25

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ARRB Conference Shaping the future: Linking policy, research and outcomes, Perth, Australia 2012
ARRB Group Ltd and Authors 2012 1
LOW CALCIUM FLY ASH GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE
A PROMISING SUSTAINABLE ALTERNATIVE FOR RIGID
CONCRETE ROAD FURNITURE
D S Cheema, Main Roads, Western Australia
ABSTRACT
Geopolymer is a material resulting from the reaction of a source material that is rich in silica and
alumina with alkaline solution. This material has been studied extensively over the past few
decades and shows promise as a greener alternative to ordinary Portland cement concrete. It
has been found that geopolymer has good engineering properties with a reduced carbon
footprint resulting from the zero-cement content.
Durability parameters depend on the pore structure of concrete matrix. Tests performed to
measure compressive strength, volume of permeable void, pore structure and permeability
have shown that low calcium fly ash based geopolymer concrete has the potential to be a
promising sustainable alternative for rigid concrete road furniture, such as, rigid safety barrier,
kerbing, traffic island infill, dual use path (DUP) and parking bay rest areas paving etc with a
significant environmental benefits compared to Portland Cement concrete.
The research paper highlights potential applications of low calcium fly ash geopolymer (LCFG)
concrete in non aggressive to mild environments.
INTRODUCTION
Davidovits (1988) discovered that the concrete used in ancient structures is alkali-activated
alumino-silicate binders and named it as geopolymer concrete because of polymerisation
reaction, instead of the Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH) gel structure found in conventional
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) concrete. Geopolymer binder is an inorganic material and has
been reported that it may potentially be a good construction material. Curtin University, Western
Australia research work has shown that LCFG concrete has significant environmental benefits
over conventional concrete (Rangan 2008 GC4).
LCFG concrete rapid strength gain mechanism relies on curing at elevated temperature such as
steam curing or encapsulated dry curing but for ambient curing conditions its mixture requires
appropriate reagent. The use of such reagent is to offset the effect of low ambient temperature
by increasing the temperature of fresh or compacted mix.
For rigid road furniture applications, LCFG concrete of non-structural concrete class (N) of
strength up to 40 MPa is generally the requirement. Secondly for its desired initial strength,
curing under ambient conditions is one of the essential requirements for such insitu
applications.
For durable performance of reinforced concrete, the integrity of both steel and concrete
components is essential. The passivating mechanism keeping the reinforcing steel intact in
LCFG concrete is not fully understood yet, however the research study indicates that the
reinforced LCFG concrete has the potential in non-aggressive to mild environments as a
sustainable alternative of OPC concrete. The study presents the preliminary findings of slag
based LCFG concrete for such applications.
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ARRB Conference Shaping the future: Linking policy, research and outcomes, Perth, Australia 2012
ARRB Group Ltd and Authors 2012 2
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The geopolymer mix composition in the research study comprised a binding cementitious
material and inert coarse and fine aggregates. The main constituents of geopolymer binder are
low-calcium fly ash (Class F) and the alkaline liquid which differ from OPC concrete.
Fly ash
The fly ash used in the study was sourced from Collie Power Station in Western Australia. The
chemical composition of fly ash determined by X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) (mass %) is
summarised in Table 1 (Hardijito & Rangan 2005).
Table1: Chemical composition of fly ash
Oxides SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
CaO Na
2
O K
2
O TiO
2
MgO P
2
O
5
SO
3
ZrO
2
Cr MnO LOI
*
Mass % 48.00 29.00 12.70 1.78 0.39 0.55 1.67 0.89 1.69 0.50 0.06 0.016 0.06 1.61
LOI
*
Loss on Ignition.
Alkaline liquid
The alkaline liquid comprised a combination of sodium silicate solution and sodium hydroxide
solution. The sodium silicate solution (Grade A53) comprised 14.7% of Na
2
O, 29.4% of SiO
2
,
and 55.9% of water by mass. The sodium hydroxide solution was prepared by mixing 98% pure
flakes in water. Both the solutions were mixed together at least 24 hours before use (Hardijito &
Rangan 2005).
Super plasticiser
A high range water reducing (naphthalene sulphonate-based) super plasticiser was used in the
mixtures at the rate 1.5% of fly ash to improve the workability of the fresh geopolymer concrete
(Hardijito & Rangan 2005).
Aggregates
Aggregates currently used by the local concrete industry in Western Australia, supplied by BGC
Concrete and Asphalt were used. Both coarse and fine aggregates used were in saturated-
surface-dry (SSD) condition. The aggregates comprised 30% of 14 mm, 38% of 10 mm, and
32% of fine sand.
MIXTURE PROPORTIONS
Steam cured mix
Five concrete mixtures, nominated as G40 (40 MPa) and G50(50 MPa) for LCFG concrete, S40
(40 MPa) and S50 (50 MPa) for Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) concrete and Sx40(40 MPa)
for OPC concrete with pore blocking additive were studied in this research study.The detail of
these sample mixtures, curing conditions (wet curing for OPC concrete samples and steam
curing for geopolymer concrete samples at 60
o
C for 24 hours) and compressive strength are
given in Table 2 below.
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ARRB Group Ltd and Authors 2012 3
Table 2: Geopolymer concrete & OPC concrete mixture proportions
Materials Mass (kg/m
3
) Remarks
G40 G50 S40 Sx40 S50
Cockburn cement (GP) 400 400 420
Coarse
aggregate
14 mm 647 647 920 554 554
10 mm 647 647 300 702 702
Fine sand 554 554 640 591 591
Fly ash (low calcium
ASTM Class F)
409 409
Sodium silicate solution
(SiO
2
/Na
2
O =2)
102 102
Sodium hydroxide
solution
41 41 8M concentration
Super plasticiser (SP) 6 6
Water reducer 20 20 20 As specified by
manufacturer
Target water 0 10 170 170 168
Extra water in
aggregates
15.5 24.2 170 170 163.5
Admixture 2 As specified by
manufacturer
Water/cement ratio 0.19 0.20 0.43 0.43 0.43
Curing temperature 60
o
C 60
o
C Amb. Amb. Amb.
Curing time 24
hrs
24
hrs
28
days
28
days
28
days
Conventional concrete
curing included 14 days
wet curing
28 days mean comp
(MPA)
54.5 54 55 56 58.5

Past research has shown that LCFG concrete with 100% fly ash binder achieved initial strength
in the order of 20 MPa when allowed to cure under ambient conditions with a gradual increase
in strength over time (approximately 40 MPa in 4 weeks and 50 MPa in 12 weeks Rangan
2008 GC4).
This indicates that LCFG concrete without any reagent is feasible for situations where high early
strength and its commissioning prior to 4 weeks is not the main requirement.
LCFG concrete ambient and steam cured mix
Slag based LCFG concrete mix with composition as detailed in Table 3 below was studied for of
in-situ LCFG concrete components which can achieve initial average strength of 40 MPa or
more when cured under ambient conditions.
The calcium content of slag is approximately 42% while of low calcium fly ash is 1.5%. The mix
proportion of binder, that is 95% fly ash and 5% slag, resulted the increase of fly ash binder
calcium content to 3.5%. With this calcium content increase the low calcium fly ash binder Class
F remained unaltered (Class F Low Calcium Fly Ash with calcium content less than 10).
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ARRB Conference Shaping the future: Linking policy, research and outcomes, Perth, Australia 2012
ARRB Group Ltd and Authors 2012 4
Table 3: Geopolymer concrete mixture proportions
Materials Mass (kg/m
3
) Mass (kg/m
3
) Remarks
G40/50 G40/50
Cockburn cement (GP) - -
Coarse aggregates 14 mm 647 647
Coarse aggregates 10 mm 647 647
Fine sand 554 554
Fly ash 95%(low calcium ASTM
Class F)
388.5 388.5
Slag (5%) 20.5 20.5
Sodium silicate solution
(SiO
2
/Na
2
O =2)
102 102
Sodium hydroxide solution 41 41 16M concentration
Super plasticiser (SP) 6 6
Target water 0 0
Extra water in aggregates 0 0
Water/cement ratio 0.17 0.17
Curing temperature Steam(60
o
C) Ambient
Curing time 24 hours Demoulding
after 5 days
14 days wet curing
after 7 days of casting
3 days mean comp.
strength(MPa)
55.5
7 days mean comp.
strength(MPa)
66.5
28 days mean comp.
strength(MPa)
80.5

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
It has been found that slag based LCFG concrete with 5% slag achieved compressive strength
in excess of 50 MPa when cured under ambient conditions. High concentration of activator
solution (16M) activating the slag based LCFG concrete resulted its 7 days target compressive
strength of 66 MPa cured under ambient conditions. The cylinder specimens were demoulded
after 5 days and were tested for compressive strength on 7
th
day.
This initial dry curing of slag based LCFG concrete under ambient conditions indicated the need
of some protection requirement such as polyethylene sheeting to reduce quick loss of moisture
for 5 to 7 days. This 7 days initial compressive strength gain of slag based LCFG concrete is
three times higher than the ambient cured LCFG concrete containing 100% low calcium fly ash
activated by 8M alkaline solution (Rangan GC4). This increased strength gain trend of slag
based LCFG concrete is in concurrence with findings of Frantistek et al. (2006).
It was inferred that slag based LCFG concrete cured at elevated temperature of 60
o
C for
24 hours resulted slightly lower strength of 55.5 MPa. This could be due to the formation of CSH
products interfering with polymerisation process. An alkaline activator solution of high
concentration (16M Sodium Hydroxide) tends to reduce this initial interference by allowing the
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ARRB Group Ltd and Authors 2012 5
polymerisation process to proceed first, which could be due to the fast dissolution, gelation and
polymerisation followed by formation of CSH products during synthesisation of mix constituents.
The higher strength gain of slag based LCFG concrete under ambient conditions is an indirect
indication of its durability. The formation of CSH products in an alkali activated polymerised
LCFG concrete mix will tend to increase the tortuosities of its pores structure. The research
study also has shown that LCFG concrete properties compressive strength and volume of
permeable voids are analogous to OPC concrete and in concurrence with the past study
findings. Figure 1 and 2 below shows the trend of these properties.
Figure 1: Compressive strength and density trend of laboratory samples


Figure 2: Volume of permeable voids trend of laboratory samples
Past research has shown that 100% fly ash based LCFG concrete cured under ambient
conditions has shrinkage higher than the steam cured one. This higher shrinkage occurs over
the first two weeks and is approximately 13 times higher than the steam cured LCFG concrete,
Rangan (2008 GC4) and Wallah and Rangan (2006 GC2). Valentin Mukhin et al. 2007
research study has shown that addition of SL cement in alkali activated fly ash geopolymer
concrete in small proportion caused 50% reduction in shrinkage approximately for mix cured
under ambient conditions. It is notional that small proportion of slag in slag based LCFG
concrete may not be of disadvantage on account of drying shrinkage rather its slow hydration
over an extended period may be useful for obtaining the desirable properties.
The quantitative study of pore structure and porosity of both LCFG concrete and OPC
concrete undertaken using micro-tomography in the research study, provided better
understanding of LCFG concrete long term durability properties compared to OPC concrete.
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ARRB Group Ltd and Authors 2012 6
The cored samples used for the study of pore structure and micro-structural properties were
from the laboratory samples. Laboratory samples were under exposure to lab-simulated severe
environments mimicking the field severe environmental scenarios for two years approximately
as a part of this research study. Figure 3 shows these core samples.

Figure 3: Core samples for microstructure and porosity analysis testing


650 m 650 m 650 m
Geopolymer Concrete (G40- 40 Mpa) OPC Concrete (S40- 40 Mpa)
(Sx40- 40 Mpa)
OPC Concrete with pore blocking
additive
Figure 4: Tomographic microstructure images
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ARRB Group Ltd and Authors 2012 7
LCFG Concrete (G40) OPC Concrete (S40)

OPC Concrete with Pore Blocking Additive (Sx40)
Figure 5: Microstructure and pore size distribution
Figure 4 above shows the tomographic images of pore structures of LCFG concrete, OPC
concrete and OPC concrete with pore-blocking additive while Figure 5 above shows the
distribution of pores from the visual prospective, size and their shape characteristics. LCFG
concrete (G40) has pore structure with pores of circular shape having isotropy index of 0.5-1.
These circular shaped pores constitute 40-50% of total pore clusters, while the pore structure of
OPC concrete has pores of elliptical shape with isotropy index of 0.1-0.5 and constitute 90%
total pore clusters.
Micro-tomography test outputs showed that LCFG concrete (G40) binder paste had more
circular shaped pores of varying size compared to OPC concrete (S40). This is notional to the
fact that LCFG concrete matrix is mechanically more stable and strong compared to OPC
concrete. Elongated pores were more noticeable at the interface of coarse aggregates in OPC
concrete while such interface was not present in LCFG concrete. Both S40 and Sx40 have
pores relatively lesser in number but of larger size than G40.
BASIS OF SUSTAINABILITY
The low calcium fly ash being an industrial by-product has significant environmental benefits
due to its reduced CO
2
footprint. LCFG concrete has 80%

lower CO
2
footprint

than OPC
(Davividovits 2002 and CIA 2009).Subsequent illustration on this account describes the
sustainable potential LCFG concrete. The research study recently undertook by Main Roads in
co-operation with Curtin University and local pre-cast industry (ROCLA) manufacturing LCFG
concrete box culverts of size 1200x1200x600 mm showed that LCFG concrete is a feasible
construction material like OPC concrete for pre-cast concrete structure components (Cheema et
al. 2008).
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ARRB Conference Shaping the future: Linking policy, research and outcomes, Perth, Australia 2012
ARRB Group Ltd and Authors 2012 8
Sustainability potential of LCFG concrete
Figure 6 below shows the feasible slag based LCFG concrete applications for rigid road
furniture and rail projects in non-aggressive to mild road environments. The slag based LCFG
concrete can offer significant environmental benefits for such applications.

Rigid Crash Barrier
Railway Sleeper
Curtin Wall
Dual Use Path



Island In fill
Underpass

Figure 6: LCFG concrete applications extent
Following Tables summarise the sustainable potential of LCFG concrete applications. As an
illustration to demonstrate this sustainable potential of LCFG concrete applications, a project
length of one kilometre of freeway (Mitchell Freeway, Perth Metropolitan) has been taken, which
has six lanes divided carriageway with a fast track for metro rail through the median island
barricaded by concrete safety crash barrier as shown in Figure 6 above.
The micro environments in accordance with AS3600 are summarised in Table 4 for the section
under consideration of the Freeway.
Table 4: Detail of non-aggressive to mild micro environments

The production of one tonne of geopolymer binder generates 0.18 tonnes of CO
2
, from the
combustion of carbon-fuel, compared to one tonne of CO
2
from Portland cement (Davidovits
2002, Davidovits 1994 and CIA 2009). If LCFG concrete is considered as a substitute for
non-structural concrete components such as concrete safety barrier, rail sleepers, kerbing and
possible dual use path as an alternative construction material to OPC concrete, the significant
CO
2
emission cut down per kilometre (km) will be in the order of 540 tonne/km. Table 5 below
summarises these CO
2
emission savings.
Environment Classification Description Code classification
Environment 1 Atmospheric
exposure
Not expected to contain
significant concentrations
of aggressive agents
Concrete exposure A2
Environment 2 Atmospheric
protected
Protected areas such as
under passes box culverts
Concrete exposure A1
Steel corrosion B1
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ARRB Conference Shaping the future: Linking policy, research and outcomes, Perth, Australia 2012
ARRB Group Ltd and Authors 2012 9
Table 5: Summary of CO2 emission savings
Item Design
life
(AS
3600)
Non-
structural
concrete
class with
binder
content
350 kg/m
3
Approximate
requirement
of concrete
in m
3
/km
OPC CO
2

emission
in tonne
Geopolymer
CO
2
emission
in tonne @
0.18 t/
tonne of
geopolymer
cement
Net cut
down on
CO
2

emission
in tonne/
km
Concrete
safety
barrier
40-60
years
N32 800 280 50
Rail
sleepers
40-60
years
N32 284 100 18
Dual use
path
40-60
years
N20 600 228 41
Kerbing
(up to 50%
extent
only)
40-60
years
N20 140 50 9
Total
CO
2
/km
658 118 540

Other concrete components such as underpasses, traffic island in-fill could be viewed as adding
to this sustainable potential further. The LCFG concrete applications for road furniture
components shown in Figure 6 above will raise the potential sustainability ranking of the project
significantly higher than the one if OPC concrete is continued to be used.
Non-aggressive to mild environmental scenarios 1 km inland from the coast line in majority of
coastal cities are the possible scenarios which can be benefitted from the sustainable potential
of slag based LCFG concrete with the exceptions of some localised ones.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Preliminary research study has shown that physical properties of the LCFG concrete are on the
better side and is comparable with OPC concrete on many fronts. Micro structure and pore
structural properties of the LCFG concrete exhibited more mechanically stable concrete matrix
than OPC concrete in addition to other properties (compressive strength, volume of permeable
voids).
Slag based LCFG concrete application for rigid road furniture in non aggressive to mild
environments could be of significant environmental benefits. Secondly slag based LCFG and
LCFG concrete application initiatives both for in-situ and precast components of road and rail
projects will provide the opportunities of improving this environmentally friendly material further
and its on-going development for its extended applications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author acknowledges the support provided by RF Scanlon, Senior Engineer Structures,
Main Roads Western Australia, Dr Florian Fusseis, multi-scale Earth system dynamics Western
Australian Geothermal Centre of Excellence and Curtin University in undertaking this research
study. The views expressed are that of the author and not necessarily of the organisation to
which the author have affiliation.
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ARRB Group Ltd and Authors 2012 10
REFERENCES
Australian Standards (1999), Determination of water absorption and apparent volume of
permeable voids in hardened concrete, AS1012.21, Standards Australia, Australia.
Australian Standards (2009), Concrete Structures, AS3600-2009, Standards Australia, Australia.
Cheema, D.S., Lloyd, N.A. and Rangan, B.V. (2008) Durability of Geopolymer Concrete Box
Culverts A Green Alternative, 34
th
Conference on Our World in Concrete and Structure 09,
Singapore.
Davidovits, J. (2002), Environmentally Driven Geopolymer Cement Application, Geopolymer
Conference, Melbourne.
Davidovits, J. (1994), High alkali cements for 21
st
century concretes. In Concrete Technology,
Past, Present and Future, Proceedings of V Mohan Malhotra Symposium, Mehta, K. (ed.). ACI
SP.
Hardijito, D. and Rangan, B.V. (2005), Development and Properties of Low Calcium Fly Ash
Based Geopolymer Concrete, Research Report GC1, Faculty of Engineering, Curtin
University of Technology, Perth, Australia.
Rangan, B.V. (2008), Fly-ash based Geopolymer Concrete, Research Report GC4.
Recommended Practice Geopolymer Concrete (2009), Concrete Institute of Australia.
Wallah, S.E. and Rangan, B.V. (2006), Low Calcium Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete:
Long-Term Properties, Research Report GC2, Faculty of Engineering. Curtin University of
Technology, Perth, Australia.
AUTHOR DETAILS
DS Cheema is the Geotechnical Engineer, Main Roads Western Australia, a position held since
2003, and is responsible for investigations, design and technical services in geotechnical and
geomechanics, concrete technology, pavement and material engineering area.
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