GALERKIN METHOD:

In mathematics, in the area of numerical analysis, Galerkin methods are a class of

methods for converting a continuous operator problem (such as a differential equation) to
a discrete problem. In principle, it is the equivalent of applying the method of variation to
a function space, by converting the equation to a weak formulation. Typically one then
applies some constraints on the function space to characterie the space with a finite set
of basis functions. !ften when using a Galerkin method one also gives the name along
with typical appro"imation methods used, such as #etrov$Galerkin method or %it$
Galerkin method.
The approach is credited to the %ussian mathematician Boris Galerkin.
&"amples of Galerkin methods are'
The finite element method
(oundary element method for solving integral equations
)rylov subspace methods
In mathematics, a weak solution (also called a generalied solution) to
an ordinary or partial differential equation is a function for which the derivatives
appearing in the equation may not all e"ist but which is nonetheless deemed to satisfy the
equation in some precisely defined sense. There are many different definitions of weak
solution, appropriate for different classes of equations. !ne of the most important is
based on the notion of distributions.
*voiding the language of distributions, one starts with a differential equation and
rewrites it in such a way that no derivatives of the solution of the equation show up (the
new form is called the weak formulation, and the solutions to it are called weak
solutions). +omewhat surprisingly, a differential equation may have solutions which are
not differentiable, and the weak formulation allows one to find such solutions.
-eak solutions are important because a great many differential equations encountered in
modelling real world phenomena do not admit sufficiently smooth solutions and then the
only way of solving such equations is using the weak formulation. &ven in situations
where an equation does have differentiable solutions, it is often convenient to first prove
the e"istence of weak solutions and only later show that those solutions are in fact
smooth enough.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:
* differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown function of one or
several variables that relates the values of the function itself and its derivatives of various
orders. .ifferential equations play a prominent role in engineering, physics, economics,
and other disciplines. .ifferential equations arise in many areas of science and
technology' whenever a deterministic relation involving some continuously varying
quantities (modeled by functions) and their rates of change in space and/or time
(e"pressed as derivatives) is known or postulated. *n e"ample of modeling a real world
problem using differential equations is determination of the velocity of a ball falling
through the air, considering only gravity and air resistance. The ball0s acceleration
towards the ground is the acceleration due to gravity minus the deceleration due to air
resistance. Gravity is constant but air resistance may be modeled as proportional to the
ball0s velocity. This means the ball0s acceleration, which is the derivative of its velocity,
depends on the velocity. 1inding the velocity as a function of time involves solving a
differential equation.
*n ordinary differential equation (!.&) is a differential equation in which the unknown
function (also known as the dependent variable) is a function of a single independent
variable. * partial differential equation (#.&) is a differential equation in which the
unknown function is a function of multiple independent variables and the equation
involves its partial derivatives. (oth ordinary and partial differential equations are
broadly classified as linear and nonlinear. * differential equation is linear if the unknown
function and its derivatives appear to the power 2 (products are not allowed)
and nonlinear otherwise.
3ewton0s +econd 4aw in dynamics (mechanics)
5amilton0s equations in classical mechanics
%adioactive decay in nuclear physics
3ewton0s law of cooling in thermodynamics
The wave equation
6a"well0s equations in electromagnetism
The heat equation in thermodynamics
4aplace0s equation, which defines harmonic functions
#oisson0s equation
&instein0s field equation in general relativity
The +chr7dinger equation in quantum mechanics
The geodesic equation
The 3avier8+tokes equations in fluid dynamics
The 4otka89olterra equation in population dynamics
The (lack8+choles equation in finance
The :auchy8%iemann equations in comple" analysis
The #oisson8(oltmann equation in molecular dynamics
The shallow water equations
;niversal differential equation
FEM:
The finite element method (1&6) (its practical application often known as finite element
analysis (1&*)) is a numerical technique for finding appro"imate solutions of partial
differential equations (#.&) as well as of integral equations. The solution approach is
based either on eliminating the differential equation completely (steady state problems),
or rendering the #.& into an appro"imating system of ordinary differential equations,
which are then numerically integrated using standard techniques such as &uler0s
method, %unge$)utta, etc. In solving partial differential equations, the primary challenge
is to create an equation that appro"imates the equation to be studied, but is numerically
stable, meaning that errors in the input and intermediate calculations do not accumulate
and cause the resulting output to be meaningless.
Its development can be traced back to the work by *le"ander 5rennikoff (2<=2)
and %ichard :ourant (2<=>). 5rennikoff0s work discreties the domain by using
a lattice analogy while :ourant0s approach divides the domain into finite triangular
subregions for solution of second order elliptic partial differential equations (#.&s) that
arise from the problem of torsion of a cylinder. :ourant0s contribution was evolutionary,
drawing on a large body of earlier results for #.&s developed by %ayleigh, %it,
and Galerkin.
.evelopment of the finite element method began in earnest in the middle to late 2<?@s
for airframe and structural analysis and gathered momentum at the ;niversity of
+tuttgart through the work of Aohn *rgyris and at (erkeley through the work of %ay -.
:lough in the 2<B@s for use in civil engineering. (y late 2<?@s, the key concepts
of stiffness matri" and element assembly e"isted essentially in the form used today.
3*+* issued a request for proposals for the development of the finite
element software 3*+T%*3 in 2<B?. The method was provided with a rigorous
mathematical foundation in 2<CD with the publication of +trang and 1i"0s An Analysis of
The Finite Element Method
EDF
has since been generalied into a branch of applied
mathematics for numerical modeling of physical systems in a wide variety
of engineering disciplines, e.g.,electromagnetism, thanks to #eter #. +ilvester and fluid
dynamics.
6eshfree methods are a particular class of numerical simulation algorithms for the
simulation of physical phenomena. Traditional simulation algorithms relied on a grid or a
mesh, meshfree methods in contrast use the geometry of the simulated obGect directly for
calculations. 6eshfree methods e"ist for fluid dynamics as well as for solid mechanics.
6eshfree methods eliminate some or all of the traditional mesh$based view of the
computational domain and rely on a particle (either 4agrangian or &ulerian) view of the
field problem.
LAGRANGIAN vs EULERIAN
In fluid dynamics and finite$deformation plasticity the 4agrangian specification of the
flow field is a way of looking at fluid motion where the observer follows an
individual fluid parcel as it moves through space and time. #lotting the position of an
individual parcel through time gives the path line of the parcel. This can be visualied as
sitting in a boat and drifting down a river.
The &ulerian specification of the flow field is a way of looking at fluid motion that
focuses on specific locations in the space through which the fluid flows as time passes.
This can be visualied by sitting on the bank of a river and watching the water pass the
fi"ed location. The 4agrangian and &ulerian specifications of the flow field are
sometimes loosely denoted as the 4agrangian and &ulerian frame of reference
+moothed particle hydrodynamics (+#5) (2<CC)
.iffuse element method (.&6) (2<<>)
&lement$free Galerkin method (&1G / &1G6) (2<<=)
%eproducing kernel particle method (%)#6) (2<<?)
1inite pointset method (1#6) (2<<H)
hp$clouds
3atural element method (3&6)
6aterial #oint 6ethod (6#6)
6eshless local #etrov Galerkin (64#G)
6oving particle semi$implicit (6#+)
Generalied finite difference method (G1.6)
#article$in$cell (#I:)
6oving particle finite element method (6#1&6)
1inite cloud method (1:6)
(oundary node method ((36)
(oundary cloud method ((:6)
6ethod of fundamental solution(61+)
6ethod of particular solution (6#+)
6ethod of 1inite +pheres (61+)
.iscrete 9orte" 6ethod (.96)
6oving least squares is a method of reconstructing continuous functions from a set of
unorganied point samples via the calculation of a weighted least squares measure biased
towards the region around the point at which the reconstructed value is requested.
Difference equation is an equation that describes how something changes in .I+:%&T& time
steps. 3;6&%I:*4 +!4;TI!3+ to I3T&G%*4+ are usually realied as difference equations.
It can also be said as a recurrence relation is an equation that recursively defines a sequence' each
term of the sequence is defined as a function of the preceding terms. &g. 1ibonacci series.

* fluid flow (both liquid and air) may be described in two different ways' the 4agrangian
approach (named after the 1rench mathematician Aoseph 4ouis 4agrange), and the &ulerian
approach (named after 4eonhard &uler, a famous +wiss mathematician). In the 4agrangian
approach, one particle is chosen and is followed as it moves through space with time. The line
traced out by that one particle is called a particle pathline. *n e"ample is a transmitting ocean
buoy that observes a set path over regular intervals over a period of time. The path observed is the
particle pathline.
* &ulerian approach is used to obtain a clearer idea of the airflow at one particular instant. !ne
can look at a IphotographJ of the flow of, for instance, surface ocean currents at a particular fi"ed
time. The entire flow field is easily visualied. The lines comprising this flow field are called
streamlines (see streamlining).
Thus, a pathline refers to the trace of a single particle in time and space whereas a streamline
presents the line of motion of many particles at a fi"ed time. The question of whether particle
pathlines and streamlines are ever the same is considered ne"t.
!f basic importance in understanding fluid movements about an obGect is the concept of a steady
flow. !n a windy day a person calls the wind steady if, from where she stands, it blows
constantly from the same direction at a constant speed. If, however, the speed or direction
changes, the wind is IgustyJ or unsteady. In a similar manner the flow of a fluid (both liquid and
air) about an obGect is steady if its velocity (speed and direction) at each point in the flow remains
constant 8 this does not necessarily require that the velocity be the same at all points in the fluid.
This means that for unsteady flows, particle pathlines (the 4angranian point of view) and
streamlines (the &ulerian approach) are not equivalent. 1or a steady flow, however, a particle
pathline and streamline are equivalent, and the 4agrangian point of view is the same as the
&ulerian approach for flow visualiation.
There are two main ways of approaching problems that involve the motion of deformable
materials $ the 4agrangian way and the &ulerian way. These approaches are distinguished by
three important aspects'
2. The mesh description.
>. The stress tensor and momentum equation (kinetics).
D. The strain measure (kinematics).
+ome essential definitions are given below'
!atia" or Eu"erian coor#inates ( )'
These coordinates are used to locate a point in space with respect to a fi"ed basis. Kou
can think of these coordinates as the ones you are familiar with.
Materia" or La$ran$ian coor#inates ( )'
These coordinates are used to "a%e" material points. If we sit on a material point, the label
does not change with time. -e do start with areference "a%e" which we usually choose as
the initial spatial coordinates of a material point.
Motion or Defor&ation '
* motion or deformation is defined as a mapping between the initial and the current
configuration. -e usually write this relationship as
The initial configuraton is
The displacement is defined as the difference between the reference and the current
configuration. -e write
The velocity of a material point is the derivative of the motion with fi"ed.
The acceleration of a material point is the derivative of the velocity with fi"ed.
LAGRANGIAN
EULERIAN
-e can think of the 4agrangian mesh as being drawn on the body. The mesh deforms with the
body. (oth the nodes and the material points change position as the body deforms. 5owever, the
position of the material points relative to the nodes remains fi"ed.
!n the other hand, the &ulerian mesh is a background mesh. The body flows through the mesh as
it deforms. The nodes remain fi"ed and the materials points move through the mesh. The position
of a material point relative to the nodes varies with the motion.
La$ran$ian &es'
2. 4agrangian coordinates of nodes move with the material. 6aterial coordinates of material
points are time invariant.
>. 3o material passes between elements.
D. &lement quadrature points remain coincident with material points.
=. (oundary nodes remain on the boundary. Therefore, boundary conditions and interface
conditions are easily applied.
?. +evere mesh distortion can occur because the mesh deforms with the material.
Eu"erian &es'
2. &ulerian coordinates of nodes are fi"ed and coincide with spatial points. +patial
coordinates of material points vary with time.
>. 6aterial flows through the mesh.
D. The material point at a given element quadrature point changes with time. This makes
dealing with history$dependent materials difficult.
=. (oundary nodes and the material boundary may not coincide. Therefore, boundary
conditions and interface conditions are hard to apply.
?. There is no mesh distortion because the mesh is fi"ed in space. 5owever, the domain that
needs to be modeled is larger because we do not want the body to leave the domain.
LO(KING
The !atc' test in the finite element method is a simple indicator of the quality of a finite element,
developed by (ruce Irons. The patch test uses a partial differential equation on a domain
consisting from several elements set up so that the e"act solution is known. Typically, in
mechanics, the prescribed e"act solution consists of displacements that vary as linear functions in
space (called a constant strain solution). The elements pass the patch test if the finite element
solution is the same as the e"act solution.
E2F
It was long conGectured by engineers that passing the patch test is sufficient for the convergence
of the finite element, that is, to ensure that the solutions from the finite element method converge
to the e"act solution of the partial differential equation as the finite element mesh is refined.
5owever, this is not the case, and the patch test is neither sufficient nor necessary for
convergence.
If you consider a beam with thickness t under combined shear and bending deformations, the
portion of the internal energy associated with the bending deformation is proportional with tLD,
but the portion related to shear deformations is proportional with t. 3ow if we reduce the
thickness t, the value of tLD approaches ero much faster than t and as a result, all the strain
energy of the beam will come from shear deformation. This is not correct because for a thin beam
it is always the bending deformations which provide most part of the energy. +o the shear
deformation beam can lead to wrong results for very thin beam. This is called s'ear "oc)in$.
6embrane locking happens when you model a curved surface of with flat (facet) shell elements.
In this case because the elements are not in the same plane, bending vector of one element will
have a proGection on the ne"t element which acts like an in$plane moment or drilling moment.
*gain in$plane deformations energy is proportional to t but bending energy is proportional to tLD
and the same problem happens when t becomes very small, i.e. membrane resistance of the ne"t
element stops bending deformation on this element. This is called &e&%rane "oc)in$.