Nanyang Technological University School of Civil and Structural Engineering

NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
School of Civil and Structural Engineering

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Safety in transportation laboratory . i
Flexible pavement ... ii
Penetration of bituminous materials 1
Softening point of bitumen . 6
Aggregate impact test, ten percent fines and aggregate crushing tests . 10
Sand equivalent test 16
Abrasion of surfacing aggregates 20
Skid resistance test .. 23
Preparation of specimens for Marshall test . 30
Marshall stability and flow of bituminous mix ..... 40
*********************************
SAFETY IN TRANSPORTATION LABORATORY
When using bitumen at temperatures up to 200
o
C, there is always a possibility
of burns from splashes or even a fire. Caution and common sense will prevent
any mishap but certain rules must be followed:
Stand well clear of people handling hot bitumen or taking readings
Long trousers and shoes are prescribed attire
Use the gloves provided
In the event of a burn from hot bitumen, get the affected part under a
running water tap as quickly as possible (every second counts)
In the event of equipment or clothes catching fire, smother the flames with
the fire blanket and switch off any electrical power source affected.
Complied by: Dr Wong Yiik Diew, January 2001
i
Figure 1. Flexible pavement
* Optional treatment for very poor subgrades
TYPICAL
LAYER NAME
Surfacing
Wearing Course
Surfacing -Basecourse;
Binder Course
Base; Roadbase
Sub-base
(possibly
more than
one)
(Geotextile)*
Subgrade
TYPICAL
MATERIAL
Asphalt Concrete
(LTA : W3B)
Asphalt Concrete
(LTA : B1)
(Emulsion Tack-Coat)
Crushed Aggregate
Crusher-Run
Cement Bound Base
Lean Concrete
Natural Sand
Gravel
Crushed Rock
Crushed Concrete
Hardcore (clean)
Terra Firma*
Natural Soil
Imported Fill
Stabilised Soil*
ii
Penetration of Bituminous Materials
1
LABORATORY - PAVEMENT MATERIALS
PENETRATION OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
OBJECTIVES
To examine the consistency of a sample of bitumen by determining the distance
in tenths of a millimetre that a standard needle vertically penetrates the bitumen
specimen under known conditions of loading, time and temperature.
BACKGROUND
This is the most widely used method of measuring the consistency of a
bituminous material at a given temperature. It is a means of classification rather
than a measure of quality. (The engineering term consistency is an empirical
measure of the resistance offered by a fluid to continuous deformation when it is
subjected to shearing stress). The consistency is a function of the chemical
constituents of a bitumen, viz. the relative proportions of asphaltenes (high
molecular weight, responsible for strength and stiffness), resins (responsible for
adhesion and ductility) and oils (low molecular weight, responsible for viscosity
and fluidity). The type and amount of these constituents are determined by the
source petroleum and the method of processing at the refinery.
Penetration is related to viscosity and empirical relationships have been
developed for Newtonian materials. If penetration is measured over a range of
temperatures, the temperature susceptibility of the bitumen can be established.
The consistency of bitumen may be related to temperature changes by the
expression
log P = AT + K . . . (1)
where
P = penetration at temperature T
A = temperature susceptibility (or temperature sensitivity)
K = constant
A Penetration Index (PI) has been defined for which the temperature
susceptibility would assume a value of zero for road bitumens, as given by
PI =

+
20 1 25
1 50
( )
( )
A
A
. . . (2)
2
The value of A (and PI) can be derived from penetration measurements at two
temperatures, T
1
and T
2
, using the equation
2 1
2 1
T - T
) T at (pen log ) T at (pen log
A

= . . . (3a)
Research has shown that, for conventional paving grade bitumens, the Ring-and-
Ball Softening Point temperature is the same as that which would give a
penetration of 800 d-mm. This, together with the penetration at 25
o
C, can be
used to compute A where
point softening ASTM 25
800 log - C) 25 at (pen log
A
0
= . . . (3b)
The nomograph as given in Figure 1 enables the PI to be deduced approximately
from the penetration at 25
o
C and the softening point temperature. Typical
values of PI are
Bitumen type PI
Blown Bitumen >2
Conventional Paving Bitumen -2 to +2
Temperature Susceptible Bitumen (Tars) <-2
PI values can be used to determine the stiffness (modulus) of a bitumen at any
temperature and loading time. It can also, to a limited extent, be used to identify
a particular type of bituminous material. One drawback of the PI system is that it
uses the change in bitumen properties over a relatively small range of
temperatures to characterise bitumen; extrapolations to extremes of the
behaviour can sometimes be misleading.
SUMMARY OF TEST METHOD (ASTM 1988)
The sample is melted and cooled under controlled conditions. The penetration is
measured with a penetrometer by means of which a standard needle is applied to
the bitumen specimen under specific conditions.
3
Figure 1. Nomograph for the Penetration Index of bitumen (Whiteoak, 1990)
Draw a line between the softening point (line 'A')
and penetration (line 'B') values. The intercept on
line 'C' is the PI of the bitumen
A
B
C
4
PROCEDURE
The penetration apparatus (Figure 2) is specified in many standards throughout
the world but has always the same basic requirements as ASTM D5.
1. Specimens are prepared in sample containers exactly as specified (ASTM
D5-97) and placed in a water bath at the prescribed temperature of test for 1
to 1.5 hours before the test.

2. For normal tests the precisely dimensioned needle, loaded to 100 0.05 g,
is brought to the surface of the specimen at right angles, allowed to
penetrate the bitumen for 5 0.1 s, while the temperature of the specimen
is maintained at 25 0.1
o
C. The penetration is measured in tenths of a
millimetre (deci-millimetre, d-mm).

3. Make at least three determinations on the specimen. A clean needle is used
for each determination. In making repeat determinations, start each with the
tip of the needle at least 10 mm from the side of the container and at least
10 mm apart.
Figure 2. Apparatus for the bitumen penetration test
(25 C)
100g
Asphalt Cement
(25 C)
Asphalt Cement
100g
Start After 5 seconds
Penetration in units of 0.1 mm
5
RESULTS
The results are very sensitive to test conditions and bitumen specimen
preparation and the requirements of the appropriate standard must be rigidly
adhered to. The maximum difference between highest and lowest readings shall
be:
Penetration (d-mm) 0-49 50 - 149 150 - 249 250-500
Maximum Difference 2 4 12 20
DISCUSSION
(a) Report the source and type of bitumen.

(b) Specify the conditions of the test (temperature, load, time). Note the three
separate readings and quote the penetration as the average to the nearest
whole unit.

(c) Comment on the difference between the highest and lowest readings and, if
sub-standard, offer an explanation.

(d) Compare the average penetration with the manufacturer's quoted range and,
if outside this, offer an explanation.

(e) Calculate the PI and comment on the value obtained. (Make sure the
penetration and softening point values are obtained from the same batch of
bitumen).

(f) Compile and compare results with other groups.
REFERENCES
1. ASTM (1998). ASTM D5-97 Standard test method for penetration of
bituminous materials. 1998 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume
04.03, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia 19103-1187.
2. Whiteoak, D. (1990). Shell Bitumen Handbook. Shell Bitumen UK, London.
Softening Point of Bitumen
6
SOFTENING POINT OF BITUMEN
OBJECTIVES
To determine the softening point of bitumen within the range 30 to 157
o
C by
means of the Ring-and-Ball apparatus.
BACKGROUND
Unlike some substances (e.g. water which changes from solid to liquid at 0
o
C)
bituminous materials do not have a definite melting point. Instead, as the
temperature rises, these materials slowly change from brittle or very thick and
slow-flowing materials to softer and less viscous liquids. For this reason, the
determination of 'softening point' must be made by a fixed, arbitrary and closely
defined method if results are to be comparable.
Being very simple in concept and equipment, the Ring-and-Ball Test has
remained a valuable consistency test for control in refining operations,
particularly in the production of air-blown bitumens. It is also an indirect
measure of viscosity or, rather, the temperature at which a given viscosity is
evident. The softening point value has particular significance for materials which
are to be used as thick films, such as joint and crack fillers and roofing materials.
A high softening point ensures that they will not flow in service. For a bitumen
of a given penetration (determined at 25
o
C), the higher the softening point the
lower the temperature sensitivity
Research has shown that, for conventional paving grade bitumens, the Ring-and-
Ball softening point temperature is the same as that which would give a
penetration of 800 d-mm. This, together with the penetration at 25
o
C, can be
used to compute the Penetration Index.
7
Two horizontal disks of bitumen, cast in shouldered brass rings, are heated at a
controlled rate in a liquid bath while each supports a steel ball. The softening
point is reported as the mean of the temperatures at which the two disks soften
enough to allow each ball, enveloped in bitumen, to fall a distance of 25 mm.
PROCEDURE (Figure 1)
1. Specimens are prepared exactly as specified (ASTM D36-95) in precisely
dimensioned brass rings and maintained at a temperature of not less than 10
o
C below the expected softening point for at least 30 minutes before the
test.

2. The rings and assembly, and two ball bearings, are placed in a liquid bath
filled to a depth of 105 3 mm and the whole maintained at a temperature
of 5 1
o
C for 15 minutes. [Freshly boiled distilled water is used for
bitumen with a softening point of 80
o
C or below, and glycerine is used for
softening point greater than 80
o
C].

3. A 9.5 mm steel ball bearing (weighing 3.50 0.05 g) is centered on each
specimen and heat is then applied to the beaker so as to raise the
temperature by 5 0.5
o
C per minute.

4. The temperature at which each bitumen specimen touches the base plate is
recorded to the nearest 0.2
o
C.
RESULTS
Rigid adherence to the prescribed preparation of specimens and heating is
absolutely essential for reproducibility of the results. The mean temperature of
the two specimens (which shall not differ by more than 1
o
C) is recorded as the
softening point.
This temperature is to be used in conjunction with the penetration value to obtain
the Penetration Index (PI).
8
Figure 1. Apparatus for the bitumen Softening Point Test (Millard, 1993)
DISCUSSION
(a) Report the source and type of bitumen.

(b) Report the bath liquid used in the test and quote the mean softening point of
your specimen. Comment on the value obtained.

(c) If the two test temperatures differ by more than 1
o
C, offer an explanation.

(d) Compile and compare results from other group(s).
9
REFERENCES
1. ASTM (1998). D36-95 Standard test method for softening point of bitumen
(Ring-and-Ball Apparatus). 1998 Annual Books of ASTM Standards, Volume
V04.04, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA
19103-1187.
2. Millard, R.S. (1993). Road building in the Tropics. Transport Research
Laboratory State-of-the-art Review 9, HMSO, London.
3. PWD (1992). PWD General Specification. Public Works Department,
Singapore 1987 (with amendments, 1992).
Table 1: Requirements for 60/70 penetration grade bitumen (PWD 1992)
Property Requirement
Penetration at 25
o
C, 100g, 5 s (deci-millimetre, d-mm) 60-70
Softening Point, ring and ball (
o
C) 47-56
Flash Point, Cleveland open cup (
o
C) Min. 232
Thin film oven test , 3.2 mm at 163
o
C for 5 hours
Loss on heating (% by mass)
Penetration of residue at 25
o
C (% of original penetration)
Ductility of residue at 25
o
C at 5 cm/min (cm)
Max. 0.8
Min. 54
Min. 50
Solubility in trichloroethylene (% by mass) Min. 99
Specific gravity at 25
o
C 1.0-1.11
Impact, 10% Fines & Crushing Tests
10
AGGREGATE IMPACT TEST, TEN PERCENT FINES TEST
AND AGGREGATE CRUSHING TEST
OBJECTIVES
To assess the resistance of an aggregate to mechanical degradation by the
Aggregate Impact Test, Ten Percent Fines Test and Aggregate Crushing Test.
BACKGROUND
When a road aggregate has been manufactured to a specified grading it is
stockpiled, loaded into trucks, transported, tipped, spread and compacted. If the
aggregate is weak, some degradation may take place and result in a change in
grading and/or the production of excessive and undesirable fines. Thus, an
aggregate complying with a specification at the quarry may fail to do so when it
is in the pavement.
Granular base layers and surfacings are subjected to repeated loadings from truck
tyres and the stress at the contact points of aggregate particles can be quite high.
These crushing tests can reveal aggregate properties subject to mechanical
degradation of this form. The table below indicates some requirements.
Country Material Requirements
UK Structural PC concrete 10% Fines Force > l00kN
Other PC concrete 10% Fines Force > 50kN
Road bases 10% Fines Force > 50kN
Bituminous Surfacing BSI Abrasion Test
NZ PC concrete 10% Fines Force > 130kN
Road bases 10% Fines Force > 130kN
Sealing chips 10% Fines Force > 230kN
Asphalt concrete Los Angeles Abrasion Test
US All road materials Los Angeles Abrasion Test
11
Quarry plant such as crushers, screens, conveyors, etc. are all subject to wear
and these crushing tests can indicate the magnitude of the problem for design
purposes.
PROCEDURE - Aggregate Impact Value (SS 1974)
1. The apparatus consists of a steel test mould with a falling hammer as shown
in Figure 1. The hammer slides freely between vertical guides so arranged
that the lower part of the hammer is above and concentric with the mould.

Figure 1. Apparatus for the aggregate impact test (Millard, 1993)
12
2. The material used is aggregate passing a 12.70 mm sieve and retained on a
9.52 mm sieve. It shall be clean and dry (washed if necessary) but it must
not be dried for longer than 4 hours nor at a temperature higher than 110
o
C
otherwise certain aggregates may be damaged.
3. The whole of the test sample (mass A) is placed in the steel mould and
compacted by a single tamping of 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
4. The test sample is subjected to 15 blows of the hammer dropping 381 mm,
each being delivered at an interval not less than one second.
5. The crushed aggregate is sieved over a 2.36 mm sieve. The fraction passing
2.36 mm is weighed to the nearest 0.1 g (mass B). The fraction retained on
the sieve is also weighed (mass C). If {A-(B+C)}>1 gram, the result shall be
discarded and a fresh test made. The aggregate impact value (AIV) is
AIV =
B
A
100 (%) . . . (1)
RESULTS
An average is taken of the two tests and the result is recorded to the nearest
whole number as the Aggregate Impact Value.
The AIV is normally about 105 per cent of the Aggregate Crushing Value and it
can be used for the same purpose. For weak aggregates, the required load for the
first ten per cent fines test can be estimated by means of the formula:
required load (kN) =
4000
AIV
. . . (2)
PROCEDURE - Ten Percent Fines Value (SS 1974)
1. The apparatus (Figure 2) consists of a case hardened steel cylinder 154 mm
diameter and 125 mm high together with a plunger which just fits inside the
cylinder and a base plate. Other items are a steel tamping bar 16 mm
diameter by 450-600 mm long and a metal measuring cylinder 115 mm
diameter by 180 mm deep. Also required is a compression testing machine
capable of applying a force of up to 500 kN and which can be operated to
give a uniform rate of loading so that this force is reached in 10 minutes.
13
Figure 2. Apparatus for the 10% fines test and aggregate crushing test (Millard, 1993)
2. The material used for both tests is aggregate passing a 12.70 mm sieve and
retained on a 9.52 mm sieve. It shall be clean and dry (washed if
necessary) but it must not be dried for longer than 4 hours nor at a
temperature higher than 110
o
C otherwise certain aggregates may be
damaged.

3. The required volume is obtained by filling the measuring cylinder in three
layers, each tamped 25 times with the rod and the top struck level. This
volume is then weighed to the nearest 0.1g (mass A).

4. The material from the measuring cylinder is placed in the test cylinder in
three layers, each tamped 25 times with the rod. The depth of the sample
will then be about 100 mm. The plunger is lowered onto the sample and
rotated gently to seat it and level it.
5. The cylinder, plunger and sample are placed in the compression testing
machine. Force is applied at a uniform rate so that the total penetration in
10 minutes is about: 15 mm for uncrushed gravel; 20 mm for normal
crushed aggregates; 24 mm for honeycombed aggregates (e.g., some slag
and volcanic rocks).
14
6. The sample is then sieved over a 2.36 mm sieve. As this is a fairly fine
sieve, it is preferable to pass the whole sample over a larger sieve (say 4.75
mm) first. The material passing 2.36 mm is then weighed (mass B) and
expressed as a percentage of the original mass [y=100%B/A].
7. If the percentage fines lies between 7.5% and 12.5%, the following
calculation for Ten Percent Fines Value (TFV) is made:
TFV = Force to produce 10% fines =
14x
y + 4
. . . (3)
where
x = maximum force used (kN)
y = percentage fines from the test (%)
The result should be reported to the nearest whole number.
8. If the percentage fines lies outside the range 7.5 to 12.5, the test must be
repeated, applying the force given by the formula over a period of 10
minutes. Two tests are required and the ten percent fines values (TFV) are
averaged to obtain the final result, reported to the nearest 10 kN (for forces
> 100kN)
PROCEDURE - Aggregate Crushing Value (SS 1974)
1. The apparatus and sample preparation is identical with that described above
for the Ten Percent Fines Test.
2. The cylinder, plunger and sample are placed in the compression test machine.
It is loaded at a uniform rate so that a force of 400 kN is reached in 10
minutes. The load is then released.

3. The percentage fines is then determined as before. The material passing 2.36
mm is weighed (mass B) and expressed as a percentage of the original mass
(mass A) to give the aggregate crushing value (ACV).
ACV =
B
A
100% . . . (4)
RESULTS
The average is taken of two tests and the result recorded as Aggregate Crushing
Value.
15
If the percentage fines exceeds 30, the result may be anomalous as the broken
pieces of aggregate will tend to fill the voids and prevent further crushing. In
this case, the Ten Percent Fines Test is more appropriate. Some countries, e.g.,
Australia and New Zealand, only use the latter test.
DISCUSSION
(a) Report the geological description of the aggregate, the source quarry and
particle size.
(b) Report the applied force, the masses of material before and after sieving,
the calculations, and the final result (AIV/TFV/ACV).
(c) Comment on the results.
(d) Compile results from other group(s) and compare the values obtained.
REFERENCES
1. SS (1974). SS73:1974 Specification for methods for sampling and testing of
mineral aggregates, sand and fillers - Determination of aggregate impact
value, aggregate crushing value and ten percent fines value. Singapore
Standard, Singapore.
2. Millard, R.S. (1993). Road building in the Tropics. Transport Research
Laboratory State-of-the-art Review 9, HMSO, London.
Sand Equivalent Test
16
SAND EQUIVALENT TEST
OBJECTIVES
To show the relative proportion of clay-like or plastic fines and silt in granular
soils and fine aggregates by means of a rapid field test known as the Sand
Equivalent (SE).
BACKGROUND
Most specifications for unbound granular base have requirements concerning
rock strength, weathering resistance and grading. The maximum percentage
finer than 0.075 mm usually lies between 7% and 10%. Some specifications go
further and stipulate a requirement concerning plasticity of this fines material,
for example it should be non-plastic or the Plasticity Index should be less than 6.
Others have specified the Sand Equivalent, for example, California: not less than
45, New Zealand: not less than 40.
The Sand Equivalent Test was devised by Hveem (1953) as a quick test to
determine the "presence of undesirable quantities of adverse clay-like materials
... since an excess of clays is usually detrimental to the performance of any
aggregate". Its primary application was for concrete aggregate and sand.
O'Harra (1955) applied the test to the fraction of road base aggregates finer than
4.75 mm and made correlation of Sand Equivalent with Plasticity Index and
percentage of fines (less than 0.075 mm). He concluded that the quality of a
pavement aggregate was always satisfactory if SE > 55 and almost always
satisfactory if SE > 35 hence, the figures quoted in the previous paragraph for
California and New Zealand.
A measured volume of soil or fine aggregate and a small quantity of flocculation
solution are poured into a graduated plastic cylinder and are agitated to loosen
the clay-like coatings from the sand particles in the test specimen. The specimen
is then irrigated using additional flocculation solution forcing the clay-like
material into suspension above the sand. After a prescribed sedimentation period,
17
the height of the clay and sand in the cylinder is determined. The sand equivalent
is the ratio of sand height to clay height times 100.
APPARATUS AND WORKING SOLUTION
The principal item of equipment is a transparent plastic cylinder with an inside
diameter of 32 mm and a height of 432 mm graduated up to 390 mm by 2 mm
divisions and a rubber stopper to fit.
A weighted foot is also required consisting of a brass rod 445 mm long, having at
the lower end a 25 mm diameter foot with a flat smooth under-surface and a
conical upper surface. A cylindrical brass weight 51 mm diameter is attached to
the upper end of the rod to bring the total weight to 1 kg. An irrigator tube is
required that is made of 6 mm copper or brass tubing long enough to reach the
bottom of the cylinder and one end closed by flattening the tube to a wedge-
shaped point. Two 1-mm holes are drilled laterally through the flat sides of the
wedge. The remainder of the equipment comprises plastic tubing, clamps and
containers which do not need specifying.
The working flocculation solution consists, per litre of solution,
2.67 g Anhydrous Calcium Chloride
12.06 g (9.53 ml) BP Glycerine
0.28 g (0.26 ml) 40% Formaldehyde Solution (as a preservative).
PROCEDURE
1. The sample must all pass through a 4.75 mm sieve and be in a slightly
damp condition. Where the sample has been separated from a coarser
material (such as 40 mm base course) care must be taken to collect all fines
adhering to the larger stones. By quartering or preferably using a riffle box,
samples are split to provide enough material to fill the measuring container
to within 10 mm of the brim. Extreme care must be taken to obtain truly
representative samples.

2. Start the siphon so that solution will flow through the irrigator tube.

3. Fill 102 3 mm of solution into the cylinder.

4. Pour the test sample into the cylinder and tap the base with heel of the hand
to release any air bubbles.
5. Leave to stand for 10 1 minutes.
18

6. Stopper the cylinder and loosen the material by partially inverting the
cylinder.

7. Hold the cylinder horizontally and shake it vigorously from side to side 90
cycles in 30 seconds with an amplitude of 23 3 cm. Alternatively, a
mechanical shaker having a throw of 203.2 1.0 mm and operating at 175
2 cycles-per-minute may be used in which the cylinder and its contents
are shaken for 45 1 s.

8. Immediately after shaking, set the cylinder upright on the bench and remove
the stopper. Insert the irrigator tube and start the flow, rinsing material
from the sides of the cylinder above the liquid level. Push the tube to the
bottom of the sample. Stab and twist the tube gently with one hand, and at
the same time rotate the cylinder slowly with the other hand. Make sure the
fines are dislodged to float above the sand column. Remove the irrigator
and allow the liquid level to rise to 380 mm.

9. Allow the cylinder to stand undisturbed and free from vibration for 20
minutes 15 seconds. Start the timer immediately after withdrawing the
irrigator tube.

10. Read and record the level of the top of the silt/clay suspension. This is
called the "Clay Height", which represents the length of the (clay + sand)
column.

11. Lower the weighted foot assembly very gently into the
cylinder until it comes to rest on the sand. Read and record the level of the
indicator. The level at the top of the sand column, called the "Sand
Height", is determined by subtracting 254 mm from the reading of the
indicator.

sand
clay
clear
sol
n
sand
height
h
2
clay
height
h
1
19
12. Calculate the Sand Equivalent:
SE =
) (h Height Clay
) (h Height Sand
1
2
100(%) . . .(1)
The result is quoted to the next higher whole number.
DISCUSSION
(a) Report the source of the aggregate, and any pre-treatment it has received,
i.e. sieving, washing, heating, drying, etc.
(b) Report the clay and sand heights and the Sand Equivalent.
(c) Comment on the result.
(d) Compare your results with other group(s)
REFERENCES
1. ASTM (1998). ASTM D2419-95, Standard test method for sand equivalent
value of soils and fine aggregate. 1998 Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
Volume 04.03, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia
19103-1187.
2. Hveem, F.N. (1953). Highway Research Board Proceedings.
3. OHarra, W.G. (1955). Highway Research Board Proceedings.
Abrasion of Surfacing Aggregates
20
ABRASION OF SURFACING AGGREGATES
OBJECTIVES
To assess the resistance to crushing and abrasive wear of an aggregate by
means of the Los Angeles Abrasion Machine.
BACKGROUND
Aggregates are subjected to crushing and abrasive wear during the manufacture,
placing and compaction of asphalt paving mixes. They are also subjected to
abrasion under traffic loads. There does not appear to be a really satisfactory
test for measuring aggregates' resistance to abrasion but the Los Angeles Test is
one of those most commonly applied. This test is both an abrasion and impact
test and appears to be more suitable for aggregates used in the wearing course /
surface dressing than for asphalt concrete in other layers. Resistance to
abrasion is necessary for maintaining surface macro-texture but (unfortunately)
the tougher an aggregate is, the more likely it is to polish under the action of
vehicle tyres.
A sample of chippings is loaded together with steel balls into a steel drum
revolving on a horizontal axis. The Los Angeles Abrasion Value (LAV) is the
percentage of fines passing the 1.7 mm sieve after a specified number of
revolutions of the drum at specified speed.
PROCEDURE
1. The Los Angeles machine (Figure 1) is constructed according to the
dimensions and specification of ASTM C131. A washed and oven-dried
sample of aggregate, graded according to the job application is weighed
(W
1
) and placed in the drum with the appropriate number of steel balls
(46.0 to 47.6 mm diameter, weighing 400 to 440 g each) (Tables 1 & 2).
21
Figure 1. Los Angeles Abrasion Machine
Table 1. Grading of test samples (ASTM, 1994)
Sieve sizes (square
openings), mm
Mass of indicated sizes, g
Passing Retained Grading (see Table 2 below)
on A B C D
37.5 25.0
1250 25

25.0 19.0
1250 25

19.0 12.5
1250 10 2500 10

12.5 9.5
1250 10 2500 10

9.5 6.3
2500 10
6.3 4.75
2500 10
4.75 2.35
5000 10
Total 5000 10 5000 10 5000 10 5000 10
Table 2. Grading and mass of charge
Grading Number of balls Mass of charge, g
A 12
5000 25
B 11
4584 25
C 8
3330 20
D 6
2500 15
22
2. The drum is rotated for 500 revolutions at a speed of 30 to 33 rpm.

3. After this, the sample is separated on a sieve larger than 1.7 mm (say 4.75
mm), then the material passing is washed through a 1.7 mm sieve. If the
aggregate is free from dust, the washing requirement may be waived.

4. The material which does not pass the 1.7 mm sieve (and any larger sieve
used) is then weighed to the nearest gram (W
2
).
5. The difference in weight of the sample is expressed as a percentage of the
original and is reported as the abrasion value given by
LAV =
(W W )
W
x 100
1 2
1
% . . . (1)
6. The results of two tests by the same operator on the same aggregate
should not differ from each other by more than 5.7% of their average. For
two different operators/laboratories the difference should not be more
than 12.7% of the average.
DISCUSSION
(a) Report the geological description of the aggregate, the source quarry and
particle size.

(b) Record the original and final weights, and the abrasion value. Comment
on any loss in the sample mass in the course of the experiment.

(c) Comment on the LAV value obtained with regard to the aggregates
potential use. [Local requirements are LAV35% for wearing course,
LAV40% for binder course, and LAV45% for road base].

(d) Compare your result with those of other groups and comment on the
precision of the test results.
REFERENCE
1. ASTM (1994). C131-81, Standard test method for resistance to
degradation of small size coarse aggregate by abrasion and impact in the
Los Angeles Machine. 1994 Annual Books of ASTM Standards, Volume
04.03, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA
19103-1187.
Skid Resistance Test
23
SKID RESISTANCE TEST
OBJECTIVES
To measure texture depth and skid resistance of a road surface using the BS
Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester and to estimate the vulnerability of an
aggregate to polishing under traffic by determining its Polished Stone Value
(PSV).
BACKGROUND
Skidding, i.e. loss of adhesion between a vehicle's tyres and the road surface,
occurs in many road accidents whether or not it is the actual cause of the
accident. Over the years, tyre manufacturers have done a lot of research into
different types of rubber and tread patterns to improve the safety of motor
vehicles. Governments have introduced regulations concerning the tread depth
and general condition of the tyres. Highway engineers have also researched ways
to improve the skid resistance of road surfaces. The impetus for this research
came from the Transport and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL) of UK. One of
the first things they did was to devise the Pendulum Skid Tester which, being
portable, can be taken to the site or used in laboratory experiments. This device
simulates the skid resistance offered by a road surface to a motor car travelling at
50 km/h. It gives a number, being a percentage, somewhat akin to a coefficient of
friction. Subsequently, they devised the Sideways Force Coefficient Routine
Investigation Machine (SCRIM). This is a lorry with a fifth wheel set at an angle
to the direction of travel and the lateral force on this wheel is measured and
recorded. The lorry travels at 50 km/h and continually monitors the Sideways
Force Coefficient (SFC). Other devices include braking force trailer and the mu-
meter. These can be used at the high speeds required for testing airport runways.
With devices to measure skidding resistance, researchers then monitored changes
during the life of road pavements. It was found that skid resistance falls rapidly
after a road is opened to traffic but the rate of deterioration slows down,
eventually settling to a constant value. This latter value is dependent on the
surface texture, rock type and traffic volume. Coarse-textured surfaces offer
greater resistance because rainwater drains away better, allowing rubber to stone
contact even at reasonably high speed. Sedimentary rocks (excluding most
limestones) are better than igneous or metamorphic rocks. All mineral particles
24
polish but, with sandstone, the small particles get worn off exposing fresh sharp
crystals to the tyres. With igneous rocks, which are tougher, the polished
particles remain in place. Finally, better correlation has been obtained using
commercial traffic volumes rather than total traffic.
As highway engineers are concerned about the aggregate, TRRL devised the
Accelerated Polishing Machine which simulates the polishing action of tyres, grit
and water on road surfaces. Specimens are polished by a rubber tyre with coarse
grit and water for three hours, followed by another three hours using very fine
grit. After that, the skid resistance is measured with the pendulum and the
reading is called the Polished Stone Value (PSV). Having set target values for
skid resistance of road surfaces for various sites and traffic volumes, the British
authorities now specify minimum values of PSV for the aggregate used in the
surfacing.
TEXTURE DEPTH (Figure 1)
Procedure (TRRL 1969)
1. Select the spot on the road to be tested, normally in the nearside wheel
track. Ensure that the area to be tested is dry and free from loose materials.

2. A known volume of sand is spread on the road surface; the average macro-
texture depth is calculated from the area of the circular patch produced.
[The sand particles are those passing a No. 52 sieve and retained on a No.
100 B.S. sieve].
Texture depth =
volume of sand
area of patch
Figure 1. Sand-patch method of measuring texture depth
25
Results
Report the sand circle diameter in millimetre to the nearest 5 mm. Textures
producing diameters in excess of 350 mm (which cannot be measured accurately
by this procedure) are to be reported as greater than 350 mm.
Report the average texture depth to the nearest 0.1 mm. A suggested
classification of the surface texture is:
Average Texture
Depth (mm)
Texture Classification
<0.25 Fine
0.25-0.50 Medium
>0.50 Open
SKID RESISTANCE TEST
Procedure (TRRL 1969)
1. Select the spot in which the texture depth has been measured.

Figure 2. Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester (BSI, 1990)
26
2. Set the apparatus (Figure 2) on the road so that the slider will swing in the
direction of traffic flow and level the base screws.

3. Raise the swinging arm clear of the road and clamp in the horizontal position.
Release the arm and check that the pointer reads zero.

4. With the pendulum arm free and hanging vertically, place the spacer,
attached to a chain on the base of the column, under the lifting handle setting
screw to raise the slider. Lower the head of the tester so that the slider just
touches the road surface and clamp in position. Remove the spacer.

5. Check the sliding length of the rubber slider over the road surface by gently
lowering the pendulum arm until the slider just touches the surface first on
one side of the vertical and then on the other. When passing the arm through
the vertical, use the lifting handle so that the slider does not touch the road.
The sliding length should be between 125 and 127 mm. If not, adjust by
raising or lowering the head.

6. Place the pendulum arm in the horizontal and clamp in position.

7. Wet the road surface and slider with water.

8. Bring the pointer to its stop then release the pendulum by pressing the button.
Take care to catch the arm on its return swing before it hits the ground.

9. Return the arm and pointer to the release position keeping the slider off the
road surface by means of the lifting handle. Repeat the test, wetting the
surface between swings. Record the mean of five successive readings,
provided they do not differ by more than three units. If the range is greater
than this, repeat swings until three successive readings are constant; record
this value.

10. Record the temperature of the water on the road surface.
Results
The skid resistance value (SRV) is the mean of five readings or the constant of
three readings as stated above.
As the stiffness of the rubber slider will vary with temperature a correction has
to be made if the temperature is not 20
o
C. Use the temperature curve (Figure 3)
for this purpose.
27
Figure 3. Skid resistance/ temperature correction relationship (TRRL, 1969)
Discussion Texture depth and SRV
(a) Describe the site and the nature of the road surface, i.e. material state of
wear, etc.

(b) Describe the average texture depth and texture classification.

(c) Report the temperature-corrected skid resistance value (SRV) and comment
on suitability of this value for the current use of the road (see Table 1).
Compare results obtained by other group(s).
Table 1. Suggested minimum values of skid resistance (measured with the
portable tester) (TRRL, 1969)
Category
Type of site
Minimum skid
resistance
(surface wet)
A
Difficult sites such as:
1. Roundabouts
2. Bends with radius less than 150 m on
unrestricted roads
3. Gradients 1 in 20 or steeper of lengths greater
than 100 m
4. Approaches to traffic lights on unrestricted
roads
65
B
Motorways, trunk and class 1 roads and heavily
trafficked roads in urban areas (carrying more
than 2000 vehicles per day)
55
C
All other sites
45
28
POLISHED STONE VALUE
Procedure (BSI 1990)
1. As the preparation of specimens and the polishing process (using
accelerated polishing machine, as shown in Figure 4) takes many hours, this
will have been done, in accordance with BS 812, in advance of the
laboratory session.

2. The specimen is clamped into the holder in such a way that the slider of the
pendulum traverses it in the same direction as it has been trafficked in the
polishing machine. The height of the suspension axis of the pendulum is
then adjusted, as described for the road test, so that the slider traverses a
length of 76 0.5 mm.

3. The specimen and the slider are then thoroughly wetted and five readings
(F scale unit x 100) are taken as described for the road test. The specimen
and slider are thoroughly wetted before each reading. The mean of the last
three readings is then recorded.

4. The mean value as determined is reported as the PSV.
Discussion - PSV
a) Report the geological name, source quarry and description of the rock.

b) Recommend the type of road and traffic volume for which the aggregate is
a suitable surfacing material (see Table 2). Use only the polished stone
value (PSV) in your discussion.
REFERENCES
1. BSI (1990). British Standard BS 812:Part 114:1989 Testing aggregates -
Method for determination of the polished-stone value. British Standards
Institution, London.

2. Hosking, R. (1992). Road aggregate and skidding. Transport Research
Laboratory State-of-the-art Review 4, HMSO.

3. TRRL (1969). Instructions for Using the Portable Skid Resistance Tester.
Road Note 27, Transport and Road Research Laboratory HMSO.
29
Figure 4. Accelerated polishing machine (BSI, 1990)
Table 2. Min. polished-stone coefficients for bituminous roads (adapted from Hosking, 1992)
Site Definition Traffic in commercial
vehicles (CV) per lane
per day
Min.
PSV (%)
A1
(very
difficult)
(i) Approaches to traffic signals on roads with a
speed limit greater than 64 km/h
(ii) Approaches to traffic signals, pedestrian
crossings and similar hazards on main urban
roads
Less than 250 cv/lane/day
250 to 1000 cv/lane/day
More than 1750 cv/lane/day
60
70
70
75
A2
(difficult)
(i) Approaches to major junctions on roads
carrying more than 250 commercial vehicles
per lane per day
(ii) Roundabouts and their approaches
(iii) Bends with a radius less than 150 m on roads
with a speed limit greater than 64 km/h
(iv) Gradients of 5% or steeper, longer than 100 m
60
70
70
75
B
(average)
Generally straight sections of and large
radius curves on
(i) Motorways
(ii) Trunk and principal
(iii) Other roads carrying more than 250
commercial vehicles per lane per day
55
60
65
C
(easy)
(i) Generally straight sections of lightly
trafficked roads
(ii) Other roads where wet accidents are unlikely
to be a problem
45
Preparation of Specimens for Marshall Test
30
PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS FOR MARSHALL TEST
OBJECTIVES
To prepare standard specimens of asphalt concrete for measurement of stability
and flow in the Marshall apparatus and to determine density, percentage air
voids, and percentage of aggregate voids filled with binder.
BACKGROUND
The requirements of an asphalt concrete paving mix are many, viz.:
Stability
Durability
Flexibility
Fatigue Resistance: Thick Layers; Thin Layers
Fracture Strength: Overload Conditions; Thermal Conditions
Skid Resistance
Impermeability
Workability.

All these properties are governed to some extent by binder type and content,
degree of compaction, aggregate gradation and shape. It is clearly impossible for
one single test to cover all these factors but the Marshall Test gives the engineer
considerable help. The complete test reveals:
Stability
Flow
Density
Voids in Total Mix (VTM)
Voids in the Mineral Aggregate (VMA)
Voids Filled with Binder (VFB)
These parameters plotted against binder content enable optima to be obtained for
specific applications of the asphalt concrete or provide guidance for a change in
the aggregate composition.
31
PROCEDURES (ASTM 1994)
1. The aggregate, graded according to LTA (formerly PWD) W3B road mix
(see Table 1 and Figure 2), is dried at 105-110
o
C and sufficient amount is
weighed (about 1200 g) to give a height of 63.5 + 1.3 mm when compacted
in the mould.

2. The required quantity of bitumen is weighed out and heated to a
temperature which will give a viscosity of 170 + 20 mm
2
/s (cSt).

3. The aggregate is heated in the oven to a temperature not higher than 28
o
C
above the binder temperature.

4. A crater is formed in the aggregate contained in a heated mixing bowl, the
binder poured in and mixing carried out until all the aggregate is coated.
The mixing temperature shall be within the limit set for the binder
temperature.

5. A thoroughly cleaned mould is heated on a hot plate or in an oven to a
temperature between 93 and 149
o
C. The mould is 101.6 mm diameter by
76.2 mm high and provided with base plate and extension collar.

6. A piece of filter paper is fitted in the bottom of the mould and the whole
mix poured in. The mix is then vigorously trowelled 15 times round the
perimeter and 10 times in the centre leaving a slightly rounded surface.

7. The mould assembly is placed on the compaction pedestal and given 75
blows of the 4536 g compacting hammer falling a height of 457.2 mm. The
specimen in its mould is then reversed and given the same treatment on the
other side. (The number of compaction blows could be 35, 50 or 75,
depending on traffic loading condition in service; LTA specifies 75 blows
each face).

8. The specimen is then carefully extruded from the mould, transferred to a
smooth flat surface and allowed to cool to room temperature.

9. Finally, the specimen is measured and weighed in air and water (for volume
determination). If the asphalt mix has an open (porous) texture the weighing
in water will lead to error in the volume and so the specimen must be
coated with a measured mass of paraffin wax. The specimen is then marked
and stored for stability and flow measurements.
32
COMPUTATIONS
Figure 1. Mass/volume relationships in asphalt mix (adapted from Atkins, 1997)
Specimen
M Mass of specimen (= M
B
+M
G
)
V Bulk volume of specimen
V
MM
Volume of void-less mix
V
A
Volume of air between coated aggregate particles in the mix
Binder
M
BA
, V
BA
Mass & volume of absorbed binder (within surface pores of aggregate particles)
M
BE
, V
BE
Mass & volume of effective binder
M
B
Mass of constituent binder (= M
BE
+M
BA
)
V
B
Volume of constituent binder (= V
BE
+V
BA
)
Aggregate
M
G
Mass of aggregate
V
G
Bulk volume of aggregate (inclusive of all surface pores)
V
GE
Effective volume of aggregate (= V
G

-V
BA
)
Effective asphalt
Absorbed asphalt
Aggregate
Air voids
M
BA
M
M
G
M
B
M
BE
MASS
V
A
V
BA
V
GE
V
V
MM
V
B
V
BE
V
G
VOLUME
33
(1) Mass & volume of Marshall specimen
If the specimen has a smooth compact surface, i.e. fairly impermeable, its bulk
volume V is simply determined by weighing in air and submerged in water.
Then:
V = (W
a

W
w
) /
w
. . . (1a)
where
W
a
= weight of specimen in air (kg)
W
w
= weight of specimen in water (kg)
w

= density of water ( = 1000 kg/m
3
)
If the specimen is porous, its surface should be sealed with paraffin wax before
being weighed in water. Then:
V = {W
pa
-W
pw
- [(W
pa
W
a
)/G
p
] } /
w
. . . (1b)
where
W
pa
= weight of specimen and paraffin wax coating in air (kg)
W
pw
= weight of specimen and paraffin wax coating in water (kg)
G
p
= relative density of paraffin wax
The mass of the specimen is given by
M = W
a
. . . (1c)
(2) Mass & volume of binder
M
B

= M P
B

/100 (2a)
M
G
= M - M
B
(3a)
M
BA

= M
G
P
BAG

/100 (2b)
M
BE

= M
B

- M
BA
(2c)
V
B

= M
B
/
B
(2d)
V
BA

= M
BA
/
B
(2e)
34
V
BE

= M
BE
/
B
= V
B

-V
BA
(2f)
where
P
BAG
= binder absorption, % of mass of aggregate (= 100 M
BA
/ M
G
)
P
B
= binder content, % of total mass of specimen (= 100 M
B
/ M)
B
= density of binder (1.01-1.11 g/cm
3
)
(3) Mass & volume of aggregate
M
G
= M - M
B
(3a)
V
G

= M
G
/
G
(3b)
V
GE

= V
G
- V
BA
(3c)
where
G
= bulk density of aggregate (= M
G
/ V
G
)
(4) Volume of air in total mix
V
A

= V - V
BE

- V
G
= V - V
B
-V
GE
(4)
(5) Volume of void-less mix
V
MM

= V V
A
= V
BE
+ V
G
=

V
B
+ V
GE
(5)
(6) Binder contents
Effective binder content is given by:
P
BE
= 100 M
BE

/M (%) . . . (6a)
Absorbed binder content is given by:
P
BA
= 100 M
BA

/M (%) . . . (6b)
35
(7) Bulk density, d
Bulk density of specimen is given by:
d = M/V . . . (7)
(8) Maximum theoretical density, D
Maximum theoretical density of specimen is given by:
D = M/V
MM
. . . (8)
(9) Voids in total mix, VTM
Voids in total mix is given by:
VTM = 100 V
A
/V (%) . . . (9)
(10) Voids in mineral aggregate, VMA
Voids in mineral aggregate is given by:
VMA = 100 (V
BE

+V
A
)

/V (%) . . . (10)
(11) Voids filled with binder, VFB
Voids filled with binder is given by:
VFB = 100 V
BE

/(V
BE

+V
A
)

(%) . . . (11)
36
DISCUSSION (to be included in a later report on Marshall stability & flow)
(a) Report the followings:
the source and type (including geological descriptions) of the
aggregate.
the source, type and percentage (by mass) of the binder.
the mixing temperature, and number of blows of the compaction
hammer.
(b) Calculate d, D, VTM, VMA and VFB (see Sample Calculations).

(c) Collect results for the other specimens (containing different binder
percentages), and plot graphs of d, D, VTM, VMA, VFB against binder
content (see Figure 3).
REFERENCES
1. ASTM (1994). ASTM D1559-89, Standard test method for resistance to
plastic flow of bituminous mixtures using Marshall apparatus. 1994 Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 04.03, American Society for Testing
and Materials, Philadelphia 19103-1187.
2. Atkins, H.N. (1997). Highway Materials, Soils, and Concretes, 3
rd
ed..
Prentice-Hall Inc.
3. PWD (1992). PWD General Specification. Public Works Department,
Singapore 1987 (with amendments, 1992).
37
Table 1. LTA W3B Mix Specification (see also PWD 1992)
Type of mix W3B Wearing Course
Thickness of course 45-65 mm
Sieve size (mm) % Passing Mid-value
19.0 100 100
13.2 85-95 90
6.3 58-68 63
3.15 40-50 45
1.18 21-31 26
0.3 11-17 14
0.075 4-8 6
% Soluble bitumen (60/70 penetration
grade) (% by mass of total mix)
5 + 0.5
Figure 2. LTA W3B Gradation Envelope
38
MASS-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP - Sample Calculations
Volume of specimen, V
Mass of the specimen M = weight in air, W
a
= 1241.8 g (given)
Weight of the specimen suspended in water, W
w
= 718.0 g (given)
Volume of the specimen, V = (W
a
-W
w
)/
w
= 523.8 cm
3
Mass & volume of binder
Binder absorption (% of aggregate mass), P
BAG
= 1.5 % (given)
Binder content (% of specimen mass), P
B
= 5.5 % (given)
Density of binder,
B
= 1.01 g/cm
3
(given)
Mass of binder, M
B
= (0.055)(1241.8) = 68.3 g
Mass of aggregate, M
G
= (1241.8-68.3) = 1173.5 g
Mass of absorbed binder, M
BA
= (0.015)(1173.5) = 17.6 g
Mass of effective binder, M
BE
= (68.3-17.6) = 50.7 g
Volume of binder, V
B
= 68.3/1.01 g = 67.6 cm
3
Volume of absorbed binder, V
BA
= 17.6/1.01 g = 17.4 cm
3
Volume of effective binder, V
BE
= (67.6-17.4) g = 50.2 cm
3
Mass & volume of aggregate
Bulk density of aggregate,
G
= 2.65 g/cm
3
(given)
Mass of aggregate, M
G
= (1241.8 68.3) = 1173.5 g
Bulk volume of aggregate, V
G
= 1173.5/2.65 = 442.8 cm
3
Effective vol. of aggregate, V
GE
= (442.8-17.4 ) = 425.4 cm
3
Volume of air, V
A
Volume of air, V
A
= 523.8-50.2-442.8 = 30.8 cm
3
Bulk density, d
d = M / V = 1241.8/523.8 = 2.37 g/cm
3
Maximum theoretical density, D
D = M / V
MM
= 1241.8/(67.6+425.4) = 2.52 g/cm
3
Voids in total mix, VTM
VTM = V
A
/ V = 30.8/523.8 = 0.0588 = 5.88 %
Voids in mineral aggregate, VMA
VMA = (V
BE
+ V
A
)/ V = (50.2+30.8)/523.8 = 0.0155 = 15.5 %
Voids filled with binder, VFB
VFB = V
BE
/(V
BE
+ V
A
) = 50.2/(50.2+30.8) = 0.620 = 62.0 %
39
Figure 3. Sample test results from a Marshall mix design.
Marshall Stability and Flow of Bituminous Mix
40
MARSHALL STABILITY AND FLOW OF
BITUMINOUS MIX
OBJECTIVES
To measure the resistance to plastic flow of cylindrical specimens of a
bituminous paving mixture loaded on the lateral surface by means of the
Marshall Apparatus. The method is suitable for mixes containing aggregate up to
25 mm maximum size.
BACKGROUND
The most widely used method of bituminous mix design is the Marshall method
developed by the U.S. Corps of Engineers. Stability and flow, together with
density, voids and percentage of voids filled with binder are determined at
varying binder contents to determine an 'optimum' for stability, durability,
flexibility, fatigue resistance, etc.
The mechanism of failure in the Marshall test apparatus is complex but it is
essentially a type of unconfined compression test. This being so, it can only have
limited correlation with deformation in a pavement where the material is
confined by the tyre, the base and the surrounding surfacing. Wheel tracking
tests have shown that resistance to plastic flow increases with reducing binder
content whereas Marshall stability has an optimum, below which stability
decreases. Improvement on the assessment based on stability is possible by
considering flow and most agencies (e.g. Asphalt Institute, Singapore LTA) set
minima for stability and specified range for flow for various purposes (roads,
airports, etc.).
In addition to binder content, stability and flow are also dependent on type of
binder, grading of aggregate, the particle shape, geological nature of parent rock
(most importantly, porosity), degree of compaction, etc. Temperature is also a
factor but, for the test, it is standardised at 60
o
C.
41
PROCEDURE (ASTM 1994)
The dimension and specifications of the Marshall apparatus are laid down in
ASTM D1559. The diameter of the specimen is 101.6 mm and nominal
thickness 63.5 mm. Table 1, taken from ASTM D1559, gives a correlation ratio
whereby the stability of specimens not 63.5 mm thick can be adjusted.
1. Test specimens, prepared according to the Standard, are immersed in a
water bath for 30 to 40 minutes or in an oven for 2 hours at 60 1.0
o
C.

2. The testing heads and guide rods are thoroughly cleaned, guide rods
lubricated and head maintained at a temperature between 21.1 and 37.8
o
C.

3. A specimen is removed from the water bath or oven, and placed between
the lower jaw and the upper jaw of the specimen holder. The complete
assembly is then placed in the compression testing machine and the flow
meter adjusted to zero.

4. The load is applied to the specimen at a constant strain rate of 50.8 mm/min
until the maximum load is reached. The maximum force (called stability)
and flow at that force are read and recorded. The maximum time allowed
between removal of the specimen from the water bath and maximum load is
30 s.
RESULTS
Each specimen's stability is adjusted if its thickness is not exactly 63.5 mm. The
usual practice is to test 3 specimens for each binder content, and the average of 3
tests taken to be the stability (to nearest Newton) and flow (to nearest unit) at
each of the binder contents.
DISCUSSION
(a) Report the results obtained from the specimen preparation stage -see
specimen preparation experiment.

(b) Report the stability and flow of the mixes (for specimens with various
binder contents) and produce plots of stability and flow against binder
content.

(c) Determine the optimum binder contents for the bituminous mix with
respect to the LTA requirements (see Table 2).

(d) Comment on the applicability of your mix under Singapore conditions.
42
REFERENCES
1. Asphalt Institute (1998). Construction of hot mix asphalt pavements. Manual Series
No. 22, 2
nd
edition. Asphalt Institute, Lexington, Kentucky 40512-4052.
2. ASTM (1994). ASTM D1559-89, Standard test method for resistance to plastic
flow of bituminous mixtures using Marshall apparatus. 1994 Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Volume 04.03, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia
19103-1187.
3. PWD (1992). PWD General Specification. Public Works Department, Singapore
1987 (with amendments, 1992).
Table 1. Stability correlation ratio (from ASTM D1559)
Volume of
specimen (cm
3
)
Approximate thickness
of specimen (mm)
Correlation ratio
200-213 25.4 5.56
214-225 27.0 5.00
226-237 28.6 4.55
238-250 30.2 4.17
251-264 31.8 3.85
265-276 33.3 3.57
277-289 34.9 3.33
290-301 36.5 3.03
302-316 38.1 2.78
317-328 39.7 2.50
329-340 41.3 2.27
341-353 42.9 2.08
354-367 44.4 1.92
368-379 46.0 1.79
380-392 47.6 1.67
393-405 49.2 1.56
406-420 50.8 1.47
421-431 52.4 1.39
432-443 54.0 1.32
444-456 55.6 1.25
457-470 57.2 1.19
471-482 58.7 1.14
483-495 60.3 1.09
496-508 61.9 1.04
509-522 63.5 1.00
523-535 65.1 0.96
536-546 66.7 0.93
547-559 68.3 0.89
560-573 69.8 0.86
574-585 71.4 0.83
586-598 73.0 0.81
599-610 74.6 0.78
611-625 76.2 0.76
Table 2. Marshall design criteria specified by LTA (PWD 1992)
Marshall stability (Number of blows =2 75) 9.00 kN
Flow value (in 0.254-mm unit) 8-16 units (2-4 mm)
Voids in total mix, VTM 3-5 %
Aggregate voids filled with bitumen binder, VFB 75-82 %

Nanyang Technological University School of Civil and Structural Engineering

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Nanyang Technological University School of Civil and Structural Engineering

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NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

School of Civil and Structural Engineering

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