PROJECT REPORT

ON
Water level indicator
For the fulfillment of Minor Project
Submitted by: Submitted to :
Sumit Gandhi Mr. Jitender Khurana
ECE 7
th
sem H.O.D (ECE Deptt.
R!"" n!.# $%
&at'h# ())*+%)
ACKNOWL!"MN#

,!rds !-ten -ai" t! pa. !ne/s 0ratitude !nese"-1 sti"" 2 3!u"d "i4e t! '!n5e. m.
sin'ere than4s t! ............................... at e5er. sta0e !- '!mp"eti!n !- m. Min!r
Pr!6e't 7!r the -u"-i"ment !- the dip"!ma 2N E8ECTRON2CS 9
COMM:N2C;T2ON ENG2NEER2NG and pr!5idin0 me 3ith 5a"ua<"e materia"
and 0uidan'e 3hene5er 2 -e"t the need. ;"s! 2 3!u"d "i4e t! than4 e5er.<!d. 3h!
dire't". !r indire't". he"ped me in su''ess-u"". '!mp"eti!n !- m. Ma6!r Pr!6e't. 2
3!u"d a"s! "i4e t! than4 .................................. -!r pr!5idin0 his 5a"ua<"e 0uidan'e
3hene5er 2 needed.










CON#N#S
$% &N#'O!(C#&ON
)% WO'K&N" P'&NC&PL
3. *'A!*OA'!
+% SOL!'&N"
,% COMPONN#S
a% L!
b. #'ANS&S#O'-*C$+./
c% 'S&S#ANC
d% CMOS *&LA#'AL SW&#C0-C!+122/
e% P&3O LC#'&C *(33'
f% P'&N#! C&'C(&# *OA'!
2% SCOP
$% &N#'O!(C#&ON
This 'ir'uit n!t !n". indi'ates the am!unt !- 3ater present in the !5erhead tan4
<ut a"s! 0i5es an a"arm 3hen the tan4 is -u"". The 'ir'uit uses the 3ide".
a5ai"a<"e CD=)**1 <i"atera" s3it'h CMOS 2C t! indi'ate the 3ater "e5e"
thr!u0h 8EDs.
,hen the 3ater is empt. the 3ires in the tan4 are !pen 'ir'uited and the %>)K
resist!rs pu""s the s3it'h "!3 hen'e !penin0 the s3it'h and 8EDs are O77. ;s
the 3ater starts -i""in0 up1 -irst the 3ire in the tan4 '!nne'ted t! S% and the ?
supp". are sh!rted <. 3ater. This '"!ses the s3it'h S% and turns the 8ED% ON.
;s the 3ater '!ntinues t! -i"" the tan41 the 8EDs( 1 @ and = "i0ht up 0radua""..
The n!. !- "e5e"s !- indi'ati!n 'an <e in'reased t! > i- ( CD=)** 2Cs are used
in a simi"ar -ashi!n. ,hen the 3ater is -u""1 the <ase !- the transist!r &C%=> is
pu""ed hi0h <. the 3ater and this saturates the transist!r1 turnin0 the <uAAer ON.
The SPST s3it'h has t! <e !pened t! turn the <uAAer O77. Remem<er t! turn
the s3it'h ON 3hi"e pumpin0 3ater !ther3ise the <uAAer 3i"" n!t s!undB
)% WO'K&N" P'&NC&PL
One e"e'tr!de pr!<e is 3ith *C ;C is p"a'ed at the <!tt!m !- tan4. NeDt pr!<es are
p"a'ed step <. step a<!5e the <!tt!m pr!<e. ,hen the 3aterE"iFuid '!mes in '!nta't
3ith the e"e'tr!de tip1 a '!ndu'ti5e path is esta<"ished <et3een the sense e"e'tr!de and
the tan4 3a""Ere-eren'e e"e'tr!de1 3hi'h in turn ma4es the transist!rs '!ndu't t! 0"!3
8ED and indi'ate the "e5e" !- 3ater. The ends !- pr!<es are '!nne'ted t! '!rresp!ndin0
p!ints in the 'ir'uit as sh!3n in 'ir'uit dia0ram. 2nsu"ated ;"uminum 3ires 3ith end
insu"ati!n rem!5ed 3i"" d! -!r the pr!<e. ;rran0e the pr!<es in !rder !n a PCC pipe
a''!rdin0 t! the depth and immerse it in the tan4. ;C 5!"ta0e is use t! pre5ent
e"e'tr!".sis at the pr!<es.

#able 45$ O6eratin7 8e9uence8
Water level Sy8tem re86on8e -a88umin7 6o:er 8u66ly ;< = 2%1</
&e"!3 ($G
Pr!<e
There is n! '!ndu'ti5e path <et3een Gr!und Pr!<e and !ther pr!<es.
Thus n! 8ED 0"!3s <e'ause the 'ir'uit is n!t '!mp"eted.
&et3een
($G Pr!<e
and $)G
Pr!<e
,ater pr!5ides a '!ndu'ti5e path <et3een ($G Pr!<e and Gr!und
Pr!<e. Thus s3it'h S% !- the 2C=)** a'ti5ates the 8ED% (0reen.
&et3een
$)G Pr!<e
and 7$G
Pr!<e
,ater pr!5ides a '!ndu'ti5e path <et3een $)G Pr!<e and Gr!und
Pr!<e1 3hi'h is in para""e" 3ith the ($G Pr!<e Gr!und Pr!<e path
2- this se'!nd path resistan'e is a"s! 3ithin the ran0e1 Then s3it'h S(
!- the 2C=)** a'ti5ates the 8ED( (3hite.
&et3een
7$G Pr!<e
and -u""
,ater pr!5ides a '!ndu'ti5e path <et3een 7$G Pr!<e and Gr!und
Pr!<e1 3hi'h is in para""e" 3ith the ($G Pr!<e Gr!und Pr!<e 9 $)G
pr!<e + 0r!und path1 2- this third path resistan'e is a"s! 3ithin the
ran0e1 Then s3it'h S@ !- the 2C=)** a'ti5ates the 8ED@ (.e""!3.
;t 7u"" ,ater pr!5ides a '!ndu'ti5e path <et3een -u"" Pr!<e and Gr!und
Pr!<e1 3hi'h is in para""e" 3ith the ($G Pr!<e Gr!und Pr!<e1$)G
pr!<e + 0r!und path1 2- this -!urth path resistan'e is a"s! 3ithin the
ran0e1 Then s3it'h S= !- the 2C=)** a'ti5ates the 8ED= (Red.
; breadboard (6roto board is a '!nstru'ti!n <ase -!r a !ne+!-+a+4ind e"e'tr!ni'
'ir'uit1 a pr!t!t.pe. 2n m!dern times the term is '!mm!n". used t! re-er t! a
parti'u"ar t.pe !- <read<!ard1 the 8older le88 breadboard (6lu7 board.
&e'ause the s!"der "ess <read<!ard d!es n!t reFuire s!"derin01 it is reusa<"e1 and
thus 'an <e used -!r temp!rar. pr!t!t.pes and eDperimentin0 3ith 'ir'uit desi0n
m!re easi".. Other1 !-ten hist!ri'1 <read<!ard t.pes d!nHt ha5e this pr!pert.. This
is a"s! in '!ntrast t! strip <!ard (5er!<!ard and simi"ar pr!t!t.pin0 printed 'ir'uit
<!ards1 3hi'h are used t! <ui"d m!re permanent s!"dered pr!t!t.pes !r !ne+!--s1
and 'ann!t easi". <e reused.
; m!dern s!"der "ess <read<!ard '!nsists !- a per-!rated <"!'4 !- p"asti' 3ith
numer!us tin p"ated ph!sph!r <r!nAe !r ni'4e" si"5er a""!.
I$J
sprin0 '"ips under the
per-!rati!ns. The spa'in0 <et3een the '"ips ("ead pit'h is t.pi'a"". ).%K ((.$= mm.
2nte0rated 'ir'uits (2Cs in dua" in+"ine pa'4a0es (D2Ps 'an <e inserted t! stradd"e the
'enter"ine !- the <"!'4. 2nter'!nne'tin0 3ires and the "eads !- dis'rete '!mp!nents
(su'h as 'apa'it!rs1 resist!rs1 indu't!rs1 etc. 'an <e inserted int! the remainin0 -ree
h!"es t! '!mp"ete the 'ir'uit. ,here 2Cs are n!t used1 dis'rete '!mp!nents and
'!nne'tin0 3ires ma. use an. !- the h!"es. T.pi'a"". the sprin0 '"ips are rated -!r %
;mpere at $ C!"ts and ).@@@ ;mperes at %$ C!"ts ($ ,atts.
3. *'A!*OA'!
;n eDamp"e !- a '!mp"eD 'ir'uit <ui"t !n a <read<!ard. The 'ir'uit is an 2nte" >)>>
sin0"e <!ard '!mputer.
.
Due t! "ar0e stra. 'apa'itan'e (-r!m (+($p7 per '!nta't p!int1 hi0h indu'tan'e !-
s!me '!nne'ti!ns and a re"ati5e". hi0h and n!t 5er. repr!du'i<"e '!nta't
resistan'e1 s!"der"ess <read<!ards are "imited t! !perate at re"ati5e". "!3
-reFuen'ies1 usua"". "ess than %) MHA1 dependin0 !n the nature !- the 'ir'uit. The
re"ati5e hi0h '!nta't resistan'e 'an a"read. <e a pr!<"em -!r DC and 5er. "!3
-reFuen'. 'ir'uits. S!"der"ess <read<!ards are -urther "imited <. their 5!"ta0e and
'urrent ratin0s.
S!"der"ess <read<!ards usua"". 'ann!t a''!mm!date Sur-a'e m!unt te'hn!"!0.
de5i'es (SMD !r n!n ).%K ((.$= mm 0rid spa'ed '!mp!nents1 "i4e -!r eDamp"e
th!se 3ith ( mm spa'in0. 7urther1 the. 'an n!t a''!mm!date '!mp!nents 3ith
mu"tip"e r!3s !- '!nne't!rs1 i- these '!nne't!rs d!nHt mat'h the D28 "a.!ut
(imp!ssi<"e t! pr!5ide '!rre't e"e'tri'a" '!nne'ti5it.. S!metimes sma"" PC&
adapters (<rea4!ut adapters 'an <e used t! -it the '!mp!nent !n. Su'h adapters
'arr. !ne !r m!re !- the n!n+-ittin0 '!mp!nents and ).%K ((.$= mm '!nne't!rs in
D28 "a.!ut. The "ar0er !- the '!mp!nents are usua"". p"u00ed int! a s!'4et1 3here
the s!'4et 3as s!"dered !nt! su'h an adapter. The sma""er '!mp!nents (e.0. SMD
resist!rs are usua"". dire't". s!"dered !nt! su'h an adapter. The adapter is then
p"u00ed int! the <read<!ard 5ia the ).%K '!nne't!rs. H!3e5er1 the need t! s!"der
the '!mp!nent !r s!'4et !nt! the adapter '!ntradi'ts the idea !- usin0 a s!"der"ess
<read<!ard -!r pr!t!t.pin0 in the -irst p"a'e.
C!mp"eD 'ir'uits 'an <e'!me unmana0ea<"e !n a <read<!ard due t! the "ar0e
am!unt !- 3irin0 ne'essar..
Limitation8
Solderin7 is a pr!'ess in 3hi'h t3! !r m!re meta" items are 6!ined t!0ether <.
me"tin0 and -"!3in0 a -i""er meta" int! the 6!int1 the -i""er meta" ha5in0 a re"ati5e".
"!3 me"tin0 p!int. Soft 8olderin7 is 'hara'teriAed <. the me"tin0 p!int !- the -i""er
meta"1 3hi'h is <e"!3 =)) LC (7$( L7. The -i""er meta" used in the pr!'ess is
'a""ed s!"der. S!"derin0 is distin0uished -r!m <raAin0 <. use !- a "!3er me"tin0+
temperature -i""er meta"M it is distin0uished -r!m 3e"din0 <. the <ase meta"s n!t
<ein0 me"ted durin0 the 6!inin0 pr!'ess. 2n a s!"derin0 pr!'ess1 heat is app"ied t!
the parts t! <e 6!ined1 'ausin0 the s!"der t! me"t and <e dra3n int! the 6!int <.
'api""ar. a'ti!n and t! <!nd t! the materia"s t! <e 6!ined <. 3ettin0 a'ti!n. ;-ter
the meta" '!!"s1 the resu"tin0 6!ints are n!t as str!n0 as the <ase meta"1 <ut ha5e
adeFuate stren0th1 e"e'tri'a" '!ndu'ti5it.1 and 3ater+ti0htness -!r man. uses.
S!"derin0 is an an'ient te'hniFue menti!ned in the &i<"e and there is e5iden'e that
it 3as emp"!.ed up t! $))) .ears a0! in Mes!p!tamia.
; ;
=

S!"derin0 -i""er materia"s are a5ai"a<"e in man. di--erent a""!.s -!r di--erin0
app"i'ati!ns. 2n e"e'tr!ni's assem<".1 the eute'ti' a""!. !- *@G tin and @7G "ead (!r
+% SOL!'&N"
*)E=)1 3hi'h is a"m!st identi'a" in per-!rman'e t! the eute'ti' has <een the a""!. !-
'h!i'e. Other a""!.s are used -!r p"um<in01 me'hani'a" assem<".1 and !ther
app"i'ati!ns.
2n hi0h+temperature meta" 6!inin0 pr!'esses (3e"din01 <raAin0 and s!"derin01 the
primar. purp!se !- -"uD is t! pre5ent !Didati!n !- the <ase and -i""er materia"s. Tin+"ead
s!"der1 -!r eDamp"e1 atta'hes 5er. 3e"" t! '!pper1 <ut p!!r". t! the 5ari!us !Dides !-
'!pper1 3hi'h -!rm Fui'4". at s!"derin0 temperatures. 7"uD is a su<stan'e 3hi'h is
near". inert at r!!m temperature1 <ut 3hi'h <e'!mes str!n0". redu'in0 at e"e5ated
temperatures1 pre5entin0 the -!rmati!n !- meta" !Dides. Se'!ndari".1 -"uD a'ts as a
3ettin0 a0ent in the s!"derin0 pr!'ess1 redu'in0 the sur-a'e tensi!n !- the m!"ten s!"der
and 'ausin0 it t! <etter 3et !ut the parts t! <e 6!ined.
5. COMPONN#S
a% L!

; li7ht5emittin7 diode (L! is an e"e'tr!ni' "i0ht s!ur'e. 8EDs are used as
indi'at!r "amps in man. 4inds !- e"e'tr!ni's and in'reasin0". -!r "i0htin0. 8EDs
3!r4 <. the e--e't !- e"e'tr!"umines'en'e1 dis'!5ered <. a''ident in %N)7. The
8ED 3as intr!du'ed as a pra'ti'a" e"e'tr!ni' '!mp!nent in %N*(. ;"" ear". de5i'es
emitted "!3+intensit. red "i0ht1 <ut m!dern 8EDs are a5ai"a<"e a'r!ss the 5isi<"e1
u"tra5i!"et and in-ra red 3a5e"en0ths1 3ith 5er. hi0h <ri0htness.
8EDs are <ased !n the semi'!ndu't!r di!de. ,hen the di!de is -!r3ard <iased
(s3it'hed !n1 e"e'tr!ns are a<"e t! re'!m<ine 3ith h!"es and ener0. is re"eased in
the -!rm !- "i0ht. This e--e't is 'a""ed e"e'tr!"umines'en'e and the '!"!r !- the
"i0ht is determined <. the ener0. 0ap !- the semi'!ndu't!r. The 8ED is usua"".
sma"" in area ("ess than % mm
(
3ith inte0rated !pti'a" '!mp!nents t! shape its
radiati!n pattern and assist in re-"e'ti!n.
8EDs present man. ad5anta0es !5er traditi!na" "i0ht s!ur'es in'"udin0 "!3er
ener0. '!nsumpti!n1 "!n0er "i-etime1 impr!5ed r!<ustness1 sma""er siAe and -aster
s3it'hin0. H!3e5er1 the. are re"ati5e". eDpensi5e and reFuire m!re pre'ise
'urrent and heat mana0ement than traditi!na" "i0ht s!ur'es. ;pp"i'ati!ns !- 8EDs
are di5erse. The. are used as "!3+ener0. indi'at!rs <ut a"s! -!r rep"a'ements -!r
traditi!na" "i0ht s!ur'es in 0enera" "i0htin01 aut!m!ti5e "i0htin0 and tra--i' si0na"s.
The '!mpa't siAe !- 8EDs has a""!3ed ne3 teDt and 5ide! disp"a.s and sens!rs t!
<e de5e"!ped1 3hi"e their hi0h s3it'hin0 rates are use-u" in '!mmuni'ati!ns
te'hn!"!0..
2+C dia0ram -!r a di!de an 8ED 3i"" <e0in t! emit "i0ht 3hen the !n+5!"ta0e is eD'eeded. T.pi'a" !n 5!"ta0es are (+@ C!"t
b% #'ANS&S#O'-*C$+./
; tran8i8tor is a semi'!ndu't!r de5i'e '!mm!n". used t! amp"i-. !r s3it'h
e"e'tr!ni' si0na"s. ; transist!r is made !- a s!"id pie'e !- a semi'!ndu't!r
materia"1 3ith at "east three termina"s -!r '!nne'ti!n t! an eDterna" 'ir'uit. ;
5!"ta0e !r 'urrent app"ied t! !ne pair !- the transist!rHs termina"s 'han0es the
'urrent -"!3in0 thr!u0h an!ther pair !- termina"s. &e'ause the '!ntr!""ed (!utput
p!3er 'an <e mu'h m!re than the '!ntr!""in0 (input p!3er1 the transist!r
pr!5ides amp"i-i'ati!n !- a si0na". S!me transist!rs are pa'4a0ed indi5idua"". <ut
m!st are -!und in inte0rated 'ir'uits. The transist!r is the -undamenta" <ui"din0
<"!'4 !- m!dern e"e'tr!ni' de5i'es1 and its presen'e is u<iFuit!us in m!dern
e"e'tr!ni' s.stems.

7i0# &JT used as an e"e'tr!ni' s3it'h1 in 0r!unded+emitter '!n-i0urati!n.
Transist!rs are '!mm!n". used as e"e'tr!ni' s3it'hes1 -!r <!th hi0h p!3er
app"i'ati!ns in'"udin0 s3it'hed+m!de p!3er supp"ies and "!3 p!3er app"i'ati!ns
su'h as "!0i' 0ates.2n a 0r!unded+emitter transist!r 'ir'uit1 su'h as the "i0ht+s3it'h
'ir'uit sh!3n1 as the <ase 5!"ta0e rises the <ase and '!""e't!r 'urrent rise
eDp!nentia"".1 and the '!""e't!r 5!"ta0e dr!ps <e'ause !- the '!""e't!r "!ad resist!r.
The re"e5ant eFuati!ns#
C
RC
O 2
CE
P R
C
1 the 5!"ta0e a'r!ss the "!ad (the "amp 3ith resistan'e R
C

C
RC
? C
CE
O C
CC
1 the supp". 5!"ta0e sh!3n as *C
2- C
CE
'!u"d -a"" t! ) (per-e't '"!sed s3it'h then 2' '!u"d 0! n! hi0her than C
CC
E
R
C
1 e5en 3ith hi0her <ase 5!"ta0e and 'urrent. The transist!r is then said t! <e
saturated. Hen'e1 5a"ues !- input 5!"ta0e 'an <e 'h!sen su'h that the !utput is
either '!mp"ete". !--1 !r '!mp"ete". !n. The transist!r is a'tin0 as a s3it'h1 and
this t.pe !- !perati!n is '!mm!n in di0ita" 'ir'uits 3here !n". K!nK and K!--K
5a"ues are re"e5ant.
c% 'S&S#ANC
The electrical re8i8tance !- an !<6e't is a measure !- its !pp!siti!n t! the passa0e
!- a stead. e"e'tri' 'urrent. ;n !<6e't !- uni-!rm 'r!ss se'ti!n 3i"" ha5e a
resistan'e pr!p!rti!na" t! its "en0th and in5erse". pr!p!rti!na" t! its 'r!ss+
se'ti!na" area1 and pr!p!rti!na" t! the resisti5it. !- the materia". Dis'!5ered <.
Ge!r0 Ohm in the "ate %>()s1 e"e'tri'a" resistan'e shares s!me '!n'eptua"
para""e"s 3ith the me'hani'a" n!ti!n !- -ri'ti!n. The S2 unit !- e"e'tri'a" resistan'e
is the !hm1 s.m<!" Q. Resistan'eHs re'ipr!'a" Fuantit. is e"e'tri'a" '!ndu'tan'e
measured in Siemens1 s.m<!" S. The resistan'e !- a resisti5e !<6e't determines the
am!unt !- 'urrent thr!u0h the !<6e't -!r a 0i5en p!tentia" di--eren'e a'r!ss the
!<6e't1 in a''!rdan'e 3ith OhmHs "a3#
,here
R is the resistan'e !- the !<6e't1 measured in !hms1 eFui5a"ent t! JRsEC
(
V is the p!tentia" di--eren'e a'r!ss the !<6e't1 measured in 5!"ts
I is the 'urrent thr!u0h the !<6e't1 measured in amperes.
7!r a 3ide 5ariet. !- materia"s and '!nditi!ns1 the e"e'tri'a" resistan'e d!es n!t
depend !n the am!unt !- 'urrent thr!u0h !r the am!unt !- 5!"ta0e a'r!ss the
!<6e't1 meanin0 that the resistan'e R is '!nstant -!r the 0i5en temperature and
materia". There-!re1 the resistan'e !- an !<6e't 'an <e de-ined as the rati! !-
5!"ta0e t! 'urrent#
2n the 'ase !- n!n"inear !<6e'ts (n!t pure". resisti5e1 !r n!t !<e.in0 OhmHs "a31
this rati! 'an 'han0e as 'urrent !r 5!"ta0e 'han0esM the rati! ta4en at an. parti'u"ar
p!int1 the in5erse s"!pe !- a 'h!rd t! an 2C 'ur5e1 is s!metimes re-erred t! as a
K'h!rda" resistan'eK !r Kstati' resistan'eK.
d. CMOS *&LA#'AL SW&#C0-C!+122/
!e8cri6tion &nformation
The CD=)**& is a Fuad <i"atera" s3it'h intended -!r the transmissi!n !r
mu"tip"eDin0 !- ana"!0 !r di0ita" si0na"s. 2t is pin+-!r+pin '!mpati<"e 3ith the
CD=)%*&1 <ut eDhi<its a mu'h "!3er !n+state resistan'e. 2n additi!n1 the !n+state
resistan'e is re"ati5e". '!nstant !5er the -u"" si0na"+input ran0e. The CD=)**&
'!nsists !- -!ur <i"atera" s3it'hes1 ea'h 3ith independent '!ntr!"s. &!th the p and
the n de5i'es in a 0i5en s3it'h are <iased !n !r !-- simu"tane!us". <. the '!ntr!"
si0na". ;s sh!3n in 7i0ure %1 the 3e"" !- the n+'hanne" de5i'e !n ea'h s3it'h is
tied t! either the input (3hen the s3it'h is !n !r t! CSS (3hen the s3it'h is !--.
This '!n-i0urati!n e"iminates the 5ariati!n !- the s3it'h+transist!r thresh!"d
5!"ta0e 3ith input si0na" and1 thus1 4eeps the !n+state resistan'e "!3 !5er the -u""
!peratin0+si0na" ran0e. The ad5anta0es !5er sin0"e+'hanne" s3it'hes in'"ude pea4
input+si0na" 5!"ta0e s3in0s eFua" t! the -u"" supp". 5!"ta0e and m!re '!nstant !n+
state impedan'e !5er the input+si0na" ran0e. H!3e5er1 -!r samp"e+and+h!"d
app"i'ati!ns1 the CD=)%*& is re'!mmended.
A66lication8:
;na"!0 Si0na" S3it'hin0EMu"tip"eDin0# Si0na" Gatin01 M!du"at!r1 Dem!du"at!r1
Ch!pper1 C!mmutatin0 S3it'h1 Di0ita" Si0na" S3it'hin0EMu"tip"eDin01
Transmissi!n+Gate 8!0i' 2mp"ementati!n1 ;na"!0+t!+Di0ita" and Di0ita"+t!+
;na"!0 C!n5ersi!n1 Di0ita" C!ntr!" !- 7reFuen'.1 2mpedan'e1 Phase1 and ;na"!0+
Si0na" Gain.
$,5< !i7ital or >%,5< Pea?5to5Pea? S:itchin7%
$),5 S #y6ical On5State 'e8i8tance for $,5< O6eration%
S:itch On5State 'e8i8tance Matched to Within , S Over $,5< Si7nal5
&n6ut 'an7e
0i7h On@Off Out6ut5<olta7e 'atio: .1 d* #y6ical at fi8 = $1 ?0AB 'L = $
?
Fre9uency 'e86on8eB S:itch On = +1 M0A #y6ical%
,5<B $15<B and $,5< Parametric 'atin78%
Lo: Cro88tal? *et:een S:itche8: C,1 d* #y6ical at fi8 = . M0AB 'L = $
?
Dtremely Lo: Off5State S:itch Lea?a7eB 'e8ultin7 in <ery Lo: Off8et
Current and
0i7h ffective Off5State 'e8i8tance: $1 6A #y6ical at <!! C <SS = $1 <B
#A = ),C
<!! Su66ly volta7e 4 5$. <B #A O6eratin7 free5air tem6erature: ,, 5 $),
EC
e. P&3O LC#'&C *(33'
&asi'a"".1 the s!und s!ur'e !- a pieA!e"e'tri' s!und '!mp!nent is a pieA!e"e'tri'
diaphra0m. ; pieA!e"e'tri' diaphra0m '!nsists !- a pieA!e"e'tri' 'erami' p"ate
3hi'h has e"e'tr!des !n <!th sides and a meta" p"ate (<rass !r stain"ess stee"1 et'..
; pieA!e"e'tri' 'erami' p"ate is atta'hed t! a meta" p"ate 3ith adhesi5es. 7i0. (
sh!3s the !s'i""atin0 s.stem !- a pieA!e"e'tri' diaphra0m.
;pp".in0 D.C. 5!"ta0e <et3een e"e'tr!des !- a pieA!e"e'tri' diaphra0m 'auses
me'hani'a" dist!rti!n due t! the pieA!e"e'tri' e--e't. 7!r a misshaped pieA!e"e'tri'
e"ement1 the dist!rti!n !- the pieA!e"e'tri' e"ement eDpands in a radia" dire'ti!n.
;nd the pieA!e"e'tri' diaphra0m <ends t!3ard the dire'ti!n sh!3n in 7i0.( (a.
The meta" p"ate <!nded t! the pieA!e"e'tri' e"ement d!es n!t eDpand. C!n5erse".1
3hen the pieA!e"e'tri' e"ement shrin4s1 the pieA!e"e'tri' diaphra0m <ends in the
dire'ti!n sh!3n in 7i0.( (<.
Thus1 3hen ;C 5!"ta0e is app"ied a'r!ss e"e'tr!des1 the <endin0 sh!3n in 7i0.(
(a and 7i0.( (< is repeated as sh!3n in 7i0.( ('1 pr!du'in0 s!und 3a5es in the
air.
f% P'&N#! C&'C(&# *OA'!
; 6rinted circuit board1 !r PC*1 is used t! me'hani'a"". supp!rt and e"e'tri'a"".
'!nne't e"e'tr!ni' '!mp!nents usin0 '!ndu'ti5e path3a.s1 tra'4s1 !r tra'es1 et'hed
-r!m '!pper sheets "aminated !nt! a n!n+'!ndu'ti5e substrate. 2t is a"s! re-erred t!
as 6rinted :irin7 board (PW* !r etched :irin7 board. ; PC& p!pu"ated 3ith
e"e'tr!ni' '!mp!nents is a 6rinted circuit a88embly (PCA1 a"s! 4n!3n as a
6rinted circuit board a88embly (PC*A.
PC&s are ineDpensi5e1 and 'an <e hi0h". re"ia<"e. The. reFuire mu'h m!re "a.!ut
e--!rt and hi0her initia" '!st than either 3ire+3rapped !r p!int+t!+p!int '!nstru'ted
'ir'uits1 <ut are mu'h 'heaper and -aster -!r hi0h+5!"ume pr!du'ti!n. Mu'h !- the
e"e'tr!ni's industr.Hs PC& desi0n1 assem<".1 and Fua"it. '!ntr!" needs are set <.
standards that are pu<"ished <. the 2PC !r0aniAati!n.

C!ndu'tin0 "a.ers are t.pi'a"". made !- thin '!pper -!i". 2nsu"atin0 "a.ers
die"e'tri' are t.pi'a"". "aminated t!0ether 3ith ep!D. resin prepre0. The <!ard is
t.pi'a"". '!ated 3ith a s!"der mas4 that is 0reen in '!"!r. Other '!"!rs that are
n!rma"". a5ai"a<"e are <"ue and red.
There are Fuite a -e3 di--erent die"e'tri's that 'an <e 'h!sen t! pr!5ide di--erent
insu"atin0 5a"ues dependin0 !n the reFuirements !- the 'ir'uit. S!me !- these
die"e'tri's are p!".tetra-"u!r!eth."ene (Te-"!n1 7R+=1 7R+%1 CEM+% !r CEM+@.
,e"" 4n!3n prepre0 materia"s used in the PC& industr. are 7R+( (Phen!"i' '!tt!n
paper1 7R+@ (C!tt!n paper and ep!D.1 7R+= (,!5en 0"ass and ep!D.1 7R+$
(,!5en 0"ass and ep!D.1 7R+* (Matte 0"ass and p!".ester1 G+%) (,!5en 0"ass
and ep!D.1 CEM+% (C!tt!n paper and ep!D.1 CEM+( (C!tt!n paper and ep!D.1
CEM+@ (,!5en 0"ass and ep!D.1 CEM+= (,!5en 0"ass and ep!D.1 CEM+$
(,!5en 0"ass and p!".ester. Therma" eDpansi!n is an imp!rtant '!nsiderati!n
espe'ia"". 3ith &G; and na4ed die te'hn!"!0ies1 and 0"ass -i<er !--ers the <est
dimensi!na" sta<i"it..
2% SCOP
This 'ir'uit n!t !n". indi'ates the am!unt !- 3ater present in the !5erhead
tan4 <ut a"s! 0i5es an a"arm 3hen the tan4 is -u"". This 3!rth. de5i'e starts rin0in0
as s!!n as the 3ater tan4 <e'!mes -u"". 2t he"ps t! 'he'4 !5er-"!3 and 3asta0e !-
3ater <. 3arnin0 the 'ust!mer 3hen the tan4 is a<!ut t! <rim. The s.stem
pr!5ides 5isua" 3ater "e5e" indi'ati!n 3ith audi! a"arms at desired "e5e"s. 2t a"s!
pr!5ides aut!mati' '!ntr!" !- pumps at a rem!te "!'ati!n.
N!3 n! need t! 0! !n the r!!- t! "!!4 the 3ater "e5e".
2t sh!3s the 3ater "e5e" in .!ur r!!m "i4e %E= tan41 %E( tan41 @E= tan4 and
-u"" tan4.
;"arm starts rin0in0 as s!!n as tan4 <e'!mes -u"".
Suita<"e -!r e5er. tan4.