09575820/04/$30.00+0.

00
# 2004 Institution of Chemical Engineers
www.ingentaselect.com=titles=09575820.htm Trans IChemE, Part B, May 2004
Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 82(B3): 200207
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE UTILIZATION FOR INTEGRATED
CEMENT PROCESSING WITH WASTE MINIMIZATION
A Pilot Scale Proposal
K. K. H. CHOY, D. C. K. KO, W.-H. CHEUNG, J. S. C. FUNG,
D. C. W. HUI, J. F. PORTER and G. MCKAY*
Department of Chemical Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology,
Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, Peoples Republic of China
A
novel design of an integrated process for cement production incorporating municipal
solid waste (MSW) separation and combustion has been developed. The novel design
offers signicant opportunities for waste minimization. The MSW combustion system
design incorporates the use of supplementary fuel from waste marine oil. Very high
temperature, 1200

C, high turbulence and high residence time, >4 s, are achieved. This results
in very high burnout of MSW, resulting in negligible particulate organic matter to form dioxin
by de-novo synthesis. The energy produced is used for the cement process calcination of
limestone and residual heat is converted into energy to drive the cement plant. The calcination
process itself is used as a large scrubber to remove SO
x
and HCl, the latter minimizing the
chance of dioxin formation further. A front end materials recovery and recycling facility,
MRRF, is used to remove valuable recyclable components, chlorine-based plastics and metal-
containing materials, such as batteries. The combustion of the MSW achieves a 8590%
volume reduction and the MSW ash is used as a feedstock for the production of the cement
clinker.
Keywords: solid waste; integrated cement processing; waste minimization; process design;
simulation.
INTRODUCTION
The opportunities for landlling as a disposal method for
municipal solid waste (MSW) are rapidly declining with
depleting available cheap land resources and the wasteful
nature of disposing of useful resources in the landll
operation. The costs of landlling in terms of site acquisi-
tion, preparation and maintenance are extremely high. For
example, in Hong Kong, there are three landll sites for 6.8
million people; the construction of the three sites cost
US$750 million, the total area of the 270 hectares is
worth US$1000 million as agricultural land and over
US$3000 million as prime real estate.
The environmental problems in terms of gaseous emis-
sions and leachate containment and treatment are also
signicant and expensive (Mackay et al., 1985). In the
1970s there was a signicant move towards the use of
incineration for MSW treatment. However, due to lack of
knowledge relating to emissions problems and poor incin-
erator design, these early MSW incinerators developed a
bad environmental reputation (Law and Gordon, 1979;
Shaub and Tsang, 1983; Karasek and Dickson, 1987;
Stieglitz and Vogg, 1987). The opportunities for public
sector waste reduction translate into separation, recycling
and resource recovery. Owing to the limited economic
benets of separation and recycling (Basta et al., 1991;
Donovan, 1991), and signicant improvements in incin-
erator design (McKay, 2002), resource recovery in the
form of heat and power production has again gained favor
in the past 20 years (Hasselriis, 1987; Addlink and Olie,
1995; Kilgroe, 1996; Andersson et al., 1998). Most
countries are operating at least 10 MSW incinerator
units, including the USA, Japan, Korea, the UK, Germany
and France (Shin and Chang, 1999; USEPA, 1987; WHO,
1986; European Commission, 1994). The benets of
modern incineration plants are:
the volume and mass of the MSW are signicantly
reduced (8590% by volume);
the careful selection of incinerator site locations reduces
transportation costs;
the waste reduction is immediate and not dependent on
long biological reaction times;
the energy sales from heat recovery offset the operating
costs;
air emissions can be controlled to achieve the strict
BATNEEC incinerator guidelines.
200
*Correspondence to: Dr G. McKay, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay,
Kowloon, Hong Kong.
E-mail: kemckayg@ust.hk
However, conventional MSW incineration does have its
drawbacks:
all the MSW is incinerated, whereas some components
are more valuable for recycling (USEPA, 1989; Sakai
et al., 1996);
poor incineration practices and MSW components con-
taining chlorine may lead to highly toxic dioxin and furan
emissions, and sulphur components lead to SO
x
emissions;
controlling metal emissions is problematic; these include
arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead and mercury;
expensive primary fuels are frequently required to achieve
the high combustion temperatures;
there is 1015% volume ash produced for landll disposal;
limited thermal efciencies in converting the heat energy
to electrical power.
Modern conventional MSW incineration is now accepted
worldwide; however, it does have the listed drawbacks. The
present study investigates the application of MSW incinera-
tion as an integral component of a cement manufacturing
facility and discusses how several natural features of the
cement production process combine synergistically with
MSW incineration to minimize and even take advantage
of its drawbacks. The integrated process, currently under
construction at pilot plant scale, will be described, followed
by a discussion on how this novel process achieves optimum
waste minimization and nally summarizes on the benets
of a full-scale integrated cement production facility with
MSW incineration.
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The MSW obtained, after screening by the material
recovery processes from the MSW reception and handling
area, will undergo a series of thermal treatment operations in
the co-combustion (Co-Co) pilot-plant treatment process by,
rst entering the Co-Co treatment units for total hydrocar-
bon destruction of combustibles into basic gaseous combus-
tion products. The combustion gas is then vented through
the precalciner for neutralization of acidic gas and chloride
with an excess amount of calcined alkaline material for
scrubbing. NO
x
reduction is implemented at the ducting of
the precalciner. The adsorption material carrying neutralized
products containing chloride will be extracted from the gas
by the cyclone system and will be further cooled with the
lime cooling process through an arrangement of multiple
staged high-efciency cyclones systems. The gas is further
cooled at the heat exchanger for downstream treatment at
the baghouse ltration before venting to the atmosphere. In
addition, the gas is polished in a carbon adsorption system
when necessary. The neutralized chloride material is further
extracted downstream of the lime cooling process for
collection, sampling and analysed for further handling. All
calcined material in excess is again recharged to the precal-
ciner to exploit the neutralization effect in this closed
system. Cleaned gas is vented to the atmosphere. The
individual process units of the Co-Co pilot facility will be
described below in more detail.
MSW Reception and Handling
MSW is brought to the Co-Co pilot plant facility and rst
enters an MSW reception hall. The MSW reception hall is
an enclosed building. It is divided into a bunker area and a
material sorting area by an isolating partition wall. The
MSW is only temporarily retained in a coverable storage pit
in the bunker area. Air inside the entire MSW reception hall
is maintained at a negative pressure. This includes the
bunker area and sorting area, which are both ventilated to
provide cooling. This draft odorous air is eventually
supplied as primary and secondary air for the Co-Co
thermal oxidation units, or, when required, it can be directed
to the air cleaning device, for maintaining fresh air exchange
and odor-free exhaust. MSW drained water is collected and
is injected to and treated at the secondary combustion
chamber by thermal oxidation.
The MSW is picked up from the storage pit and conveyed
to a bulk reduction system area, where waste materials in
wrapping materials is exposed, ploughed and broken apart
for later classication before direct thermal treatment. Bulky
waste that is found to be too large is removed from the
MSW. Moreover, any material that is found to contain any
hazards, like chemical, dangerous goods, pesticides, danger-
ous substances, chemical and clinical waste, and other
hazardous materials, controlled or not controlled by any
specied ordinances and subsidiary regulations, is removed
using a manually operated Y section and handled sepa-
rately from the material stream going to the next classica-
tion stage.
Screening of undersize materials is classied by a classi-
fying trommel. This equipment is relatively low in capital,
operating and maintenance costs compared with other
separation systems (Savage et al., 1986). The classication
of the undersize material is to remove mainly the non-
combustibles from the MSW. Most of the undersize materi-
als dropping through the 50 mm trommel screen are debris
comprising mainly food and other wastes of heavier solid
pieces, such as household batteries, a signicant source of
heavy metal contaminants in MSW. These batteries and
batteries containing such material, like mobile phones, in
the heavier fraction will be picked up and removed from the
undersize debris.
The irremovable material from the mixed undersize and
oversize material stream is the nal product to be treated by
the Co-Co treatment process.
Co-Co Treatment Units
The Co-Co treatment units consist of a series of energy
intensive thermal oxidation units. They are the MSW rotary
kiln and the secondary combustion chamber (SCC). The
remaining material passing though the equipment will be
totally oxidized to basic ue gas products by the 3Ts,
namely, extremely high temperature, incomparable turbu-
lences, and extended residence time. Those applied features
of the 3Ts can normally be found fully exploited and
inherent in the cement manufacturing process. Supplemen-
tary fuel is used in addition to MSW to provide the
additional energy for the very high temperature used in
the process. This fuel is waste marine oil, termed MARPOL
or marine polluting oil. All hydrocarbons in the mixed
material are destroyed at this stage and are broken down
here to basic combustion gas products as exiting ue gas,
which exits and passes to the next stage for acidic gas
removal.
Trans IChemE, Part B, Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 2004, 82(B3): 200207
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE UTILIZATION 201
All volatile matter and water content from the MSW are
thermally desorbed once it is pushed from the kiln hopper
into the MSW rotary kiln and thermally oxidized gradually
along a 2.3 m diameter by 27.6 m length, counter current hot
air and material ow MSW rotary kiln. The material and
vapour are brought to an extremely high temperature by the
hot gas passing through a ame of temperature greater than
1600

C. Unlike the conventional incinerator, the MSW

rotary kiln is able to tumble any buried MSW material,
enhancing the direct heat exchange. It enhances the thermal
desorption and thermal oxidation by increasing direct heat
exchange between the hot air and the material. Combustible
material is totally destroyed and oxidized into basic combus-
tion products of carbon dioxide and water exiting the MSW
rotary kiln at 950

C and this hot ue gas stream now enters

the SCC. The sintered material exits the MSW rotary kiln
from the other end at 1100

C. The 1100

C hot solid
material from the MSW rotary kiln is quenched in a water
trough to room temperature. The evaporated quenching
water is vented to the MSW rotary kiln. The residue will
be collected, sampled and analysed for further handling.
The ue gas coming out of the MSW rotary kiln, carrying
the thermally desorbed vapour, water, basic combustion
products and other volatile matters, is ultimately cleansed
in the SCC using a second stage of complete destruction by
thermal oxidation. The gas is further brought to an extreme
temperature of 1200

C in the SCC. The distinctive 16 m

long chamber with extra tangential air injection into the
SCC is creating a vigorous swirling turbulence and main-
taining a far longer residence time for the total thermal
oxidation to take place. The gas mixture is kept at 1200

C
for at least 4 s in the SCC to ensure ultimate cleansing of the
off gas. Aromatic and other organic compounds are
destroyed and dissociated down to their basic ue gas
products. To ensure complete destruction and thermal
oxidation of hydrocarbons in the gas stream from the
SCC, a 6% oxygen content by weight on a wet basis is
maintained at the ue gas exit from the SCC. Owing to the
benets of the 3Ts, such high destruction and reduction
efciency (DRE) of hydrocarbons is achieved. The gas is
vented to the next stage of the process to the Precalciner for
acidic gases removal.
Precalciner
The precalciner consists of a cylindrical reactor with a
long duct, followed by stages of cyclone separators. In the
precalciner, the cement raw meal is brought into contact
with the ue gas at 1200

C from the SCC, bringing about

de-carbonization, or calcination, of the limestone.
CaCO
3
Heat !CaO CO
2
The reaction demands a high-energy consumption, which
the hot ue gas from the SCC supplies the energy to fulll.
At the same time, the alkaline lime, CaO, absorbs the acidic
gaseous pollutants present in the ue gas by dry scrubbing
and neutralization reactions.
The dry scrubbing process incorporating the effective dry
scrubbing and neutralization intrinsically inherent in the
precalciner and preheater process in cement manufacturing
involves the massive overdosing of amounts of alkaline lime
material as the absorbing agent for the gaseous pollutants
including sulphur oxides, SO
x
, and chlorides evolved during
the prior combustion process. Limestone, in itself, is a major
component abundantly used in cement manufacture and
constitutes up to 80% of the feed raw material.
An extended residence time of 3 s is allowed for the
limestone to be de-carbonized in the elongated precalciner,
and an extended reaction duct of more than 28 m provides a
favorable 3Ts condition for the scrubbing and neutraliza-
tion to take place.
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) will be absorbed and scrubbed
by neutralization. Chloride is a key precursor of dioxin
reformation. It is extracted as the non-hazardous neutraliza-
tion product, namely as calcium chloride (CaCl
2
). There-
fore, the determining factor chloride is withdrawn from the
process, in principle leaving no chloride for any possible
dioxin reformation in the ue gas at later stages.
CaO 2HCl !CaCl
2
H
2
O
(reaction with hydrogen chloride)
CaO SO
2
1=2 O
2
!CaSO
4
(reaction with SO
2
)
The neutralization product of CaCl
2
is gradually extracted
from the un-reacted CaO overdose and is collected, sampled
and analysed for other possible utilization or handling.
The un-reacted CaO overdose, after cooling in the lime
cooling system, is recharged back to the precalciner process
for re-circulation and repeat neutralization operations. The
cleaned ue gas, normally free of acidic gases, is vented to
the next stage for further cooling and polishing.
A lime cooling system is required for cooling the CaO
overdose for recharging at the precalciner. The lime cooling
system is responsible for the cooling of this CaO overdose
and the extraction of CaCl
2
from this lime material. Air from
the bunker and sorting area of the reception hall is drawn into
an extended cooling duct for the material, and then enters a
set of high efciency cyclones for further cooling and air-
solid separation to take place. The air and the CaO overdose
lime material are brought to a temperature of 200

C.
The cooled CaO lime material overdose is recharged back
to the precalciner. The heated cooling air is vented to the
rotary kiln and SCC as primary and secondary air for the
thermal oxidation. At the same time, it serves to maintain
fresh air exchange and de-odorizing solution for the recep-
tion hall during the Co-Co operation.
De-NO
x
Apart from the removal of chloride and acidic gases, the
Co-Co process is also equipped with the capability to
minimize NO
x
emission by implementing a De-NO
x
system to reduce the nitrogen oxides from the thermal
oxidation process. The overall reaction for NO reduction,
using a urea solution injection system, is given as follows:
H
2
NCONH
2
2NO 1=2O
2
!2 N
2
CO
2
2H
2
O
The De-NO
x
system adopted for this Co-Co pilot plant is an
SNCR (selective non-catalytic reaction) type. Urea solution
will be atomized when injected at a series of positions, of
temperature ranges from 950 to 980

C, along the ducting

of the precalciner to enhance gas contact and reduction
reaction.
Trans IChemE, Part B, Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 2004, 82(B3): 200207
202 CHOY et al.
Energy Recovery System
A heat exchanger is installed to cool the ue gas from the
last stage cyclones of the precalciner system for energy
recovery optimization and subsequent ue gas polishing in
the downstream baghouse ltration unit.
The cleaned ue gas, typically free of acidic gases, is
vented to the gas cooler at 950

C, and is cooled down to

200

C by indirect heat exchange with cooling water. No

steam will be generated from the gas cooler.
This heat energy recovered from the ue gas can be
utilized in power generation. The design of this heat
exchanger allows for the collection of thermodynamic data
in establishing the specication of such a power generation
unit as part of the research objectives.
The gas cooler is designed to rapidly quench the cleaned
ue gas by quickly passing the ue gas through several
cooling water tube modules. The retention time for the clean
ue gas is minimized to less than 1.4 s at a temperature
region from 450 to 200

C. Indirect heat exchange by

convection and conduction takes place at the tube surface.
The cooling water carrying the heat energy away from the
cleaned ue gas rises to a maximum temperature of 70

C.
The cooling water is further cooled and recycled in a
cooling water system.
As the gas is cleaned from the preceding cyclones, only a
minimum amount of particles is settled at the surface of the
heat exchanger tubes and the bottom of the gas cooler
hoppers. The particles collected are sampled and analysed
for further handling.
Carbon Adsorption System
The Co-Co process is intended to convert and absorb
completely the chemical precursors of dioxins=furans into
basic ue gas products, i.e. carbon dioxide and water.
Injection of activated carbon can be used for further adsorp-
tion cleaning of the ue gas and forms an additional
emission control measure for absorption of dioxins and
furans, as well as heavy metals. Finely powdered activated
carbon is used as required and injected into the ue gas
stream exiting the heat exchanger. The carbon is ltered on
the baghouse lter fabrics.
Baghouse Filtration
The cleaned ue gases will be directed through fabric air
lters for removal of remaining pollutants and particulates in
the gas stream. The best available heat-resistant fabrics
laminated with PTFE membrane will be adopted as the
ltration material. The cleaned ue gas is further ltered as
it is vented through the baghouse. The baghouse is equipped
with a self-cleaning system to maintain its collection ef-
ciency. Residue collected is sampled and analysed for
further handling.
All air pollution control measures ensure that the
exhausted stack gas meets the most exacting standards for
air emission levels when it reaches the atmosphere.
Residue Handling
Residues from the thermal treatment process are sampled
and analysed. The analysed results can be used to determine
subsequent predened handling and treatment methods
approved by the appropriate authority to adopt in handling
and treating the residue.
Residues come from the following unit operations: kiln
residue quench, extract of lime cooling system, gas cooler
and baghouse. These residues are tested for contaminants of
hazardous materials by methods approved by the relevant
authority. Where appropriate, these residues are recharged
back to the process to minimize disposal handling. Residue
from the thermal treatment process is treated by solidica-
tion as needed for disposal purposes, if an amount of
contaminants exceeding the approved standard is found
after the analysis.
The solidication product is sampled and analysed by
methods approved by the relevant authority. Solidication is
repeated until the local discharge standards are met by the
solidication product.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Process Simulation
Material and energy balances are two of the most impor-
tant elements in the process design. All equipment designs
and costings are based on the result of the material and
energy balances. Flow rate and temperature are the two
typical parameters used in the material and energy balance
calculation. The basic principle for both material and energy
balance is simply based on the following equation:
in out generation consumption accumulation
The overall process simulation including mass and energy
balances were conducted by Microsoft Excel. The process
ow diagram is presented in Figure 1.
Physical Composition of Municipal Solid Waste
Information and data on the physical composition of solid
wastes are important in the selection and operation of
equipment and facilities, in assessing the feasibility of
resource and energy recovery, and in the analysis and
design of landll disposal facilities. For example, if the
solid wastes generated at a commercial facility consist of
only paper products, the use of special processing equip-
ment, such as shredders and balers, may be appropriate.
Separate collection may also be considered if the city or
collection agency is involved in a paper-products recycling
program. Physical composition is the term used to describe
the individual components that make up a solid waste stream
and their relative distribution, usually based on percentage
by weight. Typical data from the environmental protection
department (EPD) on the distribution of MSW in Hong
Kong (EPD, 2000a) are presented in Table 1. The municipal
solid waste is mainly divided into two typesdomestic
waste and commercial and industrial waste. From Table 1,
putrescibles, paper and plastics are the major components,
constituting about 76% of the municipal solid waste, repre-
senting about 33.1, 26.7 and 16.6%, respectively. Other
minor components include textiles (3.2%), metals (3.0%),
glass (3.1%), bulky waste (3.5%) and wood=rattan (4.3%)
and the average moisture content for municipal solid waste
is 28%.
Trans IChemE, Part B, Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 2004, 82(B3): 200207
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE UTILIZATION 203
Chemical Properties of Municipal Solid Waste
Information on the chemical composition of the compo-
nents that constitute MSW is important in evaluating alter-
native processing and recovery options. The feasibility of
combustion depends on the chemical composition of the
municipal solid waste. Determining the elemental composi-
tion of MSW by ultimate analysis is a key factor for the
detailed design of the MSW gasication plant and helps
conrm the accuracy of material and energy balances of the
MSW gasication process. The ultimate analysis of a MSW
component typically involves the determination of the
percentage of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitro-
gen (N), sulfur (S) and ash. Because of the concerns over the
emission of chlorinated compounds, e.g. dioxins, during
combustion, the determination of halogens is often included
in an ultimate analysis. The results of the ultimate analysis
are used to characterize the chemical composition of the
organic matter in MSW. Representative data on the ultimate
analysis for the typical MSW components given in Table 1
are presented in Table 2 (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993). The
average chemical composition of municipal solid waste is
estimated and is shown in Table 2. The major elements are
carbon (43.9%), oxygen (32.1%) and ash (17.1%), account-
ing for around 93% of MSW in Hong Kong. Other elements
include hydrogen (5.6%), nitrogen (1.1%) and sulfur (0.3%).
In the calculation of the material and energy balances of the
MSW gasication process, the difference, 0.8% of chlorine,
is assumed to be present and has been used to simulate the
formation of the chlorinated compounds, such as dioxins,
during co-combustion.
Energy Content of Municipal Solid Waste
After estimating the elemental composition of the MSW,
the energy content of the MSW can be estimated. Typical
data for the energy content for the components of MSW are
reported in Table 3. Based on 100 kg of MSWand using the
physical components in Table 1, the total energy content of
the MSW using the data given in Table 3 is estimated and is
also shown in Table 3, where the energy content values are
on an as-discarded basis. The estimated energy content
value of MSW in Hong Kong is 5843.5 Btu lb
1
, which
compares well with the typical value of 5750 Btu lb
1
,
including 20% moisture (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993). If
the moisture of the MSW is 55%, the caloric value of
MSW will become 3234 Btu lb
1
(1800 kcal kg
1
).
Waste Minimization Benets
Volume reduction of MSW for the Co-Co process
The initial amount of MSW input into the simulated
Co-Co pilot plant process is 2000 kg hr
1
, and the density
of the MSW varies with season and geographical location.
The MSW in the Asian countries is usually wetter, and can
have a density of 500 kg m
3
(or 857 lb y or d
3
) (Winrock
International Institute for Agricultural Development, 1996).
After the combustion process, the total ash output from the
process is 375 kg hr
1
. If it is assumed that the ash gener-
ated from the combustion process would mostly consist of
sand and have a density of 700 kg m
3
(or 1200 lb y or d
3
),
which is the density of the SiO
2
, the total volume reduction
Figure 1. Process ow diagram.
Table 1. Physical composition of municipal solid waste in Hong Kong
in 2000.
Quantity (tpd) and percentage by weight
Physical
component
Domestic
waste (a)
Commercial
and industrial
waste (b)
Municipal
solid waste
(c) (a) (b)
Bulky waste
a
223 (3%) 106 (5.9%) 329 (3.5%)
Glass 260 (3.4%) 28 (1.6%) 288 (3.1%)
Metals 232 (3.1%) 52 (2.0%) 284 (3.0%)
Paper 2003 (26.6%) 490 (27.3%) 2493 (26.7%)
Plastics 1210 (16.0%) 334 (18.6%) 1544 (16.6%)
Putrescibles 2792 (37.0%) 299 (16.7%) 3091 (33.1%)
Textiles 224 (3.0%) 73 (4.0%) 297 (3.2%)
Wood=rattan 152 (2.0%) 247 (13.7%) 399 (4.3%)
Others
b
444 (5.9%) 166 (9.3%) 610 (6.5%)
Total 7540 (100%) 1795 (100%) 9334 (100%)
a
Bulky wastebig furniture, household machines (e.g. refrigerator, air
conditioning or washing machines); it is assumed to include 50% wood
and 50% metal.
b
Othersash, pottery, dirt (e.g. ofce=house, sweepings).
Trans IChemE, Part B, Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 2004, 82(B3): 200207
204 CHOY et al.
of MSW by co-combustion with MARPOL is around 87%.
The ash may then be used as one of the raw materials for the
cement process.
Energy savings
The energy benets of the MSW gasication process
options mainly come from the generation of electricity and
the production of high-temperature raw feed material, clin-
ker, of cement production plant by utilizing the waste heat
energy from the ue gas while the electricity is supplied to
drive the cement manufacturing process.
According to the calculated material and energy balances
in the MSW Co-Co simulation program, the total heat
energy of the ue gas coming from the SSC is
29,659 MJ h
1
. The hot ue gas is used to heat 4.19
tonnes h
1
of cement raw meal, limestone, from 25 to
950

C in order to produce 2.5 tonnes h

1
of clinker material
for the cement manufacturing process. The limestone is
brought into contact with the ue gas at 1200

C from the
SCC, bringing about de-carbonization, or calcination, of the
limestone. The total energy consumption on the precalciner
system was 2524 MJ h
1
and 8.6% of ue gas energy can be
utilized to provide all the energy required in pre-calcination
process to save HK$367,000 (US$47,000) annually.
It is proposed that the remaining waste heat energy from
the ue gas, 27,135 MJ h
1
, is used to generate electricity
for the Co-Co process and the cement production process.
If the electricity generation efciency of the steam turbine is
11% (Steltz, 1992), and the energy content (55% moisture)
of the MSW in Hong Kong is around 1800 kcal kg
1
, the
MSW Co-Co pilot plant will generate 14,328 kWh
(597 kW) electricity per day and the annual electricity
generation will be 4,728,240 kWh. According to the elec-
tricity bills from China Light Power CLP (Hong Kong)
Company, the charge for electricity is 74 cents per KWh
unit. Hence, the potential annual revenue from the electricity
generation system is HK$3,500,000 (US$450,000).
The other possible revenue from the process is the use of
the waste oil, MARPOL, as a source of energy for the
process. The disposal cost for MARPOL given by the
Environmental Protection Department (EPD, 1998) is
HK$450 m
3
(US$ 60 m
3
). In the simulation study, it
was found that the process can utilize 328 kg h
1
of
MARPOL instead of using fuel oil as the energy for
combustion. Assuming that the density of the MARPOL is
0.85 g cm
3
, the annual revenue from utilizing the
MARPOL is around HK$ 1.46 million (US$180,000).
In 2000, over 6 million tonnes of waste was generated in
Hong Kong, and the annual cost of running landll is
HK$400 million (EPD, 2000b). Therefore, the cost of
landll is around HK$65 ton
1
(US$8 ton
1
). This Co-Co
pilot scale process can have a capacity of 2 ton h
1
, which
could induce a further saving of HK$1 million year
1
(US$132,000 year
1
) from the cost of landll.
Emission reduction
An MSW and ash handling system with a series of air
pollutant treatment devices has been designed for this plant
in order to meet the current disposal and emission require-
ments. The airborne emissions from the Co-Combustion
process are controlled and must not exceed the concentra-
tion limits set by the Hong Kong Environmental Protection
Department. The concentration limits are tabulated in
Table 4. All air pollutant concentrations are expressed at
reference conditions of 0

C temperature, 101.3 kPa pressure,

dry and 11% oxygen content conditions.
In our simulation study, the concentration of the pollutant
was dependent on the removal efciency of the equipment and
Table 2. Typical data on the ultimate analysis of the combustible materials.
Percentage by weight (dry basis)
Type of waste Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulfur Ash
Bulky waste
a
27.0 3.3 23.4 0.2 0.1 46.0
Glass 0.5 0.1 0.4 <0.1 0 98.9
Metals 4.5 0.6 4.3 <0.1 0 90.5
Paper 43.5 6.0 44.0 0.3 0.2 6.0
Plastics 60.0 7.2 22.8 0 0 10.0
Putrescibles 48.0 6.4 37.6 2.6 0.4 5.0
Textiles 55.0 6.6 31.2 4.5 0.2 2.5
Wood=rattan 49.5 6.0 42.7 0.2 0.1 1.5
Others
b
26.3 3.0 2.0 0.5 0.2 68.0
MSW (average) 43.9 5.6 32.1 1.1 0.3 17.1
a
Bulky wastebig furniture, household machine (e.g. refrigerator, air conditioning or washing machines);
it is assumed to include 50% wood and 50% metal.
b
Othersash, pottery, dirt (e.g. ofce=house, sweepings).
Note: the estimated composition of MSW is based on the data in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 3. Energy content of municipal solid waste in Hong Kong in 2001.
100 kg MSW
Physical
component
MSW
(kg)
Energy,
Btu lb
1a
Total
energy,
b
Btu
Bulky waste 3.5 4150 31,955
Glass 3.1 60 409
Metals 3.0 300 1980
Paper 26.7 7200 422,928
Plastics 16.6 14,000 511,280
Putrescibles 33.1 2000 145,640
Textiles 3.2 7500 52,800
Wood=rattan 4.3 8000 75,680
Others 6.5 3000 42,900
Total 100 1,285,572
Heat value of MSW (Btu lb
1
) 5843.5
Heat value of MSW (kcal kg
1
) 3248.6
a
Adapted in part from Tchobanoglous et al. (1993).
b
As-discarded basis.
Note: 1 Btu lb
1
2.326 1 kJ kg
1
.
Trans IChemE, Part B, Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 2004, 82(B3): 200207
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE UTILIZATION 205
the conversion in the combustion process. It was assumed that
HCl has a 98% removal by calcium carbonate and the overall
conversion of CO to CO
2
is 99.98% in the combustion
chamber. The removal efciency of NO
2
and SO
2
in the
Co-Co process is greater than 90%. The particulates were
removed from cyclone and lter bag with a total removal
efciency of 99%. The emission concentrations of these
pollutants were lower than the concentration limits set by
the Environmental Protection Department.
Bottom ash reduction
Simulated laboratory scale experiments showed that the
bottom ash discharged from the MSW rotary kiln can be
incorporated into the cement process as a raw material
feedstock. This results in a direct saving in the purchase
of silica sand.
Table 5 shows the results of a series of tests using various
cement mix compositions; samples AC incorporate y ash
and sample D is the normal processing feed composition. The
results are based on over 50 theoretical compositions of the
cement feed composition generated by simulation in colla-
boration with Green Island Cement Co. Ltd, Hong Kong. The
compositions in Table 5 show those typical of high MSW
incineration ash, thus maximizing the use of the ash. All the
simulation compositions were tested in laboratory experiments
and all produced acceptable quality cement clinker product.
Based on the current full-scale operating cement plant, the
production rate is 250 t clinker h
1
. The ash produced in
the MSW rotary kiln would represent 6.57.0% by weight of
the feed rate. Consequently, the potential economic savings
could be estimated based on the feed composition shown in
column A. The main economic savings would then be
US$762,000 p.a. sand and US$244,000 p.a. limestone.
Effectiveness of combustion conditions
Since this process is not purely incineration but is a supply
of process energy, it must meet a specic temperature target
of 1200

C, signicantly higher than the 850

C for the 2 s
normally specied in conventional waste incinerators. There-
fore, in the present process a secondary combustion chamber
is provided using an additional supply of MARPOL injected
into the chamber through two burners tangentially to achieve
swirling turbulence for a residence time of 4 s and heating
the 850

C MSW incineration ue gas to a temperature of

1200

C, more than satisfying the 3Ts requirement in modern

waste combustors. The ability to use the waste marine oil as
a relatively cheap supplementary fuel has a major benet in
that the process is not totally dependent on the CV of the
MSW. Therefore a material recovery and recycling facility
will be developed at the front end of the process.
MRRF
This facility is designed to take out the easily recoverable
plastics, paper, wood, metals etc., even though some have a
high caloric value (CV). The selection is made on an
economic basis and an environmental basis. For example,
high-value recyclable plastics are recovered and also PVC
units; the latter reduces the chlorine loading to reduce dioxin
formation potential. After the initial materials recovery and
recycling facility (MRRF) separation, size reduction takes
place, followed by trommelling. In another pilot study (Lau,
2002), this technique was shown to be very effective for the
removal of batteries, the major source of volatile heavy
metals in the emissions.
Therefore, as a direct result of the MRRF with an
estimated 15% recovery, two major emission sources are
also minimized, saving US$1370 and US$73,000 p.a. from
the decreased usage of activated carbon and limestone,
respectively. An MRRF facility is generally regarded as
impractical in conventional MSW incinerators due to the
lowering of the CV of the feedstock and the value of the
nal product, compared with expensive conventional supple-
mentary oil energy sources.
Dioxin emission minimization
Under the 3Ts conditions of 1200

C, >4 s residence time,

rotary kiln turbulence and tangential burner swirl turbulence,
the fuel burn out is extremely high, thus minimizing the
available organic carbon for the downstream reformation
synthesis of dioxins (McKay, 2002). The MRRFalso reduces
the chlorine content of the MSW feed by the removal of
PVC. In addition, there is scrubbing of HCl in the pre-
calciner, in which the scrubbing ratio is more than 10 times
greater than that in a normal ue gas scrubber. The HCl
forms calcium chloride, which then participates in clinker
forming reactions. Since the temperature in the precalciner
becomes very high, there will probably be some dissociation
reactions and some chlorine may be rejected. The cement
clinker forming reactions are too complex to simulate
and make predictions. Consequently, we will only have
Table 4. Concentration limits for emission from incineration processes.
Air pollutant
Daily average
concentration
limit
(mg m
73
)
Removal
efciency
Simulation
results
(mg m
73
)
Particulates 30 99% 9
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) 50 98% 17
Hydrogen uoride (HF) 2
Sulfur dioxide (SO
2
) 200 90% 163
Nitrogen oxides (NO
2
) 400 90% 1
Carbon monoxide (CO) 100 99.98% 50
Table 5. Various cement raw material compositions.
Sample A B C D
Limestone 76.49 78.10 78.18 80.55
Fly ash 5.53 5.78 5.64 7.07
Slag 2.22 2.29 2.22 2.33
Sand 9.40 9.62 9.71 10.05
MSW ash 6.36 4.21 4.25
Table 6. Potential annual savings for MSW-integrated cement process.
Waste category saving Savings US$ (per year)
Landll costs 103,327,000
Energy for process 4,700,000
Power for process 15,000,000
Power for export 30,000,000
Limestone feed 244,000
Silica sand feed 762,000
Revenue from MARPOL treatment 18,000,000
AC injection 457,000
Lime injection 244,000
Total 172,734,000
Trans IChemE, Part B, Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 2004, 82(B3): 200207
206 CHOY et al.
quantitative data on this aspect of the project after the pilot
plant tests nish in approximately 12 months. Finally, there is
a carbon=lime injection system for the cooled ue gas
(473 K) immediately prior to the baghouse lter.
Based on the dioxin content from conventional MSW
incinerators with similar baghouse lters (McKay, 2002) in
the combustion temperature range 8501150

C, the current
system, without the other dioxin minimization factors,
should reduce the dioxin emission level to well below
0.08 ng TEQN
1
m
3
.
Waste y ash and active carbon residues
The major wastes from the process are yash and
carbon=lime injection residues for the baghouse lter.
In conventional incinerators, these wastes are usually stabi-
lized using cement and a stabilization facility is to be
installed in the present project. However, other opportunities
are being reviewed. For example, the waste yash, where the
volatile heavy metals usually deposit, will be analysed and
if the composition is negligible, these will be blended with
the bottom ash as a cement raw material feed. The active
carbon=lime residues will also be tested for volatile heavy
metals, VOCs and dioxins. If the loading is negligible, the
material will be recycled for re-use.
Owing to the MRRF, trommelling and the precalcination
scrubbing, an estimated >75% heavy metals and chlorine-
based plastics will be removed. There at minimumanestimated
50% saving on the costs of active carbon and lime treatment
will be achieved amounting to a total of US$7000 p.a.
Economic benets of the Co-Co process
The savings based on the simulated pilot plant study
reported in the previous sections for the 2 t MSWday
1
pilot plant can be scaled up to the full-scale 250 t cement
clinker per day plant. The results are summarized in Table 6.
The values obtained are likely to be minimum value scenar-
ios but until pilot scale tests are completed the more
optimistic values cannot be conrmed. The data in the
table reect the direct difference between the MSW
cement integrated process and conventional incineration.
In terms of assessing the rate of return, a conventional
cement plant will incur additional capital and operating
costs for the MRRF, the MSW incineration system and the
emission plant and treatment chemicals.
CONCLUSION
The use of MSWas a source of raw materials and energy in
the production of cement has been studied. A novel integrated
co-combustion design of a cement production facility has been
developed and a pilot-scale plant is under construction. Waste
minimization will enable signicant economic savings to be
made compared to the conventional MSW incinerators, in the
following categories: (i) landll costs; (ii) energy for process;
(iii) power for process; (iv) power for export; (v) limestone
feed; (vi) silica sand feed; (vii) revenue from MARPOL
treatment; (viii) AC injection; and (ix) lime injection.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to ITF, Hong Kong SAR for the provision of
nancial support during this research programme, and thanks to Barrie
Cook, Gary Yu, Henry Law, Peter Leung, Aung Khine, Raymond Cheung,
Thomas Tao, Michael Wong, Sunny Kwong and Vivian Kwok for the
assistances and advices throughout this research project.
The manuscript was received 24 June 2003 and accepted for publication
after revision 18 February 2004.
Trans IChemE, Part B, Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 2004, 82(B3): 200207
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE UTILIZATION 207