5 What is CSMA/CD?

??CSMA/CD is the access method used in an Ethernet.

??It stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection.
??Collision: Whenever multiple users have unregulated access to a single line, t
here is a danger of signals overlapping and destroying each other. Such overlaps
, which turn the signals into unusable noise, are called collisions.
??In CSMA/CD the station wishing to transmit first listens to make certain the l
ink is free, then transmits its data, then listens again. During the data transm
ission, the station checks the line for the extremely high voltages that indicat
e a collision.
??If a collision is detected, the station quits the current transmission and wai
ts a predetermined amount of time for the line to clear, then sends its data aga
in.
6 What is token ring?
??Token ring is a LAN protocol standardized by IEEE and numbered as IEEE 802.4.
??In a token ring network, the nodes are connected into a ring by point-to-point
links.
??It supports data rate of 4 & 16 Mbps.
??Each station in the network transmits during its turn and sends only one frame
during each turn.
??The mechanism that coordinates this rotation is called Token passing.
??A token is a simple placeholder frame that is passed from station to station a
round the ring. A station may send data only when it has possession of the token
.
7 Differentiate 1000base SX and 100 Base FX.
S.No Feature 1000 Base SX 100 Base FX.
1 Type Gigabit Ethernet Fast Ethernet
2 Data rate 1 Gbps I00 Mbps.
3 Medium Optical fiber Optical fiber
4 Signal Short-wave laser Laser
5 Max. Distance 550m 2000m
6 Encoding 4B/5B 8B/10B
8 Why is there no AC field in the 802.3 frame?
??Access control (AC) field in token ring frame specify the priority level to ea
ch station, so that each station sends data during its turn.
??But CSMA/CD access method does not specify priority level for any station. So
there is no AC field in the 802.3 frame.
Q9. Explain the concept of redundancy in error detection.
Ans. Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, that is extra bits are adde
d to the data unit at the sending end, for detecting transmission errors at the
receiving end. The redundant bits are used to check the accuracy of a data unit.
The redundant bits are added in various ways giving rise to four different meth
ods.
(i) Vertical redundancy checks (VRC) or Parity checks
(ii) Longitudinal redundancy checks (LRC)
(iii) Cyclical redundancy checks (CRC)
(iv) Checksum
Q10. What is single bit error? And how it differs from a burst error?
Ans. Single bit error: When a single bit in a data unit is changed in the proces
s of transmission, it is called single bit error. Single bit error can happen in
parallel transmission.
Burst error: When two or more bits in a data unit are changed in the process of
transmission, it is called burst error. Burst error can happen in a serial trans
mission.
1. Explain the following :
a. Flow Control (5) b. Error Control (5) c. Send Window (3) d. Receive Window (3
)
The two main functions of data link layer are data link control and media
access control.The data link control functions include framing,flow and error
control and software implemented protocols that provide smooth and reliable
transmission of frame between nodes.
Flow control:
It is a set of procedures that tells the sender how much data it can transmit be
fore
It can transmit before it must wait for an acknowledgement from the receiver. Th
e
Flow of data must not be allowed to overwhelm the receiver.Any receiving device
has a limited speed at which it can process incoming data and a limited amount o
f
memory in which to store incoming data. The receiving device must be able to
inform the sending device before these limits are reached and to request that
transmitting device send fewer frames or stop temporarily.
Incoming data must be checked and processed before they can be used. The rate of

such processing is often slower that the rate of transmission. For this reason,e
ach
receiving device has a block of memory called buffer reserved for storing incomi
ng
data until they are processed. If the buffer begins to fill up,the receiver must
be able
to tell the sender to halt transmission until it is once again able to receive.
Error Control:
It is both error detection and error correction. It allows the receiver to infor
m the
sender of any frames lost or damaged in transmission and co-ordinates the
transmission of those frames by the sender. In data link layer the term error co
ntrol
refers primarily to methods of error detection and retransmission.Error control
in
the data link layer is often implemented simply as follows: Any time an error is

detected in an exchange specified frames are retransmitted.This process is calle
d
Automatic Repeat Request.
Send Window:
The Send window is an abstract concept defining an imaginary box of size 2m 1
With three variables Sf , Sn, Ssize where
Sf - Sending Window?s First Outstanding Frame
Sn - Sending Window?s next Frame to be sent
S size Sending Window?s size.
.The Send window can slide one or more slots when a valid acknowledgement arrive
s.
Receive Window:
The receive window is an abstract concept defining an imaginaru box of size 1
With one single variable Rn where
Rn- Receive Window?s next frame to be expected.
The receive window slides when a correct frame has arrived and sliding occurs on
e
at a time