INTRODUCTION :

Almost all the machine in industries operated using electrical motors. Among them most of motors are
DC motors.As compare to the other motors DC motor is far more advantageous in terms of compactness,
speed control facility, high starting torque. Among all the advantages the DC series motor is mostly used
for its high starting torque & variable speed. DC series motor is specially used for traction, electric
locomotive, trolley systems, cranes hoists and conveyor. All these works require frequent speed control
for preparation of job.DC shunt motor is for constant speed operations. Therefore they are used for
driving constant speed shafts, centrifugal pumps, blower & pumps etc.
Traditional methods of speed control are basically
controlling the voltage to the armature or to the speed through rheostatic methods, controlling flux to the
field through rheostatic method.
But they are faulty and, not accurate & low efficient. Therefore they are
discarded and adopted electronic method of controlling the speed. They have more advantages like high
reliability, quick response and also higher efficiency and no moving parts.

But in PWM duty cycle control techniques enable greater efficiency and versatility of the brushless DC
motor to provide flexible control and novel cyclic operation, as well as better protection schemes for the
motor and control circuits. The high efficiency, higher power densities and reliability make brushless DC
(BLDC) motors an ideal choice for battery-operated motor applications because the combination of power
electronics and innovative control techniques provide a high performance, efficient, compact and low cost
solution.
A PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) wave can be used to control the speed of the motor. Here the average
voltage given or the average current flowing through the motor will change depending on the ON and
OFF time of the pulses controlling the speed of the motor i.e.. The duty cycle of the wave controls its
speed.
THEORY :
1. ELECTRIC MOTOR :
An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, usually through the interaction of
magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. Electric motors may be classified by the source of
electric power, by their internal construction, and by their application. The classic division of electric
motors has been that of Alternating Current (AC) types vs Direct Current (DC) types.
1.1.DC MOTOR :
A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity. By far the most
common DC motor types are the brushed and brushless types, which use internal and external
commutation respectively to create an oscillating AC current from the DC source—so they are
not purely DC machines in a strict sense.
1.2 NEED OF SPEED CONTROL : The purpose of a motor speed controller is to take a signal
representing the demanded speed, and to drive a motor at that speed. The controller may or may not
actually measure the speed of the motor. If it does, it is called a Feedback Speed Controller or Closed
Loop Speed Controller, if not it is called an Open Loop Speed Controller. Feedback speed control is
better, but more complicated, and may not be required for a simple robot design.
The speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to the supply voltage,
so if we reduce the supply voltage from 12 Volts to 6 Volts, the motor will run at half the speed. How can
this be achieved when the battery is fixed at 12 Volts. The speed controller works by varying the average
voltage sent to the motor. It could do this by simply adjusting the voltage sent to the motor, but this is
quite inefficient to do. A better way is to switch the motor's supply on and off very quickly. If the
switching is fast enough, the motor doesn't notice it, it only notices the average effect.
1. 3 Fac t or s Cont r oll i ng Mot o r Spe e d
It has been shown earlier that the speed of a motor is given by the relation

where , Ra = armature circuit resistance.

It is obvious that the speed can be controlled by varying (i) flux/pole, Φ (Flux Control) (ii) resistance Ra
of armature circuit (Rheostatic Control) and (iii) applied voltage V (Voltage Control). These methods as

applied to shunt, compound and series motors will be discussed below.

1.4 Speed Control of Shunt Motors
(i) Variation of Flux or Flux Control Method

It is seen from above that N ∝ 1/. By decreasing the flux, the speed can be increased and vice versa.
Hence, the name flux or field control method. The flux of a d.c. motor can be changed by ch,mging Ish
with the help of a shunt field rheostat. Since Ish is relatively V small, shunt field rheostat has to carry only
a small current, which means I2R loss is small, so that rheostat is small in size. This method is, therefore,
very efficient. In non-interpolar machines, the speed can be increased by this method in the ratio 2 : 1.
Any further weakening of flux Φ adversely affects the commutation and hence puts a limit to the
maximum speed obtainable with this method. In machines fitted with interpoles, a ratio of maximum to
minimum speeds of 6 : 1 is fairly common.

(ii) Armature or Rheostatic Control Method

This method is used when speeds below the no-load speed are required. As the supply voltage is normally
constant, the voltage across the armature is varied by inserting a variable rheostat or resistance (called
controller resistance) in series with the armature circuit as shown in Fig. 25-3 (a). As controller resistance
is increased, p.d. across the armature is decreased, thereby decreasing the armature speed. For a load of
constant torque I speed is approximately- proportional to the p.d. across the armature. From the
speed/armature current characteristic [Fig. 25-3 (b)], it is seen that greater the resistance in the armature
circuit, greater is the fall in speed.

Let Ia1 = armature current in the first case

Ia2 = armature current in the second case
(If Ia1 = Ia2, then the load is of constant torque)
N1, N2 = corresponding speeds; V = supply voltage
Then N1 ∝ V - Ia1Ra ∝ Eb1

Let some controller resistance of value R be added to the armature circuit resistance so that its value
becomes (R+Ra) = Rt

The load current for which the speed would be zero is found by putting N = 0 in the above relation.
This is the maximum current and is known as stalling current.

As will be shown in Art. 25.4, this method is very wasteful, expensive and unsuitable for rapidly
changing loads because for a given value of Rt, speed will change with load. A more stable operation can
be obtained by using a divertor across the armature in addition to armature control resistance (Fig. 25.5)
Now, the changes in armature current (due to changes in the load Fig. 25-5 torque) will not be so effective
in changing the p.d. across the armature (and hence the armature speed).

(iii) Voltage Control Method

(a) Multiple Voltage Control
In this method, the shunt field of the motor is connected permanently to a fixed exciting voltage, but the
armature is supplied with different voltages by connecting it across one of the several different voltages
by means of suitable switchgear. The armature speed will be approximately proportional to these different
voltages. The intermediate speeds can be obtained by adjusting the shunt field regulator. This method is
not much used however.
(b) Ward-Leonard System
This system is used where an unusually wide (upto 10 : 1) and very sensitive speed control is required as
for colliery winders, electric excavators, elevators and the main drives in steel mills and blooming and
paper mills. The arrangement" is illustrated in Fig. 25-8.
M1 is the main motor whose speed control is required. The field of this motor is permanently connected
across the d.c. supply lines. By applying a variable voltage, across its armature, any desired speed can be
obtained. This variable voltage is supplied by a motor-generator set which consists of either a d.c. or an
a.c. motor M2 directly coupled to generator G.
The motor M2 runs at an approximately constant speed. The output voltage of G is directly fed to the main
motor M1 The voltage of the generator can be varied from zero up to its maximum value by means of its
field regulator. By reversing the direction of the field current of G by means of the reversing switch RS,
generated voltage can be reversed and hence the direction of rotation of M1, It should be remembered that
motor generator set always runs in the same direction.

Despite the fact that capital outlay involved in this system is high because (i) a large output machine must
be used for the motor generator set and (ii) that two extra machines are employed, still it is used
extensively for elevators, hoist control and for main drive in steel mills where motors of ratings 750 kW
to 3750 kW are required. The reason for this is that the almost unlimited speed control in either direction
of rotation can be achieved entirely by field control of the generator and the resultant economies in steel
production outweigh the extra expenditure on the motor generator set.

A modification of the Ward-Leonard system is known as Ward-Leonard-lIgner system which uses a

smaller motor-generator set with the addition of a flywheel whose function is to reduce fluctuations in the
power demand from the supply circuit. When main motor M1 becomes suddenly overloaded the driving
motor M2 of the motor generator set slows down, thus allowing the inertia of the flywheel to supply a. part
of the overload. However, when the load is suddenly thrown off the main motor M1, then M2 speeds up
thereby again storing energy in the flywheel.
When the Ilgner system is driven by means of an a.c. motor (whether induction or synchronous) another
refinement in the form of a 'slip regulator' can be usefully employed thus giving an additional control.

The chief disadvantage of this system is its low overall efficiency especially at light loads. But as said
earlier, it has the outstanding merit of giving wide speed control from maximum in one direction through
zero to the maximum in the opposite direction and of giving a smooth acceleration.

1.5 Merits and Demerits of Rheostatic Control Method

1. Speed changes with every change in load, because speed variations depend not only on controlling
resistance but on load current also. This double dependence makes it impossible to keep the speed
sensibly constant on rapidly changing loads.
2. A large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance. Loss of power is directly proportional to
the reduction in speed. Hence, efficiency is decreased.
3. Maximum power developed is diminished in the same ratio as speed.
4. It needs expensive arrangement for dissipation of heat produced in the controller resistance.
5. It gives speeds below the normal, not above it because armature voltage can be decreased (not
increased) by the controller resistance.

This method is, therefore, employed when low speeds are required for a short period only and that too
occasionally as in printing machines and for cranes and hoists where motor is continually started and
stopped.

1.6 Advantages of Field Control Method

This method is economical, more efficient and convenient though it can give speeds above (not below)
the normal speed. The only limitation of this method is that commutation becomes unsatisfactory,
because the effect of armature reaction is greater on a weaker field.

1.7 Electronic Speed Control Methods for DC Motors

➢ Of late, solid-state circuits using semi-conductor diodes and thyristors have become very popular
for controlling the speed of a.c. and d.c. motors and are progressively replacing the traditional
electric power control circuits based on thyratrons, ignitrons, mercury are rectifiers, magnetic
amplifiers and motor-generator sets etc. As compared to the electric and electromechanical
systems of speed control, the electronic methods have higher accuracy, greater reliability, quick
 response and also higher efficiency, as there are no I 2R losses and moving parts. Moreover, full 4-
quadrant, speed control is possible to meet precise high speed standards.

➢ All electronic circuits control the motor speed by adjusting either (i) the voltage applied to the
motor armature or (ii) the field current or (iii) both.

➢ DC motors can be run from the de supply if available or from ac supply after it has been
converted into de supply with the help of rectifiers which can be either half-wave or full-wave
and either controlled (by varying the conduction angle of the thyristors used) or uncontrolled.

➢ AO motors can be run on the ac supply or form de supply after it has been converted into ac
supply with the help of inverters (opposite of rectifiers).
➢ As stated above, the average output voltage of a thyristor-controlled rectifier call be changed by
changing its conduction angle and hence the armature voltage of the dc motor can be adjusted to
control its speed.
When run on a de supply, the armature de voltage can be changed with the help of a thyristor chopper
circuit which can be made to interrupt de supply at different rates to give different average values of the
de voltage. If de supply is not available it can be obtained from the available ac supply with the help of
uncontrolled rectifiers (using only diodes and not thyristors). The de voltage so obtained can be then
chopped with the help of a thyristor chopper circuit.
A brief description of rectifiers, inverters and de choppers would now be given before
discussing the motor speed control circuits.

Conventional solutions for these applications use brushed DC motors (Figure 1). The speed
control is achieved by reducing the voltage applied across the motor. Typical methods used are rheostat
control or linear electronic control. While both methods provide a simple solution to the speed control of
the DC motor, they suffer from several disadvantages that include:
• Low efficiency at low speeds and hence low charge cycle time for the battery
• In linear electronic control circuit, the losses in the switch do not depend on the switch
characteristics. The switch must be large enough to dissipate the heat generated. This method is
costly for high-power motor control applications.
• Speed can be controlled only below base speed
• Speed control is possible in one direction only. Reversal of speed requires extra relays to switch
polarity of the voltage across the motor.
• Battery voltage variations can not be compensated
To overcome from the above problem a new technique is used which is known as pulse with modulation.

1. Pulse-width modulation:
➢ Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is a very efficient way of providing intermediate amounts of
electrical power between fully on and fully off. A simple power switch with a typical power
source provides full power only, when switched on. PWM is a comparatively-recent technique,
made practical by modern electronic power switches.
➢ some variable-speed electric motors have had decent efficiency, but they were somewhat more
complex than constant-speed motors, and sometimes required external electrical apparatus, such
as a bank (group) of variable power resistorsThe term duty cycle describes the proportion of on
time to the regular interval or period of time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power,
because the power is off for most of the time. Duty cycle is expressed in percent, 100% being
fully on.PWM works well with digital controls, which, because of their on/off nature, can easily
set the needed duty cycle.PWM of a signal or power source involves the modulation of its duty
cycle, to either convey information over a communications channel or control the amount of
power sent to a load.

2.1 PRINCIPLE :-

The principle of controlling the DC power is simple by controlling the voltage or by current. But here the
voltage and current is not controlled and also current is not controlled. But here the conduction time to the
load is controlled. The main principle is control of power by varying by the varying the duty cycle
.Simple we can take an example of the switch so that we can understand the principle. When a switch
SW is closed for a time t1, the input voltage appears across the load. If the switch is off for t2 time the
voltage across the load is zero.
• The average voltage at output is given by
V0 = 1/T ∫ vodt = t1/T Vs = ft1 Vs = kVs

➢ And the average load current ,

Ia = Va/R = KVs/R,
where T is the chopping period,
k = t1/T is the duty cycle of chopper, and f is the chopping frequency.
➢ The rms value of output voltage is found from
V0 = ( i/T ∫ V02 dt ) ½ = k Vs
Assuming the loss less system,
➢ the input power to the system is the same as the output power and is given by

Pi = 1/T ∫ v0idt = 1/T ∫ v02/R dt =

kVs /R 2

The duty cycle can be varied from 0 to 1 by varying t1, T1 or f. Therefore, the output voltage V0 can be
varied from 0 to Vs by controlling k, and the power flow can be controlled.
The frequency f is kept constant and the on-time t1 is varied. The width of the pulse is varied and this

type of control is called pulse width modulation (PWM) control.

CI RCUI T DI AG RAM : -
C I RC UI T DESC R I P TIO N : -

➢ This type of speed controller/governor is intended primarily for small 12v motors that draw a
current of not more than 15A. Many governors limit the current through the motor, which also
reduces the torque. Since it is controlled by pulse width modulation (PWM), the present governor
preserves most of the torque.
➢ The design is based on astable multivibrator IC1a, whose output is low for a period determined
by R1 and high for a period set by R2 and P1. When C1 is discharged, the level at the input of
IC1a is below the lower threshold, so that the output of this stage is high. The capacitor is then
charged rapidly via D1 and R1, and reaches the upper threshold in about 1.5ms. the output of
IC1a then goes low, whereupon C1 is discharged via D2, R2, and P1. The discharge time could
be set between 0.2ms and 25ms. This means that the duty factor of the output signal may be
varied between 5% and 90%.
➢ The signal is inverted again and then applied to the input of transistor BC557 through 4k7.
Which is basically acts as a buffer. It provides requisite drive signal to the power transistor. The
transistor drives the motor. The diode connected across the motor is for freewheeling purpose.
the resistance of P1 is at a minimum, the rotary speed of the motor is at a maximum.
POWER SUPPLY
The microcontroller needed to be operate in DC power supply. The circuit & motor needs +12v supply.
The transformer is a center tap 12-0-12V 500mA. It is then rectified using full wave rectifier. A
1000µ Fcapacitor is used for filtration purpose. The three terminal voltage regulators 7812 provides
regulated DC outputs for the operation of the circuit. A good grounding is necessary for the proper
functioning of the circuit.
COMPONENT TABLE : -
SL COMPONENT SPECIFICATION QUANTITY
1 RESI STO R 22K 1
10K 1
4K7 1
100 1
3K3 1
1K 1
1M LIN 1
2 CAPA CI TO R 1 0 0 0µ F/ 2 5 V 1
100n 1
3 SEM I CO NDU CTO R 40106 1
BC5 5 7 1
2 N3 0 5 5 1
1 N4 0 0 7 2
1 N4 1 4 8 3

4 TRAN SFO RM ER 1 2 - 0 - 1 2/ 5 0 0 M a 1
5 DC M O TO R 1 2 VO LT 1

6 SCHMITT TRIGGER INVERTERS 40106 1

COMPNENT DESCRIPTION:

➢ RES 22K OHM 1/4W 5% CARBON FILM - CFR-25JB-22K – Resistors :

Technical/Catalog Information CFR-25JB-22K

Vendor Yageo

Category Resistors

Resistance In Ohms 22.0K

Power (Watts) 0.25W, 1/4W

Tolerance ±5%

Lead Style Through Hole

Case Axial

Packaging Bulk

Composition Carbon Film

Temperature Coefficient 350ppm/°C

Lead Free Status Lead Free

RoHS Status RoHS Compliant

Other Names CFR 25JB 22K

CFR25JB22K
22KQBK ND
22KQBKND
22KQBK
 ➢

➢ RES 10K OHM 1/4W 5% CARBON FILM :

Datasheets CFR Carbon Film Resistor Series

Product Photos CFR-25JB-10K

Product Training Modules Leaded Resistors

Catalog Drawings Carbon Film Resistor

Derating Curve

Standard Package 200

Category Resistors

Family Through Hole Resistors

Series CFR

Resistance In Ohms 10.0K

Composition Carbon Film

Power (Watts) 0.25W, 1/4W

Temperature Coefficient 350ppm/°C

Case Axial

Lead Style Through Hole

Tolerance ±5%

Packaging Bulk

Other Names 10K CR-1/4W-B 5%

10KQ
10KQBK
CFR-25JB 10K

➢ RES 100k OHM 1/4W 5% CARBON FILM :

Digi-Key Part Number MCF-25JR-100K-ND
Manufacturer Part Number MCF-25JR-100K
Description RES CARB FILM 100K OHM 1/4W
5%
Series MCF
Manufacturer Yageo
Resistance In Ohms 100K
Composition Carbon Film
Power (Watts) 0.25W, 1/4W
Temperature Coefficient 0/-600ppm/°C

Case 5.90mm L x 2.20mm Dia

Lead Style Surface Mount (SMD - SMT)

Tolerance ±5%

Packaging Tape & Reel (TR)

➢ RES 3k3 OHM 1/4W 5% CARBON FILM :

Digi-Key Part Number MCF-25JR-3K3-ND

Manufacturer Part Number MCF-25JR-3K3

Description RES CARB FILM 3.3K OHM 1/4W 5%

Series MCF

Manufacturer Yageo

Resistance In Ohms 3.30K

Composition Carbon Film

Power (Watts) 0.25W, 1/4W

Temperature Coefficient 0/-350ppm/°C

Case 5.90mm L x 2.20mm Dia

Lead Style Surface Mount (SMD - SMT)

Tolerance ±5%

Packaging Tape & Reel (TR)

➢ RES 1k OHM 1/4W 5% CARBON FILM :

Digi-Key Part Number MCF-25JR-1K-ND

Manufacturer Part Number MCF-25JR-1K

Description RES CARB FILM 1K OHM 1/4W 5%

Series MCF

Manufacturer Yageo

Resistance In Ohms 1.00K

Composition Carbon Film

Power (Watts) 0.25W, 1/4W

Temperature Coefficient 0/-350ppm/°C

Case 5.90mm L x 2.20mm Dia

Lead Style Surface Mount (SMD - SMT)

Tolerance ±5%

Packaging Tape & Reel (TR)

➢ RES 1M OHM 1/4W 5% CARBON FILM :

Digi-Key Part Number 1.0MQBK-ND

Manufacturer Part Number CFR-25JB-1M0

Description RES 1.0M OHM 1/4W 5% CARBON FILM

Series CFR

Manufacturer Yageo

Resistance In Ohms 1.00M

Composition Carbon Film

Power (Watts) 0.25W, 1/4W

Temperature Coefficient -1500ppm/°C

Case Axial

Lead Style Through Hole

Tolerance ±5%

Packaging Bulk
➢ 1000 micro F/25V CAPACITOR :

Digi-Key Part Number P1225-ND

Manufacturer Part Number ECE-A1EFS102

Description 1000UF/25V HFS CAPACITOR

Series HFS

Manufacturer Panasonic - ECG

Capacitance 1000µF

Voltage Rating 25V

Tolerance ±20%

Mounting Type Through Hole

Package / Case Radial

Size / Dimension 0.630" Dia x 0.984" H (16.00mm x

25.00mm)
Lead Spacing 0.295" (7.50mm)

Maximum Temperatur -40°C ~ 85°C

Features General Purpose

Packaging Bulk
➢ HEF40106BP IC SCHMITT TRIGGER HEX 14DIP :

Digi-Key Part Number 568-1681-5-ND

Manufacturer NXP Semiconductors
Manufacturer Part Number HEF40106BP,652
Description IC SCHMITT TRIGGER HEX 14DIP
Lead Free Status / RoHS Status Lead free / RoHS Compliant
Category Integrated Circuits (ICs)
Family Logic Family - Gates and Inverters
Series 4000B
Logic Type Inverter with Schmitt Trigger
Number of Inputs 1
Number of Circuits 6 - Hex
Current - Output High, Low 2.4mA, 2.4mA
Voltage – Supply 4.5 V ~ 15.5 V
Operating Temperature -40°C ~ 125°C
Mounting Type Through Hole

Package / Case 14-DIP (300 mil)

Packaging Tube

Other Names 568-1681-5

HEF40106BPN
 ➢ BC557 TRANS PNP Transistors (BJT) :

Digi-Key Part Number BC557-ND

Manufacturer Fairchild Semiconductor
Manufacturer Part Number BC557
Description TRANS PNP 45V 100MA TO-92
Lead Free Status / RoHS Status Lead free / RoHS Compliant
Category Discrete Semiconductor Products
Family Transistors (BJT) - Single
Voltage - Collector Emitter Breakdown 45V
(Max)
Vce Saturation (Max) @ Ib, Ic 300mV @ 500µA, 10mA
Current - Collector (Ic) (Max) 100mA
Current - Collector Cutoff (Max)
DC Current Gain (hFE) (Min) @ Ic, Vce 110 @ 2mA, 5V
Power - Max 500mW
Frequency - Transition 150MHz
Transistor Type PNP
Mounting Type Through Hole

Package / Case TO-92-3 (Standard Body), TO-226

Packaging Bulk

➢ 2N3055 TRANS NPN Transistors (BJT) – Single :

Digi-Key Part Number 2N3055GOS-ND

Manufacturer ON Semiconductor
Manufacturer Part Number 2N3055G
Description TRANS NPN 15A 60V TO3
Lead Free Status / RoHS Status Lead free / RoHS Compliant
Category Discrete Semiconductor Products
Family Transistors (BJT) - Single
Voltage - Collector Emitter Breakdown 60V
(Max)
Vce Saturation (Max) @ Ib, Ic 1.1V @ 400mA, 4A
Current - Collector (Ic) (Max) 15A
Current - Collector Cutoff (Max) 700µA
DC Current Gain (hFE) (Min) @ Ic, Vce 20 @ 4A, 4V
Power - Max 115W
Transistor Type NPN
Mounting Type Chassis Mount
Package / Case TO-204, TO-3

Packaging Tray

➢ 1N4007 Diodes, Rectifiers :

Digi-Key Part Number 1N4007FSCT-ND

Manufacturer Fairchild Semiconductor

Manufacturer Part Number 1N4007

Description DIODE GPP 1A 1000V DO41

Lead Free Status / RoHS Status Lead free / RoHS Compliant

Product Training Modules High Voltage Switches for Power

 Processing

Category Discrete Semiconductor Products

Family Diodes, Rectifiers - Single

Voltage - DC Reverse (Vr) (Max) 1000V (1kV)

Voltage - Forward (Vf) (Max) @ If 1.1V @ 1A

Current - Average Rectified (Io) 1A

Current - Reverse Leakage @ Vr 5µA @ 1000V

Diode Type Standard

Speed Standard Recovery >500ns, >

200mA (Io)

Capacitance @ Vr, F 15pF @ 4V, 1MHz

Mounting Type Through Hole, Axial

Package / Case DO-41, Axial

Packaging Cut Tape (CT)

 ➢ 1N4148 Diodes, Rectifiers :

The 1N4148 is a standard small signal silicon diode used in signal processing. Its name follows the
JEDEC nomenclature. The 1N4148 is generally available in a DO-35 glass package and is very useful at
high frequencies with a reverse recovery time of no more than 4ns. This permits rectification and
detection of radio frequency signals very effectively, as long as their amplitude is above the forward
conduction threshold of silicon (around 0.7V) or the diode is biased.

Digi-Key Part Number 1N4148FS-ND

Manufacturer Fairchild Semiconductor

Manufacturer Part Number 1N4148

Description DIODE SGL JUNC 100V 4.0NS DO-35

Lead Free Status / RoHS Status Lead free / RoHS Compliant

Product Training Modules High Voltage Switches for Power Processing

Product Change Notification Marking Format Change 15/Aug/2008

Category Discrete Semiconductor Products

Family Diodes, Rectifiers - Single

Voltage - DC Reverse (Vr) (Max) 100V

Voltage - Forward (Vf) (Max) @ If 1V @ 10mA

Current - Average Rectified (Io) 200mA

Current - Reverse Leakage @ Vr 5µA @ 75V

Diode Type Standard

Speed Small Signal =< 200mA (Io), Any Speed

Reverse Recovery Time (trr) 4ns

Capacitance @ Vr, F 4pF @ 0V, 1MHz

Mounting Type Through Hole, Axial

Package / Case DO-35, DO-204AH, Axial

Packaging Bulk
TRANSFORMER –12-0-12/ 500Ma :
12-0-12 means that the voltage or the potential difference (p.d.) between each of the end terminal of the
secondary winding and the mid-point of the secondary winding of the transformer is 12V. And, between
the two ends of the secondary winding, you will get 12 + 12 = 24V. 500mA means the current delivery
capability of the secondary winding of the transformer. Normally it is said in VA. In your case it would
be 25 x 0.5 = 12VA. The ratings are arrived at based on the requirements of the loads that are to be
connected to the transformer. The limiting criteria is the winding wire thickness and the insulation of the

winding.
SPECIFICATION :
• Dimensions 56 x 47 x 43 mm
• Power Input 220-240 ac @50HZ
• Type 500mA Secondary
• Outputs 0-12/0-12 Vac
• Power 12VA
CO NSTR UCTI O N :-

The ci r c ui t boa r d i s di vi d e d in t o s e v e ra l pa r ts li k e p o we r s u p pl y , m ot o r
c ontr ol le r se c ti ons . So the r e a re t hr e e PCBs us e d fo r th e a p p li c a ti o n . Be f or e
m ount i ng t he c om pone nt s o n PCB, PCB i s to b e t h or o u g h l y c h ec k e d u s i n g
e ye gla s s , as t her e i s no cr a c k s o n th e b o a r d. Al l th e c o m p o ne n t s ar e t o b e
m ount e d on t he PCB by so l d er i n g i t. Th er e f o re d u r i n g so l d e ri n g t h e so l d er i n g
t e c hni que is t o be fol l owe d s o th a t a n y so l d er i n g s h o ul d n o t b e d r y so l d er o n e .
I C’ s t o be mount e d on th e I C b a s es f or b et t er se r v i ci n g fa c il it y . Th e hi g h
powe r de vi c e ( 2N3055 TRANSI STO R ) is mo u n t e d o n a p la t e f o r c oo li n g
pur pos e. The out put of tr a n si s t o r is fe d t o t he s m al l DC mo t or a r ma t u re . W e
c a n us e mor e powe r TRANSI STOR we c a n c o nt r ol b i g m ot o r s. Ac c o r d is t o b e
c onne ct e d t o the t ra ns f or m e r to s u p p l y 2 2 0 v A. C. Tr a n s f or m er u s e d h e re i s
12- 0- 12, ce nt er ta ppe d one .

PWM Control Methods Increases Efficiency, Reliability and Extend Battery Lifetime:

• PWM duty cycle control techniques enable greater efficiency and versatility of the brushless DC
motor to provide flexible control and novel cyclic operation, as well as better protection schemes
for the motor and control circuits. The high efficiency, higher power densities and reliability
make brushless DC (BLDC) motors an ideal choice for battery-operated motor applications
because the combination of power electronics and innovative control techniques provide a high
performance, efficient, compact and low cost solution.
• PWM switching control methods improve speed control and reduce the power losses in the
system, which increase the mean time between charge cycles of the battery. The reduced losses
also help reduce the weight of the system as smaller thermal management components are
needed. These two factors are critical for portable equipment.
• PWM control methods also enable novel control methods and leverage the latest silicon
advancements to reduce losses in the system. With appropriate circuit and control methods,
speeds above base speed can be achieved. Moreover, rugged power switches and feature-rich
gate drive ICs improve the ruggedness and reliability of the system.
APPLICATIONS :-
Now a days various applications are done using motors. Most of them are DC motor for their greater
advantages like compact, variable speed , instant speed rise, high starting torque etc. Among DC motors
there is greater use of DC series motor for it’s greater starting torque & variable speed. It uses the PWM
technique for it . It is used for smooth acceleration control, high efficiency, and fast dynamic response.
DC motors require smooth control for certain type of applications. So the speed to the load is essentially
controlled to obtain a variable load output so that jobs can be prepared. This type of speed control is
necessary in traction DC motor trolley cars, marine hoists, forklift truck, and mine haulers. Also the
present project can control up to 1 percent of full speed, therefore high accuracy jobs acne be done using
the project.
So we can recognize some areas of application of this type of power control:
➢ Traction application
➢ Conveyor Belt carrying loads
➢ Various motors requiring smooth speed control
➢ DC motors of all range can be controlled, which are used for the production of materials
➢ Electric locomotives
➢ DC motor using precise job preparations.