to improve electrical properties (recrystallization, tempering, age hardening)
to improve magnetic properties (hardening, phase transformation)
(http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2012/Manna/Part1.pdf)
1C. Write a note on Pressure Vessels.
Ans: Pressure Vessels:
Combined Stresses Cylindrical or spherical pressure vessels (e.g., hydraulic cylinders, gun
barrels, pipes, boilers and tanks) are commonly used in industry to carry both liquid s and gases
under pressure. When the pressure vessel is exposed to this pressure, the material comprising
the vessel is subjected to pressure loading, and hence stresses, from all directions. The normal
stresses resulting from this pressure are functions of the radius of the element under
consideration, the shape of the pressure vessel (i.e., open ended cylinder, closed end cylinder,
or sphere) as well as the applied pressure. Two types of analysis are commonly applied to
pressure vessels. The most common method is based on a simple mechanics approach and is
applicable to thin wall pressure vessels which by definition have a ratio of inner radius, r, to
wall thickness, t, of r/t10. The second method is based on elasticity solution and is always
applicable regardless of the r/t ratio and can be referred to as the solution for thick wall
pressure vessels. Both types of analysis are discussed here, although for most engineering
applications, the thin wall pressure vessel can be used.
Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels Several assumptions are made in this method.
1) Plane sections remain plane
2) r/t 10 with t being uniform and constant
3) The applied pressure, p, is the gage pressure (note that p is the difference between the
absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure)
4) Material is linear-elastic, isotropic and homogeneous.
5) Stress distributions throughout the wall thickness will not vary
6) Element of interest is remote from the end of the cylinder and other geometric
discontinuities.
7) Working fluid has negligible weight.
(http://courses.washington.edu/me354a/chap12.pdf)

1D. What are the types of Screw Fastening?

(https://www.google.com.pk/?gws_rd=cr&ei=O1YVU-rzF8nqswb9kYDIBg#q=types+of+Screw+Fastening+PDF)
Other fastening methods[edit]
Alternative fastening methods are:
nails
rivets
pins (dowel pins, taper pins, roll pins, spring pins, cotter pins)
pinned shafts (keyed shafts, woodruff keys, gibb-headed key)
clinker (boat building)#Fastening the centre-line structure
welding
soldering
brazing
joinery (mortise & tenon, dovetailing, box joints, lap joints)
gluing
taping
clinch fastening.


1E. Write a note on liver and its types.
ANS: LEVER & ITS TYPES:


1F. What are power Screws and define their types.

Model 2:

1A. What is the heat treatment and what are the aims of heat treatment?
2B. Write a note on Pressure Vessels.
3C. What are power Screws and define their types.
4D. What are the types of Springs?
5E. What are spiral gears, helical bevel gears, herringbone gear and spur gear?
Mechanical Engineering
Model 1:

1A. Explain how power is transmitted by belts.
ANS:

In addition to other advantages, flat belts are much more efficient than V-belts. In V-belts,
energy losses occur, not just due to flexing in the material, but also due to friction at the sides
and other aspects associated with the belt design.

Friction/top layer properties:

http://www.ce.memphis.edu/3322/Pdfs/PaulsPDFs/Hooke's%20Law.pdf

1B. Explain modulus of elasticity and hooks law.
ANS: MODULUS OF ELASTICITY:
The modulus of elasticity (= Youngs modulus) E is a material property, that describes its
stiffness and is therefore one of the most important properties of solid materials.
Mechanical deformation puts energy into a material. The energy is stored elastically or
dissipated plastically. The way a material stores this energy is summarized in stress-strain
curves. Stress is defined as force per unit area and strain as elongation or contraction per unit
length When a material deforms elastically, the amount of deformation likewise depends on
the size of the material, but the strain for a given stress is always the same and the two are
related by Hookes Law
(stress is directly proportional to strain): = . E
where is stress * MPa +
E modulus of elasticity [MPa]
strain *unitless or %]
From the Hooks law the modulus of elasticity is defined as
the ratio of the stress to the strain
E = / [MPa]
Stress is not directly measurable. We can calculate it from different formulas for different types
of the
loading (tension, flexural stress,)
Strain is defined as the change of the length divided by the original (initial) length(SEE FIG).

(http://tpm.fsv.cvut.cz/student/documents/files/BUM1/Chapter15.pdf)


Hookes Law
Within the elastic region of the stress-strain
diagram, stress is linearly proportional to
strain .
That relationship was formalized by Robert
Hooke in 1678 .
In mathematical terms
Hooke's Law,
= E
(sigma) is the axial/normal stress
E is the elastic modulus or the Youngs modulus
(epsilon) is the axial/normal strain
For shear stress in the same region
Hooke's Law
= G
(tau) is the shear stress
G is the shear modulus or the modulus of rigidity
(gamma) is the shear strain
http://www.ce.memphis.edu/3322/Pdfs/PaulsPDFs/Hooke's%20Law.pdf

1C. Define mechanical advantages of gear train.
ANS: Mechanical Advantage
The ratio of the force a machine can exert to the amount of force that is put in. Mechanical
advantage can also be thought of as the force multiplier factor that a mechanical system
provides.If a vehicle has a gear train with a mechanical advantage of 2, for instance, it has twice
as much force available to it, enabling it to go up hills that are twice as steep, or tow a load that
is twice as heavy.This additional force is never free. It always comes at the expense of
something else, such as speed. Also note that mechanical advantages are frequently fractional,
indicating that force is being sacrificed for speed or some other similar performance factor in a
system.

2A. Explain the terms couple, equilibrium and its types and Laws.
2B. Explain the working of 4stroke engine with diagrams.
ANS: 4 STROKE ENGINE WITH DIAGRAMS:

Stroke: Either the up or down movement of the piston from the top to the
bottom or bottom to top of the cylinder (So the piston going from the bottom of
the cylinder to the top would be 1 stroke, from the top back to the bottom
would be another stroke)
Induction: As the piston travels down the cylinder head, it 'sucks' the fuel/air
mixture into the cylinder. This is known as 'Induction'.
Compression: As the piston travels up to the top of the cylinder head, it
'compresses' the fuel/air mixture from the carburettor in the top of the cylinder
head, making the fuel/air mix ready for ignighting by the spark plug. This is
known as 'Compression'.
Iginition: When the spark plug ignites the compressed fuel/air mixture,
sometimes reffered to as the power stroke.
Exhaust: As the piston returns back to the top of the cylinder head after the
fuel/air mix has been ignited, the piston pushes the burnt 'exhaust' gases out
of the cylinder & through the exhaust system.
The 4 Stroke Cycle
We have simplified this explanation as much as possible so some of the
'correct' terms have been replaced. There are many more factors which
enable an engine to run, such as fuel/air ratios, ignition timing & shaped piston
heads (extensively used in 2 stroke engines) but the explanation below
outlines the basic differences between 2 & 4 stroke engine operation.

(http://www.whitedoglubes.com/4strokeengines.htm)
Model 2:

1A. What is mean by turning force? Also find its applications.
ANS: Moments
Forces can make objects turn if there is a pivot. Think of a playground see-saw.
The pivot is the thing in the middle of it. When no-one is on the see-saw it is level,
but it tips up if someone gets onto one end. Turning forces around a pivot are
called moments.
It is possible to balance the see-saw again if someone else gets onto the other end
and sits in the correct place. This is because the turning forces are balanced. We
say the moments are equal and opposite.
Working out moments
To work out a moment, we need to know two things:
the distance from the pivot that the force is applied.
the size of the force applied
This is the equation for working out a moment:
moment = force distance
Example
Imagine that a force of 10 N acted on a see-saw 2 m from the pivot. This is how we
would work out the moment:
force distance = moment
10 2 = 20 Nm
Notice that the unit of moment is Nm (newton metre). Don't get confused with a
'newton meter', which is another name for a force meter.
Here is an example of balanced moments. 10 N at 2 m from the pivot is balancing
20 N at 1 m from the pivot. The objects create moments of 20 Nm that are equal
and opposite, so the see-saw is balanced.

A see-saw will balance if the moments on each side of the pivot are equal. This is
why you might have to adjust your position on a see-saw if you are a different
weight from the person on the other end.
If a nut is difficult to undo with a short spanner, a longer spanner will help. This is
because there will be a bigger moment on the nut, when the same force is applied
further from the pivot.
Using the same principle you can increase the moment applied by a lever or a
crowbar, and this can help you move heavy objects more easily.
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/ks3/science/energy_electricity_forces/forces/revision/8/)
1B. Define stress and strain.
ANS: Stress = Force per unit area

(http://www.mae.ncsu.edu/zhu/courses/mae314/lecture/Lecture2_Stress-Strain.pdf)

1C. Write a note on flywheel. (diagram and working.)
ANS: Flywheel
A flywheel is an inertial energy-storage device. It absorbs mechanical
energy and serves as a reservoir, storing energy during the period
when the supply of energy is more than the requirement and releases
it during the period when the requirement of energy is more than the
supply.
Flywheels-Function need and Operation
The main function of a fly wheel is to smoothen out variations in the
speed of a shaft caused by torque fluctuations. If the source of the
driving torque or load torque is fluctuating in nature, then a flywheel is
usually called for. Many machines have load patterns that cause the
torque time function to vary over the cycle. Internal combustion
engines with one or two cylinders are a typical example. Piston
compressors, punch presses, rock crushers etc. are the other systems
that have fly wheel.
Flywheel absorbs mechanical energy by increasing its angular
velocity and delivers the stored energy by decreasing its velocity.

Design Approach
There are two stages to the design of a flywheel.
First, the amount of energy required for the desired degree of
smoothening must be found and the (mass) moment of inertia needed
to absorb that energy determined.
Then flywheel geometry must be defined that caters the required
moment of inertia in a reasonably sized package and is safe against
failure at the designed speeds of operation.
Design Parameters
Flywheel inertia (size) needed directly depends upon the acceptable
changes in the speed.
Speed fluctuation
The change in the shaft speed during a cycle is called the speed
fluctuation and is equal to max- min
Fl max min =
We can normalize this to a dimensionless ratio by dividing it by the
average or nominal shaft speed (ave) .
Cf = max - min /
Where avg is nominal angular velocity



1D. Explain bending moment and shearing forces with examples.
1E. What is mechanical engineering?
1F. Explain how power is transmitted by belts.


Thermal Engineering

Model 1:

1. How does inter cooling reduce the work input of compressor.
2. Define sensible heating & cooling process.
3. Explain splash Lubricants of IC Engine with diagram.
4. Explain thermo syphon cooling of IC engine with sketch.
5. Define mean effective pressure.
6. What is mean by ignition delay?
7. What is the application of screw compressor?

Model 2:

1A. Compare the ideal diagram of four and two stroke engine.
1B. List the advantages/disadvantages of vapor absorption system.
1C. Enlist the primary requirement of boiler.
2A. Define Cetane and Octane fuel.
2B. Explain steam stop valve with sketch.
2C. Describe the ignition system of an IC Engine with a neat diagram.