Disability and Employment 20130313 MMP

TRAINING APPROACHES AND THE PROVISION OF
EMPLOYMENT SERVICES FOR PERSONS AND

YOUTH WITH DISABILITIES: LITERATURE AND
RESOURCES

Vivien Runnels and Krista Dillon
with assistance from Heather Porter
Institute of Population Health, University of Ottawa

Report prepared for the Employment Accessibility Resource
Network (EARN) and the Population Health Improvement
Research Network

Training Approaches 2

Funding
Funding for this report was provided by the Population Health Improvement Research
Network, Ontario Ministry of Health and Long Term Care. Funding Agency Ref. No.
06548.
Audience for this document
This document is intended for employers; service providers; vocational rehabilitation,
employment, career and rehabilitation counsellors; knowledge brokers and community-
based organizations who are working in the field and interested in the employment of
adults and youth with disabilities. It contains items of possible interest for people with
disabilities and their families and networks who are negotiating the labour market and
trying to gain a picture of resources and services related to employment available to
persons with disabilities.
Suggested citation
Runnels, Vivien and Dillon, Krista (2013). Training approaches and the provision of
employment services for persons and youth with disabilities: literature and resources.
Ottawa: Population Health Improvement Research Network Working Paper Series,
Institute of Population Health, University of Ottawa.
Use of this publication
Readers are welcome to distribute and cite this document with the appropriate
acknowledgments. Correspondence may be addressed to: vrunnels@uottawa.ca
3 Runnels et al.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank United Way Ottawa and the Employment Accessibility
Resource Network for their interest in the historical background and current directions in
the employment of persons and youth with disabilities.
In addition, these members of the University of Ottawa, have provided helpful advice and
suggestions: Caroline Andrew, Professor, Faculty of Social Sciences; Ronald Labont,
Professor, and Corinne Packer, Senior Researcher, Population Health Improvement
Research Network and the Globalization and Health Equity Research Unit, Institute of
Population Health, and Brian Carrire, Relationship Manager at the Career Centre, Telfer
School of Management.
Heather Porter, who is a Cooperative Program student at the University of Ottawa,
working on Population Health Improvement Research Network projects with the
Globalization and Health Equity Research Unit at the Institute of Population Health, has
done an admirable job of helping the authors produce this document.
Notice
The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the Population
Health Improvement Research Network of Ontario or the Ministry of Health and Long
Term Care. Official endorsement by the Ministry of Health and Long Term Care is neither
intended nor should be inferred.
About the Population Health Improvement Research Network (PHIRN)
The Population Health Improvement Research Network is a province-wide network
linking population health researchers and community partners in order to improve the
health of Ontarians and the sustainability of the health care system. It is funded by the
Ministry of Health and Long Term Care to support high-quality applied population
health research that addresses complex issues that affect health and health equity using a
collaborative approach and to promote the production and dissemination of new
knowledge, best practices and policies. The website for PHIRN can be found at
http://www.rrasp-phirn.ca/
About the authors
Vivien Runnels is a Researcher with the Population Health Improvement Research
Network (PHIRN) of Ontario at the Institute of Population Health, University of Ottawa.
Krista Dillon is an undergraduate student at the University of Ottawa studying Political
Science and Communications.

List of Boxes
Box 1: The Human Rights of Persons with Disabilities ................................................................. 12
Box 2: What is employability? ...................................................................................................... 14
Box 3: Canadian organizations supporting employment for people with disabilities .................. 17
Box 4: Reasons supporting train-then-place models .................................................................... 19
Box 5: Downsides of sheltered employment ................................................................................ 19
Box 6: What employment services offer ...................................................................................... 34
Box 7: Employment Ontario - One-stop Employment Services in Ottawa ................................... 35
Box 8: Disability Specialists and the Disability Program Navigator in the United States ............. 37
Box 9: Youth Employment Services, Government of Canada ....................................................... 45
Box 10: Skills Link funding for employers and organizations targeting activities at youth facing
barriers to employment ................................................................................................................ 45
Box 11: Grants and Income resources Available for youth and others with disabilities ........... 48
Box 12: Ontario Disability Support Program: Employment and Training Start Up Benefit (ESUB)
....................................................................................................................................................... 59

5 Runnels et al.

List of Acronyms
ASD: Autism Spectrum Disorder
CCRW: Canadian Council of Rehabilitation and Work
CI: condence interval
CPP: Canada Pension Plan
CVRP: College of Vocational Rehabilitation Professionals
DPN: Disability Program Navigator
EARN: Employment Accessibility Resource Network
EI: Employment Insurance
FSWEP: Federal Student Work Experience Program
HRSDC: Human Resources and Skills Development Canada
IPS: Individual Placement and Support
LMAPD: Labour Market Agreement for Persons with Disabilities
MTCU: Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities
NIDMAR: National Institute of Disability Management and Research
NNT: number needed to treat
ODEN: Ontario Disability Employment Network
PHIRN: Population Health Improvement Research Network
PWD: Persons/People with Disabilities
PWIP: Partners for Workplace Inclusion Program
RR: relative risk
YES: Youth Employment Services
YWD: Youth with disabilities

Overview
The employment of people with disabilities (PWD) in the competitive labour force in Canada
and throughout the world is characterized by lower participation. Although the explanations
offered for these lower levels of participation are multi-faceted, in general, the social and
economic structures of society itself can limit the inclusion of PWD in activities of everyday life,
including employment. Recognizing that exclusion whatever its cause - is a problem, people
with disabilities, service providers and employers are joining together to address the
unemployment of people with disabilities, and raising awareness of the positive contributions
that PWD can make as workers, not only to their employers, but also to the economy as a
whole.
1
The Employment Accessibility Resource Network (EARN) in Ottawa is one such
collaborative community initiative coordinated by the United Way Ottawa and developed for
the purpose of improving knowledge and employment opportunities and outcomes for PWD.
EARNs members represent the public and private sectors, and include employers, employment
and rehabilitation service providers and diversity officers.
As part of its forward-planning preparation, and to give all EARN members some background to
the employment of people with disabilities, EARN asked the Population Health Improvement
Research Network (PHIRN) of Ontario to summarize the research literature of the employment
of PWD, and to provide resources and literature that could be helpful as a basis for its future
work. This report responds to that request. It opens with an introduction to disability and the
historical background and current trends in the provision of training and employment for
people with disabilities. The report then outlines the current delivery of employment services
for PWD in Canada observing a general trend in mainstreaming the delivery of employment
services to people with disabilities. The chapter following focuses on the employment of youth
with disabilities (YWD) who may face several challenges whilst transitioning from school to
work, or from college and university to work whilst confronting the challenges of exclusion
from employment that PWD face in general. The final chapter, Definitions, statistical data and
resources related to disability, youth with disabilities and employment: Canada, Ontario and
Ottawa presents data and other resources useful to a number of stakeholders who are
interested in this area. Throughout the report, boxes provide pieces of information with
relevance to the employment of PWD. The first of the appendices provides additional
references to the literature pertaining to systematic review evidence pertaining to disability
and employment. The second appendix provides references selected by the authors for further
reading. The third appendix describes the key terms, search engines and databases that were
used in the searches for the literature.

1
PWD who do participate in the labour force, may also experience loss of health and assured income support.
7 Runnels et al.

Table of Contents
Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................... 3
List of Boxes ................................................................................................................................. 4
List of Acronyms ........................................................................................................................... 5
Overview ......................................................................................................................................... 6
Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 10
Understanding disability in society ........................................................................................... 11
Methods used in searching for the literature ........................................................................... 12
Chapter 2 Training and Employment Models for Persons with Disabilities ................................. 13
Summary .................................................................................................................................... 13
Historical Overview and legislative background ....................................................................... 14
Development of training and employment models .................................................................. 15
Vocational Training models ....................................................................................................... 17
Train-then-place models ............................................................................................................ 18
Place-then-train models ............................................................................................................ 19
Supported employment ............................................................................................................. 20
Individual placement and support (IPS): Person-centred Employment .................................... 20
Self-directed and entrepreneurial employment models ........................................................... 21
Community Economic Development, social purpose enterprises and social firms .................. 22
Worker cooperatives ................................................................................................................. 22
Vocational Rehabilitation in Canada ......................................................................................... 23
Disability Management .............................................................................................................. 24
References for Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................... 25
Chapter 3 Delivering employment services to people with disabilities ....................................... 30
Summary .................................................................................................................................... 30
Historical overview .................................................................................................................... 31
Provincial government provision and delivery of employment services for people with
disabilities .................................................................................................................................. 32
One stop-centres in Ontario ...................................................................................................... 34

Engagement of Employers ......................................................................................................... 36
Who are the practitioners that deliver employment services to people with disabilities? ...... 36
Specialized Service or One-Stop Shopping? .............................................................................. 37
Non-governmental organizations employment services for persons with disabilities ............ 38
Canadian Council of Rehabilitation and Work ........................................................................... 38
Chapter 4 Employment of Youth with Disabilities ........................................................................ 42
Summary .................................................................................................................................... 42
Policies, programs and services to address employment of youth and youth with disabilities 44
Ontario: Youth Employment Services (YES): .............................................................................. 46
The Canadian Council on Rehabilitation and Work ................................................................... 47
Youth Employment Services, available in Ottawa ..................................................................... 47
Linking youth with disabilities with employers ......................................................................... 48
Additional literature on good practices and the employment of youth and people with
disabilities .................................................................................................................................. 51
Chapter 5 Definitions, statistical data and resources related to disability, youth with disabilities
and employment: Canada, Ontario and Ottawa .......................................................................... 52
Definitions of Disability .............................................................................................................. 52
The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities ................................................. 52
The World Health Organization ................................................................................................. 52
The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) ............................. 52
Canadian Government departments definitions ...................................................................... 52
Employment equity and a guideline for definition of disabled ............................................... 53
Definitions of Employment Status ............................................................................................. 53
Defining groups .......................................................................................................................... 54
Older Canadians ......................................................................................................................... 54
Youth/young adults.................................................................................................................... 54
Canada: Statistical Data - National level statistics and sources for disability data ...................... 55
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada: Employment: ........................................... 55
9 Runnels et al.

Human Resources and Skills Development Canada Demographics: ......................................... 55
Statistics Canada (2006) Participation and Activity Limitation Survey: Labour Force Experience
of People with Disabilities in Canada ......................................................................................... 56
Statistics Canada (2012) Canadian Survey on Disability ............................................................ 56
Government of Canada: Resources on Disability ...................................................................... 56
Federal Disability Report ............................................................................................................ 56
Workplace accommodations ..................................................................................................... 57
Other published data related to disabilities in Canada ............................................................. 57
Disability in Canada: A Profile. Human Resources and Skills Development Canada ................. 57
Labour Force Survey .................................................................................................................. 57
Ontario: Statistical Data ................................................................................................................ 58
Data sources: ............................................................................................................................. 58
Survey of Labour and Income Dynamics (SLID) ......................................................................... 58
Ontario-Canada Labour Market Agreement for Persons with Disabilities ................................ 58
Adults with disabilities and post-secondary education ............................................................. 59
Human rights, disability and employment................................................................................. 59
Disability Income Support in Ontario......................................................................................... 59
Ontario: Resources .................................................................................................................... 60
Employment and Accessibility in Ontario.................................................................................. 60
Ottawa: Statistical data ................................................................................................................. 61
Disability-related statistics for Ottawa ...................................................................................... 61
Employment .............................................................................................................................. 61
Appendix 1 Systematic Review Evidence on Disability and Employment .................................... 67
Appendix 2 Selected references for further reading .................................................................... 72
Appendix 3 Key terms, search engines and databases used in searches of the literature. ......... 75


Chapter 1 Introduction
The employment of PWD in Canada and throughout the world in the competitive labour force is
characterized by lower participation. Explanations offered for these lower levels of participation
are multi-faceted. Social and economic structures of society in general limit the inclusion of
PWD in activities of everyday life. With limited opportunities, PWD may experience barriers to
participation in the labour force, and experience loss of health and assured income support if
they do participate. However, throughout the world, people with disabilities, service providers
and employers are joining together to address exclusion and the unemployment of PWD and
raising awareness of the positive contributions that PWD can make as workers, but also to the
economy as a whole.
For many years, the focus on employment of PWD has been on the supply side, i.e. how
individual workers access work, what positions they obtain, what wages and benefits are paid
and so on. With the focus being on addressing the employment of people with disabilities, the
demand side of the employment equation, i.e. from the perspective of employers, has received
less attention (For more explanation of supply and demand side, see World Health Organization
(2011) Report on Disability, Ch.8
2
). EARN is a collaborative community initiative coordinated by
the United Way Ottawa, that has been developed purposefully to improve employment
opportunities and outcomes for PWD with the involvement of all parties involved in the
employment transaction. Its members represent the public and private sectors, and include
employers, employment and rehabilitation service providers and diversity officers. EARNs
membership is a reflection of its concern with attending to both the supply and demand side of
the employment of people with disabilities, and in keeping with the mandate of the United
Way, its interests in the context of building inclusion and quality of life for all citizens of Ottawa
including people with disabilities.
3

Perceiving a future need for research and evaluation in the networks activities for the
promotion and facilitation of employment of PWD, EARN submitted a request to the PHIRN to
provide summaries of the research literature pertaining to the employment of PWD. With input
from Richard Plummer and Jennifer Benedict of the United Way, Vivien Runnels, Caroline
Andrew and Brian Carrire of the University of Ottawa proposed topics for investigation of the

2
http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789240685215_eng.pdf
3
EARN is a type of collaborative which has been referred to in the literature as a community-wide intermediary.
See, for example, the National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability (2004) Building Lasting connections to
Employers: developing community-wide intermediaries. Research to Practice Brief. Issue 1. June 2004. Accessed
from http://www.ncwd-youth.info/assets/research_briefs/Research_to_Practice_01.pdf
11 Runnels et al.

research literature to provide background and resources of potential use to EARN members.
These topics included information on training and employment models for delivering
employment services to people with disabilities, practices in delivering employment services to
people with disabilities, the employment of YWD, and data sources and information on
disability and un/employment for Ottawa and Ontario. Vivien Runnels and Krista Dillon
undertook the project for PHIRN, and this report is the product of their efforts, with additional
assistance provided by Heather Porter.

People with disabilities can workand () they can work alongside people without
disabilities in community jobs with real wages. ... employment is critically important for citizens
to accomplish their life goals, pay their bills and secure their future
(http://www.dol.gov/odep/pdf/employment-people-with-disabilities.pdf, p.13).

Understanding disability in society
Disability is typically used to encompass and describe a wide range of conditions. When
disability is viewed as a condition of the individual, this is sometimes referred to as the medical
or individual model of disability. In the medical model, each disability or impairment is seen as
an individuals problem. Disability is seen as a problem or problems implying a need to be fixed
or managed in a medical sense. Transferred to the societal context, the individual or medical
model of disability assigns the problem of disability to the individual. This view, which tends to
put forward a view of inherent deficits in a disabled person, can affect a persons autonomy and
participation in the labour force. For example, a person that uses a wheelchair for mobility may
be seen as having limitations because of her or his disability.
In contrast, the social model of disability views disability as something that is constructed or
created by the way that society responds to disability. PWD are excluded from participation in
society including employment because of societal barriers which include physical and
environmental barriers, organizational or systemic barriers, and attitudinal barriers (referred to
as stigma and discrimination). These barriers are generated by society not by disabled people
themselves. For example, the wheelchair user might be prevented from accessing stores or
restaurants because of planning failures to incorporate ramps, curb cuts or elevators. The lack
of access is therefore not a problem of the individuals making. Addressing societal barriers
allows PWD to participate as full citizens, with the opportunities, rights and responsibilities
accorded to citizens. Much of the literature for employment of PWD and disability
management, for example, focuses on ensuring the working environment is accessible.

Methods used in searching for the literature
In order to find relevant literature, we utilized various search engines including Google, Google
Scholar and the Web of Knowledge, an online academic database, using various combinations
of key search terms (See Appendix 3 for details). We defined the research literature as
academic literature that is peer-reviewed, meaning it has undergone a process of review by
peers (other academics) for quality in its content. We also included what is referred to as the
grey literature, which includes items such as published reports, which may not have been peer
reviewed but nevertheless contains important information. The searches yielded both
academic publications as well as a variety of reports from the grey literature. The searches were
mostly completed between May and August 2012. Additional items were also sought after
August 2012.
In the text, we have named the authors and dates of the publications to which we refer in
brackets. References used in the text are found at the end of each chapter.
Box 1: The Human Rights of Persons with Disabilities
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
In March 2010, Canada ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(CRPD). The CRPD recognizes that the existence of barriers constitutes a central component of
disability.
The Council of Canadians with Disabilities and the Canadian Association for Community Living
agree that the Government of Canada needs to work with the provinces to ensure that the
CRPD benefits Canadians (Council of Canadians with Disabilities & Canadian Association for
Community Living, 2011,) especially considering 30 to 50 percent of human rights claims in
Ontario still cite the ground of disability, mostly in the area of employment. Furthermore, in
2010, 44 percent of all complaints accepted by the Canadian Human Rights Commission were
related to disability (http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2012-01-e.pdf).
In Ontario, the Ontario Human Rights Commission has issued Policy and Guidelines on Disability
and the Duty to Accommodate (http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/policy-and-guidelines-disability-and-
duty-accommodate).
13 Runnels et al.

Chapter 2 Training and Employment Models for Persons with Disabilities

Summary
PWD face many of the issues that non-disabled people face in getting a job. However they are
often faced with additional obstacles. Lack of engagement with the labour force can affect
levels of inclusion and participation in life in general. Vocational training and training for
employment is intended to assist PWD enhance their employability and engage with the
workforce. There is historical development and evidence behind a number of different models
of training in Canada. These include train-then-place, place-then-train, and other models for
gaining and maintaining employment with varying degrees of support such as supported
employment. Self-employment and employment in social and cooperative organizations, are
other models which have different characteristics. A number of organizations in Canada are
involved in different activities concerned with the employment of PWD. The chapter completes
its overview of models in Canada with some information about vocational rehabilitation and
disability management in Canada.
In every society, PWD face higher rates of unemployment when compared to non-disabled
populations (United Nations Enable, 2012; United Nations, 2012). Labour market involvement is
important for disabled and non-disabled citizens, and exclusion from employment can be
detrimental to physical and mental health, as well as financial security (Canadian Association
for Community Living, 2011; Butcher & Wilton, 2008).
In Canada, 14.3 percent of the population, nearly 4.5 million individuals, including 195,500
young people aged 15 to 24, report living with a disability (Statistics Canada, 2006; Human
Resources and Skills Development Canada, 2011). In addition to lacking the requisite skills and a
lack of vocational supports that many unemployed people might experience, PWD may face
additional obstacles to employment such as stigma and stereotyping which negatively affects
their participation. Further, connecting with employers might provide additional challenges
(Canadian Abilities Foundation, 2004). Training for employment and employment itself, can
help PWD to address limited participation or exclusion from the labour market and other issues
associated with not having a job, such as poverty, and increased levels of poor health.
Additionally, autonomy and social inclusion, can also be enhanced (Lindsay, 2011; Versnel et al.,
2011; Canadian Association for Community Living, 2011).
For this chapter we employed two questions to guide our search of the literature. These
questions were: What training and employment models exist in Canada which are intended or

designed for disabled people looking for a job? Which are the most effective training and
employment models? We have not discussed mainstream models of training and employment,
typically accessed through post-secondary education and vocational training.
Box 2: What is employability?
Employability can be defined as a skill set, including knowledge and personal attributes, which
enables unemployed people to find suitable employment (Yorke, 2006). More complex than
just finding a job, employability involves being able to gain, maintain, and change employment,
as well as shift between roles within a workplace and ideally find fulfilling work (Hillage &
Pollard, 1999). The term employability often arises in discussions with regard to the
employment of people with disabilities, although there may be additional invisible factors that
come into play such as stigma and discrimination. These may not concern individual
employability, but affect a persons overall ability to become employed and participate in the
labour market.
Historical Overview and legislative background
There is historical evidence in many countries of the States involvement in providing
employment for PWD. For example, legislation provided injured soldiers returning to civilian life
in the United Kingdom from World War II, with sheltered employment and reserved
occupations (English Heritage, n.d.a; English Heritage, n.d.b). These types of policies were
mostly acknowledgement of veterans or servicemens military contributions prior to injury,
making them deserving of a job, in a similar way that some poor people were deserving of
receiving help compared to others who were undeserving. This policy approach also meant
that disabled persons would be less dependent on the state. Other people with disabilities, with
some exceptions, were thus frequently dissociated from the labour market. For many years a
general view has existed which saw PWD being incapable of work because of their personal
impairments.
For much of the 20
th
century in developed countries, institutionalization was a common
pathway for children and adults with intellectual or developmental disabilities or mental health
problems. Children and adults were housed in institutions, where they were educated, treated
and looked after, sometimes for their lifetime (Jongbloed, 2003). Partly as an objection to the
professionalization of the care industries in which professionals possessed knowledge,
expertise and power to make decisions for PWD to the exclusion of parents and disabled
children and youth, but also in opposition to institutionalization, advocates who included
parents and families of disabled children and adults, began to protest vehemently against the
standards and quality of life in institutional living. In Canada, for example, the Woodlands
Parents Group which consisted of parents whose adult children were institutionalized in the
Woodlands School in British Columbia, played a key role in deinstitutionalization, and helped to
15 Runnels et al.

shift thinking about the inclusion of handicapped adults in the labour market (Community Living
Society, 2012).
Starting in the 1960s and early 1970s, the de-institutionalization movement gained significant
ground, at the same time as governments were looking for less expensive non-institutional
ways of providing care to PWD. Many institutions closed in the following years across Canada.
4

Advocacy and user-groups and new laws also emerged in a number of countries. Along with
new knowledge, advocacy and other actions taking place in Canada and elsewhere, PWD were
confirmed as autonomous citizens, and acknowledged as being capable of participating in all
aspects of life, including work. New laws included the 1976-1977 Canadian Human Rights Act,
which gave disabled people the same rights in law as their non-disabled counterparts.
A variety of other anti-discrimination acts and policies came into effect throughout the 1980s
and 1990s, including the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982, the Employment
Equity Act of 1986 (Canadian Heritage, 2012). Despite such acts of legislation, recruitment rates
of PWD in the public service have in fact decreased from 3.9 percent to 3.1 percent between
2006 and 2010 (Public Service Commission of Canada, 2011, p. 43). Elsewhere, the Americans
with Disabilities Act in 1990, and the 1995 Disability Discrimination Act in the United Kingdom
also provided evidence of support for the employment of PWD.
Development of training and employment models
Nirje, Wolfensberger and Gold: employment advocacy for people with
developmental and intellectual disabilities
Evidence of training and employment models specifically for PWD emerges in the literature in
the 1970s, with the development of ideas and legislation that are supportive of the
normalization of PWD as full members of society. First devised in the 1960s by Bengt Nirje,
Wolfensbergers The Principles of Normalization (1972) brought the idea of normalization to a
North American audience and has had a profound and continuing influence on the
development of services. Simply, normalization stated that disabled people should be enabled
to lead lives no different from those of non-disabled citizens. The focus of the normalization
principle was on integration as participation in ordinary culture, increasing the attention
given to PWD participating in society (Flynn & Lemay, 1999). Later Wolfensberger expanded on
the philosophical concept of normalization to social role valorization. This is defined as "the
application of what science can tell us about the enablement, establishment, enhancement,

4
People First of Canada and Canadian Association for Community Living joint Task Force on Deinstitutionalization
was formed in 2002, and continues to highlight the continued and unacceptable incarceration of persons with
intellectual disabilities in institutions throughout this country( http://www.institutionwatch.ca/about) .

maintenance, and/or defence of valued social roles for people" (Susan Thomas and Wolf
Wolfensberger in Flynn and Lemay 1999, p. 125). Such writings have continued to provide the
values in the background, reinforcing the justification of participation in all aspects of life for
people with disabilities. Much of Wolfensbergers work has been used for underpinning the
nature of services and work with people with developmental disabilities.
5

Around the same time as Nirje and Wolfensberger, American professor Marc Gold formulated
an employment training approach for persons with severe developmental disabilities, called Try
Another Way. Marc Gold & Associates was one of the first networks of training consultants who
were disability professionals, specializing in the area of employment and community
participation for persons with significant disabilities.
6
Gold believed that everyone could learn
to perform marketable tasks if given suitable instructions, including the severely intellectually
disabled who were previously considered incapable of learning. Gold travelled throughout
North America and taught audiences that appropriate teaching strategies which respect human
rights and capabilities can be used to train severely disabled people. His work disproved
commonly held beliefs regarding PWDs incapacity for work (Durgin, n.d.). Golds work was
some of the earliest vocational training in North America for developmentally disabled people.
Vocational training has since evolved and shifted in a variety of different directions, but the
fundamental component of capability has remained.
For people with severe and persistent mental illness, psychiatric or psychosocial rehabilitation
also reinforced views that PWD can participate effectively in the labour force. Some of the
models for training and employment for people who experience mental illness, include the
clubhouse model (e.g. Foundation House (http://www.fountainhouse.org/), was the original
model), vocational training, sheltered employment, supported employment, and co-operative
employment and social firms, which continue to be found in different forms in North America
and elsewhere.

5
See for example http://www.socialrolevalorization.com/index.html.
6
www.marcgold.com.
17 Runnels et al.

Box 3: Canadian organizations supporting employment for people with disabilities
Currently, access to fair and open/competitive employment is a focus of disability rights
groups and other organizations and associations, which include the Council of Canadians with
Disabilities (http://www.ccdonline.ca/en/), the Ontario Disability Employment Network
(http://www.odenetwork.com/), and the Canadian Council on Rehabilitation and Work
(http://www.ccrw.org/). Organizations such as the Canadian Association for Supported
Employment, a national association of community-based service providers and stakeholders
who are active and invested in employment for PWD, are also active
(http://www.supportedemployment.ca/).
Associations such as the Canadian AIDS Society, the Canadian Paraplegic Association, the
Canadian Association of the Deaf, the Canadian Mental Health Association and many others,
have sections and programs which focus on providing information, or actively promoting the
vocational rehabilitation and employment of their members (See for example, Zamprelli,1998).
Other related associations are organizations of professionals working with PWD in
employment and rehabilitation, such as Psychosocial Rehabilitation Canada, and the Vocational
Rehabilitation Association of Canada (formerly the Canadian Association of Rehabilitation
Professionals). The College of Vocational Rehabilitation Professionals (CVRP) is the regulatory
body of the VRA of Canada.
The Ontario Council of Alternative Businesses is a provincial organization which advocates for
employment opportunities for psychiatric consumer/survivors and emphasizes the importance
of work in the lives of people who have been marginalized by poverty and mental health
issues.
In some areas of Canada including Ontario, employers have become actively involved in the
provision of employment for people with disabilities, sometimes as a result of employers
personal interest, organized efforts by service clubs such as Rotary, and sometimes as a result
of actual experience. Canadian resources and supports for employers are underdeveloped
compared to the United States, for example, the Employer Assistance and Resource Network
(http://askearn.org/) which is a service of the National Employer Technical Assistance Center,
although ad hoc assistance is sometimes available (Kootenay Career Development Society,
2013). The United Kingdom has a Business Disability Forum
(http://businessdisabilityforum.org.uk/) formerly referred to as the Employers Forum on
Disability (http://www.ocab.ca/).
Vocational Training models
There are varying approaches as to how best to prepare PWD for the world of work. Some of
these are stepped approaches to training. These include train-then-place models, also referred

to as work preparation, pre-vocational training and other names, and place-thentrain models,
also referred to as on-the-job training. Other approaches include models of self-employment.
Train-then-place models
In one model, prevocational training programs are designed as a first step in a total training
program to prepare or ready a person for a job. Training positions are intended to be
temporary, encouraging graduation from one step or stage to another and preparing for
transition into the competitive labour market. For some PWD, an early stage of training may be
in sheltered environments. Prevocational training and sheltered work are typically not
competitive, meaning participants are not paid wages for training, but they may receive an
allowance.
Sheltered employment can be used to refer to a number of different segregated vocational
and non-vocational programs, such as sheltered workshops, adult activity centres, work activity
centres, and day treatment centres (Kregel & Dean, 2002). Sheltered employment is a
traditional model that was designed primarily to assist people with psychiatric disabilities and
people with developmental/intellectual disabilities in achieving goals of greater independence
and paid employment. Sheltered employment programs are intended to be suitable workplaces
for people who, for any number of reasons, are viewed as not ready to work in a competitive
employment setting in their community. This might be because of insufficient skills, or as
Corrigan puts it, some kind of decit (sic) that prevents him or her from tting into the kind of
work and independent-living situations where life goals are normally achieved (Corrigan,
2001). The types of work often include packaging, assembly, sewing or manufacturing (Visier,
1998; Canadian Association for Community Living, 2011).
Many sheltered programs are intended to be temporary and transitional, with workshops
operating in the belief that as people develop marketable skills and self-confidence they will
move on to open, regular employment. Research shows, however, that there are extremely low
rates of successful transition (Migliore, 2012). Rinaldi et al. note, it seems that such schemes
often succeed only in convincing individuals that they are capable of working only in a sheltered
environment (2008). Considering the low transition rates of prevocational training and
sheltered workshop models to open employment, it has been suggested that these models are
not as effective as supported models. This is explained in part because individuals develop
dependency on the workshop (Kregel & Dean, 2002). The report, Neglected or Hidden?
Connecting employers and people with disabilities in Canada (Canadian Abilities Foundation,
2004), suggests that, Training is importantbut its value may be over-rated unless the training
is practical and focused on the job.
19 Runnels et al.

Box 4: Reasons supporting train-then-place models
Individuals may find this work rewarding and interesting, a source of pride (Butcher & Wilton,
2008; Gosling and Cotteril,2000)
Environments are valued by workers for being safe and co-operative (Gosling & Cotterill, 2000)
Less demanding (Canadian Association for Community Living, 2011).
A small income or allowance is earned, (where permissible by law) which does not interfere
with disability benefits (Butcher & Wilton, 2008).
Opportunity to make friends with others who have similar experiences, social benefits (Butcher
& Wilton, 2008; Dudley & Schatz, 1985; Weikle, 2008).
Models offer structure and predictability, compared to often-precarious open employment
positions (Butcher & Wilton, 2008; Migliore et al., 2007)
Trainees can increase their skill sets for eventual competitive employment

Box 5: Downsides of sheltered employment
Sheltered employment has fallen out of favour due to a number of negative aspects:
Sheltered employment seems to fuel a vicious cycle of low expectations (Rinaldi, 2008;
Wehman, 1981)
Poor working conditions: efforts to regulate sheltered work in the 1980 have led to a name-
change in work performed at segregated centres. Jobs are referred to as training, occupation
or activitysometimes with associated time limits and other requirements but often with
little change to unfair, unregulated material practices (Migliore, 2012; Canadian Association for
Community Living, 2011)
Poor level of job protection standards compared to workers in the open labour market
(Migliore, 2012)
Low, inconsequential earnings (National Disability Rights Network, 2011)
Lack of self-determination and meaningful work (Migliore, 2012; Kregel & Dean, 2002)
Perpetuating harmful and stereotypical beliefs that people (with intellectual disabilities) are
incapable to work in a regular or integrated setting (National Disability Rights Network)
Lack of community integration (National Disability Rights Network)
Place-then-train models
In place-then-train models, a competitive position is sought first and depending on the needs of
the client, supports and/or intensive job coaching can be provided on the job. The Individual
Placement and Support (IPS) program is one variant (see below under Individual Placement and
Support), where employment specialists (also referred to as employment counsellors, job
placement counsellors and other names), play a role in assisting each client with placements.

They may provide one-on-one support or job coaching. Currently, supported employment and
its variants are recognized as an effective route to employment for some people with
disabilities.
Supported employment
The supported employment model stands in contrast to the model of training individuals for
employment that is found in pre-vocational training and sheltered workshops, by placing the
individual in a competitive position first (place-then-train) (Butcher & Wilton, 2008). The
supported employment model grew out of criticisms of the sheltered workshop model which
had not lived up to expectations that it would be able to train and place people with disabling
conditions in regular work (Neufeldt et al., 2000). Supported employment practices are often
referred to as person-centred, focusing on the disabled individual and assisting them to find
an appropriate position (Neufeldt et al., 1999, 2000). This approach also contrasts with models
such as those in sheltered workshop and sheltered training settings, which provide work-
related activity for groups of individuals, and which typically require many activities at different
levels and competencies for many people.
On the whole, the literature suggests that supported employment is more effective than
prevocational training in assisting people with severe mental illness obtain competitive
employment (Crowther, 2001). Certain themes, positive and critical, are recurrent in the
literature. These include: worker/client satisfaction with the support agency, the job, and
coworkers; low pay (minimum wage or less) so as to not interfere with disability benefits, along
with some confusion about what would or would not interfere with these benefits; necessity of
a job coach (to be phased out during employment); and the positive valuation of the persons
work with workers experiencing feelings of inclusion in the workplace. Additionally, studies
have found significantly higher quality of life scores among people with intellectual disabilities
in supported employment than people in sheltered workshops (Neufeldt et al., 1999). The
literature evaluating supported employment programs suggests that individuals who are
supported in their work, are more successful in finding and keeping satisfactory employment
than their counterparts in sheltered work.
Supported employment itself, can, and has been used as a stepped approach to competitive
employment through the steps of supported employment with no wages, supported
employment with some wages (wage subsidy), and supported employment with wages
(Inmaculada, 2012).
Individual placement and support (IPS): Person-centred Employment
Supported employment can take a number of forms, all focusing on the economic integration
of individuals in paid work and real jobs, without taking on extensive training or preparation. A
popular method developed by Becker and Drake in 1994, known as Individual Placement and
21 Runnels et al.

Support (IPS), emphasizes: rapid job finding with no extensive training periods; client
preferences (taking into account the interests of the individual in areas of employment);
continuous assessment; competitive employment in integrated work settings; follow-along
supports and zero exclusion criteria in which no criterion is used to rule-out those looking for
work (Becker & Drake, 1994). A key feature of supported employment is the job coach and
employment specialists.
The philosophy behind IPS and supported employment more generally is that, anyone is
capable of working competitively in the community if the right kind of job and work
environment can be found and the right kind of support provided. Thus, the primary goal is not
to change the individual, but to find a natural match between the individuals strengths and
experiences and a job in the community (Rinaldi, 2008, p. 52). This statement echoes Golds
approach to finding work for the intellectually disabled. To illustrate, in the supported
employment criterion of zero-exclusion, people are not turned away because they are
unprepared or inexperienced (Becker & Drake, 1994; Corbire et al., 2010).
Although the literature appears to suggest that IPS is the preferable model for PWD to obtain
meaningful and competitive employment, Corrigan (2001) also makes an important point that
often, an articial line between train-place and place-train approaches (is drawn). In fact, the
two paradigms probably fall at dierent ends of a continuum dened by the caution with which
people with disabilities are placed in real-world settings (our italics, p. 335).
Self-directed and entrepreneurial employment models
A third set of models, self-directed employment or entrepreneurial employment models for
PWD is a more recent addition to the models of employment that may be available to PWD
outside mainstream pathways to education and employment. Self-directed employment can be
defined as income generating work where disabled people, to a significant degree, have a
prime decision-making role in the kind of work that is done, how time is allocated and how to
allocate revenue generated (Neufeldt, 1999). It enables a person to pursue the type of work
they are interested in (i.e. managing a small business) for generating their own income, rather
than wage labour or supported employment, or sheltered employment which is not designed to
generate income. Self-directed employment has been determined to be a viable means for
PWD to earn income in Canada (Neufeldt, 1999). PWD are able to pursue a wider range of
activities and interests with this type of approach to employment, an appealing aspect for
many.
There is little research about disabled peoples experiences with self-directed employment, and
little accessible information. From what is known, self-employment has mostly positive
feedback (Neufeldt et al., 1999, p. 30). A sense of independence, value and success are three

main important positive outcomes, similar to the reported outcomes of supported employment
work. According to Neufeldts 1999 study, pride in running ones own business was an
important theme within the self-employed group. Earnings for self-directed employees are
quite low however, and likely to fluctuate from month to month. Self employment models also
appear to be a more labour-intensive route including the involvement of supports for a disabled
individual to pursue.
Community Economic Development, social purpose enterprises and social firms
There are other types of organizational models which are structured similarly to mainstream
models of workplace organization in which PWD are the target group of employees. Some
models refer to community economic development (CED) and social economy organization
models which are designed to support community and social development in addition to
economic development (Thompson & Emmanuel, 2012). According to Bouchard, Ferraton and
Michaud (2006), the four qualifying criteria for a social economy organization are: carrying on
an economic activity; the existence of social rules prohibiting or limiting distribution of
surpluses among the members; the formal voluntary association of persons and/or collective
bodies; and the democratic governance process (Bouchard, Ferraton & Michaud, 2006). Broad
and Saunders have prepared a research report on social enterprises and the Ontario Disability
Support Program (Broad & Saunders, 2008).
Other similar models which offer employment to PWD are referred to as social purpose
enterprises, or social firms, and designed to respond to communities or populations that are
employment disadvantaged in some way (Grove et al., 1997, Nef Consulting, 2010).
Worker cooperatives
Worker co-operatives can involve a group of disabled people working together to make
decisions in a business. This prevents isolation and promotes community involvement (Lemon
& Lemon, 2003). In Ontario, the Ontario Council of Alternative Businesses (OCAB) has emerged
as an umbrella organization supporting several such businesses (http://www.ocab.ca/). Usually,
there is one paid support worker on-site to assist the workers with disabilities throughout the
workday.
Lemon & Lemon (2003) found in their examination of community-based cooperative ventures
in housing and employment that group projects demonstrate that cooperative arrangements
with groups of people with intellectual disabilities can be both cost-effective and successful in
providing support that is ongoing. Start-up and other funding for these operations, both co-
operatives and self-directed small businesses, poses a major problem that is yet to be fully
resolved.
23 Runnels et al.

Vocational Rehabilitation in Canada
The mission of the Vocational Rehabilitation Association of Canada (previously known as the
Canadian Association of Rehabilitation Professionals - CARP) is described as follows: VRA
Canada and the multi-disciplinary vocational rehabilitation professionals it represents are
committed to supporting, assisting and advocating for individuals experiencing or at risk of
experiencing disabling or disadvantaging conditions* along the continuum of achieving or
restoring optimum vocational and life goals. These outcomes are achieved through purposeful
and intentional development of strategies and interventions that are informed and directed by
education, research, experience and skills as well as ongoing professional development, unique
to the discipline and profession of Vocational Rehabilitation.
Vocational Rehabilitation is viewed as a discipline. Vocational Rehabilitation Professionals
scope of practice accords with the VRA mission statement and uses specific techniques and
modalities.
7
These may include:
Assessments, Evaluations and Approaches
Interventions and Strategies focused on adjustment in psychological, physiological or
sociological issues which impact upon the successful outcomes
Counselling, interviewing and interpersonal communications and coaching
Professional ethics in practice, reporting and policies and legalities
Case Management, referral, facilitation and service co-ordination
(http://vracanada.com/scope_of_practice.php)
VRA Canada administers a process to register professional designations. The Registered
Rehabilitation Practitioner (RRP) is a nationally recognized designation. VRA Canada also
registers the Registered Community Support Specialist (RCSS) and a Registered Vocational
Professional designations (http://vracanada.com/professional_designations.php)
CVRP regulates the professions scope of practice while the Vocational Rehabilitation
Association promotes the profession and advocates for its members.
8

7
http://vracanada.com/vision_mission.php
8
A comparison of the roles of the Vocational Rehabilitation Association of Canada and the College of Vocational
Rehabilitation Professionals and Vocational Services can be found at http://www.cvrp.ca/wp/wp-
content/uploads/2012/10/10-10-20-The-Roles-of-VRAC-CVRP-v5.pdf

Disability Management
Workplace disability management focuses on the return to work of workers who have been
injured or ill. These workers may acquire disability as a result of work-place injury or illness. A
focus of disability management is to assist with return-to-work, ensure employee
accommodation, and maintain the employability of workers. According to Hursh (1997),
employers are interested in protecting the employability and productivity of workers gaining
control over costs, and promoting safe and timely return-to-work (p. 123).
Vocational rehabilitation specialists and disability management and return to work practitioners
may be employed directly by a company to manage its disability management program, or they
may be outside agencies contracted by a company to facilitate return to work. Insurance
providers, including workers compensation boards (Workplace Safety and Insurance Board
(WCB) in Ontario) may also be implicated in disability management activities. At the same time
as focusing on return-to-work activities, disability management specialists may also be
concerned with occupational health and safety, and work with a variety of stakeholders who
include management, workers, unions and employee associations to reduce injury-related costs
in the workplace.
The National Institute of Disability Management and Research (NIDMAR) in Canada offers
training and certification to Disability Management and return to work practitioners. These are
Certified Return to Work Coordinators and Certified Disability Management Professionals.
NIDMAR has been instrumental in setting up the Pacific Coast University for Workplace Health
Sciences in British Columbia. Its mission is creating and disseminating new knowledge
including applied research in the fields of workplace safety, health promotion, return to work
and disability management, comprehensive rehabilitation and disability leadership studies...
(http://www.pcu-whs.ca/about/mission_statement.php). It plans to offer a bachelors degree
in Workplace Health Sciences (Disability Management).
25 Runnels et al.

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The greatest analgesic, soporific, stimulant, tranquilizer, narcotic, and to some extent even
antibiotic-in short, the closest thing to a genuine panacea-known to medical science is work
(Thomas Szasz, 1973 cited in Twamley, Jeste and Lehman, 2003).

Chapter 3 Delivering employment services to people with disabilities
Summary
PWD have been recognized as a group that is underrepresented in the labour force.
Recognizing these inequalities, governments implement public services to assist PWD to
engage, participate and remain in the labour market. Historically, the delivery of employment
services have changed. The range and functions of these services can be individually tailored
(personalized and/or specialized) or targeted at a generic mainstream customer. One-stop
centres, which are designed to meet the needs of all job-seekers, are currently the dominant
model.
In Canada, specialized educated and trained practitioners can deliver employment and work
rehabilitation and disability management services to people with disabilities, although career
counsellors and practitioners may count PWD amongst their clients.
Enabling people with all types of disabilities to participate in the labor market is a concern for
policy makers in different levels of government (Kiernan, Hoff, Freeze, & Mank, 2011;
Butterworth, 2011). Although there is often intent, there remains a significant gap in
employment rates between people with and without disabilities. In Canada, the 2006
Participation and Action Limitations Survey reported roughly 4,363,150 adults and children in
Canada were living with disabilities, equal to 14.3 percent of the Canadian population (Statistics
Canada, 2006). When looking at the entire working-age (15-64) population, 80.2 percent of
non-disabled people participate in the job market, compared to 59.6 percent of PWD (Human
Resources and Skills Development Canada, 2010). The statistics are similar in other developed
nations. The European Disability Forum reports that there are about 80 million Europeans with
disabilities, more than 15 percent of the population, and PWD are 2 to 3 times more likely to be
unemployed than others (European Disability Forum, 2010; United Nations Enable, 2012).
Finding an effective service methods or models and associated good practices to assist PWD in
finding and retaining employment can be a challenge. Most good practices that are reported in
the literature are practices or models that seem to work well in particular contexts with
particular populations. For example, the Compendium of Good Practice in Supported
Employment for People with Disabilities in the EU and the EFTA-EEA (2011), maps supported
employment in 30 European countries, and provides good practice examples. Other documents
such as Disability in the workplace: Company practices describe company-specific practices
and experience, including the business case for employing PWD and corporate social
responsibility perspectives
(http://www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/actemp/downloads/publications/working_paper_
n3.pdf).Other available literature focuses on the employment of persons with specific
31 Runnels et al.

disabilities. For example, a model to develop and pilot a sustainable model (including training
and skills certification) of employing persons with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in the IT
sector, focuses on the employment of persons with ASD
(http://ec.europa.eu/justice/discrimination/disabilities/index_en.htm).
A caveat with the good practice approach is that although transferability of practices and
programs is feasible, generalizability of the results from one context to another cannot be
guaranteed. However, what is apparent is that some individuals with disabilities, just as for
some members of the population in general, may require additional assistance in acquiring and
maintaining a job, just as some companies who are considering the business case for hiring
people with disabilities, may require additional knowledge and assistance to enable disability
inclusion in their business activities.
As noted in the previous chapter, certain models have gained dominance. The literature
suggests that placing and then training a new employee is more effective. But what about
options for those people who are not (yet) engaged with employment agencies, or already have
employment experience, or do not require intensive on the job assistance, or already possess
required on-the-job skills? Supported employment has been shown to be effective for some
persons for disabilities (Menar et al., 2011; Kirsh et al., 2009; Supported Employment Initiative,
2001; Kregel & Dean., 2002), but different people come with different needs, and some facets
of disability provide different challenges for finding, getting and keeping a job. In some cases,
specialized, individual employment counselling and other services delivered by a specialist
practitioner can be the most effective way to assist in assessment and facilitation for a person
to start and/or find the best fit in the workplace. On the other hand, there is a strong case to be
made for a cost-effective one-stop model of employment centres which are intended to be
universally accessible to disabled and non-disabled persons alike.
There are many questions associated with best practices in the delivery of employment services
to people with disabilities, some of which concern the process of engaging with employment
services by job seekers, and the utility of different ways of offering these services. For this
chapter the focus is on the practice of delivering employment services for PWD. This chapter
therefore focuses not so much on the education, training and employment of the person with
disability her or himself, but on those individuals who provide services to PWD and the type of
services they provide.
Historical overview
Disabled people looking for work in the 1970s and 80s, some of whom may have had some
working experience, were often referred to disability-specific employment services (Boeltzig,
2010). At this time in Canada, agencies known as Canada Manpower Centres existed as a jump-

off point, but were not able to service people who had a disability (Ontario Disability
Employment Network, 2011), because Manpower Centre staff did not have the knowledge
required to help people with a disability effectively. Canada Manpower Centre staff often
referred the majority of people with a disability to sheltered workshops or specialized disability
agencies (Ontario Disability Employment Network, 2011).
Currently, although there are some federal initiatives and programming for PWD relating to
employment, there is no nationally organized and administered direct and comprehensive
employment service for disabled people in Canada. In comparison, the United States historically
has had highly organized rehabilitation education programs at the Masters level, supporting
state-run vocational rehabilitation and vocational evaluation services for people with
disabilities. There is some evidence suggesting the effectiveness of such services on the
employment outcomes of some people with certain disabilities (Dutta, 2008).
In Canada today, there are two levels of employment services. At the federal level, Service
Canada offers employment services for you with an online national Job Bank available to all
(http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/subjects/employment/index.shtml). Employment
services for PWD at the national level include the Opportunities Fund for Persons with
Disabilities which helps PWD prepare for and get jobs or become self-employed, and the
Canada Pension Plan Disability Vocational Rehabilitation Program which offers support to
recipients of the Canada Pension Plan (CPP).
Another federal government department, Human Resources and Skills Development Canada
(HRSDC) offers specific programs targeted at serving people with disabilities. This program does
not offer direct services to PWD but sets up arrangements with the provinces who deliver the
services. Called Labour Market Agreements for Persons with Disabilities (LMAPDs), these
programs are agreements with the provinces for cost-sharing and delivery of services designed
to improve the employment situation of Canadians with disabilities. For example, the Canada-
British Columbia Labour Market Agreement for Persons with Disabilities Annual Report 2010,
featured a 10 by 10 Challenge, encouraging the increase of employment of persons with
disabilities, and develop customized employment programming for persons with
developmental disabilities (Province of British Columbia, 2010, p5). According to the
Government of Canada website, the Government of Canada transfers $218 million annually to
the provinces for the LMAPDs.
Provincial government provision and delivery of employment services for people with
disabilities
In Canada, the responsibility for services for the employment of PWD is carried out by the
provinces, using some federal transfer funds. At this level, provincial governments utilize
33 Runnels et al.

different models for delivering employment services for people with disabilities, some of which
are modelled on programs in the United States which has had legislated state level vocational
rehabilitation agencies and services for PWD for many years
9
. These models include one-stop
systems; mainstream services with specialized services for people with disabilities; and
mainstream services with separate provisions for people with disabilities. The one-stop model
from the United States has served as an important model for organizing employment services
programming in Canada. Most employment services models offer a range of services, including
employment assessment and testing, counselling and the provision of information. Box 6,
What employment services offer, lists some of these services.

9
Historically, the United States has been an international leader in setting legislation at the federal and state level
concerning the vocational rehabilitation of people with disabilities. This leadership includes the provision of
professional vocational rehabilitation training and education at the Masters level across the United States.
Although important legislation such as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 were already in place, The Americans with
Disabilities Act (1990) (http://www.ada.gov/pubs/adastatute08.htm#12101) was viewed as a landmark piece of
legislation, providing a clear and comprehensive national mandate for the elimination of discrimination against
individuals with disabilities, including in their employment. Further, the Rehabilitation Services Administration is a
federal legislated body (Legislation 29 USC Chapter 16 Vocational rehabilitation and other rehabilitation
services), set up, in part, to empower individuals with disabilities to maximize employment, economic self-
sufficiency, independence, and inclusion and integration into society through a number of means including
comprehensive and coordinated state-of-the-art programs of vocational rehabilitation (b) Purpose (1) (A)
(Accessed on December 19, 2012 from http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/29/701).
In the United States, the Workforce Investment Act (1998) created a three-tier system for job-seekers. All
individuals are able to receive core services. Brief introductions are offered with the idea that job-seekers will be
able to use the services in a self-directed manner. If the customer is unable to find a job this way, intensive service
options become available, these services are generally tailored to the person. The third level consists of specific
skills training, or training services for the individual if they continue to have difficulty finding a job. The
implementation of One-Stop Career Centers, is based on four principles - universality, customer choice, integration
of services, and accountability for results as contained within the Workforce Investment Act (1998). (Gilson, 2000,
pp. 30-36).

Box 6: What employment services offer
In Canada, publicly funded employment services for competitive employment may include
employment assessment and testing, counselling and the provision of information.
Employment services may also provide job seekers with access to facilities such as databases
(job banks), job search information, and computers and printers to enable job searches and
applications. Employment counsellors may conduct group information sessions. Employment
counsellors may have responsibilities for matching a potential employee with an employer, or
specific job. Some services may provide highly individualized case management by case
managers or workers, also referred to as employment counsellors and other names, who offer
assessment and planning of work and career-related goals, and individual support throughout
the employment process.
Employment services may also provide resources and facilitate access for employers (e.g. job
fairs, offering low or no-cost advertising).
In Canada, employment services may be funded in part by the Government of Canada (See, for
example, Your Employment Services which serves Vancouver, BC and surrounding areas funded
through the Canada-British Columbia Labour Market Development Agreement). Other
provincial services may be funded by provincial ministries (See, for example Employment
Ontario (http://www.tcu.gov.on.ca/eng/employmentontario/)
Not all employment services are organized to offer specific types of assistance to people with
disabilities.
Private sector recruitment agencies
In addition to public sector employment services, private-sector recruitment agencies may offer
additional routes for job-seekers with disabilities to access employment.
One stop-centres in Ontario
As of 2010, Ontario now has a system similar to that of the US using the one stop centre or one-
stop shop approach (Human Resources and Skills Development Canada, 2011). The Ontario
Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities (MTCU) which runs Employment Ontario,
contends that an integrated approach to delivery will streamline the employment system, and
reduce duplication and inefficiencies. The Association of Municipalities of Ontario explains In
an effort to provide a streamlined, one stop system for those seeking employment and training
programs, the government has reduced the number of agencies that will be providing
employment services through the Employment Ontario program. Where once clients may have
had to access more than one agency, for example, for career counselling or resume writing,
they will now have access to all services in one location(Association of Municipalities Ontario,
2013).
35 Runnels et al.

In theory, it should be easier for Ontarians to find the employment programs and services they
need in a one-stop shop. As the system currently stands, there are certain features of one-stop
centres that should create a positive atmosphere for people with disabilities. These include:
universally accessibility (suggesting the availability of assistive technologies); an employment
first philosophy; no exclusion; customer choice; and integrated services. It should also be noted
that British Columbia has also undergone significant changes in the delivery of services to PWD
in the last eighteen months, adopting a one-stop form of service delivery.
Box 7: Employment Ontario - One-stop Employment Services in Ottawa
Job Seekers: If you need help finding a job, putting together a rsum, improving your
interview techniques, or upgrading your skills, Employment Ontario is here for you. We are
your one-stop shop for all the help you need to find the job youre looking for. We offer job
fairs, job postings, job matching, job retention services, and employment specialists who can
provide one-on-one coaching. Visit us for assessment and referral to Employment Ontario
programs such as Second Career, Ontario Job Creation Partnership, Ontario Self-Employment
and Apprenticeship. The centre also offers free on-site childcare and free access to computers
with Internet access, telephones, fax machines and photocopiers.
Employers: Get help finding and hiring skilled employees. Learn about a number of financial
hiring incentives available to employers. Our free services include: Job postings; Screening and
matching services; Job fairs; Experienced employment specialists; Information about the local
labour market; job retention services; Apprenticeship information.
(http://ottawa.ca/en/residents/social-services/employment-and-financial-
assistance/employment-resources).
PWD sometimes require highly specialized input in their job hunt, a more intensive kind of
assistance than what is offered at one stop centres, especially those without a Disability
Program Navigator (DPN) on-site. An example of this service in Canada is Link Up,
10
or a
centre like Jobs West.
11
Employment services are similar to those offered at one-stop centres -
rsum help, job searching, skills assessment and more, except tailored to PWD.
In the Ontario Disability Employment Networks (ODEN) review of the service delivery switch,
the authors noted that Canada used to have a one-stop system that did not work for the
disabled, the Canada Manpower Centres, and protested this switch. In fact, ODEN flat out
rejects the Employment Ontario move to a one stop shop, although the Network does
support streamlining employment services administration. ODEN sees the one-stop approach

10
Available online http://www.linkup.ca/job_seekers.html
11
(http://www.jobswestdda.ca/)

as a barrier to giving PWD access to specific and targeted service. ODEN has serious concerns
that people with more severe disabilities will fall even further behind using this service model,
noting [Employment Ontario] to maintain specialized services for people who have a
disability EO must retain a separate service delivery stream for people who have a disability.
This will be within the context of a no wrong door approach, giving people who have a
disability ultimate choice of service delivery agent. Ontario needs a clear Employment First
Policy Framework for people who have a disability which identifies that all new program
investments will be directed at employment service models and initiatives (Ontario Disabilities
Employment Network, 2011).
Engagement of Employers
The Ontario One-Stop System is designed to engage employers, Ontarios One-Stop System
will also support the demand side of the labour market equation, helping employers to identify
and meet their current and emerging skills needs, do proactive human resource planning, and
increase productivity through skills enhancement. Accurate, timely, and readily available labour
market information will support the effective functioning of the labour market, and underpin
the identification of skills training priorities. New or strengthened partnerships with employers,
labour, and sectoral organizations will encourage individual, employer, and government
investments in skills upgrading, for both employed and unemployed workers(Province of
Ontario, 2005).
In a report on the British Columbia employment services, it has been noted that employment
agencies have historically not been mandated to record their engagement activities with
employers, although employers stand to benefit from services that can help them meet their
labour force needs. Critics have also warned that it is not often in the best interests of large
private nonlocal firms to invest the extra time and energy in the people who face multiple
barriers to employment (BC Career and Workforce Development Alliance, 2007).
Who are the practitioners that deliver employment services to people with disabilities?
In Canada, apart from career counsellors and practitioners who may count PWD amongst their
clients, certain other practitioners deliver employment services to people with disabilities.
These include vocational rehabilitation counsellors, disability management specialists, job
coach and employment specialist and so on. Some rehabilitation and specialists such as
occupational therapists, and nurses, may include vocational rehabilitation within their scope of
practice. Many practitioners with Canadian organizations that support employment for PWD
are members of or associated with professional associations such as the Vocational
Rehabilitation Association of Canada (See Box 3 and p. 23).
A key feature of supported employment is the job coach and employment specialist. In many
cases, employment specialists provide a full range of vocational services including job
37 Runnels et al.

placement, assistance with rsum writing and hosting workplace tours (Corbire et al., 2010;
Whitley et al., 2010; Mueser & Bond, 2012). On-the-job coaches or trainers, play an important
role in ensuring that on-the-job training is put into place, and carried out or supplemented by
the coach/trainer. Support as required and follow-up services to supported employees, are also
provided and received. Consultations and liaison with employers and co-workers, for example,
about accommodating PWD in the workplace may be offered as well (Corbire et al., 2010). Job
coaches perform their roles in the workplace additional to the natural supports that a new
employee may develop
12
.
Box 8: Disability Specialists and the Disability Program Navigator in the United States
Disability specialists are on-site employees at universal one-stop centres that are available to
help customers with disabilities. The Disability Program Navigator is an Initiative which started
as a two year, short-term demonstration project in the US. It was intended to be an
intervention in one-stop centres in order to help Social Security disability beneficiaries to return
to work by utilizing work incentives and One-Stop resources. Other goals included helping build
staff, partner, and system capacity to effectively serve people with disabilities. This was
achieved by integrating DPN positions into the One-Stops full spectrum of employment
services. These positions have become important at many centres, especially in their role in
coordinating access and service delivery. See page 106. Various roles and responsibilities
(http://dps.sagepub.com/content/21/2/101.full.pdf+html).
Evidence of effectiveness for the Disability Program Navigator
Limited evidence base (national DPN evaluation conducted by LHPDC, little independent
research) Evidence based on survey and qualitative research
Evidence indicates One-Stop staff/partner and customer satisfaction with DPN services,
increased One-Stop access and participation for people with disabilities, improved service
coordination/delivery
No evidence for DPN impact on employment outcomes
Further research is needed both on just what type of knowledge and additional support are
needed by public employment services staff working with people with disabilities or health
conditions and on the effectiveness of different ways of providing this (Boeltzig, 2010, p. 112).
Specialized Service or One-Stop Shopping?
The One-Stop Career Center self-service systems appear to offer a rich menu of service
offerings and is able to accommodate large numbers of customers. Overall, the literature points
to the potential of the self-service delivery system to reach large numbers of customers and to
facilitate their access to an array of resources and tools to assist them in conducting a job

12
Natural supports, which can be provided by supervisors and co-workers, occur routinely in the workplace.
(Mueser & Bond 2012).

search. At the same time, the self-service system can be strained by large numbers of
customers, including those experiencing difficulties accessing services without assistance,
coupled with the limited funding and staffing (D'Amico et al., 2009). The extent to which people
with disabilities are served by One-Stops appears to depend on the extent to which local
disability agencies and organizations participate as partners, and the extent to which the
disabled person is able to use services that have been created it seems with the general public
in mind (Gilson, 2000).
Non-governmental organizations employment services for persons with disabilities
Canadian Council of Rehabilitation and Work
As a non-profit agency receiving some funding from HRSDC, the Canadian Council of
Rehabilitation and Work (CCRW) works to promote equity in employment and integrate
disabled people into the workforce. It offers resources for PWD, including www.workink.com,
described as Canadas most powerful online career development and employment portal for
Canadians with disabilities. It is an accessible website designed to connect employers and
disabled job seekers. The CCRW offers a variety of other services and programming, which
include, Skills Link, available online and via in-person workshops, including: the Workplace
Essential Skills Partnership, the Skills Training Partnership for employers, the Youth the Future
Program, the Partners for Workplace Inclusion Program (PWIP), and the Job Accommodation
Service. Some of these programs are accessible online nation-wide, while others, like the
Workplace Essential Skills Partnership, are only offered to residents of particular areas
(http://www.ccrw.org/main.php?id=3&category=programs_services).
39 Runnels et al.

Association of Municipalities Ontario. (2013). One-Stop Services for Employment Ontario
Services.
http://amo.on.ca/WCM/AMO/AMO_Content/PolicyUpdates/2010/OnestopServicesForEmploy
mentOntarioServices.aspx
BC Career and Workforce Development Alliance. (2007). Recognizing community-based career
and employment services. Vancouver: Social Planning and Research Council of BC.
http://www.iccdpp.org/Portals/1/BRITISH%20COLUMBIA%20recogn_comm_based_career_and
_employment-services.pdf
Boeltzig, H., Pilling, D., Johnson, R., & Timmons, J. (2010). Disability specialist staff in US one-
stop centers and British jobcentre plus offices: Roles, responsibilities, and evidence of their
effectiveness. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 21(2), 101-115.
Boeltzig, H. (2012). Strategies to Improve Integrated Service Delivery to People with Disabilities.
http://www.communityinclusion.org/pdf/BoeltzigUSUKStrategies.pdf
Butterworth, J., Hall, A. C., Smith, F. A., Migliore, A., & Windsor, J. (2011). StateData: The
National Report on Employment Services and Outcomes Boston: Institute for Community
Inclusion, University of Massachusetts Boston.
Corbiere, M., Lanctot, N., Lecomte, T., & et al. (2010). A Pan-Canadian Evaluation of Supported
Employment Programs Dedicated to People with Severe Mental Disorders. Community Mental
Health Journal, 46, 44-55.
D'Amico, R. et al. (2009). Findings from a Study of One-Stop Self-Services: A Case-Study
Approach. Social Policy Research Associates.
http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/FullText_Documents/ETAOP_2011-16.pdf
Dutta, A., Gervey, R., Chan, F., Chou, C., & Ditchman, N. (2008). Vocational Rehabilitation
Services and Employment Outcomes for People with Disabilities: A United States Study. Journal
of Occupational Rehabilitation, 18(4), 326-334.
European Disability Forum.(2010). Annual Report 2010.
http://cms.horus.be/files/99909/MediaArchive/EDF%20Annual%20report%202010.pdf
Gilson, B. B. (2000). One-Stop Career Centers: Will they be used by People with Disabilities?.
Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 15(1), 30-36.

Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. (2010). 2010 Federal Disability Report: The
Government of Canada's annual report on disability issues.
http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/disability_issues/reports/fdr/2010/fdr_2010.pdf
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. (2011). Canada-Ontario Labour Market
Agreement. Annex 3-Delivery Arrangements.
http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/employment/partnerships/labour_market_development/ontario/
ann3.shtml
Kiernan, W. E., Hoff, D., Freeze, S., & Mank, D. M. (2011). Employment first: a beginning not an
end. Intellectual and developmental disabilities, 49(4), 300-304.
Kirsh, B., Stergiou-Kita, M., Gewurtz, R., Dawson, D., Krupa, T., Lysaght, R. et al. (2009). From
margins to mainstream: what do we know about work integration for persons with brain injury,
mental illness and intellectual disability? Work, 32(4), 391-405.
Kregel, J., & Dean, D. H. (2002). Sheltered vs. supported employment: A direct comparison of
long-term earnings outcomes for individuals with cognitive disabilities. In Kregel, J., Dean, D. H.
& Wehman, P. (eds). Achievements and Challenges in Employment Services for People with
Disabilities: The Longitudinal Impact of Workplace Supports, (63-84). Richmond, VA: Virginia
Commonwealth University, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Workplace
Supports.
Menear, M., Reinharz, D., Corbire, M., Houle, N., Lanctt, N., Goering, P. et al. (2011).
Organizational analysis of Canadian supported employment programs for people with
psychiatric disabilities. Social Science & Medicine, 72(7), 1028-1035.
Mueser, K., Bond, G.R. (2012). Supported Employment. Handbook of Community Psychiatry 5,
309-318.
Ontario Disability Employment Network. (2011). Ontario Disability Employment Network:
Submission to the Social Assistance Review Commission. http://www.odenetwork.com/wp-
content/uploads/2012/03/SAR-Submission-March-2012.pdf
Province of British Columbia. (2010). Canada-British Columbia Labour Market Agreement for
Persons with Disabilities. Annual Report 2010. Accessed December 17, 2012
http://www.sd.gov.bc.ca/publicat/pdf/Annual_Report_10.pdf
Province of Ontario. (2005). Canada-Ontario Labour Market Development Agreement.
http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/employment/partnerships/labour_market_development/ontario/
Canada-Ontario_LMDA_2005.pdf
41 Runnels et al.

Statistics Canada. (2006). Participation and Activity Limitation Survey 2006: Tables.
Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2007 (Catalogue. no. 89-628-XIE - No. 003).
http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-628-x/89-628-x2007003-eng.pdf
Supported Employment Initiative. (2001) Summative Evaluation Final Report.
http://www.releases.gov.nl.ca/releases/2002/hre/0509n15Report.pdf
United Nations Enable. (2012). Disability and Employment fact sheet 1.
http://www.un.org/disabilities/default.asp?id=255
Whitley et al. (2010). Desirable Characteristics and Competencies of Supported Employment
Specialists: An Empirically-Grounded Framework. Administration and Policy in Mental Health
37(6), 509-519.


Chapter 4 Employment of Youth with Disabilities
Summary
Unemployment and worklessness face many youth. Continued worklessness can give rise to
social and health problems over the long term. YWD face particular disadvantage when
entering the workforce for the first time. Work preparation (including life skills training) and
vocational training programs may help to ease the transition from school to work, and prepare
YWD for work. Mainstream services and some specialized services for YWD, are available to
serve YWD. Given the current economic downturn and the availability of experienced workers
to fill vacancies in the labour market, the plight of youth deserves special attention. Linking
YWD with employers and provision of employment supports has potential to benefit all parties
and society in the long-term.
In Canada, the youth unemployment rate is well above the OECD average for all groups. At
14.1% in 2011, it is almost double that of persons aged 25-54 (6.3%) and persons aged 55 and
over (6.2%) (OECD, 2012). Youth (16-25 year olds) account for almost 1 in 3 of 1.4 million
unemployed whilst accounting for only 1 in 7 of employed (Jackson, 2011). Those youth who
have given up looking for work, are referred to as workless. They are not counted amongst the
unemployed, so the numbers of youth who are not engaged with the labour market are higher
than unemployment rates.
13

These high numbers and what appear to be increasing trends in the numbers in youth
unemployment are worrying (Fong, 2012). Failures of youth to engage with the labour market
can lead to prolonged unemployment and worklessness. Youth unemployment and long term
failure to engage with labour markets also impacts societies in a number of different ways such
as contributing to social unrest and instability, increasing the need for health care and for social
programs to address poverty (Hammarstrom & Janlert, 2002). In the introduction to a recent
documentary, youth employment and underemployment were reckoned to be serious enough
that they were described as a ticking time bomb with serious consequences for everyone.
14

Further, research suggests that the ability of young people to engage or re-engage with the

13
It should be noted that the literature in general tends to address youth as a homogeneous group with the
exception of some data that is separated by sex, i.e. male and female. In addition, depending on the document,
youth may be defined differently. Often categories of youth for the purpose of programming and services are aged
16-25, and sometimes from 16 up to the age of 30.
14
Introduction to CBC documentary Generation Jobless aired January 31, 2013 and Sunday, February 3, 2013.
http://www.cbc.ca/doczone/episode/generation-jobless.html directed by Sharon Bartlett and Maria LeRose, who
also produced the documentary with Sue Ridout for Dreamfilm Productions with the participation on CBC-TV
43 Runnels et al.

labour market after times of recession also appears to be diminished compared to other age
groups (Sissons & Jones, 2012).
YWD thus find themselves in a particularly challenging situation with regard to their current and
future employment. As a group, youth in general, not only in Canada but elsewhere in the
world, experience high levels of unemployment. But where youth and disabilities intersect,
unemployment is pronounced and employment becomes significantly more challenging. At the
same time as YWD are dealing with engaging with the labour market for the first time, they are
also transitioning from school (college or university) to work, sometimes without high school
graduation, and may be required to deal with new issues of exclusion and discrimination
(McAnaney et al., 2013). Although relatively little is known about the first employment
experiences and skill development of youth with disabilities, key issues may boil down to
preparing for and securing first engagements with the labour market (Lindsay, 2012). The
experiences of YWD, however, may be different to the experiences for adults and adults with
disabilities. Employment services designed for adults with disabilities and non-disabled adults
may not be relevant or applicable to YWD.
The literature regarding employment for YWD focuses on the importance of transitional school-
to-work skills and training programs. The transition from school to work for most adolescents is
often difficult, and is reportedly especially challenging for those with a disability (Staff &
Mortimer, 2003; Yates & Roulstrone, 2012; Gall, Kingsworth & Healy, 2006). Such programs
have come to be treated separately from the organization of adult work programs. Work
preparation/vocational training programs introduce practical life and social skills of value to
employers (Lindsay et al., 2012; Butcher & Wilton, 2008). Work preparation generally lasts for a
predetermined amount of time before youth are placed in a job. However, there is little in the
way of academic literature which assesses skill development or transition programs (sometimes
also referred to as employment readiness courses, or transition services) which are aimed to
ease the shift from school to work life (Lindsay et al., 2012; Butcher & Wilton, 2008; Evers,
1996). This is a notable gap considering that adolescents arguably have the most to gain from
early employment training and experiences (Lindsay et al., 2012).
In Canada, although there are in-school resources, the literature of non-school resources
specifically targeted at job seekers between the ages of 15 and 24 are limited. Bell and
Bezanson find that for out-of-school youth, the career-development service picture is largely
unknown (2006, p. 3). This finding is in accord with the 2002 OECD Review of Career Guidance
Policies, in which Canada was one of many countries studied. The study found that the
Canadian career development system is multi-faceted and highly decentralized (p. 4),
reflective of the complicated division of responsibilities between federal, provincial, territorial
and municipal governments. The lack of national unity between the education, training, and job

market sectors appears to complicate the job hunt for the average youth or recent graduate in
Canada (OECD, 2002).
For YWD and their parents, identifying services and resources to assist them in finding
employment can be challenging (Curtis, Rabren & Reilly, 2009, p. 42).
Policies, programs and services to address employment of youth and youth with
disabilities
In addition to government interventions such as the Federal Governments Economic Action
Plan, implemented in 2009 and designed in part to address unemployment, there are a number
of ways to address youth employment, although in Canada, a specific policy geared toward
youth in the labour market has never been explicitly stated(Kerr, 2000). Government programs
include addressing youth unemployment through the provision of government subsidies and
other incentives and allowances which assist in giving youth some experience and exposure to
labour markets (such as the Federal Student Work Experience Program (FSWEP), and other
federal summer student work programs such as Canada Summer Jobs (Service Canada, 2013).
Existing programs that are designed to support youth and help address their employment also
include general employment services and more specialized employment services that are
targeted at certain populations, such as YWD. Specific programs that are funded by the federal
government include Youth the Future which is a 20-week pre-employment skills development
program that provides youth with disabilities the pre-employment skills necessary to enter
today's workforce. This program engages employer partners with working-age youth with
disabilities (15 - 30) (Canadian Council on Rehabilitation and Work, 2009b). Partners for
Workplace Inclusion Program (PWIP) is designed to connect employees and employers. It is
funded by Opportunities Fund of the Government of Canada, and is available to people with
disabilities of all ages (Canadian Council on Rehabilitation and Work, 2009a).
All national level programs are subject to departmental budgets and budget cuts. In 2012, for
example, many government-sponsored student positions were cancelled after students had
been placed.
45 Runnels et al.

Box 9: Youth Employment Services, Government of Canada
- Federal Student Work Experience Program (FSWEP) - Federal (Government of Canada)
public sector experience http://jobs-emplois.gc.ca/fswep-pfete/index-eng.htm
- Career Focus Program part of youth employment strategy (also offering work experience
with the Federal government)
http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/epb/yi/yep/newprog/career.shtml
- Odyssey - A program for students looking to learn another language, and live and work in
another province supported by the Council of Ministers of Education Canada (CMEC.)
http://www.myodyssey.ca/en/page/?program_description
- National Research Council (NRC) Summer employment program
http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/goc/nrc_summer_employment.shtml
- Skills Link for youth facing barriers to employment including disability.
http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/epb/yi/yep/common/section02.shtml
For this program, Eligible participants must be between 15 and 30 years of age (inclusive)
at the time of intake/selection; out of school; Canadian citizen, permanent resident, or
person on whom refugee status has been conferred; legally entitled to work according to
the relevant provincial/territorial legislation and regulations; not in receipt of Employment
Insurance (EI) benefits; and in need of assistance to overcome employment barriers. These
programs are available to all youth (Current as of 2013).

Box 10: Skills Link funding for employers and organizations targeting activities at youth facing
barriers to employment
Service Canada describes Skills Link as, ...a client-centred program that provides funding for
employers and organizations to offer eligible activities to youth facing barriers to employment
(http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/epb/yi/yep/newprog/skillslink.shtml) Skills Link also
offers multiple stages of employment services for youth. The first level consists of outreach and
client assessment, to determine if a person is eligible and will benefit from Skills Link support.
Level two is the case management and employment sessions phase. These two steps are
centred on getting youth into the workforce, by determining the employability or best fit for
the person (See Box 2 on employability). This can be done during a set of one-on-one sessions
between counsellors and youth or in a group setting, depending on the individuals involved.
Varieties of workshops are offered to enhance skills transferable to the workplace such as
leadership, teamwork and communication, and develop personal qualities including self-esteem
and self-reliance (de Raaf, Shek-wai Hui, & Sims, 2011). The final Skills Link benefit is a range of
employment interventions designed to help youth stand on their own two feet, income support
and general and/or specific employability skill enhancement options are available (Service

Canada).
Ontario: Youth Employment Services (YES):
(current as of March 2013)
Youth Employment Services Ontario
http://www.yes.on.ca/
YES provides programs and services to help youth with barriers to employment such as lack of
education, homelessness, or substance abuse. Programs include employment counselling,
training and job placement.
YES Funding was cut drastically according to the 2010 Annual Report, closing two of the five
sites in Toronto and cancelling four programs (see more at
http://www.yes.on.ca/annualreport2010/pres.php). The federal and provincial government, as
well as the City of Toronto provide much of the annual YES funding (Youth Employment
Services (Yes), 2011).
First Work: Advancing youth employment in Ontario
http://www.firstwork.org/
A network of youth employment centres in Ontario aimed at helping youth find and maintain
meaningful employment. First Work offers YES through a network of youth employment
centres and youth employment agencies formerly known as OAYEC, or the Ontario Association
of Youth Employment Centres, is a network which builds partnerships with provincial and
national organizations: governments, corporations, and non-profit groups, aimed at increasing
employment opportunities for youths.
Courses, conferences and workshops are run by First Work in order to educate service
providers, employers and young people to ensure services are delivered effectively. First
Works annual revenue is derived from membership fees, conference fees, and a variety of
grants for various projects. The Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities as well as service
Canada are two main funding partners (First Work, 2010-2011, p. 15-16).
Ontario Public Service Internships and co-ops
http://www.gojobs.gov.on.ca/YNPS.asp
The Ontario Public Service offers paid internships in various provincial government
departments for current post-secondary students, recent graduates, or newcomers to Canada.
They also offer summer employment for students and co-operative placements for post-
secondary students.
47 Runnels et al.

Canada Summer Jobs local jobs
http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/epb/yi/yep/programs/scpp.shtml
Canada Summer Jobs is an initiative from the Government of Canada to provide students with
summer job opportunities. The Government of Canada provides funding to not-for-profit
organizations, public-sector employers and small businesses with 50 or fewer employees to
create summer job opportunities for young people aged 15 to 30 years who are full-time
students intending to return to their studies in the next school year. The program focuses on
jobs that support local and community priorities.
The Canadian Council on Rehabilitation and Work.
http://ccrw.org/main.php?category=programs_services&id=366
As well as offering WorkInk, described as Canadas most powerful online career development
and employment portal for Canadians with disabilities, CCRW offers a Youth Scholarship
Program for Students with Disabilities 2013 To assist students with disabilities in their pursuit
for post-secondary education and training
Youth Employment Services, available in Ottawa
Youth and Student Employment Services
http://ottawa.ca/en/residents/social-services/employment-and-financial-assistance/youth-
and-student-employment-services
There are two youth employment resource centres in Ottawa. The Youth Employment
Resources Centre West and Youth Employment Services of Centretown and East. These centres
offer employment counselling and placement services for youth in Ottawa. Programs are
funded by the provincial MTCU.
Youth Zone Jeunesse http://ottawa.ca/en/residents/social-services/employment-and-financial-
assistance/youth-zone-jeunesse
The Youth Zone Jeunesse provides employment services for youth 16-30. They provide
employment counselling as well as job skill workshops and onsite childcare.
Youth Services Bureau Ottawa
Youth Services Bureau of Ottawa/Youth Services Jeunesse Ottawa helps youth in the Capital
Region find jobs among other services. It is a comprehensive non-profit organization and a
registered charity. Funding comes from both private and public donors, including the province
of Ontario (Ministry of Health and Long-term care (MOHLTC), MTCU and more), the City of
Ottawa, United Way, Childrens Aid Ottawa, Public Health Agency of Canada and HRSDC

(http://www.ysb.on.ca/uploads/documents/annual-reports/AR-2010-2011-en.pdf).
(http://www.ysb.on.ca/index.php?page=who-we-are&hl=eng). Their new Youth in Transition
(YOU-IT) program, launched in May 2012, is designed to help youth with complex needs
between the ages of 16 and 24, who are at risk of becoming homeless and in need of mental
health support (http://www.ysb.on.ca/uploads/documents/news-releases/YOUit.pdf).

Box 11: Grants and Income resources Available for youth and others with disabilities
Canada Access Grant for Students with Permanent Disabilities (Education)
Canada Study Grant for the Accommodation of Students with Permanent Disabilities
(Education) Permanent Disability Benefit allows for forgiveness of Canada Student Loans due
to financial hardship because of disability.
HRSDC "Opportunities Fund" http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/funding_programs/ofpd/index.shtml
Registered Disability Savings Plan for parents to help secure financial security of disabled child
Child Disability Benefit - tax-free benefit for families who care for a child under age 18
with severe and prolonged impairment - physical or mental
Linking youth with disabilities with employers
Employers need qualified and committed employees to carry out the work whilst YWD need
work. Linking YWD with employers, and providing them with employment supports has
potential to benefit all parties. Specialized agencies can support employers by matching their
requirements for the job with potential employees, and providing support in different ways to
the potential employee. Employers who are interested in using these types of approaches for
hiring YWD can forge partnerships with organizations such as Link Up in Toronto and
Vancouver, which is funded by the Federal Government.
15

15
See, for example http://www.linkup.ca/employers.html, and From Disabilities to Possibilities. A guide to
hiring, training and retaining people with disabilities http://www.linkup.ca/guide/index.html
49 Runnels et al.

Bell, D. & Bezanson, L. (2006). Career Development Services for Canadian Youth: Access,
Adequacy and Accountability. Pathways to the Labour Market Series - No 1. Ottawa: Canadian
Policy Research Networks and the Canadian Career Development Foundation.
Butcher, S. & Wilton, R. (2008). Stuck in transition? Exploring the spaces of employment
training for youth with intellectual disability. Geoforum, 39(2): 10791092.
Canadian Council on Rehabilitation and Work. (2009a). Partners for Workplace Inclusion
Program (PWIP). http://ccrw.org/main.php?category=programs_services&id=108
Canadian Council on Rehabilitation and Work.(2009b). Youth Employment-Youth the Future.
http://ccrw.org/main.php?category=programs_services&id=111
Curtis, R. S., Rabren, K., & Reilly, A. S. (2009). Post-school outcomes of students with disabilities:
A quantitative and qualitative analysis. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 30(1), 31-48.
de Raaf, S., Shek-wai, H., & Sims, K. (2011). Group-based employment assistance benefits. Final
Report. Ottawa: Social Research and Demonstration Corporation.
Evers, R.B. (1996). The Positive Force of Vocational Education Transition Outcomes for Youth
with Learning Disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29(1): 69-78.
First Work. (2010-2011). Annual Report. http://www.firstwork.org/wp/wp-
content/uploads/2011/04/First-Work-Annual-Report-2011-Highres.pdf
Fong, F. (2012) The plight of younger workers TD Economics Accessed Tuesday, February 19,
2013 http://www.td.com/document/PDF/economics/special/ff0312_younger_workers.pdf
Gall, C., Kingsnorth, S., & Healy, H. (2006). Growing Up Ready. Physical & Occupational Therapy
in Pediatrics, 26, 47-62.
Hammarstrm, A. & Janlert, U. (2002). Early unemployment can contribute to adult health
problems: results from a longitudinal study of school leavers. Journal of Epidemiology and
Community Health, 56(8), 624-630.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1732218/pdf/v056p00624.pdf
Jackson, A. (2011). Sitting on the sidelines: young workers miss out on the recovery. The
Progressive Economics Forum. Accessed Monday February 25, 2013. http://www.progressive-
economics.ca/2011/12/15/sitting-on-the-sidelines-young-workers-miss-out-on-the-recovery.

Kerr, K. B. (2000). Youth Unemployment in Canada (Rep. No. 82-4E). Economics Division,
Government of Canada. Accessed From: http://publications.gc.ca/Collection-
R/LoPBdP/CIR/824-e.htm.
Lindsay S, Adams T, McDougall C, Sanford R. (2012). Skill development in an employment-
training program for adolescents with disabilities. Disability and Rehabilitation, 34(3):228-37.
McAnaney, D., Wynne, R., DeVos, E., Reijenga, F., Delfosse, C., & Spooren, J. (2013). Active
inclusion of young people with disabilities or health problems. Luxembourg: European
Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions.
OECD. (2002), OECD Review of Career Guidance Policies : Canada Country Note. Accessed from
http://www.oecd.org/canada/1963039.pdf
OECD. (2012), Youth unemployment rate, Employment and Labour Markets: Key Tables from
OECD, No. 2. Doi: 10.1787/unemp-yth-table-2012-1-en Accessed from http://www.oecd-
ilibrary.org/employment/youth-unemployment-rate_20752342-table2
Service Canada. (2013). Canada Summer Jobs 2013.
http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/epb/yi/yep/programs/scpp.shtml
Sissons, P. & Jones, K. (2012). Lost in transition? The changing labour market and young people
not in employment, education or training. Lancaster: The Work Foundation and The Private
Equity Foundation
http://www.theworkfoundation.com/DownloadPublication/Report/310_lost_in_transition%20(
2).pdf
Staff, J. & Mortimer, J. T. (2003). Diverse Transitions from School to Work. Work and
Occupations: An International Sociological Journal, 30(3), 361-369.
Yates, S. & Roulstone, A. (2012). Social policy and transitions to training and work for disabled
young people in the United Kingdom: neoliberalism for better and for worse? Disability and
Society DOI 10.1080/09687599.2012.717874.
Youth Employment Services (YES). (2011). Financial Statements. http://www.yes.on.ca/wp-
content/uploads/2008/03/Youth-Employment-Services-Audited-Financials_11.pdf

51 Runnels et al.

Additional literature on good practices and the employment of youth and people with
disabilities
Blitz, C. & Mechanic, D. (2006). Facilitators and barriers to employment among individuals with
psychiatric disabilities: A job coach perspective. Work, 26(4), 407-419.
Community Living Research Project. (2006). Non-residential Supports and Intellectual Disability:
A Review of the Literature on Best Practices, Alternatives and Economic Impacts
http://www.anth.ubc.ca/fileadmin/user_upload/CIC/documents/Non-
residential_Alternatives_Document_nov06.pdf
Crawford, C. (2012). Towards an Understanding of Effective Practices in Employment Programs
for People with Disabilities in Canada.
http://irisinstitute.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/employment-program-best-practices_iris.pdf
Dunn, P., Hanes, R., Hardie, S., Leslie, D., & MacDonald, J. (2008). Best Practices In Promoting
Disability Inclusion Within Canadian Schools Of Social Work. Disability Studies Quarterly, 28(1).
http://dsq-sds.org/article/view/66/66
Morris, J. (2001). Social Exclusion and Young Disabled People with High Levels of Support
Needs. Critical Social Policy, 21(2), 161-183. http://www.leeds.ac.uk/disability-
studies/archiveuk/morris/Social%20exclusion%20and%20young%20disabled%20people%20-
%20conference%20paper.pdf
OECD. (2010). Sickness, Disability and Work: Breaking the Barriers CANADA : Opportunities for
Collaboration. http://www.oecd.org/els/emp/46093870.pdf
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission .(2005). Final Report on Best Practices For the
Employment of People with Disabilities In State Government.
http://www.eeoc.gov/facts/final_states_best_practices_report.html
Wolf-Branigin, M., Schuyler, V., & White, P. (2007). Improving Quality of Life and Career
Attitudes of Youth With Disabilities. Research on Social Work Practice, 17(3), 324-333.

Chapter 5 Definitions, statistical data and resources related to disability, youth
with disabilities and employment: Canada, Ontario and Ottawa
This section contains some definitions and statistical resources and data on disability, youth
with disabilities and employment. Data and statistical data and resources are organized by
national, local and international levels.
Definitions of Disability
The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
Persons with disabilities are those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory
impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective
participation in society on an equal basis with others (United Nations Human Rights, 2012).
The World Health Organization
Disabilities is an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations, and participation
restrictions. An impairment is a problem in body function or structure; an activity limitation is a
difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task or action; while a participation
restriction is a problem experienced by an individual in involvement in life situations (World
Health Organization, 2013).
The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF)
In 2001, the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) was approved
by all WHO member states, replacing the International Classification of Impairment, Disability
and Handicap (ICIDH). MacKenzie, Hurst & Cromptons (2009) explanation of the ICF interprets
disability as a complex set of relationships in which various factors can operate on the
individuals impairment, both directly and indirectly; it also expands the number of factors
affecting the individual to include the larger society. These factors include: the everyday
activities the individual undertakes (activities); individual characteristics, such as education,
income, family and friends, motivation, and so on (personal factors); their involvement in social
and community relationships and events (participation); and their general environment, which
includes the physical, social, financial and political elements that make it easier or harder to
function day-to-day (environment) (MacKenzie, Hurst & Crompton, 2009).
Canadian Government departments definitions
According to the Service Canada website, there is no common definition of disability in Canada
(Service Canada, 2013).
53 Runnels et al.

In their rationale for defining disability in the Participation and Activity Limitation Survey
(PALS)
16
, Statistics Canada explains that perceptions of disability change as society evolves and
new sources of information become available (MacKenzie, Hurst & Crompton, 2009).
Employment equity and a guideline for definition of disabled
If you work for a federally regulated company in Canada, you can fill out an employment equity
form. One of the questions is whether you consider yourself to be disabled. This definition is
given as a guideline: Persons with disabilities are persons who (a)consider themselves to be
disadvantaged in employment by reason of that impairment, or(b) believe that a employer or
potential employer is likely to consider them to be disadvantaged in employment by reason of
that impairment (Government of Canada, 1995, section 3).
If applying for the Revenue Canada disability tax credit, you will encounter another definition of
people with disabilities: Individuals who have a severe and prolonged impairment in physical
or mental functions (Canada Revenue Agency, 2013b). Revenue Canada further asks people to
define themselves based on these criteria:
Because of the impairment, you are significantly restricted in two or more of the basic
activities of daily living listed in question 4, or you are significantly restricted in vision
and at least one of the basic activities of daily living listed in question 4, even with
appropriate therapy, medication, and devices. These significant restrictions exist
together, all or substantially all the time. The cumulative effect of these significant
restrictions is equivalent to being markedly restricted... in a single basic activity of daily
living (Canada Revenue Agency, 2013a).
Definitions of Employment Status
Employed: - Statistics Canada classifies (defines) employed people as ...persons who, during
the reference period: (a) Did any work at all at a job or business, that is, paid work in the
context of an employer-employee relationship, or self-employment. It also includes persons
who did unpaid family work, which is defined as unpaid work contributing directly to the
operation of a farm, business or professional practice owned and operated by a related
member of the same household; or (b) Had a job but were not at work due to factors such as
their own illness or disability, personal or family responsibilities, vacation or a labour dispute...
(Statistics Canada, 2012c).

16
See ICF above.

Not employed refers to persons who were not employed during the reference period. It
includes persons who were unemployed as well as those who were not in the labour force
(Statistics Canada, 2012b).
Unemployed refers to persons who during the reference period: Were without work but
had looked for work in the past four weeks ending with the reference period and were available
for work; or Were on temporary layoff due to business conditions and were available for work;
or Were without work, had a job to start within four weeks from the reference period and were
available for work (Statistics Canada, 2012c).
In labour force includes persons who during the reference period were either employed or
unemployed. The labour force consists of persons who contribute or are available to contribute
to the production of goods and services falling within the System of National Accounts
production boundary (Statistics Canada, 2012c).
Not in labour force refers to persons who were neither employed nor unemployed during the
reference period. This includes persons who ... were either unable to work or unavailable for
work. It also includes persons who were without work and who had neither actively looked for
work in the past four weeks nor had a job to start within four weeks of the reference period
(Statistics Canada, 2012a).
Other terms, such as workless typically are used to refer to not in labour force. It should be
noted that Those engaged in unpaid services such as community and volunteer services or
unpaid domestic services are not considered to be part of the labour force by national or
international standards of the International Labour Organization (Statistics Canada, 2012d)
Defining groups
Older Canadians
Older Canadians is used to refer to people who are aged 55 to 64 years. Working age data is
often presented for adults from age 15 to 64, with 65 being a target retirement age in Canada.
Youth/young adults
Data for youth and young adults typically refer to Canadians from ages 15 to 24 years.
55 Runnels et al.

Canada: Statistical Data - National level statistics and sources for disability data
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada: Employment:
- Labour force participation rates among younger working-age adults with disabilities, was
recorded at 66.0% (Human Resources and Skills Development Canada, 2011c, p. 26)
- Overall labour force participation rate for working-age adults with disabilities was 59.6%
(1 379 325 people, 2006) (Human Resources and Skill Development Canada, 2011d). The
participation rate for working-age adults without disabilities - 80.2% (Human Resources and
Skills Development Canada, 2011d). In other words, people with disabilities participate in
the labour force at much lower rates than for working-age adults without disabilities.
- The employment rate for working-age adults with disabilities - 53.5% vs. 75.1% for non-
disabled (Human Resources and Skills Development Canada, 2011d).
Among those who are employed, 82.8% of people with very severe disabilities have
limitations at work, compared to 27.2% of people with mild disabilities (Human Resources
and Skills Development Canada, 2010, p. 43).
In addition to employment rates, using data from the Participation and Activity Limitation
Survey, people with disabilities are more likely to be employed in certain occupations, with
some significant differences between men with disabilities and women with disabilities
(Human Resources and Skills Development Canada, 2010)
17
.
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada Demographics:
- There are roughly 4.4 million children and adults with disabilities in Canada. The overall
disability rate in Canada rose from 12.4% in 2001 to 14.3% in 2006 (Human Resources and
Skills Development Canada, 2012a, p.2).
- A greater proportion of females (15.2%) reported a disability than males (13.4%) (Human
Resources and Skills Development Canada, 2013).
- Although 76.8% of youth with disabilities 15-19 and 30% of those 20-24 reported attending
school (Human Resources and Skills Development Canada, 2011b), 16.1% of youth reported
having discontinued their education because of their condition. This reflects an increase in
discontinuation from the 2001 study which reported 12% (Human Resources and Skills
Development Canada, 2011b, chart 2.2).

17
For more employment rate information, broken down by age group and severity of disability, see this webpage
for Charts 4.4 -4.6 http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/disability_issues/reports/fdr/2010/fdr_2010.pdf

Statistics Canada (2006) Participation and Activity Limitation Survey: Labour Force Experience
of People with Disabilities in Canada
- There are 2,457,350 Canadians with activity limitations between 15 and 64, who could
participate in the labour force. In this group 1,259,980 (51.3%) reported being employed,
119,340 (4.9%) were unemployed, and 1,078,020 (43.9%) reported not being in the labour
force (Statistics Canada, Social and Aboriginal Statistics Division, 2006b, p.7).
- Roughly 50% of 15 to 24 year olds with disability were employed, compared to about 65%
without employment (Statistics Canada, Social and Aboriginal Statistics Division, 2006b, p. 8,
Chart 2).
- Unemployment rates for people with and without disabilities, by age group, Canada, 2001
and 2006 (Statistics Canada, Social and Aboriginal Statistics Division, 2006b, p. 12, Chart 5).
- The highest rates for job redesigns being accommodated was in Nova Scotia (82.5%) and
Alberta (81.3%). Both of which are higher than the national average (64.7%) (Statistics
Canada, Social and Aboriginal Statistics Division, 2006a, p. 17)

Statistics Canada (2012) Canadian Survey on Disability
In 2012, Statistics Canada conducted the Canadian Survey on Disability, whose purpose is to
provide information about Canadians whose everyday activities may be limited because of a
condition or health-related problem.... This survey includes questions on day-to-day living,
education and training, and labour force status, experiences and accommodations. Data release
for this survey is planned for 2013

(Statistics Canada, 2012a, p 48).

Government of Canada: Resources on Disability
Federal Disability Report
The Federal Disability Report is the Government of Canadas Annual Report on Disability Issues.

Advancing the Inclusion of People with Disabilities (2008) is the sixth annual federal disability
report highlighting the Government of Canadas disability-related programs, initiatives and
services undertaken by over 30 departments and agencies.
18
Of particular interest is Chapter
4: Learning, Skills and Employment, Part 2.

Labour Market Agreements for Persons with Disabilities, lists the federal/provincial
agreements which reaffirms the commitment of federal and provincial governments to work
toward ensuring that people with disabilities can participate successfully in the labour market,

18
http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/disability_issues/reports/fdr/2008/page00.shtml
57 Runnels et al.

and to report to Canadians on progress made in this area (Human Resources and Skills
Development Canada, 2012b) (See below in this section for some more information on
Ontario).

The 2010 Federal Disability Report uses data from Canadas 2006 Participation and Activity
Limitation Survey, and the 2008 General Social Survey, Cycle 22. This means that the data used
and reported above were collected in 2010 but does not necessarily reflect the actual situation
in 2010.

The Report for 2011 focuses on Seniors with Disabilities in Canada. According to this report,
13% of seniors with disabilities aged 65-69 are employed year round (Human Resources and
Skills Development Canada, 2011a, Figure 2.2).
Workplace accommodations
Some workers with disabilities require workplace accommodations that enable them to do their
work. These may include aids, such as technical aids, or job redesign where an individuals
duties are either modified or changed. Many workplaces already have accommodations in
place. For example, computer software has built in features to change accessibility and usability
that can be selected for those that require it, and under building codes elevators and
washrooms are designed to be accessible (Human Resources and Skills Development, 2010).
Other published data related to disabilities in Canada
According to the 2006 Participation and Activity Limitation Survey (PALS), there are roughly 4.4
million children and adults with disabilities in Canada. These 4,363,150 adults and children in
Canada with disabilities represent 14.3 % of pop. The 2001 PALS indicates 12.4% of the total
Canadian population reported being disabled (Statistics Canada, 2006)
Disability in Canada: A Profile. Human Resources and Skills Development Canada
In the 2006 report, the employment rate for working-age adults with disabilities was 53.5%
compared to 75.1% for working-age adults without disabilities. Unemployment rate for
working-age adults with disabilities was 10.4% compared to 6.8% for working-age adults
without disabilities. The rate of labour force participation for people with disabilities of working
age is 59.6% compared to a rate of 80.2% for those without disabilities (Human Resources and
Skills Development Canada, 2011d).
Labour Force Survey
Data for the Labour Force Survey are released on a monthly basis. These surveys do not include
specific data about the employment of people with disabilities. Updates can be found at this
website http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/130104/dq130104a-eng.htm.

Ontario: Statistical Data
Approximately one in seven people in Ontario, 1.85 million Ontarians, have a disability. Over
the next 20 years, the number is expected to rise to one in five (Ministry of Community and
Social Services, 2013b; Dempsey, 2011).
Amongst the population in Ontario who live alone, 31% of people with disabilities live in
poverty compared to 21.3% of those without a disability (Council of Canadians with Disabilities,
2013).
For women with disabilities, the unemployment rate is 74% (Disabled Womens Network
Ontario, 2004).
Data sources:
Survey of Labour and Income Dynamics (SLID)
http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/bsolc/olc-cel?catno=75f0011x&lang=eng
Ontario-Canada Labour Market Agreement for Persons with Disabilities
Canada-Ontario Labour Market Agreement for Persons with Disabilities (LMAPD) was signed in
2004. The following information comes from the 2011-2012 Report (Province of Ontario, 2012).
- 41.2% of persons with disabilities are unemployed or not in the labour force, compared to
14.1% of persons without disabilities. 42% of persons with disabilities are employed
compared with 66.3% of persons without disabilities (p. 10, Graph).
- In 2010, the average earnings, in Ontario, of employed people with disabilities was $34,500,
while the average earnings of those without disabilities was, $47,300 (p.11).
In 2011 and 2012, Ontario spent approximately $229.1 million on programs and services
funded under the LMAPD, and received the maximum federal contribution of $76.4 million
(Province of Ontario, 2012) p.3.
Extracts below are from the 2010-2011 Report (Province of Ontario, 2011)
- In 2009, 63% of people with disabilities in Ontario reported employment earnings,
compare to 85% of people without disabilities (p.11).
- In 2009, the average earnings, in Ontario, of employed people with disabilities was $39,300,
while the average earnings of those without disabilities was $44,100 (p.11).
- In 2010 and 2011 4,579 clients worked toward employment by receiving service from a
provider. Of these clients 2,721 found employment placements and 377 faced with job
crises were able to retain their employment (p.5).
59 Runnels et al.

- In 2010 and 2011, Ontario spends approximately $206.4 million on programs and services
funded under the LMAPD and received the maximum federal contribution of $76.4 million
(p.5).
Adults with disabilities and post-secondary education
Approximately 40% of the working age population (ages 15-64) with disabilities have a post-
secondary education, compared to 48% of those without disabilities (The Conference Board
of Canada, 2007, p. 24).
Human rights, disability and employment
- On average, 30 50% of human rights claims cite the ground of disability. Most are in the
area of employment, with services constituting the second largest area (Ontario Human
Rights Commission, 2009, p.4).
Disability Income Support in Ontario
The caseload for the Ontario Disability Support Program increased by 5-6% between 2006
and 2009. $3.3 billion dollars was spent on benefit payments in 2009. In addition $42
million was allocated for employment assistance for the programs clients (Legislative
Assembly of Ontario, 2009). In response to this, ODEN wrote, Ontario spends $3.3 billion a
year on disability income support, a figure thats growing at a rate of 5% a year. Yet, its
frustratingly difficult for many people who have a disability to find a meaningful place in the
economy because of systemic roadblocks (Ontario Disability Employment Network, 2012).

Box 12: Ontario Disability Support Program: Employment and Training Start Up Benefit (ESUB)
The Ontario Disability Support Program is designed to help people with disabilities, who are in
need of financial assistance, with income support and health-related benefits to help them
meet their income and employment needs. Part of the program includes employment support
to help people with disabilities look for, obtain or maintain jobs (Ministry of Community and
Social Services, 2012).
Eligible people may receive up to $500 in any 12-month period to assist them with costs related
to beginning or changing employment, for example, beginning an employment assistance
activity under the Ontario Works Act, 1997 or beginning any director approved activity,
designed to assist the person to find or maintain employment. These can include costs related
to: finding a job (e.g. a transit pass), preparing for an interview (e.g. coaching); or meeting job
qualifications (e.g. licensing fees)( Ministry of Community and Social Services, 2011).


Ontario: Resources
Employment and Accessibility in Ontario
The Accessibility Standard for Employment will help Ontario businesses and organizations
make accessibility a regular part of finding, hiring and supporting employees with disabilities
(Ministry of Community and Social Services, 2013a). The Accessibility Standard for Employment
is part of a larger regulation called the Integrated Accessibility Standards Regulation. At
http://www.mcss.gov.on.ca/en/mcss/programs/accessibility/other_standards/iasr_2012/empl
oyment_iasr/toc_employ_iasr.aspx, you can find the guide to the Integrated Accessibility
Standards Regulation with regard to Employment (Part 3).
http://www.mcss.gov.on.ca/en/mcss/programs/accessibility/general/index.aspx
61 Runnels et al.

Ottawa: Statistical data
Only 43% of people with disabilities participate in the labour market in Ottawa (compared to
70% of the general population). The EARN initiative has proposed a goal of 51% employment by
2015 (United Way Ottawa, n.d.).
Based on an analysis of the 2006 Census data, the Social Planning Council of Ottawa (2010)
issued a profile of Persons with Disabilities in Ottawa. The following data are taken from this
publication.
Disability-related statistics for Ottawa
- In 2006, 17.7% of the people in Ottawa had disabilities, 149,425 people, an increase of
20.7% (25,625 people) since 2001 (Social Planning Council of Ottawa, 2010).
- The percentage of people with a disability in Ottawa was 2.2% higher than the percentage
of people with a disability in Ontario (Social Planning Council of Ottawa, 2010).
- Over half of the people in Ottawa with disabilities were between 20 and 64 (Social Planning
Council of Ottawa, 2010).
- Between 2001 and 2006, over half of the people with disabilities in Ottawa were within the
working age groups 20-64. In 2006 this represented 16% of the working age population in
the city (Social Planning Council of Ottawa, 2010).
Employment
- 43.3% of people with disabilities, over 15, worked part-time (or part-year). This was an
increase of 1.7% since 2001 (Social Planning Council of Ottawa, 2010, p. 5).
- Research findings indicate that many people with disabilities willing to work full-time
cannot find suitable jobs and the accommodation they require (Social Planning Council of
Ottawa, 2010, p.5).
- 7,060 employed persons with disabilities lived in poverty before taxes in 2005 (13.3% vs.
10.1% in the general population). This was also the case of 2,115 workers with a full-
time/full-year job (Social Planning Council of Ottawa, 2010, p. 21)
- 74.4% of working poor individuals with disabilities were aged 25-54 (Social Planning
Council of Ottawa, 2010, p.6).
- 15.8% of the working-age population (4,970 people), who were working at home were
people with disabilities (Social Planning Council of Ottawa, 2010, p. 22).
- 57.3% of people with disabilities were not in the labour force, compared to 30.5% of those
without disabilities (Social Planning Council of Ottawa, 2010, p. 7)
- The work force participation rate of people with disabilities increased from 40% (in 2001) to
43% (in 2006). The participation rate for the general population in 2006 was 69.6% (Social
Planning Council of Ottawa, 2010, p. 19).

- The unemployment rate for persons with disabilities was 7.4% compared to 5.8% for those
without disabilities. The unemployment rate for 15-24 year olds with disabilities was 16.1%
(Social Planning Council of Ottawa, 2010, p. 20).
- The percentage of persons with disabilities working full-time or full-year fell from 52% (in
2001) to 49% (in 2006). The percentage working part-time or part year rose from 41.6% to
43.3% in the same timeframe (Social Planning Council of Ottawa, 2010, p. 20).
- In 2005, 42.7% of youth aged 15 to 19 with disabilities had no income and 55% had an
income under $20,000 (Social Planning Council of Ottawa, 2010, p. 34).

63 Runnels et al.

Canada Revenue Agency. (2013a). Disability Tax Credit Certificate. http://www.cra-
arc.gc.ca/E/pbg/tf/t2201/t2201-12e.pdf
Canada Revenue Agency. (2013b). Who is eligible for the disability tax credit? http://www.cra-
arc.gc.ca/tx/ndvdls/sgmnts/dsblts/qlfd-prcts/whts-eng.html
Council of Canadians with Disabilities. (2013). As a Matter of Fact: Poverty and Disability in
Canada. http://www.ccdonline.ca/en/socialpolicy/poverty-citizenship/demographic-
profile/poverty-disability-canada
Dempsey, A. (2011, March 7). Legislation will enforce disability-friendly service. Toronto Star.
Disabled Women's Network Ontario. (2004). Factsheets on Women with Disabilities.
http://dawn.thot.net/fact.html
Government of Canada. (1995). Employment Equity Act. (S.C. 1995, c. 44). http://laws-
lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/E-5.401/page-1.html#h-3
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. (2011a). 2011 Federal Disability Report:
Seniors with Disabilities in Canada. [HS61-1/2011E-PDF]. Gatineau, Human Resources and Skills
Development Canada.
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. (2011b). Advancing the Inclusion of People
with Disabilities 2009. Chapter 2: Education and training.
http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/disability_issues/reports/fdr/2009/page07.shtml#_7.2
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada.(2011c). Disability in Canada: A 2006 profile.
Gatineau: Human Resources and Skills Development Canada.
http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/disability_issues/reports/disability_profile/2011/disability_profile.
pdf
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. (2011d). Disability in Canada: A 2006 profile.
Disability Facts about the Labour Force. Gatineau: Human Resources and Skills Development
Canada.

http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/disability_issues/reports/disability_profile/2011/fact_sheet/labou
r_force.shtml
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. (2012a). Federal Disability Reference Guide
(Catalogue no. HS64-17/2012-PDF). Gatineau: Human Resources and Skills Development
Canada. http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2012/rhdcc-hrsdc/HS64-17-2012-
eng.pdf
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. (2012b). Multilateral Framework for Labour
Market Agreements for Persons with Disabilities.
http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/disability_issues/labour_market_agreements/framework.shtml
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. (2013). Indicators of Well-being in Canada:
Canadians in Context-People with Disabilities. http://www4.hrsdc.gc.ca/.3ndic.1t.4r@-
eng.jsp?iid=40
Legislative Assembly of Ontario. (2009). Standing Committee on Public Accounts: Ontario
Disability Support Program, section 3.09, 2009 Annual report of the Auditor General of Ontario.
http://www.ontla.on.ca/committee-proceedings/committee-
reports/files_pdf/ODSP_S3.09AR2009_EN.pdf
MacKenzie, A., Hurst, M., & Crompton, S. (2009). Living with disability series: Defining disability
in the Participation and Activity Limitation Survey (Catalogue no. 11-008-X). Statistics Canada.
http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-008-x/2009002/article/11024-eng.htm
Ministry of Community and Social Services. (2011). Ontario Disability Support Program-9.1
Income Support Directives.
http://www.mcss.gov.on.ca/en/mcss/programs/social/directives/directives/ODSPDirectives/inc
ome_support/9_1_ODSP_ISDirectives.aspx
Ministry of Community and Social Services. (2012). Ontario Social Assistance Monthly Statistical
Report: Ontario Disability Support Program.
http://www.mcss.gov.on.ca/documents/en/mcss/social/reports/ODSP_EN_2012-12.pdf
Ministry of Community and Social Services. (2013a). Employment.
http://www.mcss.gov.on.ca/en/mcss/programs/accessibility/employment/index.aspx
Ministry of Community and Social Services. (2013b). New Council to Help Make Ontario Even
More Accessible: McGuinty Government Improving Independence for People of all Abilities.
http://news.ontario.ca/mcss/en/2013/01/new-council-to-help-make-ontario-even-more-
accessible.html
65 Runnels et al.

Ontario Disability Employment Network. (2012). Yes, its possible to save taxpayers millions
while getting more people who have a disability into the workforce (Press Release).
http://www.odenetwork.com/2012/05
Ontario Human Rights Commission. (2009). Policy and guidelines on disability and the duty to
accommodate.
http://www.ohrc.on.ca/sites/default/files/attachments/Policy_and_guidelines_on_disability_a
nd_the_duty_to_accommodate.pdf
Province of Ontario. (2011). Canada-Ontario Labour Market Agreement for Person with
Disabilities: 2010-11 Annual Report.
http://www.ontla.on.ca/library/repository/ser/257970//2010-11.pdf
Province of Ontario. (2012). Canada-Ontario Labour Market Agreement for Person with
Disabilities: 2011-12 Annual Report.
http://www.mcss.gov.on.ca/documents/en/mcss/publications/accessibility/labor_mkt_2012.p
df
Service Canada. (2013). CPP Disability-I want to apply.
http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/isp/cpp/applicant.shtml
Social Planning Council of Ottawa. (2010). Disability Profile of the City of Ottawa: A Profile of
Persons with Disabilities in Ottawa Based on the 2006 Census.
http://www.spcottawa.on.ca/sites/spcottawa.on.ca/files/pdf/2010/Publications/Disability%20
Report%20Final.pdf
Statistics Canada. (2001). A Profile of Disability in Canada, 2001. [89-577-XIE].
Statistics Canada. (2006). Participation and Activity Limitation Survey 2006: Tables.
Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2007 (Catalogue. no. 89-628-XIE - No. 003).
Statistics Canada. (2012a). Canadian Survey on Disability (CSD).
http://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function=getSurvey&SDDS=3251&Item_Id=133011
&lang=en
Statistics Canada. (2012b). Classification of Employed Status.
http://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/labour-travail-class01-eng.htm
Statistics Canada. (2012c). Classification of Labour Force Status.
http://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/labour-travail-class01a-eng.htm

Statistics Canada. (2012d). Labour force status of person (sic).
http://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/labour-travail-01-eng.htm
Statistics Canada, Social and Aboriginal Statistics Division. (2006a). The 2006 Participation and
Activity Limitation Survey: Disability in Canada. (Catalogue no. 89628X No. 2). Prevalence of
disability in Canada 2006, Ottawa, ON. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-628-x/89-628-
x2007002-eng.pdf
Statistics Canada, Social and Aboriginal Statistics Division. (2006b). The 2006 Participation and
Activity Limitation Survey: Labour Force Experience of People with Disabilities in Canada.
(Catalogue no. 89628X No. 7), Ottawa, ON. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-628-x/89-628-
x2008007-eng.pdf
The Conference Board of Canada. (2007). Ontarios Looming Labour Shortage Challenges:
Projections of Labour Shortages in Ontario and Possible Strategies to Engage Unused and
Underutilized Human Resources.
http://www.workforcecoalition.ca/downloads/conference_board_report.pdf
United Nations Human Rights. (2012). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CRPD/Pages/ConventionRightsPersonsWithDisabilities.asp
x
United Way Ottawa. (n.d.). Belonging to Community. http://unitedwayottawa.ca/what-we-
do/our-focus/belonging-community/people-disabilities
World Health Organization. (2013). Health Topics: Disabilities.
http://www.who.int/topics/disabilities/en

67 Runnels et al.

Appendix 1 Systematic Review Evidence on Disability and Employment
Systematic reviews are defined as follows:
A systematic review attempts to identify, appraise and synthesize all the empirical evidence
that meets pre-specified eligibility criteria to answer a given research question. Researchers
conducting systematic reviews use explicit methods aimed at minimizing bias, in order to
produce more reliable findings that can be used to inform decision making (See Section 1.2 in
the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions).
19

Broadly speaking, systematic reviews work on the basis of collecting all the available evidence
on a particular topic, removing evidence that is low quality, synthesizing the evidence and
coming to some conclusion about the findings. Given that the research methods used to study
social phenomena are varied, and methods of assessing social and economic limitations have
limitations, collecting data together in systematic reviews is still thought to provide a robust
method and guide to the best evidence showing which programs or interventions work, for
which people and in what settings.
Bambra, C., Whitehead, M. & Hamilton, V. (2005). Does 'welfare-to-work' work? A systematic
review of the effectiveness of the UK's welfare-to-work programmes for people with a disability
or chronic illness. Social Science & Medicine, 60(9), 1905-1918.
This systematic review found welfare to work programmes increase the uptake of employment
among people with a disability or a chronic illness. However, as the majority of the studies were
retrospective and only three were controlled, it was difficult to determine if the evidence of
increased employment was due to the effectiveness of the welfare to work interventions
themselves or attributable to more general upward labour market trends. This indicates that
there is a need for more robust research on the employment effects of welfare to work to
provide a stronger evidence-base for future welfare policy.
Crowther, R.E., Marshall, M., Bond, G.R. & Huxley, G.R. (2001). Helping people with severe
mental illness to obtain work: Systematic review. BMJ 2001; 322: 204. Doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.322.7280.204
Supported employment is more effective than prevocational training at helping people with
severe mental illness obtain competitive employment.

19
http://www.thecochranelibrary.com/view/0/AboutCochraneSystematicReviews.html

Twamley, E.W., Jeste, D.V. & Lehman, A. F. (2003). Vocational Rehabilitation in Schizophrenia
and Other Psychotic Disorders: A Literature Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized
Controlled Trials Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 191(8), 515-523.
Bond, G. R., Becker, D.R., Drake, R.E., Rapp, C.A., Meisler, N., Lehman, A.F., Bell, M.D.,& Blyler,
C.R.(2001) Implementing supported employment as an evidence-based practice. Psychiatric
Services 52(3), 313-322.
The emerging evidence base on supported employment is clear and consistent, with improved
employment outcomes across many different types of settings and populations. In addition,
most supported employment approaches described in the literature converge on a set of
critical components.supported employment for people with severe mental illness has
attained the status of evidence-based practice despite a half century of program innovation and
informal experimentation by many psychiatric rehabilitation programs. Proponents of other
vocational approaches either have failed to empirically investigate their methods or have failed
to find strong evidence. It is also true that many vocational program approaches that are not
effective continue to be widely practiced.
Kinoshita Y., Furukawa T.A., Omori I.M., Watanabe N., Marshall M., Bond G.R. et al. (2010).
Supported Employment for Adults with Severe Mental Illness (Protocol for Review). Cochrane
Database of Systematic Reviews 2010, 1.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008297/full
The objective of this intended review are as follows: 1. To review the effectiveness of supported
employment compared to other approached to vocational rehabilitation and treatment as
usual.
2. Secondary objectives are to establish how far:
(a) fidelity to the IPS model affects the effectiveness of supported employment,
(b) the effectiveness of supported employment can be augmented by the addition of other
interventions.
Crowther R., Marshall M., Bond G.R. & Huxley P. (2010). Vocational Rehabilitation for People
with Severe Mental Illness. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2010;11.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD003080/pdf/standard
OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of Pre-vocational Training and Supported Employment (for
people with severe mental illness) against each other and against standard care (in hospital or
community). In addition, to assess the effects of: (a) special varieties of Pre-vocational Training
(Clubhouse model) and Supported Employment (Individual Placement and Support model); and
(b) techniques for enhancing either approach, for example payment or psychological
intervention.
69 Runnels et al.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Included trials were selected by a team of two raters. Data
were extracted separately by two reviewers and cross-checked. Authors of trials were
contacted for additional information. Relative risks (RR) and 95% condence intervals (CI) of
homogeneous dichotomous data were calculated. A random effects model was used for
heterogeneous dichotomous data. Continuous data were presented in tables (there were
insufcient continuous data for formal meta-analysis). A sensitivity analysis was performed,
excluding poorer quality trials.
MAIN RESULTS: Eighteen randomised controlled trials of reasonable quality were identied.
The main nding was that on the primary outcome (number in competitive employment)
Supported Employment was signicantly more effective than Pre-vocational Training; for
example, at 18 months 34% of people in Supported Employment were employed versus 12% in
Pre-vocational Training (RR random effects (unemployment) 0.76 95% CI 0.64 to 0.89, NNT 4.5).
Clients in Supported Employment also earned more and worked more hours per month than
those in Pre-vocational Training. There was no evidence that Pre-vocational Training was more
effective in helping clients to obtain competitive employment than standard community care.
Authors conclusions: Supported employment is more effective than Pre-vocational Training in
helping severely mentally ill people to obtain competitive employment. There is no clear
evidence that Pre-vocational Training is effective.
Westbrook J., Nye C., Fong C., Wan J., Cortopassi T. & Martin F. (2012). Adult employment
assistance for persons with autism spectrum disorders: Effects on employment outcomes.
Campbell Systematic Reviews 2012, 5. DOI: 10.4073/csr.2012.5
OBJECTIVE: The objective of this review is to determine the effectiveness of adult employment
interventions in securing and maintaining employment for adults with ASD.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: The electronic searches of databases yielded 8,528 citations
for the first stage of review. Of these, a total of 77 citations were selected for second stage full-
text review of each study. Upon review of the full-text for each of the 77 studies, two studies
were retained, having met the inclusion criteria.
Of the two included studies, both were quasi-experimental research designs. The studies
generally described the effects of a supported employment intervention for adults with ASD on
either employment outcomes or aspects of cognitive functioning. The nature of the data
provided did not lend itself to a traditional meta-analysis. Given the number of studies, study
designs, and the diversity of outcomes across the two studies, it was not possible to aggregate
results across studies.
RESULTS: This review was not able to identify definitive interventions that predictably and
positively supported the development of employment outcomes for individuals with ASD.
In an analysis of risk bias of the included studies, it was found that there was a high level of
substantial potential for bias across three of the five sources of bias analyzed including unit of

assignment, unit of analysis, attrition, fidelity of implementation, and blinding. The
methodological quality of both included studies was low. Therefore, these review results should
not be interpreted as indicating definitive results related to the development of employment
outcomes for persons with ASD.
AUTHORS CONCLUSIONS :Qualitative and other relevant research studies connected to the
employment of persons with ASD were also reviewed and suggest that the following may be
elements of successful employment placement for persons with ASD: (1) identification of the
most appropriate work settings and placements, (2) provision of effective supports on the job,
(3) need for long-term support services for the employer and the consumer, (4) costs for
support, and (5) positive effects of employment on persons with ASD. While qualitative studies
point to a number of promising issues for future research, they do not provide a definitive
statement about what works.
Suggested that the following may be elements of successful employment placement for
persons with ASD: (1) identification of the most appropriate work settings and placements, (2)
provision of effective supports on the job, (3) need for long-term support services for the
employer and the consumer, (4) costs for support, and (5) positive effects of employment on
persons with ASD(p.7).
Corbire, M. & Shen J. (2006). A Systematic Review of Psychological Return to Work
Interventions for People with Mental Health Problems and/or Physical Injuries. Canadian
Journal of Community Mental Health 25(2), 261-288.
ABSTRACT: The objectives of the current systematic review are (a) to describe psychological
return-to-work (RTW) interventions for people with mental health problems and/or physical
injuries, and (b) to summarize the impact of these RTW interventions on work and health
outcomes. Three conventional systematic review methods were used, and 14 studies were
identified. The most popular psychological interventions focus on coping strategies, problem-
solving strategies, and belief/attitude adjustments. These components are most often grouped
together under the broad label, cognitive behavioural approach, an approach which has yielded
significant results in terms of RTW and health improvement outcomes. Other key interventions
include communication between stakeholders and the involvement of each framework level
(i.e., individual, group, and organization) in the RTW process, supported by follow-up in the
community.
Audhoe S.S., Hoving J.L., Sluiter J.K.& Frings-Dresen M. (2000). Vocational Interventions for
Unemployed: Effects on Work Participation and Mental Distress. A Systematic Review. Journal
of Occupational Rehabilitation 20(1), 1-13.
ABSTRACT: Introduction. Unemployment is a growing problem worldwide. Unemployment or
job loss is one of the most stressful of life events and can lead to diminished social status,
71 Runnels et al.

disturbed social role patterns, financial debt, reduced self-esteem and feelings of guilt. The
purpose of this review was to determine the effectiveness of vocational interventions on work
participation and mental distress for unemployed adults and to provide an overview of the
characteristics of these interventions. Methods Medline, EMBASE and PsycINFO were
systematically searched for studies published between 1990 and August 2008. Intervention
studies aimed at work participation and helping with mental distress for the unemployed were
included. Methodological quality of the included studies was assessed. Results Six articles based
on five intervention studies, of which two randomized controlled trials, fulfilled all inclusion
criteria. The methodological quality of the studies ranged from good to poor. All five
interventions applied group training techniques aimed at promoting re-employment and/or
improving mental health. The duration of the interventions varied from 1 week to 6 months.
The interventions focused on acquiring job-search skills, maintaining paid work, personal
development and preparedness against setbacks during the job-search process. Only one
intervention study (randomized controlled trial) reported a significant effect on re-
employment. Conclusions Based on our review, we conclude that there is weak evidence to
support the use of vocational interventions to improve work participation and limited evidence
to reduce mental distress for the unemployed. We recommend further development and
evaluation of return to work intervention strategies for unemployed individuals.
Varekamp I., Verbeek J.H. & van Dijk F.J. (2006). How can we help employees with chronic
diseases to stay at work? A review of interventions aimed at job retention and based on an
empowerment perspective. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health
80(2), 87-97.

Appendix 2 Selected references for further reading
With a couple of exceptions (books or research journal articles), all the selected documents
below are available via the Internet.
Barnes, C. & Mercer, G. (2005). Disability, Work and Welfare: Challenging the social exclusion of
disabled people. Work, Employment and Society, 19(3), 527-545.
Bell, D. & Bezanson, L. (2012). Career Development Services for Canadian Youth: Access,
Adequacy and Accountability. http://www.cprn.org/documents/44474_en.pdf
Boeltzig, H. (2012). Strategies to Improve Integrated Service Delivery to People with Disabilities.
http://www.communityinclusion.org/pdf/BoeltzigUSUKStrategies.pdf
CAMH & CMHA (2010). Employment and Education for People with Mental Illness: Discussion
Paper. Toronto, Ontario: Canadian Mental Health Association and the Centre for Addiction and
Mental Health.
Canadian Association for Community Living. (2011). Achieving social and economic inclusion:
from segregation to 'employment first'.
http://www.cacl.ca/sites/default/files/Achieving%20social%20and%20economic%20inclusion_
0.pdf
Community Living Research Project. (2006). Non-residential Supports and Intellectual Disability:
A Review of the Literature on Best Practices, Alternatives and Economic Impacts
http://www.anth.ubc.ca/fileadmin/user_upload/CIC/documents/Non-
residential_Alternatives_Document_nov06.pdf
Crawford, C. & Marshall, R. (2002). Labour Market Policy and Programs in Canada for Persons
with Disabilities. http://biac-aclc.ca/pdf/LMPReportEN.pdf
Crawford, C. (2011). The employment of people with intellectual disabilities in Canada: a
statistical profile. Toronto: Institute for Research on Inclusion and Society. (IRIS).
http://irisinstitute.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/intellectual-disability-and-
employment_iris_cr.pdf
Crawford, C. (2012). Towards an Understanding of Effective Practices in Employment Programs
for People with Disabilities in Canada. Toronto: Institute for Research and Development on
Inclusion and Society. (IRIS). http://irisinstitute.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/employment-
program-best-practices_iris.pdf
Elwan, A. (1999). Poverty and Disability: A Survey of the Literature. Social Protection Discussion
Paper Series. No. 9932. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Fowler, H. (2011). Employees' Perspectives on Intermittent Work Capacity: What Can Qualitative
Research Tell Us in Ontario?. Ottawa: Social Research and Demonstration Corporation
http://www.srdc.org/uploads/IntermittentWork_report_EN.pdf
73 Runnels et al.

http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/disability_issues/reports/fdr/2010/page00.shtml
Kim, H., Gomes, :, & Prinz, C. (2010). Sickness, Disability and Work: Breaking the Barriers
CANADA : Opportunities for Collaboration Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development.
Lakey, J. & Simpkins, R. (1994). Employment Rehabilitation for Disabled People: Identifying the
Issues. London: Policy Studies Institute.
Langman, C. (2011). Introduction to Vocational Rehabilitation: Policies, practices and skills.
London: Routledge.
Lysaght, R., Krupa, T., & Gregory, A. (2012). Accommodations in the Workplace for Employees
with Disabilities: Final Report Kingston: Queen's University. Please request a copy from Dr.
Lysaght lysaght@queensu.ca.
Metts, R. L. (2000). Disability Issues, Trends and Recommendations for the World Bank
Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Nord, D. et al. (2012). Supporting New Career Paths for People with Intellectual and
Developmental Disabilities . Impact, 25.
O'Bryan, A., Simons, K., Beyer, S., & Grove, B. (2000). A framework for supported employment
York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
OECD. (2010). Sickness, Disability and Work: Breaking the Barriers CANADA : Opportunities for
Collaboration. http://www.oecd.org/els/employmentpoliciesanddata/46093870.pdf
Ontario HIV Treatment Network. (2012). Effectiveness and key features of employment support
programs.
http://www.ohtn.on.ca/Documents/Knowledge-Exchange/Rapid-Responses/Rapid-Response-
51_Employment-support-programs.pdf
Ontario Ministry of Community and Social Services. (2012). Canada-Ontario Labour Market
Agreement for Persons with Disabilities 2010-11 Annual Report. Toronto: Ontario Ministry of
Community and Social Services
http://www.mcss.gov.on.ca/documents/en/mcss/publications/accessibility/labor_mkt_2012.p
df
Sawchuk, P. (2009). Following the success: Promising workplace learning practices in
marginalized youth employment. Toronto: University of Toronto. http://www.ccl-
cca.ca/pdfs/fundedresearch/Sawchuk-FinalReport.pdf

Stapleton, J. & Procyk, S. (2010). A patchwork quilt: Income security for Canadians with
disabilities. Institute for Work and Health. http://www.iwh.on.ca/briefings/a-patchwork-quilt
Stone, D. & Colella, A. (1996). A Model of Factors Affecting the Treatment of Disabled
Individuals in Organizations. The Academy of Management Review, 21, 352-401.
United Nations Human Rights. (2012). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CRPD/Pages/ConventionRightsPersonsWithDisabilities.asp
x See Article 26 Habilitation and rehabilitation. Article 27 Work and Employment.
Wilkerson, B. (2001). The Business Case for Accessibility. How Accessibility Awareness
strengthens your companys bottom line.
http://navigator.wlu.ca/content/documents/fileItemController/business_case_for_accessibility
.pdf
World Health Organization. (2011). World Report on Disability. Geneva: World Health
Organization. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789240685215_eng.pdf
Note: Chapter 8 deals with Work and Employment.
75 Runnels et al.

Appendix 3 Key terms, search engines and databases used in searches of the
literature.
Search 1
Google Scholar (search engine):
- youth, unemployment, disability, Canada.
- youth, employment, disability, Canada.
- Youth, employment, disability, Ontario
- Youth, disability, access to vocational training
- disabled youth, supported employment, Canada
Reference Manager and PubMed internet search feature:
- Disability, unemployment, youth, Canada
- Youth, disability, vocational training
- Disability, employability, Canada
Search 2
Google Scholar (search engine):
- unemployment services for disabled, Canada
- employability of disabled youth, Canada
- economics, disability, youth
- accessibility, Ontario, disabled youth
- Substitution of keyword youth with adolescents.
Hand searching within the Journal of Learning Disabilities; Disability Studies Quarterly and
Disability and Society:
- employment
- youth
- youth employment
- youth unemployment
Search 3
- Effectiveness of employment services disabled people, Canada
- Disability, vocational rehabilitation, Canada
- Disability, vocational rehabilitation, Ontario
- Disability, job training, Canada, youth
- Perceptions and stigma in workplace, disability, Canada


Search 4
Google Scholar searches relating to:
- best practices,
- employment models,
- service models,
- one-stop centres, centers (alternative spelling)
- specialized centres,
- supported employment and
- sheltered employment
- Competitive Employment + disability

Web of Knowledge database searches:
Disab* + best practices
Disab* + supported employment
Disab* (topic) + one stop center (title)
Disab* (title) + practitioner / professional
Disability (title) + Canad* OR Ontario
Disability (title) + Canad*
Disab* + vocational rehabilitation
Disab* + vocation*
Disab* + Special* + Employ*
Disab* + work + welfare
Disability + employment + Canada
Disability + Unemployment + Canada
One Stop Centre + Canada
Disability + Canada + best practices
Supported Employment + Disability + Canada
Supported Employment + Disability
TERM combinations:
Disability +
- best practices
- employment models
- service models
- one-stop centres/centers
- career centers/centres
- specialized centres/centers
77 Runnels et al.

- supported employment and
- sheltered employment
- disability management
- youth/adolescents
- job/vocational training, rehabilitation
- employment outcomes for PWD
- Developmental disability/intellectual disability/mental/physical.
- Canada or Ontario

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TRAINING APPROACHES AND THE PROVISION OF

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