KOKA2000, XXXI.

konferencia katedier a pracovísk spaľovacích motorov českých a

slovenských vysokých škol

COMPRESSION OR HEAT REGENERATION IN THE CYCLE OF RECIPROCATING

ENGINE– NEW RESULTS OF OLD METHODS
Jan Macek1

Komprese nebo regenerace tepla v oběhu pístového motoru - nové výsledky získané
starými metodami

Importance of idealized engine cycle used for principal reasoning on cycle improvement possibilities
(“back to the roots”). General idealized cycle model used at CTU. Combination with cycle models of
higher physical precision. Entropy diagram as a mean of finding efficiency limits and its construction.
NOx emission improvement possibilities using limited flame temperature. Heat regeneration for low
flame temperatures at internal combustion engines, its modeling and optimization. Meaning of com-
pression ratio in cycle with heat regeneration. Examples of realization of heat regeneration cycle.

1. Introduction
The old reciprocating internal combustion engine (ICE) has survived more than
hundred years. Has it potential for further development? Will it be replaced by fuel cell? Fuel
cells are extraordinary expensive (platinum catalyst, proton-exchange membranes, etc.) but
simultaneously not limited by efficiency of Carnot cycle and therefore not necessarily
producing comparable amounts of NOx emissions. Therefore, there are needs to find all
reserves having been unused up to now to improve this engine at least until time of fuel cell
will come. Transparent methods of thermodynamic analysis are required for it. The
complicated simulation is useful after new concepts are found and roughly analyzed. This
approach is compatible with the general aims for CFD method application in the field of ICE
2
).
2. Amendments to the Old Idealized Cycle Model
An appropriate tool for this aim has been found in the old idealized cycle model
adopted to the contemporary possibilities of numerical methods – [1] used in the simple ver-
sion even for fundamental education.
The model is based on general reversible polytropic changes for the high- pressure part
where mass of gas inside a cylinder is constant. In the most general manner it contains (see,
e.g., some examples in Figure 5 or Figure 4): polytropic (cooled) compression (1-2)-isochoric
heat supply by regeneration (if any) (2-22)-isochoric heat supply by combustion (22-23)-
isobaric combustion (23-3)-polytropic combustion (heated expansion) (3-34)-polytropic
(cooled) expansion (34-4)-elongated expansion (if any) (4-45)-isochoric heat removal to a
regenerator (if any) (45-55)-isochoric heat removal (if not turbocharged) (55-5)-isobaric heat
removal (if needed after elongated expansion) (5-6≡1). Beside it irreversible changes in ex-
haust system are modeled for turbocharged engines (see further).

1
Prof. Ing. Jan Macek, DrSc., ČVUT-FS, U220.1, Technická 4, 166 07 Praha 6; tel. +420 2 02435 2504, fax
2435 2500; e-mail macek@fsid.cvut.cz
2
This research has been subsidized by a Czech Grant Agency #101/98/K001 Experimental Research and
Numerical Solution of Complicated 3D Flows
 The significant part of a model is real heat capacity representation calculated from the
temperature and gas composition according to the idealized rate-of-heat-release (ROHR). Heat
supply is calculated in 3 or 4 steps taking given overall cooling losses into account, i.e., after
compression and expansion loss is detracted from the overall one.
All these features
4.5000
Comparison of Idealized Cycle and a Real One are involved using nu-
4.0000 merical calculations of
3.5000
caloric state quantities
Real Cycle (enthalpy, internal energy,
3.0000
Pressure [MPa]

Limit Points of Changes entropy, etc.) and evalu-

2.5000
Idealized Cycle ating mean specific heat
2.0000 capacities (isobaric cp,
1.5000 etc.) and isentropic expo-
1.0000
nents. This approach
gives small errors in en-
0.5000
tropy balance (end state
0.0000
0.000E+00 5.000E-05 1.000E-04 1.500E-04 2.000E-04 2.500E-04 3.000E-04 3.500E-04 4.000E-04
towards the start one of a
Cylinder Volume [m3] cycle) but since it is used
Figure 1 Indicator diagrams of real and idealized cycles for illustration only these
errors are acceptable.
Thermal effects of chemical reactions are implemented in the mechanical engineering
pattern, i.e., as a calorific value of fuel that is necessary for the simplified representation of
mixed fuels. Thus, enthalpy in the reference state (e.g., at 298 K) is of zero value for all spe-
cies involved.
Using these amendments the model provides surprisingly good accuracy in calculation
of indicated efficiency if realistic
3.000
estimates of combustion duration
and cooling loss fraction are used
2.500
- Figure 1. It is not unknown us-
Specific Heat Supply [MJ/kg]

Specific Heat Supply [MJ/kg] 2.000 ing experience obtained with old-
fashioned graphical methods
Apparent Heat Release 1.500
applied in special Mollier dia-
Chem .energy of fuel
[MJ/kg]
1.000 grams (Stodola, Eichelberg,
Limit Points of Cycle 0.500
VÚNM, etc. – see [2]). It is nec-
Changes essary to remark that this accu-
-130.0 -80.0 -30.0
0.000
20.0 70.0 120.0
racy is obtained only if heat re-
-0.500
lease pattern parameters are
Crank Angle [deg. CA]
known (especially combustion
duration position of 50% heat
Figure 2 Apparent Heat Release and idealized heat supply release, determining the firing
for cycles compared in Figure 1 pressure). The isothermal com-
bustion (T-burning) seems to be
the most appropriate compromise for the afterburning representation. In the case of polytropic
change another degree of freedom would be added. Polytropic exponent m<>1 has to be used
in both variants then because for κ>m>1 the late afterburning with small ROHR is modeled
only.

An exhaust system and a turbocharger turbine is modelled using irreversible changes, defining
isentropic efficiencies of a turbocharger itself (35-65% at current turbochargers and that of
 Gas Exchange Phase exhaust gas energy trans-
port in an exhaust manifold
0.800 Turbine
Compressor
(15-30% concerning pres-
0.700
4
5T Constant Pressure
Idealized Cycle
Turbine sure pulse 5T-6T-6-5T
Real Cycle above mean pressure up-
Limits of Cycle Changes
0.600 stream of a turbine inlet -
Figure 3) – [3]. The result
0.500
of exhaust pressure transfer
Pressure [MPa]

0.400 is checked by comparison

to ideal adiabatic irreversi-
0.300
11K 1 2K
ble expansion from the end
0.200
6T 6T rov
of engine expansion stroke
66T 6 to the mean pressure (inde-
0.100
77 77K 1K 7T 7T rov ces “rov” - Figure 3 and
0.000 further ones) - [4].
0.000E+00 1.000E-03 2.000E-03 3.000E-03
Cylinder Volume [m3]
4.000E-03 5.000E-03 6.000E-03
In this manner, the
Figure 3 Low pressure phase with an idealized cycle of an exhaust idealized diagram creates a
system and turbocharger (m.i.p. 1.8 MPa, air excess 1.5, boost useful supplement to more
pressure 205 kPa) sophisticated simulation
tools. Then simplified
model provides flexible, illustrating and trans- 2000.0
parent tool for cycle analysis. The great advan- Entropy Diagram of Engine Cycle

tage is a possibility to simply add further ther- 1800.0

3 34

modynamic changes to the model if needed. This

feature has been used widely fulfilling the aims 1600.0
stated in the introductory part of the current pa-
per.
1400.0
The model is amended by numerous it-
erations, controlled from one part manually,
1200.0
enabling to find its parameters under given cir-
Temperature [K]

23
cumstances (e.g., for constant mean indicated
pressure m.i.p., maximum pressure pmax, turbo- 1000.0
2
4 5T

charger and exhaust system isentropic efficien- 6T rov

cies, expansion ratio needed to reach given ex- 800.0

haust pressure, specific heat capacities, etc.).

600.0
3. Analysis of Losses in a Current Engine 7T rov

Cycle 1
2K

To find the possibilities of improvements 400.0

m.i.p.
77T
at thermic engine cycles different methods have 6
1K
1.8132 MPa

been developed (e.g., exergetic analysis). For the 200.0 Comp.

Ratio
Reg.Heat/
Heat Input
case of a reciprocating engine as a closed system 18.0 0.00%

the old but still very effective qualitative one is 0.0

0.0 200.0 400.0 600.0 800.0 1000.0 1200.0
based on T-s (Mollier) diagram. However, its Entropy [J.kg-1.K-1]
predictive capacity is not fully general. It is
rather limited to the cases of close systems with Figure 4 A typical cycle of a high-
reversible changes or opened irrreversible adia- compression engine (m.i.p. 1.8 MPa, com-
batic ones (turbine, compressor). The simple pression ratio 18, firing pressure of 14
comparison of cycles in the case of different ini- MPa, air excess of 2, maximum temperatu-
tial gas density, typical at turbocharged engines, re of 1800 K, boost pressure 260 kPa)
is not possible. For these cases, direct numerical analysis has been used.
Typical features of high-efficiency, low NOx emission cycle are presented in Figure 4.
The isochoric part of burning is almost negligible, the main heat supply occurs at constant
pressure but the demand on maximum temperature (NOx) calls for isothermal after-
burning3 even in the case of idealized cycle. Turbine process starts with irreversible expan-
sion in an exhaust manifold 4≡5T-6Trov and continues with the standard adiabatic expansion
2000.0
(in the idealized case isentropic one 6Trov-7Trov).
Entropy Diagram of Engine Cycle The differences in starting points (e.g., 6 and 1)
1800.0
3 are caused by errors in substitution of specific heat
34

capacities by mean ones.

23
1600.0 High-compression cycle achieves high
temperature at the start of heat supply that is pe-
1400.0 culiar to the target of compression introduction.
From the other side, high compression requires
1200.0
high maximum pressures (sometimes achieved
Temperature [K]

22
already at the end of compression), especially in
4

1000.0
55 5T the case of lean mixture use when boost pressure
2 has to be adequate to the demanded m.i.p. Isobaric
6T rov
800.0
combustion is not feasible in reality without cer-
600.0
tain isochoric part that enlarges low efficient iso-
7T rov
thermal afterburning. The theoretic potential of
400.0
1 2K
high-compression cycle cannot be thus fully used.
From the other side, there is no potential in this
m.i.p.
77T
6 1.8106 MPa
1K

200.0 Comp. Reg.Heat/ cycle for heat regeneration from exhaust gas to
Heat Input
Ratio
12.0 spare some heat supply: heat removal from the
6.91%

0.0 engine cycle starts with temperature T4 lower than

0.0 200.0 400.0 600.0 800.0 1000.0 1200.0
Entropy [J.kg-1.K-1]
the heat supply does at T2.
Figure 5 Heat regeneration in partially Improved efficiency may be reached un-
carnotized cycle with concurrent heat der given boundary conditions by carnotization
exchanger procedures. All standard ones require very high or
very low pressures and big differences in volumes,
i.e., extraordinary long strokes. High compression and expansion ratios for high-temperature
isothermal change are linked to low mechanical efficiency if reciprocating engine is used –
[5]. The low temperature isothermal change is not feasible in the approximation achieved as
the set of isentropic compressions combined with isobaric cooling for small units like recipro-
cating engines typically are. It may be partially substituted by elongated expansion that is,
nevertheless, rather problematic in a reciprocating (or volumetric) engine –see volumes in
Figure 3 compared to a stroke one. Besides, it needs complicated gears, as described in [2] or
according to a novel solution [6]. The power turbine itself would be better adapted for this
aim but the efficiency of usable enthalpy transport through exhaust manifold is very poor due
to high irreversibility at free exhaust (almost isochoric change, see 5T-6T). Even if the dissi-
pated kinetic energy of the flow in a seat of an exhaust valve is re-used partially, this contri-
bution is very low (compare isentropic turbine work 66T-6T-7T-77 and 66T-6Trov-7Trov-
77). Besides, it is consumed from the big part by the compressor, the theoretically usable work
of piston during gas exchange is limited to some % of the complete cycle work. These conclu-

3
) The real temperature in flame and even in early-burnt gas is usually higher because of mixture inhomogeneities
(typical especially for diffusion flames) and due to continuing compression of early-burnt gas before maximum
pressure is reached. This calls for an appropriate margin concerning idealized cycle temperature.
sions are not new ones and their feasibility has been many times tested. From that reason,
other ways to improve cycle features should be investigated.

4. Conclusion – Towards Heat Regeneration Cycle

A more prospective way may be deduced from isochoric heat regeneration at Stirling
engines – [3], even if a concept of compound ICE mentioned there is not used as a design ex-
ample but for thermodynamic analysis only. Isochoric regeneration (heat removal 4-55) pre-
fers cycles with decreased compression ratio. Low compression-end temperature is simultane-
In d ic a te d E ffic ie n c y o f th e S ta n d a rd (v -p -T ) C o m b u s tio n C y c le a n d T h a t C o m b in e d w ith
C o n c u rre n t o r C o u n te rc u rre n t R e g e n e ra to r a t v = c o n s t.
m .i.p . 1 .8 0 0 M P a ; T b = v a r.; C o o lin g L o s s 1 5 % ; e ta s e x h 1 5 % ; e ta s T C 5 0 %
5 1 .0 0 %

5 0 .0 0 %
Indicated Efficiency Including Gas Exchange eta i [1]

4 9 .0 0 %

4 8 .0 0 %

E x c e e d e d F irin g
4 7 .0 0 % P re s s u re L im it

M a x im u m A ir F irin g
4 6 .0 0 %
T e m p e ra tu re E x c e s s P re s s u re

1 6 9 9 2 .2 5 1 4 .0 0 C o u n te rc u rre n t
4 5 .0 0 %
1 7 0 2 2 .2 5 1 4 .0 0 C o n c u rre n t

4 4 .0 0 % 1 7 0 9 2 .2 5 1 4 .0 0 N o n e
C o o lin g b y
R e g e n e ra to r 1 8 0 5 2 .0 0 1 4 .0 0 C o n c u rre n t
4 3 .0 0 %
1 8 0 4 2 .0 0 1 4 .0 0 N o n e

1 7 9 3 2 .2 5 1 4 .0 0 C o n c u rre n t
4 2 .0 0 %
8 .0 1 0 .0 1 2 .0 1 4 .0 1 6 .0 1 8 .0 2 .0
1 7 9 5 2 .2 5 1 4 0 .0
0 N one 2 2 .0
C o m p re s s io n R a tio e p s [1 ]

Figure 6 Comparison of indicated efficiencies of standard and newly investigated cycles for
different maximum temperatures and mixture compositions with concurrent (less effective) or
countercurrent regenerators in dependence on geometric compression ratio

ously compensated for by temperature rise during regenerated heat supply 2-22 - Figure 5.
Some examples of the results of thermodynamic analysis are presented in Figure 6 for realistic
parameters of contemporary engine cycles.
The potential of regenerated heat cycle seem to be very promising even in the case
of a more realistic concurrent regenerator. The longer time for combustion and strictly
limited flame temperature give moreover new possibilities to improve NOx emissions.
The regeneration might be achieved using concept of homogeneous combustion inside porous
material –[7] (PM-engine) currently developed at Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg. ČVUT
takes part in this challenging task.
References

[1] MACEK,J.: Program for Idealized Cycle Simulation using General Polytropic Changes. Code
OBE_REG.XLS, v. 2000.1, Code Library ČVUT U220.1, Praha 2000, 500 kB
[2] KOŠŤÁL, J., SUK, B.: Spalovací motory. Nakladatelství ČSAV, Praha 1963, p. 278
[3] MACEK, J.: Optimalizace využití chemické energie paliva v pístových spalovacích motorech. Doktorská di-
sertační práce ČVUT, 1989, 673 pp.
[4] ZINNER, K.: Aufladung von Verbrennungsmotoren. Springer Berlin 1975
[5] KOVAŘÍK, L.: Reminiscence na Carnotův oběh.. XXVII. konference KSM, VUT Brno 1996, pp. 66-73
[6] KENTFIELD,J.A.C., FERNANDES,L.C.V.: Friction Losses of a Novel Prototype Variable Expansion-Ratio,
Spark Ignition, Four Stroke Engine. SAE Transactions 1997, Sect. 3, 97FTT-17, pp. 1-10
[7]DURST, F. ET AL.: Der Porenbrenner in der Őlheizung. Wärmetechnik 43, 1998

Reviewed by: Doc. Ing. Michal Takáts, CSc.