AChronologicalPaperTrail
byCharlotteThomsonIserbyt
CONSCIENCE
PRESS
RAVENNA,OHIO
Copyright1999.ConsciencePress.Allrightsreserved.
Firstprinting,September1999
Secondprinting,February2000
Publishedin1999.
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.
Acid-freepaper.Archivalquality.
LibraryofCongressCatalogCardNumber:98–89726
ISBN:0–9667071–0–9
ConsciencePress•P.O.Box449•Ravenna,Ohio•44266–0449
PrintedbyTheAthensPrintingCompany,Athens,Georgia
GraphicdesignbyColinLeslie
Coverdesignby3–DResearchCompany
IndexcompiledbyKariMiller
CartoonscreatedbyJoelPett,HeraldLeaderofLexington,Kentucky
Thisbookisdedicatedtomylatemotherandfather,Charlotteand
CliftonThomson,wonderfulparentswhodevotedmuchoftheir
livestopublicservice,andtomylategreataunt,FlorenceStanton
Thomson,whosegenerosityenabledthewritertoundertakethe
research,writing,andpublishingofthisbook.
Itisalsodedicatedtomyhusband,Jan,andtwosons,Robertand
Samuel,whosetoleranceofMom’sactivismandfrequentabsences
fromhomeoveraperiodofthirtyyearsallowedthewriterto
pursuehersearchforthetruth.Jan’sgourmetcookingliftedour
spiritsandkeptusallfromstarving!Withoutthemen’spatience,
humor,andmoralsupport,thisbookcouldnothavebeenwritten.
v
INMEMORIAM
ThisbookisasmalltributetothelateHonorableJohnM.Ashbrook,
17thCongressionalDistrictofOhio,whoseworkinCongressduringthe
1960sand1970sexposedthetreasonousplanswhichultimatelyledtothe
internationalizationanddeliberatedumbingdownofAmericaneducation.
vii
TABLEOFCONTENTS
foreword xi
preface xiii
acknowledgments xxiii
introduction xxv
1 THESOWINGOFTHESEEDS: 1
lateeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies
2 THETURNINGOFTHETIDES:7
earlytwentiethcentury
3 THETROUBLINGTHIRTIES 17
4 THEFOMENTATION 27
ofthefortiesandifties
5 THESICKSIXTIES: 55
psychologyandskills
6 THESERIOUSSEVENTIES 93
7 THE“EFFECTIVE”EIGHTIES 159
8 THENOXIOUSNINETIES 265
afterword 455
resources 461
glossary G–1
appendices A–1
index I–1
ix
FOREWORD
CharlotteIserbytistobegreatlycommendedforhavingputtogetherthemostformidable
and practical compilation of documentation describing the “deliberate dumbing down” of
Americanchildrenbytheireducationsystem.Anyoneinterestedinthetruthwillbeshocked
bythewayAmericansocialengineershavesystematicallygoneaboutdestroyingtheintellect
ofmillionsofAmericanchildrenforthepurposeofleadingtheAmericanpeopleintoasocialist
worldgovernmentcontrolledbybehavioralandsocialscientists.
Mrs.Iserbythasalsodocumentedthegradualtransformationofouronceacademically
successful education system into one devoted to training children to become compliant
humanresourcestobeusedbygovernmentandindustryfortheirownpurposes.Thisishow
fascist-socialistsocietiestraintheirchildrentobecomeservantsoftheirgovernmentmasters.
Thesuccessfulimplementationofthisnewphilosophyofeducationwillspelltheendofthe
Americandreamofindividualfreedomandopportunity.Thegovernmentwillplanyourlife
foryou,andunlessyoucomplywithgovernmentrestrictionsandregulationsyourabilityto
pursueacareerofyourownchoicewillbeseverelylimited.
WhatissomindbogglingisthatallofthisisbeinginancedbytheAmericanpeople
themselvesthroughtheirowntaxes.Inotherwords,theAmericanpeopleareunderwriting
thedestructionoftheirownfreedomandwayoflifebylavishlyinancingthroughfederal
grantstheverysocialscientistswhoareunderminingournationalsovereigntyandpreparing
ourchildrentobecomethedumbed-downvassalsofthenewworldorder.Itremindsoneof
howtheNazischargedtheirvictimstrainfaretotheirowndoom.
Oneoftheinterestinginsightsrevealedbythesedocumentsishowthesocialengineers
useadeliberatelycreatededucation“crisis”tomovetheiragendaforwardbyofferingradical
reformsthataresoldtothepublicasixingthecrisis—whichtheyneverdo.Thenewreforms
simplysetthestageforthenextcrisis,whichprovidesthepretextforthenextmoveforward.
Thisisthedialecticalprocessatwork,aprocessourbehavioralengineershavelearnedto
xi
Foreword
useveryeffectively.Itssuccessdependsontheabilityofthe“changeagents”tocontinually
deceivethepublicwhichtendstobelieveanythingtheexpertstellthem.
And so, our children continue to be at risk in America’s schools. They are at risk
academically because of such programs as whole language, mastery learning, direct
instruction, Skinnerian operant conditioning, all of which have created huge learning
problems that inevitably lead to what is commonly known as Attention Deicit Disorder
andthedruggingoffourmillionchildrenwiththepowerfuldrugRitalin.Mrs.Iserbythas
dealtextensivelywiththerootcausesofimmoralityinoursocietyandtheroleofthepublic
schoolsintheteachingofmoralrelativism(noright/nowrongethics).Sheraisesaredlag
regardingthecurrenteffortsofleft-wingliberalsandright-wingconservatives(radicalcenter)
to come up with a new kid on the block—“common ground” character education—which
will, under the microscope, turn out to be the same warmed-over values education
alert parent groups have resisted for over ifty years. This is a perfect example of the
HegelianDialecticatwork.
Thereaderwillindinthisbookaplethoraofinformationthatwillleavenodoubtin
themindoftheseriousresearcherexactlywheretheAmericaneducationsystemisheaded.
If we wish to stop this juggernaut toward a socialist-fascist system, then we must restore
educational freedom to America. Americans forget that the present government education
systemstartedasaPrussianimportinthe1840’s–’50’s.ItwasasystembuiltonHegel’sbelief
that the state was “God” walking on earth. The only way to restore educational freedom,
and put education back into the hands of parents where it belongs, is to get the federal
government,withitscoercivepolicies,outofeducation.Thebillionsofdollarsbeingspentby
thefederalgovernmenttodestroyeducationalfreedommustbehalted,andthatcanonlybe
donebygettingAmericanlegislatorstounderstandthattheAmericanpeoplewanttoremaina
freepeople,inchargeoftheirownlivesandtheeducationoftheirchildren.
xii
PREFACE
Coexistenceonthistightlyknitearthshouldbeviewedasanexistencenotonlywithout
wars…butalsowithout[thegovernment]tellingushowtolive,whattosay,whattothink,
whattoknow,andwhatnottoknow.
—AleksandrSolzhenitsyn,fromaspeechgivenSeptember11,19731
Educatedmenareasmuchsuperiortouneducatedmenasthelivingaretothedead.
—Aristotle,384–322B.C.2
Foroveratwenty-ive-yearperiodtheresearchusedinthischronologyhasbeencollected
frommanysources:theUnitedStatesDepartmentofEducation;internationalagencies;state
agencies;themedia;concernededucators;parents;legislators,andtalentedresearcherswith
whom I have worked. In the process of gathering this information two beliefs that most
Americansholdincommonbecameclear:
1)If a child can read, write and compute at a reasonably proicient level, he will be
abletodojustaboutanythinghewishes,enablinghimtocontrolhisdestinytothe
extentthatGodallows(remainfree);
2)Providingsuchbasiceducationalproicienciesisnotandshouldnotbeanexpensive
proposition.
Since most Americans believe the second premise—that providing basic educational
proicienciesisnotandshouldnotbeanexpensiveproposition—itbecomesobviousthatit
isonlyaradicalagenda,thepurposeofwhichistochangevaluesandattitudes(brainwash),
that is the costly agenda. In other words, brainwashing by our schools and universities is
whatisbankruptingournationandourchildren’sminds.
In 1997 there were 46.4 million public school students. During 1993–1994 (the latest
years the statistics were available) the average per pupil expenditure was $6,330.00 in
xiii
Preface
1996 constant dollars. Multiply the number of students by the per pupil expenditure
(using old-fashioned mathematical procedures) for a total K–12 budget per year of $293.7
billiondollars.Ifoneaddsthecostofhighereducationtothisigure,onearrivesatatotal
budgetperyearofoverhalfatrilliondollars.3Thesorryresultofsuchanincrediblylarge
expenditure—theperformanceofAmericanstudents—isdiscussedinPursuingExcellence—A
StudyofU.S.TwelfthGradeMathematicsandScienceAchievementinInternationalContext:
InitialFindingsfromtheThirdInternationalMathematicsandScienceStudy(TIMMS),areport
fromtheU.S.DepartmentofEducation(NCES98–049).PursuingExcellencereads:
AchievementofStudents,KeyPoints:U.S.twelfthgradersscoredbelowtheinternational
averageandamongthelowestofthe21TIMSSnationsinbothmathematicsandscience
generalknowledgeintheinalyearofsecondaryschool.(p.24)
Obviously,somethingisterriblywrongwhena$6,330perpupilexpenditureproduces
suchpatheticresults.Thiswriterhasvisitedprivateschoolswhichcharge$1,000peryear
intuitionwhichenjoysuperioracademicresults.Parentsofhome-schooledchildrenspenda
maximumof$1,000peryearandusuallyhavesimilarexcellentresults.
There are many talented and respected researchers and activists who have carefully
documentedthe“weird”activitieswhichhavetakenplace“inthenameofeducation.”Any
oppositiontochangeagentactivitiesinlocalschoolshasinvariablybeenmetwithcriesof
“Prove your case, document your statements,” etc. Documentation, when presented, has
been ignored and called incomplete. The classic response by the education establishment
has been, “You’re taking that out of context!”—even when presented with an entire book
whichusestheirownwordstodetailexactlywhatthe“resisters”areclaimingtobetrue.
“Resisters”—usuallyparents—havebeencalledeverynameinthebook.Parentshavebeen
toldforoverthirtyyears,“You’retheonlyparentwhohasevercomplained.”Themediahas
beenconvincedtojoinintheattackuponcommonsenseviews,effectivelydiscreditingthe
perspectiveofwell-informedcitizens.
Thedesireby“resisters”toprovetheircasehasbeensostrongthattheyhavecontinued
toamass—overathirty-toifty-yearperiod—whatmustsurelyamounttotonsofmaterials
containing irrefutable proof, in the education change agents’ own words, of deliberate,
malicious intent to achieve behavioral changes in students/parents/society which have
nothingtodowithcommonlyunderstoodeducationalobjectives.Upondeliveryofsuchproof,
“resisters” are consistently met with the “shoot the messenger” stonewalling response by
teachers,schoolboards,superintendents,stateandlocaloficials,aswellasthesupposedly
objectiveinstitutionsofacademiaandthepress.
Thisresister’sbook,orcollectionofresearchinbookform,wasputtogetherprimarily
tosatisfymyownneedtoseethevariouscomponentswhichledtothedumbingdownof
theUnitedStatesofAmericaassembledinchronologicalorder—inwriting.EvenI,whohad
observedtheseweirdactivitiestakingplaceatalllevelsofgovernment,wasreluctanttoaccept
amaliciousintentbehindeachindividual,chronologicalactivityorinnovation,unlessIcould
connectitwithother,similaractivitiestakingplaceatothertimes.Thisbook,whichmakes
suchconnections,hasprovidedformeamuch-neededsenseofclosure.
thedeliberatedumbingdownofamericaisalsoabookformychildren,grandchildren,
andgreat-grandchildren.IwantthemtoknowthattherewerethousandsofAmericanswho
maynothavediedorbeenshotatinoverseaswars,butwereshotatinsmall-town“wars”
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Preface
atschoolboardmeetings,atstatelegislativehearingsoneducation,and,mostimportantly,
inthemedia.Iwantmyprogenytoknowthatwhateverintellectualandspiritualfreedoms
towhichtheymaystilllayclaimwerefoughtfor—arearesultof—thecourageousworkof
incrediblepeoplewhodaredtotellthetruthagainstallodds.
Iwantthemtoknowthattherewillalwaysbehopeforfreedomiftheyfollowinthese
people’s footsteps; if they cherish the concept of “free will”; if they believe that human
beings are special, not animals, and that they have intellects, souls, and consciences. I
wantthemtoknowthatifthegovernmentschoolsareallowedtoteachchildrenK–12using
Pavlovian/Skinnerian animal training methods—which provide tangible rewards only for
correctanswers—therecanbenofreedom.
Why?People“trained”—noteducated—bysucheducationaltechniqueswillbefearfulof
takingprincipled,sometimescontroversial,standswhencalledforbecausethesepeoplewill
havebeenprogrammedtospeakuponlyifapositiverewardorresponseisforthcoming.The
priceoffreedomhasoftenbeenpaidwithpainandloneliness.
In 1971 when I returned to the United States after living abroad for 18 years, I was
shocked to ind public education had become a warm, fuzzy, soft, mushy, touchy-feely
experience,withitspurposebeingsocialization,notlearning.Fromthattimeon,fromthe
vantage point of having two young sons in the public schools, I became involved—as a
member of a philosophy committee for a school, as an elected school board member, as
co-founder of Guardians of Education for Maine (GEM), and inally as a senior policy
advisor in the Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI) of the U.S.
Department of Education during President Ronald Reagan’s irst term of ofice. OERI was,
and is, the ofice from which all the controversial national and international educational
restructuringhasemanated.
Those ten years (1971–1981) changed my life. As an American who had spent many
years working abroad, I had experienced traveling in and living in socialist countries.
WhenIreturnedtotheUnitedStatesIrealizedthatAmerica’stransitionfromasovereign
constitutional republic to a socialist democracy would not come about through warfare
(bullets and tanks) but through the implementation and installation of the “system” in
all areas of government—federal, state and local. The brainwashing for acceptance of the
“system’s” control would take place in the school—through indoctrination and the use of
behavior modiication, which comes under so many labels: the most recent labels being
Outcome-BasedEducation,SkinnerianMasteryLearningorDirectInstruction.4Inthe1970s
this writer and many others waged the war against values clariication, which was later
renamed “critical thinking,” which regardless of the label—and there are bound to be
many more labels on the horizon—is nothing but pure, unadulterated destruction of
absolutevaluesofrightandwronguponwhichstableandfreesocietiesdependandupon
whichournationwasfounded.
In 1973 I started the long journey into becoming a “resister,” placing the first
incriminatingpieceofpaperinmy“education”iles.Thatirstpieceofpaperwasapurple
dittosheetentitled“AllAboutMe,”nexttowhichwasasmileyface.Itwasanopen-ended
questionnaire beginning with: “My name is _____.” My son brought it home from public
schoolinfourthgrade.Thequestionswerehighlypersonal;somuchsothattheyencouraged
mysontolie,sincehedidn’twantto“spillthebeans”abouthismother,fatherandbrother.
Thepurposeofsuchaquestionnairewastoindoutthestudent’sstateofmind,howhefelt,
whathelikedanddisliked,andwhathisvalueswere.Withthisknowledgeitwouldbeeasier
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Preface
forthegovernmentschooltomodifyhisvaluesandbehavioratwill—without,ofcourse,the
student’sknowledgeorparents’consent.
Thatwasjustthebeginning.Therewasmoretocome:thenewsocialstudiestextbook
World of Mankind. Published by Follett, this book instructed the teacher how to instill
humanistic (no right/no wrong) values in the K–3 students. At the text’s suggestion the
teacherwasencouragedtotakelittletotsforwalksintownduringwhichhewouldpoint
outbigandsmallhouses,askingthelittletotswhotheythoughtlivedinthehouses:Poor
or Rich? “What do you think they eat in the big house? ...in the little house?” When I
complainedaboutthisnon-educationalactivityataschoolboardmeetingIwasdismissed
asacensorandthepressdiditsusualhatchetjobonmeasamisguidedparent.Afriendof
mine—averybrightgalwhohadalsolivedabroadforyears—toldmethatshehadoverheard
discussionofmeatthelocalco-op.ThewordwasoutintownthatIwasa“kook.”Thatwas
nota“positiveresponse/reward”formytakingwhatIbelievedtobeaprincipledposition.
SinceIhadnotbeen“trained,”Iwasjustmad!
Nextstopontheroadtobecominga“resister”wastobecomeamemberoftheschool
philosophycommittee.OurHarvard-educated,professionalchangeagentsuperintendentgave
allofthecommitteemembersacopyof“ThePhilosophyofEducation”(1975version)from
theMontgomeryCountyschoolsinMaryland,hopingtoinluencewhateverrecommendations
wewouldmake.(Forthosewholiketoeatdessertbeforesoup,readtheentryunder1946
concerningCommunity-CenteredSchools:TheBlueprintforEducationinMontgomeryCounty,
Maryland.Thisdocumentwasinfactthe“Blueprint”forthenation’sschools.)Whenasked
towriteapaperexpressingourviewsonthegoalsofeducation,Iwrotethat,amongstother
goals,Ifelttheschoolsshouldstrivetoinstill“soundmoralsandvaluesinthestudents.”
Thesuperintendentandafewteachersonthecommitteezeroedinonme,asking“What’s
thedeinitionof‘sound’andwhosevalues?”
After two failed attempts to get elected to the school board, I inally succeeded in
1976 on the third try. The votes were counted three times, even though I had won by
averyhealthymargin!
Myexperienceontheschoolboardtaughtmethatwhenitcomestomoderneducation,
“the end justiies the means.” Our change agent superintendent was more at home with
a lie than he was with the truth. Whatever good I accomplished while on the school
board—stoppingthePlanning,ProgrammingandBudgetingSystem(PPBS)nowknownas
TotalQualityManagement(TQM)orGenerallyAcceptedAccountingProcedures/Generally
Accepted Federal Funding Reporting (GAAP/GAFFR), getting values clariication banned
bytheboard,anddemandingive(yes,5!)minutesofgrammarperday,etc.—wastossed
outtwoweeksafterIleftofice.
Anothermilestoneonmyjourneywasanin-servicetrainingsessionentitled“Innovations
in Education.” A retired teacher, who understood what was happening in education, paid
for me to attend. This training program developed by Professor Ronald Havelock of the
UniversityofMichiganandfundedbytheUnitedStatesOficeofEducationtaughtteachers
and administrators how to “sneak in” controversial methods of teaching and “innovative”
programs. These controversial, “innovative” programs included health education, sex
education,drugandalcoholeducation,deatheducation,criticalthinkingeducation,etc.Since
thenIhavealwaysfounditinterestingthatthecontroversialschoolprogramsaretheonly
onesthathavetheword“education”attachedtothem!Idon’trecall—untilrecently—”math
ed.,”“readinged.,”“historyed.,”or“scienceed.”Agoodruleofthumbforteachers,parents
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Preface
andschoolboardmembersinterestedinacademicsandtraditionalvaluesistoquestionany
subjectthathastheword“education”attachedtoit.
Thisin-servicetrainingliterally“blewmymind.”Ihaveneverrecoveredfromit.The
presenter(changeagent)taughtushowto“manipulate”thetaxpayers/parentsintoaccepting
controversialprograms.Heexplainedhowtoidentifythe“resisters”inthecommunityand
how to get around their resistance. He instructed us in how to go to the highly respected
membersofthecommunity—thosewiththeChamberofCommerce,Rotary,JuniorLeague,
Little League, YMCA, Historical Society, etc.—to manipulate them into supporting the
controversial/non-academicprogramsandintobad-mouthingtheresisters.Advicewasalso
givenastohowtogetthemediatosupporttheseprograms.
I left this training—with my very valuable textbook, The Change Agent’s Guide to
InnovationsinEducation,undermyarm—feelingverysicktomystomachandincomplete
denial over that in which I had been involved. This was not the nation in which I grew
up; something seriously disturbing had happened between 1953 when I left the United
Statesand1971whenIreturned.
OrchestratedConsensus
In retrospect, I had just found out that the United States was engaged in war. People
write important books about war: books documenting the battles fought, the names of
the generals involved, the names of those who ired the irst shot. This book is simply a
historybookaboutanotherkindofwar:
• onefoughtusingpsychologicalmethods;
• aone-hundred-yearwar;
• adifferent,moredeadlywarthananyinwhichourcountryhaseverbeeninvolved;
• awaraboutwhichtheaverageAmericanhasn’tthefoggiestidea.
The reason Americans do not understand this war is because it has been fought in
secret—intheschoolsofournation,targetingourchildrenwhoarecaptiveinclassrooms.The
wagersofthiswarareusingverysophisticatedandeffectivetools:
• HegelianDialectic(commonground,consensusandcompromise)
• Gradualism(twostepsforward;onestepbackward)
• Semanticdeception(redeiningtermstogetagreementwithoutunderstanding).
The Hegelian Dialectic5 is a process formulated by the German philosopher Georg
Synthesis
(consensus)
ThesisAntithesis
xvii
Preface
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) and used by Karl Marx in codifying revolutionary
Communismasdialecticalmaterialism.Thisprocesscanbeillustratedas:
The“Thesis”representseitheranestablishedpracticeorpointofviewwhichispitted
against the “Antithesis”—usually a crisis of opposition fabricated or created by change
agents—causingthe“Thesis”tocompromiseitself,incorporatingsomepartofthe“Antithesis”
toproducethe“Synthesis”—sometimescalledconsensus.Thisistheprimarytoolinthebag
oftricksusedbychangeagentswhoaretrainedtodirectthisprocessalloverthecountry;
much like the in-service training I received. A good example of this concept was voiced
by T.H. Bell when he was U.S. Secretary of Education: “[We] need to create a crisis to
get consensus in order to bring about change.” (The reader might be reminded that it
was under T.H. Bell’s direction that the U.S. Department of Education implemented the
changes“suggested”byANationatRisk—thealarmthatwassoundedintheearly1980s
toannouncethe“crisis”ineducation.)
Since we have been, as a nation, so relentlessly exposed to this Hegelian dialectical
process (which is essential to the smooth operation of the “system”) under the guise
of “reaching consensus” in our involvement in parent-teacher organizations, on school
boards, in legislatures, and even in goal setting in community service organizations and
groups—including our churches—I want to explain clearly how it works in a practical
application.Agoodexamplewithwhichmostofuscanidentifyinvolvespropertytaxesfor
localschools.LetusconsideranexamplefromMichigan—
The internationalist change agents must abolish local control (the “Thesis”) in order
to restructure our schools from academics to global workforce training (the “Synthesis”).
Fundingofeducationwiththepropertytaxallowslocalcontrol,butitalsoenablesthechange
agents and teachers’ unions to create higher and higher school budgets paid for with
higher taxes, thus infuriating homeowners. Eventually, property owners accept the change
agents’ radical proposal (the “Anti- thesis”) to reduce their property taxes by transferring
education funding from the local property tax to the state income tax. Thus, the change
agents accomplish their ultimate goal; the transfer of funding of education from the local
level to the state level. When this transfer occurs it increases state/federal control and
funding,leadingtothefederal/internationalistgoalofimplementingglobalworkforcetraining
throughtheschools(the“Synthesis”).6
Regardingthepowerof“gradualism,”rememberthestoryofthefrogandhowhedidn’t
save himself because he didn’t realize what was happening to him? He was thrown into
cold water which, in turn, was gradually heated up until inally it reached the boiling
point and he was dead. This is how “gradualism” works through a series of “created
crises” which utilize Hegel’s dialectical process, leading us to more radical change than
wewouldeverotherwiseaccept.
Intheinstanceof“semanticdeception”—doyourememberyourkindlyprincipaltelling
you that the new decision-making program would help your child make better decisions?
Whatgoodparentwouldn’twanthisorherchildtolearnhowtomake“good”decisions?
Didyouknowthatthedecision-makingprogramisthesamecontroversialvaluesclariication
program recently rejected by your school board and against which you may have given
repeated testimony? As I’ve said before, the wagers of this intellectual social war have
employedveryeffectiveweaponstoimplementtheirchanges.
Thiswarhas,infact,becomethewartoendallwars.Ifcitizensonthisplanetcanbe
brainwashed or robotized, using dumbed-down Pavlovian/Skinnerian education, to accept
xviii
Preface
what those in control want, there will be no more wars. If there are no rights or wrongs,
there will be no one wanting to “right” a “wrong.” Robots have no conscience. The only
permissible conscience will be the United Nations or a global conscience. Whether an
action is good or bad will be decided by a “Global Government’s Global Conscience,” as
recommendedbyDr.BrockChisholm,executivesecretaryoftheWorldHealthOrganization,
InterimCommission,in1947—andlaterin1996bycurrentUnitedStatesSecretaryofState
MadelineAlbright.(Seequotesinentryunder1947.)
Youmayprotest,“But,noonehasdiedinthiswar.”Isthattheonlycriteriawehave
with which to measure whether war is war? Didn’t Aristotle say it well when he said,
“Educatedmenareasmuchsuperiortouneducatedmenasthelivingaretothedead”?To
withholdthetoolsofeducationcankillaperson’sspiritjustassurelyasabullethisbody.
ThetragedyisthatmanyAmericanshavediedinotherwarstoprotectthefreedomsbeing
taken away in this one. This war which produces the death of intellect and freedom is
not waged by a foreign enemy but by the silent enemy in the ivory towers, in our own
government,andintax-exemptfoundations—theenemywhoseeverymoveIhavetriedto
documentinthisbook,usuallyinhis/her/itsownwords.
Ronald Havelock’s change agent in-service training prepared me for what I would
indintheU.S.DepartmentofEducationwhenIworkedtherefrom1981–1982.Theuseof
taxpayers’hard-earnedmoneytofundHavelock’s“ChangeAgentManual”wasonlyoneout
ofhundredsofexpensiveU.S.DepartmentofEducationgrantseachyeargoingeverywhere,
evenoverseas,tofurtherthecauseofinternationalist“dumbingdown”education(behavior
modiication) so necessary for the present introduction of global workforce training. I
was relieved of my duties after leaking an important technology grant (computer-assisted
instructionproposal)tothepress.
Much of this book contains quotes from government documents detailing the real
purposesofAmericaneducation:
• to use the schools to change America from a free, individual nation to a socialist,
global “state,” just one of many socialist states which will be subservient to the
UnitedNationsCharter,nottheUnitedStatesConstitution
• to brainwash our children, starting at birth, to reject individualism in favor of
collectivism
• torejecthighacademicstandardsinfavorofOBE/ISO1400/90007egalitarianism
• torejecttruthandabsolutesinfavoroftolerance,situationalethicsandconsensus
• torejectAmericanvaluesinfavorofinternationalistvalues(globalism)
• torejectfreedomtochooseone’scareerinfavorofthetotalitarianK–12school-to-
work/OBE process, aptly named “limited learning for lifelong labor,”8 coordinated
throughUnitedNationsEducational,Scientiic,andCulturalOrganization.
Onlywhenallchildreninpublic,privateandhomeschoolsarerobotized—andbelieve
asone—willWorldGovernmentbeacceptabletocitizensandabletobeimplementedwithout
iring a shot. The attractive-sounding “choice” proposals will enable the globalist elite to
achieve their goal: the robotization (brainwashing) of all Americans in order to gain their
acceptance of lifelong education and workforce training—part of the world management
systemtoachieveanewglobalfeudalism.
xix
Preface
Thesocialist/fascistglobalworkforcetrainingagendaisbeingimplementedasIwrite
this book. The report to the European Commission entitled Transatlantic Co-operation in
International Education: Projects of the Handswerkskammer Koblenz with Partners in the
United States and in the European Union by Karl-Jurgen Wilbert and Bernard Eckgold
(May1997)saysinpart:
InJune,1994,withthesupportoftheHandswerkskamerKoblenz,anAmerican-German
vocational education conference took place... at the University of Texas at Austin. The
vocational education researchers and economic specialists... were in agreement that an
economicandemploymentpolicyisnecessarywhereasystematicvocationaltrainingisas
equallyimportantasanacademiceducation,asa“careerpathway.”...Theirstpractical
stepsalongtheselines,whicharealsosigniicantfromthepointofviewoftheeducational
policy, were made with the vocational training of American apprentices in skilled craft
companies,intheareaoftheKoblenzchamber.
Undersection“e)ScientiicAssistancefortheProjects,”onereads:
The international projects ought to be scientiically assisted and analyzed both for the
feedbacktothetransatlanticdialogueoneducationalpolicy,andalsofortheassessment
andqualitativeimprovementofthecross-bordervocationaleducationprojects.Asaresult
it should be made possible on the German side to set up a connection to other projects
of German-American cooperation in vocational training; e.g., of the federal institute for
vocationaltrainingfortheprojectintheU.S.stateofMaine.OntheUSAsideaninterlinking
withotherinitiativesforvocationaltraining—forexample,throughtheCenterfortheStudy
ofHumanResourcesattheUniversityofTexas,Austin—wouldbedesirable.
This particular document discusses the history of apprenticeships—especially the
role of medieval guilds—and attempts to make a case for nations which heretofore have
cherishedliberaleconomicideas—i.e.,individualeconomicfreedom—toreturntoasystem
ofcooperativeeconomicsolutions(theguildsystemusedintheMiddleAgeswhichaccepted
veryyoungchildrenfromfarmsandcitiesandtrainedthemin“necessary”skills).Another
word for this is “serfdom.” Had our elected oficials at the federal, state, and local levels
read this document, they could never have voted in favor of socialist/fascist legislation
implementingworkforcetrainingtomeettheneedsoftheglobaleconomy.Unless,ofcourse,
they happen to support such a totalitarian economic system. (This incredible document
wasaccessedatthefollowinginternetaddress:http://www.kwk-koblenz.de/ausland/trans-
uk.doc)
Just as Barbara Tuchman or another historian would do in writing the history of the
other kinds of wars, I have identiied chronologically the major battles, players, dates
andplaces.IknowthatresearchersandwriterswithfarmoretalentthanIwillfeelthatI
haveneglectedsomekeyeventsinthiswar.Istandguiltyonallcounts,evenbeforetheir
well-researched charges are submitted. Yes, much of importance has been left out, due to
spacelimitations,buttheoverviewofthebattleieldsandmaneuverswillgivethereaderan
opportunitytoglimpsetheimmensityofthisconlict.
In order to win a battle one must know who the “real” enemy is. Otherwise, one is
shootinginthedarkandoftenhittingthosenottheleastbitresponsibleforthemayhem.
Thisbook,hopefully,identiiesthe“real”enemyandprovidesAmericansinvolvedinthis
war—be they plain, ordinary citizens, elected oficials, or traditional teachers—with the
xx
Preface
ammunitiontoighttoobtainvictory.
Endnotes:
1NotedSovietdissident,slavelaborcampintern,andauthorofTheGulagArchipelagoandnumerousotherbooks.
2The Basic Works of Aristotle, Richard McKeon, Ed., from Familiar Quotations by John Bartlett, 14th ed. (Little, Brown
&Co.:Boston,Toronto,1968).
3Statistics taken from The Condition of Education, 1997, published by the National Center for Educational Statistics, U.S.
DepartmentofEducation(NCES97–388).Internetaddress:http://www.ed/gov/NCES.
4OBE/ML/DIoroutcomes-basededucation/masterylearning/directinstruction.
5DeanGotcher,authorofTheDialectic&Praxis:DiapraxandtheEndoftheAgesandothermaterialsdealingwithdialectical
consensusbuildingandhumanrelationstraining,hasdonesomeexcellentworkinthisareaofresearch.Formoredetailed
information on this process, please write to Dean Gotcher of the Institution for Authority Research, 5436 S. Boston Pl.,
Tulsa,Oklahoma74l05,orcall918–742–3855.
6SeeAppendixXXIIforanarticlebyTimClemwhichexplainsthisprocessinmuchmoredetail.
7ISO stands for International Standards of Operation for manufacturing (9000) and human resources (1400), coordinated
throughtheUnitedNationsEducational,SocialandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO).
8“PrivatizationorSocialization”byC.Weatherly,1994.DeliveredaspartofaspeechtoagroupinMinnesotaandlaterpub-
lishedinTheChristianConsciencemagazine(Vol.1,No.2:February1995,pp.29–30).
xxi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
InparticularIwanttothankahandfulofgovernmentoficialswhoprovidedmewith
importantdocuments.Theymustremainanonymousforobviousreasons.
IwouldalsoliketomentionseveralincrediblyineAmericanswhoareunfortunatelyno
longerwithus,whoprovidedmewiththepricelessresearchandnecessaryresourcestowrite
thisbook.Theyare:Jo-AnnAbrigg,RexfordDaniels,NormanDodd,RuthFeld,MaryLarkin,
JudgeRobertMorris,WalterCrockerPewandMaryRoyer.
Veryspecialthanksgotothefollowingeducationresearchersandwriterswithwhom
Ihaveworkedandwhohavecontributedtoandmadethisbookpossible(inalphabetical
order):MaryAdams,PollyAnglin,MarilynBoyer,ShirleyCorrell,PeggyandDennisCuddy,
Janet Egan, Melanie Fields, Ann Frazier, Betty Freauf, Jeannie Georges, Peggy Grimes,
RosalindHaley,KarenHayes,TraceyHayes,MaureenHeaton,MaryJoHeiland,AnnHerzer,
Anita Hoge, Betsy Kraus, Jacqueline and Malcolm Lawrence, Mina Legg, Bettye and Kirk
Lewis,JoanneLisac,JoanMasters,NancyMaze,JanelleMoon,OpalMoore,BarbaraMorris,
LuAnneRobson,PatriciaRoyall,ElisabethRussinoff,CrisShardelman,DebbieStevens,Rose
Stewart, Elisabeth Trotto, Georgiana Warner, Geri Wenta, and Jil Wilson. Thanks are also
extendedtotheirrespectivespouseswhomadetheircontributionspossible.
Obviously, the job of editing this book was monumental! Cynthia Weatherly, who is
oneofthenation’sinesteducationresearchersandtalentedwritersandwithwhomIhave
workedfortwentyyears,tookmyroughmanuscriptandturneditintoamammothhistorical
presentation. Her incredible work on this book represents a true labor of love for this
nation and for our children and grandchildren. I will forever be grateful to Cindi and her
husband,Neal,whoextendedagraciouswelcometomeeachtimeIdescendeduponthem,
includingafour-monthstaylastwinter!
In addition, my deepest thanks go to the Leslie family of Conscience Press—Sarah,
LynnandColin,andSarah’sparents,PaulandJeanHuling,eachofwhomcontributedin
xxiii
Acknowledgments
hisownvitalwaytothepublicationofthisbookinsuchaprofessionalmanner.Howthis
family published this book and managed at the same time to make three moves in and
out of different houses during this one-year period is beyond belief. There are no words
to express this writer’s gratitude for this one family’s contribution to the preservation
oflibertyforallAmericans.
Ofcourse,thebookwouldneverhaveseenthelightofdaywithouttheveryprofessional
jobdeliveredbyTimandJanetFieldsofTheAthensPrintingCompanyofAthens,Georgia.
Tim’sunbelievablepatiencewithinterminabledelayswasbeyondthecallofduty.
And last, but not least, thanks to the folks at the reference desk of the University
of Georgia Library, who cheerfully and professionally assisted the writer and editor
with critical documentation, and to Air Tran, whose extremely reasonable airfare from
Boston to Atlanta allowed Cindi and me to collaborate on the most important stages of
thisbook’sproduction.
Deepest apologies to whomever I have neglected to mention. You will ind a special
placeinHeaven.
xxiv
INTRODUCTION
Inthefallofl972asmallgroupofstudentsinanintroductiontoeducationalpsychology
classatamidwesternuniversitysavedeverysinglesoulinthelifeboat.
The professor became agitated. “No! Go back and do the exercise again. Follow
theinstructions.”
Thestudents,productsoftheradical1960sculture,expectedthistobeasmallgroup
assignment in creativity and ingenuity. They had worked out an intricate plan whereby
everyoneinthelifeboatcouldsurvive.Whentheprofessorpersisted,thestudentsresisted—and
ultimatelyrefusedtodotheexercise.Chalkupavictorytothehumanspirit.
However, it was a short-lived victory. This overloaded “lifeboat in crisis” represented
a dramatic shift in education. The exercise—in which students were compelled to choose
whichhumanswereexpendableand,therefore,shouldbecastoffintothewater—became
amainstayinclassroomsacrossthecountry.Creativesolutions?Notallowed.Instructions?
Strictly adhered to. In truth, there is to be only one correct answer to the lifeboat
drama:death.
Thenarrowing(dumbingdown)ofintellectualfreedomhadbegun.Lifeboatexercises
epitomizetheshiftineducationfromacademiceducation(1880–1960)tovalueseducation
(1960–1980).InthedeliberatedumbingdownofamericawriterCharlotteIserbytchronicles
thisshiftandthelatershifttoworkforcetraining“education”(1980–2000).Thecaseismade
thatthevalueseducationperiodwascriticaltothetransformationofeducation.Itsucceeded
inpersuading(brainwashing?duping?)Americansintoacceptingthebeliefthatvalueswere
transient, lexible and situational—subject to the evolution of human society. Brave new
values were integrated into curricula and instruction. The mind of the average American
became“trained”(conditioned)toaccepttheideathateducationexistssolelyforthepurpose
ofgettingagoodpayingjobintheglobalworkforceeconomy.
xxv
Introduction
“Human capital,” a term coined by reformers to describe our children, implies that
humansareexpendable.Thisexplainswhythelifeboatexercisehasbeenusedsorampantly,
and why it was so critical to the education reformers’ plans. Is it any wonder, then, that
we witnessed the horror of the Littleton, Colorado shootings, and that other violence
in schools across the country is increasing? Death education in the classroom may be
linked to deaths in the classroom. The dumbing down of a nation inevitably leads to
thedeathofaculture.
The premise of Charlotte Iserbyt’s chronological history of the “deliberate dumbing
down”ofAmericaisborneoutbytheauthor’sextensivedocumentation,gatheredfromthe
educationcommunity’sownsources.Iserbytisolatesthepublicpolicyendofeducationand
stickswithitfromdecadetodecade,steadfastlydocumentingthecontroversialmethodology
that has been institutionalized into legislation, public documents and other important
papers setting forth public agenda. By choosing to focus on public policy in the context
of academic theory, Iserbyt ills an important void in anti-reform literature. Her most
important contribution is demonstrating how theory influenced public policy, public
policyinluencedtheory,andhowthisultimatelyaffectedpractice—howpolicyandtheory
playedoutintheclassroom.
Iserbytskillfullydemonstratestheinterconnectionsbetweentheinternational,national,
regional, state and local plans for the transformation of American society via education.
Iserbyt connects the evolution of education in the twentieth century to major signiicant
geopolitical, social and economic events which have inluenced education policy. This
attentiontodetailaddsimportantcontexttotheeventschronicledinthebook,adimension
notfoundinotherbookscritiquingeducationreform.
FortoomanyyearsthelateHarvardpsychologistB.F.Skinnerhasbeenvirtuallyignored
by conservative leaders, who focused their criticism exclusively on pervasive cultural
inluencesofthehumanisticpsychologists(Rogers,Maslow,etal.).Skinnerwaswrittenoff
asautopianpsychologistwhorepresentednothreat.Iserbyt’spremise,provenwell,isthat
B.F. Skinner is comfortably alive and well—embedded within modern education methods.
Direct Instruction, Mastery Learning and Outcome-Based Education are irrefutably the
current incarnation of Skinner’s 1960s Programmed Instruction—a method of instruction
which linked children to the computer and turned learning into a low chart of managed
behaviors.
Interwoven throughout the book is the important theme of operant conditioning in
education. Surprisingly, Iserbyt never debates the effectiveness of the method. Entry after
entry in the book substantiates Iserbyt’s premise that the method is purposefully used to
create a robotic child—one who cannot make connections, repeat an act, nor recall a
fact unless provided with the necessary stimuli and environment (like a dog who learns
to sit after the immediate receipt of a dog biscuit). Iserbyt reaches the inescapable
conclusionthatthemethodperfectlycomplementsthereformers’agendaforadumbed-down
globalworkforce.
Iserbytsoeffectivelynailsdownhercasethatthedebatenoticeablyshiftstotheethics
of implementing such a method on children. The late Christian apologist and theologian,
Dr.FrancisSchaeffer,whendiscussingtheevilsofB.F.SkinnerinhislittlebookletBackto
Freedom and Dignity (1972), warned: “Within the Skinnerian system there are no ethical
controls;thereisnoboundarylimittowhatcanbedonebytheeliteinwhosehandscontrol
resides.”ThereisintriguingevidenceinIserbyt’sbookthatthe“democratic”societyofthe
xxvi
Introduction
nearfuturewillbemanagedviasystematizedoperantconditioning—astartlingproposition
withramiicationswhichreachfarbeyondthescopeofsimpleeducationreform.
Inevitably,questionsandcontroversywillariseafterpublicationofthisbook.Howmany
popularcomputergames,programs,andcurriculaforchildrenareheavilydependentupon
thismethod—amethodwhichrequiresimmediaterewards?Towhatextenthavehomeschool
andChristianschoolleaders,authors,andcurriculumcompaniesendorsedandutilizedthis
method?Howmanychildrearing(training)programs,workbooksandseminarsarebased
upontheseSkinnerianmethods?Afterreadingthisbookparentswillnolongerbedupedinto
acceptingbehavioristmethods—inwhateverguise,orbywhatevernametheycome.
Publicationofthedeliberatedumbingdownofamericaiscertaintoaddfueltotheire
inthisnation’sphonicswars.Eversincepublicationofherirstwork(BacktoBasicsReform
orOBESkinnerianInternationalCurriculum,1985),Iserbythasbeentrumpetingthefactthat
the Skinnerian method applied in the Exemplary Center for Reading Instruction (ECRI) is
theverysamemethodappliedinSiegfriedEngelmann’sDISTAR(DirectInstructionSystem
forTeachingandRemediation,nowknownasReadingMastery).Inherlatestwork,Iserbyt
provides exhaustive documentation that Direct Instruction (a.k.a. systematic, intensive
phonics)—whichisbeinginstitutionalizednationallyundertheguiseof“traditional”phonics
thanks to the passage of The Reading Excellence Act of 1998—relies on the Skinnerian
methodtoteachreading.
Charlotte Iserbyt is the consummate whistle-blower. The writer describes her own
personal experiences as a school board director and as senior policy advisor in the U.S.
Department of Education’s Ofice of Educational Research and Improvement—from which
emanatedmostofthedumbingdownprogramsdescribedinthisbook.Therearenosacred
cows in Iserbyt’s reporting of the chronological history of education reform. With little
fanfare,theagendasandmethodsofkeyreformleaders(conservativeandliberal)areallowed
tounmaskthemselvesintheirownwordsandbytheirownactions.Ofparticularinterest
isIserbyt’smaterialontheissueofschool“choice”—abundantevidencefrombothsidesof
thepoliticalspectrum.Thereaderwilllearnthatprivate,Christianandhomeschoolsareall
neatlytiedintothereformwebviacomputertechnology,databanking,assessmenttesting
and, ultimately, the intention to use rewards and penalties to enforce compliance to the
“transformed”systemofeducationinthiscountry.
Thecarefulresearcherwillappreciatethefactthatthebookisheavilydocumentedbut
user-friendly. Citations are designed for the average reader, not just the academician. The
chronological format of the book allows one to read forward or backward in time, or one
entryatatime,accordingtopersonalpreference.Theaccompanyingappendicesprovidea
source of in-depth topical material, which frees up the chronological text from becoming
boggeddownindetails.Theindexandglossaryaresuchvaluableresearchtoolsthatthey
areworththepriceofthebook.
Iserbytdoesverylittlehand-holdingthroughoutthebook.Commentaryissparse;readers
can make their own connections and insert their own personal experiences. Iserbyt has
strategicallylaiddownkeypiecestoagiantjigsawpuzzle.Theoverallpictureispurposefully
arranged to portray one point of view. However, readers will be hard-pressed to come up
with an alternative view. Just when it seems that one piece of the puzzle is an isolated,
insigniicant event, suddenly one comes across a stunning new entry that puts the pieces
tightlytogethertoformavividpictureoftheoverallplan.Tryasonemight,thereadercannot
escapetheconsistent,deliberate,100-yearplantodumbdownthepopulace.
xxvii
Introduction
Amidst all of the policy documents and historical data in the book, one can easily
identifytheheartofthewriter.Iserbytgentlyremindsthereaderthattherealissueathand
is the child. It is America’s children who are experiencing the full brunt of the new
methods, new curricula and new agendas in the classroom. Many readers will experience
the “light bulb” turning on as they fully come to understand how the innovations which
have occurred in education during the last century affected their parents, themselves,
theirchildrenandgrandchildren.
Teachers may ind the contents of this book particularly enlightening and refreshing.
Iserbyt takes the reader behind the scenes to reveal the true nature of many popular
classroomcurricula.Thetruthwillbecomfortingtothosewhohaveutilizedcertainprograms
or methods, and perhaps were troubled by them, but didn’t know the full scope or plan
behind them. Iserbyt does not ignore or soft-peddle the ethical issues, but encourages the
readertotakethehighmoralground.
TheotherdayacallerphonedintoRushLimbaugh’sdailyradiotalkshow.Thecaller’s
wifeearns$25,000peryearasateacher.Shehas30students.Herschooldistrictreceives$9,000
peryearperstudent.Thistotals$270,000peryear.“Whyisn’tmywifebeingpaidmore?”he
asked.Thecaller—andpeoplelikehim—shouldbereferredtothedeliberatedumbingdownof
america.Inthisbooktheywillindthescandalousanswer.Ithassomethingtodowithwhy
wehaveagenerationof—asLimbaughdescribesit—”youngskullsfullofmush.”
SARAHLESLIE
xxviii
Thehumanbrainshouldbeusedforprocessing,notstorage.
—ThomasA.Kelly,Ph.D.
TheEffectiveSchoolReport
1
THESOWINGOFTHESEEDS:
lateeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies
“TheSowingoftheSeeds:lateeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies”istheshort-
estchapterofthedeliberatedumbingdownofamerica.Undoubtedly,thischaptermaybeoneofthe
mostimportantsincethephilosophiesofJean-JacquesRousseau,WilhelmWundt,andJohnDeweyet
al.,relectatotaldeparturefromthetraditionaldeinitionofeducationliketheonegiveninTheNew
CenturyDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage(Appleton,Century,Crofts:NewYork,1927):
Thedrawingoutofaperson’sinnatetalentsandabilitiesbyimpartingtheknowledgeof
languages,scientiicreasoning,history,literature,rhetoric,etc.—thechannelsthroughwhich
thoseabilitieswouldlourishandserve.1
Aquantumleapwastakenfromtheabovedeinitiontothenew,dehumanizingdeinitionusedby
theexperimentalpsychologistsfoundinAnOutlineofEducationalPsychology(Barnes&Noble:New
York,1934,rev.ed.)byRudolphPintneretal.Thattrulyrevolutionarydeinitionclaimsthat
learning is the result of modiiability in the paths of neural conduction. Explanations of
evensuchformsoflearningasabstractionandgeneralizationdemandoftheneuronesonly
growth,excitability,conductivity,andmodiiability.Themindistheconnection-systemof
man;andlearningistheprocessofconnecting.Thesituation-responseformulaisadequate
tocoverlearningofanysort,andthereallyinluentialfactorsinlearningarereadinessof
theneurones,sequenceintime,belongingness,andsatisfyingconsequences.2
Anin-depthunderstandingofthedeplorablesituationfoundinournation’sschoolstodayis
impossiblewithoutanunderstandingoftheredeinitionintheabovestatements.Educationinthe
1
2
twenty-irstcenturywill,forthemajorityofyouth,beworkforcetraining.Thus,theneedforPavlovian/
Skinnerianmethodologybasedonoperantconditioningwhich,inessence,isattheheartoftheabove
dehumanizingdeinitionofeducation.This“sowingoftheseeds”throughredeinitionwillreapthe
deathoftraditional,liberalartseducationthroughtheadventofmasterylearning,outcome-based
education,anddirectinstruction—allofwhichwillbeperformance-basedandbehaviorist.
1762
EMILE BYJEAN-JACQUESROUSSEAU(CHEZJEANNEAULMEDUCHESNE:A.AMSTERDAM[Paris],
1762)waspublished.Rousseau’s“SocialContract”presentedinEmileinluencedtheFrench
Revolution.InthisbookRousseaupromotedchild-centered“permissiveeducation”inwhich
ateacher“shouldavoidstrictdisciplineandtiresomelessons.”BothRousseau(1712–1788)
andSwisseducatorJohannHeinrichPestalozzi(1746–1827)believedthatthe“wholechild”
shouldbeeducatedby“doing,”andthatreligionshouldnotbeaguidingprincipleinedu-
cation,athemeweshallseerepeatedoverthenext238years.
1832
WILHELMWUNDT,FOUNDEROFEXPERIMENTALPSYCHOLOGYANDTHEFORCEBEHINDITSdissemi-
nationthroughouttheWesternworld,wasbornin1832inNeckarau,southernGermany.The
followingexcerptsconcerningWundt’scontributiontomoderneducationaretakenfromThe
LeipzigConnection:TheSystematicDestructionofAmericanEducationbyPaoloLionniand
LanceJ.Klass3(HeronBooks:Portland,Ore.,1980):
To Wundt, a thing made sense and was worth pursuing if it could be measured,
quantiied,andscientiicallydemonstrated.Seeingnowaytodothiswiththehumansoul,
heproposedthatpsychologyconcernitselfsolelywithexperience.AsWundtputit...Karl
MarxinjectedHegel’stheorieswitheconomicsandsociology,developinga“philosophyof
dialecticalmaterialism.”…(p.8)
FromWundt’sworkitwasonlyashortsteptothelaterredeinitionofeducation.Origi-
nally,educationmeantdrawingoutofaperson’sinnatetalentsandabilitiesbyimpartingthe
knowledgeoflanguages,scientiicreasoning,history,literature,rhetoric,etc.—thechannels
throughwhichthoseabilitieswouldlourishandserve.Totheexperimentalpsychologist,
however,educationbecametheprocessofexposingthestudentto“meaningful”experiences
soastoensuredesiredreactions:
[L]earningistheresultofmodiiabilityinthepathsofneuralconduction.Explanationsof
evensuchformsoflearningasabstractionandgeneralizationdemandoftheneuronesonly
growth,excitability,conductivity,andmodiiability.Themindistheconnection-systemof
man;andlearningistheprocessofconnecting.Thesituation-responseformulaisadequate
tocoverlearningofanysort,andthereallyinluentialfactorsinlearningarereadinessof
theneurones,sequenceintime,belongingness,andsatisfyingconsequences.4
Ifoneassumes(asdidWundt)thatthereisnothingtheretobeginwithbutabody,a
brain,anervoussystem,thenonemusttrytoeducatebyinducingsensationsinthatner-
TheSowingoftheSeeds:c.1862 3
voussystem.Throughtheseexperiences,theindividualwilllearntorespondtoanygiven
stimulus, with the “correct” response. The child is not, for example, thought capable of
volitionalcontroloverhisactions,orofdecidingwhetherhewillactornotactinacertain
way;hisactionsarethoughttobepreconditionedandbeyondhiscontrol,heisastimulus-
responsemechanism.Accordingtothisthinking,heishisreactions.Wundt’sthesislaid
thephilosophicalbasisfortheprinciplesofconditioninglaterdevelopedbyPavlov(who
studiedphysiologyinLeipzigin1884,iveyearsafterWundthadinauguratedhislaboratory
there)andAmericanbehavioralpsychologistssuchasWatsonandSkinner;forlaboratories
andelectroconvulsivetherapy;forschoolsorientedmoretowardsocializationofthechild
thantowardthedevelopmentofintellect;andfortheemergenceofasocietymoreandmore
blatantlydevotedtothegratiicationofsensorydesireattheexpenseofresponsibilityand
achievement.(pp.14–15)
[Ed.Note:ThereadershouldpurchaseTheLeipzigConnection:TheSystematicDestructionof
AmericanEducation,aslimpaperbackbookwhich,inthiswriter’sopinion,isthemostuse-
fulandimportantbookavailableregardingthemethodusedtochangechildren’sbehavior/
valuesandto“dumbdown”anentiresociety.Theauthors,LionniandKlass,havemadean
outstandingcontributiontothehistoryofAmericaneducationandtotheunderstandingof
whyandhowAmerica,whichupuntilthe1930shadtheinesteducationsystemintheworld,
endedupwithoneoftheworsteducationsystemsintheindustrializedworldinashortperiod
ofiftyyears.
AnothercommentaryontheimportanceofWundt’stheoriescomesfromDennisL.Cuddy,
Ph.D.,inanexcellentarticleentitled“TheConditioningofAmerica”(TheChristianNews,
NewHaven,Mo.,December11,1989).5Anexcerptfollows:
TheconditioningofmodernAmericansocietybeganwithJohnDewey,apsychologist,aFabian
Socialistandthe“FatherofProgressiveEducation.”Deweyusedthepsychologydeveloped
inLeipzigbyWilhelmWundt,andbelievedthatthroughastimulus-responseapproach(like
Pavlov)studentscouldbeconditionedforanewsocialorder.]
1862
THEFIRSTEXPERIMENTWITH“OUTCOME-BASEDEDUCATION”(OBE)WASCONDUCTEDINEngland
in1862.Teacheroppositionresultedinabandonmentoftheexperiment.DonMartinofUni-
versity of Pittsburgh, George E. Overholt and Wayne J. Urban of Georgia State University
wroteAccountabilityinAmericanEducation:ACritique(PrincetonBookCompany:Princeton,
N.J.,1976)containingasectionentitled“PaymentforResults”whichchroniclestheEnglish
experiment.Thefollowingexcerptoutlinestheexperiment:
Thecallfor“soundandcheap”elementaryinstructionwasansweredbylegislation,passedby
Parliamentduring1862,knownasTheRevisedCode.Thiswasthelegislationthatproduced
payment[for]results,thenineteenthcenturyEnglishaccountabilitysystem....Theopposition
totheEnglishpayment-[for]-resultssystemwhicharoseatthetimeofitsintroductionwas
particularlyinteresting.Teachersprovidedthebulkoftheresistance,andtheybasedtheir
objectionsonbotheducationalandeconomicgrounds....Theyabhorredthenarrownessand
mechanicalcharacterthesystemimposedontheeducationalprocess.Theyalsoobjectedto
theeconomicburdenforceduponthembybasingtheirpayonstudentperformance.
4
[Ed. Note: “Payment for Results” and Outcome-Based Education are based on teacher ac-
countabilityandrequireteachingtothetest,theresultsofwhicharetobe“measured”for
accountabilitypurposes.Bothmethodsofteachingresultinanarrow,mechanisticsystemof
educationsimilartoMasteryLearning.TeachersintheUnitedStatesin1999,aswereteach-
ersinvolvedintheexperimentinEngland,willbejudgedandpaidaccordingtostudents’
test scores; i.e., how well the teachers teach to the test. Proponents of Mastery Learning
believethatalmostallchildrencanlearnifgivenenoughtime,adequateresourcesgearedto
theindividuallearningstyleofthestudent,andacurriculumalignedtotestitems(teachto
thetest).MasteryLearningusesSkinnerianmethodology(operantconditioning)inorderto
obtain“predictable”results.BenjaminBloom,thefatherofMasteryLearning,saysthat“the
purposeofeducationistochangethethoughts,actionsandfeelingsofstudents.”Mastery
Learning(ML)anditsfraternaltwinDirectInstruction(DI)arekeycomponentsofOutcome-
BasedEducation(OBE)andEffectiveSchoolsResearch(ESR).Thereaderisurgedtostudythe
deinitionsofalltheseterms,includingthebehavioristtermsectionfoundintheglosssaryof
thisbookpriortoreadingfurther.Theonecommonthreadrunningthroughthisbookrelates
tothesetermsandtheirimportanceintheimplementationofworkforcetrainingandattitude
andvaluechange.]
1874
EDWARDLEETHORNDIKEWASBORNAUGUST31,1874INWILLIAMSBURG,MASSACHUsetts.Thorn-
dikewastrainedinthenewpsychologybytheirstgenerationofWilhelmWundt’sprotegés.
HegraduatedfromWesleyanUniversityin1895afterhavingstudiedwithWundtiansAndrew
C.ArmstrongandCharlesJudd.HewenttograduateschoolatHarvardandstudiedunder
psychologistWilliamJames.WhileatHarvard,ThorndikesurprisedJamesbydoingresearch
withchickens,testingtheirbehavior,andpioneeringwhatlaterbecameknownas“animal
psychology.”AsbrielystatedbyThorndikehimself,psychologywasthe“scienceofthein-
tellect,character,andbehaviorofanimals,includingman.”6TofurtherexcerptTheLeipzig
Connection’sexcellenttreatmentofThorndike’sbackground:
ThorndikeappliedforafellowshipatColumbia,wasacceptedbyCattell,andmovedwithhis
twomostintelligentchickenstoNewYork,wherehecontinuedhisresearchandearnedhis
Ph.D.in1893.Thorndike’sspecialtywasthe“puzzlebox,”intowhichhewouldputvarious
animals(chickens,rats,cats)andletthemindtheirwayoutbythemselves.Hisdoctoral
dissertationoncatshasbecomepartoftheclassicalliteratureofpsychology.Afterreceiv-
inghisdoctorate,hespentayearasateacheratWesternReserveUniversity,anditwasn’t
longbeforeCattelladvisedDean[JamesEarl]RusselltovisitThorndike’sirstclassroomat
WesternReserve:“AlthoughtheDeanfoundhim‘dealingwiththeinvestigationsofmiceand
monkeys,’hecameawaysatisiedthathewasworthtryingoutonhumans.”
RussellofferedThorndikeajobatTeachersCollege,wheretheexperimenterremained
forthenextthirtyyears.Thorndikewastheirstpsychologisttostudyanimalbehaviorin
anexperimentalpsychologylaboratoryand(followingCattell’ssuggestion)applythesame
techniquestochildrenandyouth;asoneresult,in1903,hepublishedthebookEducational
Psychology.Inthefollowingyearshepublishedatotalof507books,monographs,andar-
ticles.
Thorndike’sprimaryassumptionwasthesameasWundt’s:thatmanisananimal,
thathisactionsareactuallyalwaysreactions,andthathecanbestudiedinthelaboratory
TheSowingoftheSeeds:c.1896 5
inmuchthesamewayasananimalmightbestudied.Thorndikeequatedchildrenwiththe
rats,monkeys,ish,cats,andchickensuponwhichheexperimentedinhislaboratoryandwas
preparedtoapplywhathefoundtheretolearningintheclassroom.Heextrapolated“laws”
fromhisresearchintoanimalbehaviorwhichhethenappliedtothetrainingofteachers,who
tookwhattheyhadlearnedtoeverycorneroftheUnitedStatesandrantheirclassrooms,
curricula,andschools,onthebasisofthisnew“educational”psychology.
InThePrinciplesofTeachingBasedonPsychology(1906),Thorndikeproposedmaking
“thestudyofteachingscientiicandpractical.”Thorndike’sdeinitionoftheartofteaching
is
theartofgivingandwithholdingstimuliwiththeresultofproducingorpreventingcertain
responses.Inthisdeinitionthetermstimulusisusedwidelyforanyeventwhichinluences
aperson—forawordspokentohim,alook,asentencewhichhereads,theairhebreathes,
etc.,etc.Thetermresponseisusedforanyreactionmadebyhim—anewthought,afeel-
ingofinterest,abodilyact,anymentalorbodilyconditionresultingfromthestimulus.
Theaimoftheteacheristoproducedesirableandpreventundesirablechangesinhuman
beingsbyproducingandpreventingcertainresponses.Themeansatthedisposalofthe
teacherarethestimuliwhichcanbebroughttobearuponthepupil—theteacher’swords,
gestures,andappearance,theconditionandappliancesoftheschoolroom,thebooks
tobeusedandobjectstobeseen,andsoonthroughalonglistofthethingsandevents
whichtheteachercancontrol.
1896
PSYCHOLOGYBYJOHNDEWEY,THEFATHEROF“PROGRESSIVEEDUCATION,”WASPUBLISHED(Uni-
versityofChicagoPress:Chicago,1896).ThiswastheirstAmericantextbookonthe“revised”
subjectofeducation.Psychologywouldbecomethemostwidely-readandquotedtextbook
usedinschoolsofeducationinthiscountry.Justpriortothepublicationofhislandmarkbook,
DeweyhadjoinedthefacultyoftheRockefeller-endowedUniversityofChicagoasheadofthe
combineddepartmentsofphilosophy,psychologyandpedagogy(teaching).Inthatsameyear,
1895,theuniversityallocated$1,000toestablishalaboratoryinwhichDeweycouldapply
psychologicalprinciplesandexperimentaltechniquestothestudyoflearning.Thelaboratory
openedinJanuary1896astheDeweySchool,latertobecomeknownasTheUniversityof
ChicagoLaboratorySchool.7Deweythoughtoftheschoolasaplace
wherehistheoriesofeducationcouldbeputintopractice,tested,andscientiicallyeval-
uated….
…Dewey…soughttoapplythedoctrinesofexperienceandexperimenttoeverydaylife
and,hence,toeducation...seekingviathismodelinstitutiontopavethewayforthe“schools
ofthefuture.”Therehehadputintoactualpracticethreeoftherevolutionarybeliefshehad
culledfromthenewpsychology:thattoputthechildinpossessionofhisfullesttalents,
educationshouldbeactiveratherthanpassive;thattopreparethechildforademocratic
society,theschoolshouldbesocialratherthanindividualist;andthattoenablethechildto
thinkcreatively,experimentationratherthanimitationshouldbeencouraged.8
SamuelBlumenfeldinhisbook,TheWholeLanguage/OBEFraud(ParadigmCo.:Boise,
Idaho,1996),furtherexplainsDewey’sperspective:
6
Whatkindofcurriculumwouldittheschoolthatwasamini-cooperativesociety?Dewey’s
recommendationwasindeedradical:buildthecurriculumnotaroundacademicsubjectsbut
aroundoccupationalactivitieswhichprovidedmaximumopportunitiesforpeerinteraction
andsocialization.SincethebeginningofWesterncivilization,theschoolcurriculumwascen-
teredaroundthedevelopmentofacademicskills,theintellectualfaculties,andhighliteracy.
Deweywantedtochangeallofthat.Why?Becausehighliteracyproducedthatabominable
formofindependentintelligencewhichwasbasically,asDeweybelieved,anti-social.
Thus,fromDewey’spointofview,theschool’sprimarycommitmenttoliteracywas
indeedthekeytothewholeproblem.In1898,Deweywroteanessay,“ThePrimary-Edu-
cationFetish,”inwhichheexplainedexactlywhathemeant:
Thereis...afalseeducationgodwhoseidolatorsarelegion,andwhosecultinluencesthe
entireeducationalsystem.Thisislanguagestudy—thestudynotofforeignlanguage,butof
English;notinhigher,butinprimaryeducation.Itisalmostanunquestionedassumption,
ofeducationaltheoryandpracticeboth,thattheirstthreeyearsofachild’sschoollife
shallbemainlytakenupwithlearningtoreadandwritehisownlanguage.Ifweaddto
thisthelearningofacertainamountofnumericalcombinations,wehavethepivotabout
whichprimaryeducationswings....Itdoesnotfollow,however,thatconditions—social,
industrialandintellectual—haveundergonesucharadicalchange,thatthetimehascome
forathoroughgoingexaminationoftheemphasisputuponlinguisticworkinelementary
instruction....Thepleaforthepredominanceoflearningtoreadinearlyschoollifebecause
ofthegreatimportanceattachingtoliteratureseemstomeaperversion.
Endnotes:
1PaoloLionniandLanceJ.Klass.TheLeipzigConnection:TheSystematicDestructionofAmericanEducation(HeronBooks:
Portland,Ore.,1980).
2Ibid.
3TheLeipzigConnectionmaybeobtainedbysendingacheckfor$11.45to:HeronBooks,P.O.Box503,Sheridan,OR,orby
calling1–503–843–3834.
4RudolphPintneretal.AnOutlineofEducationalPsychology,Revised(Barnes&Noble:NewYork,1934),p.79.
5Dr.Cuddy’simportantpublicationsonthehistoryofAmericaneducation,fromwhichthiswriterhasfrequentlyquoted,canbe
obtainedbywriting:FloridaProFamilyForum,Inc.,P.O.Box1059,HighlandCity,FL33846–1059;orbycalling1–914–644–6218.
Cuddy’snewlyrevisededitionofChronologyofEducationwithQuotableQuotesandSecretRecordsRevealed:TheMen,the
MoneyandtheMethodsBehindtheNewWorldOrdershouldbeinthelibraryofeveryseriouseducationresearcher.
6TheLeipzigConnection,pp.36–39.
7Ibid.
8ThesequotestakenfromIdaB.DePencier’sbook,TheHistoryoftheLaboratorySchools:TheUniversityofChicago,1896–1965
(QuadrangleBooks:Chicago,1967)andAHistoryofTeachersCollege:ColumbiaUniversitybyLawrenceA.Cremin,DavidA.
Shannon,andMaryEvelynTownsend(ColumbiaUniversityPress:NewYork,1934),ascitedinTheLeipzigConnection.
2
THETURNINGOFTHETIDES*:
earlytwentiethcentury
Foranationthathadbeenabletopointwithpridetoextraordinaryadvancesinall
areasofendeavorcarriedoutbyindividuals,withnoassistancewhatsoeverfromthegovernment,
theearlyyearsofthetwentiethcenturysurelyrelecteda“TurningoftheTides.”Analiencollectivist
(socialist) philosophy, much of which came from Europe, crashed onto the shores of our nation,
bringing with it radical changes in economics, politics, and education, funded—surprisingly
enough—byseveralwealthyAmericanfamiliesandtheirtax-exemptfoundations.
Thegoalofthesewealthyfamiliesandtheirfoundations—aseamlessnon-competitiveglobal
system for commerce and trade—when stripped of lowery expressions of concern for minorities,
the less fortunate, etc., represented the initial stage of what this author now refers to as the
deliberatedumbingdownofamerica.
Seventyyearslater,thecarefullylaidplanstochangeAmericafromasovereign,constitutional
republicwithafreeenterpriseeconomicbasetojustoneofmanynationsinaninternationalsocialist
(collectivist) system (New World Order) are apparent. Only a dumbed down population, with no
memory of America’s roots as a prideful nation, could be expected to willingly succumb to the
global workforce training planned by the Carnegie Corporation and the John D. Rockefellers, I
and II, in the early twentieth century which is being implemented by the United States Congress
intheyear1999.
*“TheTurningoftheTides”isthetitleofareportsubmittedtoCongressbyHon.PaulW.Shafer(Mich.)andJohnHowland
Snow.TheoriginaltextwasdeliveredintheHouseofRepresentativesonMarch21,1952.
7
8
1902
THEGENERALEDUCATIONBOARD(GEB) WAS INCORPORATED BY AN ACT OF THEUNITEDStates
Congress.ApprovedJanuary12,1902,theGeneralEducationBoardwasendowedbyMr.John
D.Rockefeller,Sr.,forthepurposeofestablishinganeducationallaboratorytoexperiment
withearlyinnovationsineducation.
1905
IN 1905 THE INTERCOLLEGIATE SOCIALIST SOCIETY (ISS) WAS FOUNDED IN NEW YORK CITY
by Upton Sinclair, Jack London, Clarence Darrow and others. Its permanent headquarters
wereestablishedattheRandSchoolofSocialStudiesin1908andISSbecametheLeague
for Industrial Democracy (LID) in 1921. John Dewey became president of the League for
IndustrialDemocracyin1939.
THE CARNEGIE FOUNDATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF TEACHING WAS FOUNDED IN 1905.
Henry S. Pritchett served as the Foundation’s irst president. Pritchett was the author of
WhatIsReligionandOtherStudentQuestions(HoughtonMiflinCompany:Boston,1906),
Relations of Denominations to Colleges (1908), and A Woman’s Opportunities in Christian
IndustryandBusiness(1907).
1906
NATIONALEDUCATIONASSOCIATION(NEA) BECAME A FEDERALLY CHARTERED ASSOCIATIONfor
teachersin1906undertheauthorityofH.R.10501.Originallyfoundedin1857,itwasknown
astheNationalTeachersAssociationuntil1870.
1908
IN1908ITALIANEDUCATOR,THELATEMARIAMONTESSORI(1870–1952),DEVELOPEDAmethod
of teaching—relying on guidance and training of senses rather than more rigid control of
children’s activities—which would be very inluential throughout the rest of the century.
Montessoriwasadoctorwho,aftergraduatingfrommedicalschoolinRome,tookaposition
atapsychiatricclinicandbecameinterestedinhelpingretardedchildren.Herpedagogical
mentor became Edouard Seguin, a French physician who worked with retarded children
and who promoted the idea that having the children work with concrete objects helped
theirphysicalandmentaldevelopment.
MontessoriopenedherirstCasadeiBambini(Montessorischool)inRomein1907.She
createdaclassroomclimateinwhichherbeliefthatachild’s“individualliberty”wouldbe
TheTurningoftheTides:c.1913 9
violated“iftwochildrenwantthesamematerial”andarenot“lefttosettletheproblemfor
themselves”orbyforciblyremovingamisbehavingchildfromagroup.Montessori,much
like Rudolph Steiner of Germany, taught that each child is already a perfectly developed
adult human being and that through her educational process “the incarnating child” can
indhisownplaceinthecosmos.ItshouldbenotedthatatonetimeBenitoMussoliniwas
presidentoftheMontessoriSocietyofItaly.
The Montessori Method was published in 1912 and much of Montessori’s work was
printedbytheTheosophicalPublishingHouse.MontessorioncelivedwiththeTheosophists
inIndiaandearnedthepraiseofMahatmaGandhiwithher“CosmicEducation”whichwas
popularwithHindusandTheosophistsworldwide.ElizabethClareProphet,thecultichead
oftheChurchUniversalandTriumphant,foundedagroupcalledMontessoriInternational,
andRobertMuller,thecelebratedauthoroftheNewAgeWorldCoreCurriculum,inaCosta
RicaspeechclaimedthattheMontessoriMethodwasoneoftheeducationalprogramswhich
wouldgreatlybeneitglobalchildrenfortheNewAge.
InherEducationforaNewWorldMontessoriwrotethat“Theworldwasnotcreated
forustoenjoy,butwearecreatedtoevolvethecosmos.”InanissueoftheNorthAmerican
MontessoriTeachersAssociationJournaloneindsthefollowingrevealingcomment:
MariaMontessori,alongwithmanyotherenlightenedthinkersofourtime,foresawnothing
lessthantheemergenceofanewhumanculture.Thisnewculture,aglobal,planetized
humanity,wouldbebasedonanewconsciousnessoftheunityandinterdependenceofall
being,theinterconnectednessofallformsofenergyandmatter.Itisacultureofthepresent
paradigmshift,bywhichwearebeginningtoalignourselvestoeducatethehumanpotential
forconsciouscooperationwiththeevolutionoflifeontheplanet.1
1913
JOHND.ROCKEFELLER,JR.’SDIRECTOROFCHARITYFORTHEROCKEFELLERFOUNDATION,Frederick
T.Gates,setuptheSouthernEducationBoard(SEB),whichwaslaterincorporatedintothe
General Education Board (GEB) in 1913, setting in motion “the deliberate dumbing down
ofAmerica.”TheCountrySchoolofTomorrow:OccasionalPapersNo.1(GeneralEducation
Board:NewYork,1913)writtenbyFrederickT.Gatescontainedasectionentitled“AVision
oftheRemedy”inwhichhewrotethefollowing:
Isthereaughtofremedyforthisneglectofrurallife?Letus,atleast,yieldourselvestothe
gratiicationsofabeautifuldreamthatthereis.Inourdream,wehavelimitlessresources,
and the people yield themselves with perfect docility to our molding hand. The present
educationalconventionsfadefromourminds;and,unhamperedbytradition,weworkour
owngoodwilluponagratefulandresponsiveruralfolk.Weshallnottrytomakethese
peopleoranyoftheirchildrenintophilosophersormenoflearningorofscience.Weare
nottoraiseupfromamongthemauthors,orators,poets,ormenofletters.Weshallnot
searchforembryogreatartists,painters,musicians.Norwillwecherisheventhehumbler
ambitiontoraiseupfromamongthemlawyers,doctors,preachers,politicians,statesmen,
ofwhomwenowhaveamplesupply.
10
1914
A RESOLUTION WAS PASSED BY THE NORMAL SCHOOL SECTION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION
ASSOciation at its annual meeting in St. Paul, Minnesota in the year 1914. An excerpt
follows:
WeviewwithalarmtheactivityoftheCarnegieandRockefellerFoundations—agenciesnot
inanywayresponsibletothepeople—intheireffortstocontrolthepoliciesofourState
educationalinstitutions,tofashionaftertheirconceptionandtostandardizeourcourses
of study, and to surround the institutions with conditions which menace true academic
freedomanddefeattheprimarypurposeofdemocracyasheretoforepreservedinviolatein
ourcommonschools,normalschools,anduniversities.
1917
THE1917CONGRESSIONAL RECORD OF THE UNITED STATES SENATE PUBLISHED THE FOLlowing
excerpt from a booklet containing articles by Bishop Warren A. Candler, Chancellor of
EmoryUniversityinAtlanta:
Thisboard[theGeneralEducationBoard]wasauthorizedtodoalmosteveryconceivable
thing which is anywise related to education, from opening a kitchen to establishing a
university, and its power to connect itself with the work of every sort of educational
plant or enterprise conceivable will be especially observed. This power to project its
inluence over other corporations is at once the greatest and most dangerous power
ithas.(p.2831)
THEUNITEDSTATESENTEREDWORLDWARIIN1917.
1918
IN THE JANUARY 13, 1918 ISSUE OF NEW YORK WORLD WILLIAM BOYCE THOMPSON, FEDeral
Reserve Bank director and founding member of the Council on Foreign Relations, stated
that
Russiaispointingthewaytogreatandsweepingworldchanges.ItisnotinRussiaalone
thattheoldorderispassing.ThereisalotoftheoldorderinAmerica,andthatisgoing,
too....I’mgladitisso.WhenIsatandwatchedthosedemocraticconclavesinRussia,Ifelt
IwouldwelcomeasimilarsceneintheUnitedStates.
[Ed.Note:M.MaxineTremaineofMassachusetts,recognizedforhercarefulresearchrelated
to international affairs, made the following statements regarding Willian Boyce Thompson
before the National Convention of Women for Constitutional Government in a July 1983
speech entitled “Russia Is the Model Country of International Bankers and Industrialists
AdministeredbytheUnitedNationsHeadquartersinGeneva,Switzerland”:“WilliamBoyce
11
TheTurningoftheTides:c.1919
Thompsonpersonallycontributed$1milliontotheRussianRevolution.Healsoarrangedfor
thetransferofmoneyfromtheUnitedStatesto(theCommunistrevolutionaries).”]
CARNEGIE AND ROCKEFELLER FOUNDATIONS PLANNED THE DEMISE OF TRADITIONAL ACADEMIC
education in 1918. Rockefeller’s focus would be national education; Carnegie would be
inchargeofinternationaleducation.
1919
THE INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION (IIE) WAS FOUNDED IN 1919 THROUGH A grant
fromtheCarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace.TheInstitute’spurposewastooperate
astudentexchangeprogram.Thisprocessof“exchanges”grewinconceptandpracticewith
theIIEadministeringvisitorexchangeprogramsfortheU.S.InformationAgency(USIA)inthe
1990s.TheU.S.-SovietEducationAgreementswerenegotiatedbytheCarnegieEndowment’s
parentorganization,theCarnegieCorporation,fosteringexchangesofcurriculum,pedagogy
andmaterialsaswellasstudents.
THEPROGRESSIVEEDUCATIONASSOCIATION(P.E.A.) WAS FOUNDED IN1919 AND ORGAnizedby
JohnDewey,eventhoughhewouldnotbecomeamemberinitsearlyyears.P.E.A.’sgoals
andaimswereprojectedforthelasthalfofthiscenturyataboardmeetingheldNovember
15–17,1943inChicago,Illinois.Attendeesincluded:HaroldRugg,MarionCarswell,Arthur
Gould,TheodoreBrameld,PrudenceBosterick,andCarsonRyan.Speakingoftheirplansfor
theperiodfollowingWorldWarII,theboardpublishedastatementinitsjournalProgressive
Education(December1943,Vol.XX,No.8)whichincludedthefollowingexcerpt:
Thisisaglobalwar,andthepeacenowinthemakingwilldeterminewhatournational
lifewillbeforthenextcentury.Itwilldemonstratethedegreeofournationalmorality.We
arewritingnowthecredobywhichourchildrenmustlive.…
Your Board unanimously proposes a broadening of the interests and program of
this Association to include the communities in which our children live. To this end,
they propose additions to the governing body to include representatives of welfare
services, health, industry, labor and the professions. In short, a cross-section body to
givescopetoourprogram.…
Yes, something happened around a table in Chicago. An organization which might
havebecomemellowedwiththeyearstofutility,inthreeshortdaysagaindrewablueprint
forchildrenoftheworld.
[Ed.Note:Forwhat“ournationallifewillbefortherestofthiscentury”andperhapsoninto
thenext,seethe1946MongomeryCountyBlueprintand1999GwinnettDailyentries.]
12
1921
IN1921THELEAGUEFORINDUSTRIALDEMOCRACYCHANGEDITSNAMEFROMTHEINTERCOLlegiate
SocialistSociety(ISS)andstateditspurposeas:“Educationforanewsocialorderbasedon
productionandnotforproit”(“AChronologyofEducation,”DorothyDawson,1978).
HAROLDRUGG, WRITER OF SOCIAL STUDIES TEXTBOOK SERIES ENTITLEDTHEFRONTIERThinkers
which was published by the Progressive Education Association, in 1921 became president
of the National Association of Directors of Education Research which would later become
knownastheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociation.
THECOUNCIL ONFOREIGNRELATIONS WAS ESTABLISHED IN1921 THROUGH THE EFFORTS OFCol.
Edwin Mandell House, conidant extraordinaire to President Woodrow Wilson and about
whomWilsonsaid,“Mr.Houseismysecondpersonality…Histhoughtsandmineareone.”
HousewastheinitiatoroftheefforttoestablishthisAmericanbranchoftheEnglishRoyal
InstituteofInternationalAffairs.Priorto1921,House’sgroup,“theInquiry,”calledtheCFR
the“InstituteofInternationalAffairs.”In1912HousehadauthoredPhilipDru:Administrator
whichpromoted“socialismasdreamedofbyKarlMarx”aboutwhichbookWilson’sSecretary
oftheInteriorFranklinLanewrotetoapersonalfriend:“Allthatbookhassaidshouldbe,
comesabout.ThePresidentcomestoPhilipDruintheend.”
WalterLippmann,memberoftheFabianSocietyandIntercollegiateSocialistSociety,was
afoundingmemberoftheCFR.WhitneyShepardsonwasadirectoroftheCFRfrom1921until
1966.ShepardsonhadbeenanassistanttoCol.Houseinthe1918peaceconferencefollowing
WorldWarIandservedassecretaryoftheLeagueofNationscommittee.Shepardsonlater
becameadirectoroftheCarnegieCorporationBritishandColoniesfund.OtherearlyCFR
members included: Charles E. (Chip) Bohlen, irst secretary to the American embassy in
MoscowduringWorldWarIIandPresidentFranklinRoosevelt’sinterpreterforhismeeting
with Josef Stalin at the Teheran conference; Frank Aydelotte, a trustee of the Carnegie
Foundation, president of Swarthmore College, American secretary to the (Cecil) Rhodes
Trustees(oftheRhodesScholarshipFund),anddirectoroftheInstituteforAdvancedStudy
at Princeton; Secretary of War Henry Stimson, who initiated George Bush into “Skull and
Bones” and whose special consultant Bernadotte Schmitt had also been a special advisor
to Alger Hiss when he had served as secretary-general of the United Nations Conference
onInternationalOrganizationinSanFranciscoin1945;andWilliamPaley,founderofthe
Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) whose chief advisor was Edward Bernays, Sigmund
Freud’snephewwhowrotePropaganda,inwhichBernaysreveals:
Those who manipulate the organized habits and opinions of the masses constitute an
invisiblegovernmentwhichisthetruerulingpowerofthecountry….Itremainsafactin
almost every act of our daily lives, whether in the sphere of politics or business, in our
socialconductorourethicalthinking,wearedominatedbythisrelativelysmallnumber
of persons…. As civilization has become more complex, and as the need for invisible
governmenthasbeenincreasinglydemonstrated,thetechnicalmeanshavebeeninvented
anddevelopedbywhichopinionmayberegimented.
TheTurningoftheTides:c.1922 13
The late Professor Carroll Quigley of Georgetown University described the CFR as “a
frontforJ.PMorganandCompanyinassociationwiththeverysmallAmericanRoundTable
Group.”Quigleyfurthercommented:
TheboardoftheCFRhavecarriedeversincethemarksoftheirorigin….Theregrewup
in the 20th century a power structure between London and New York which penetrated
deeply into university life, the press, and the practice of foreign policy…. The American
branchofthis“EnglishEstablishment”exertedmuchofitsinluencethroughiveAmerican
newspapers (New York Times, New York Herald Tribune, Christian Science Monitor,
WashingtonPost,andthelatelamentedBostonEveningTranscript).2
Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., penned a tome entitled A Thousand Days in 1965 in which he
wrotethat
theNewYorkinancialandlegalcommunitywastheheartoftheAmericanestablishment….
Its front organizations [were] the Rockefeller, Ford and Carnegie foundations and the
CouncilonForeignRelations.
1922
ONDECEMBER15,1922THECOUNCILONFOREIGNRELATIONSENDORSEDWORLDGOVERNment.
1925
THEINTERNATIONALBUREAUOFEDUCATION,FORMERLYKNOWNASTHEINSTITUTEJEAN-Jacques
Rousseau, was established in 1925 with a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation. The
BureaubecamepartoftheUnitedNationsEducational,ScientiicandCulturalOrganization
(UNESCO).
IN1925TENNESSEE VS.JOHNTHOMASSCOPES, OR THESCOPES“MONKEY TRIAL,” TOOKplacein
Dayton,Tennessee.Thistrialwasanimportanteducationalmilestoneregardingtheteaching
of the theory of evolution in public schools. Scopes pitted two famous barristers of the
day—WilliamJenningsBryanandClarenceDarrow—againsteachother.Thebasicargument
oftheAmericanCivilLibertiesUnion(ACLU)andtheevolutionists’wasthatevolutionary
theory should not be censored from the public schools. After this trial, Fabian Socialist
andirstheadofUNESCOSirJulianHuxleyclaimedthathumanism’s“keynote,thecentral
concepttowhichallitsdetailsarerelated,isevolution.”
[Ed.Note:Huxleycouldhavecontinuedbypredictingthateducationalandtrainingmethods
in the future would be based on the theory of evolution—that man is an animal to be
trainedasPavlov,ThorndikeandSkinnertrainedanimals,aswithoutcome-basededucation,
masterylearninganddirectinstruction.]
14
1927
THECHRISTIANSCIENCEMONITOROFAUGUST8,1927QUOTEDFROMANADDRESSTOTHEWorld
FederationofEducationAssociations(WFEA)attheirToronto,Canadaconferencedelivered
byDr.AugustusThomas,commissionerofeducationforthestateofMaine.Excerptsfrom
Dr.Thomas’srevealingaddressfollow:
If there are those who think we are to jump immediately into a new world order,
actuatedbycompleteunderstandingandbrotherlylove,theyaredoomedtodisappointment.
Ifweareevertoapproachthattime,itwillbeafterpatientandpersistenteffortoflong
duration.Thepresentinternationalsituationofmistrustandfearcanonlybecorrectedby
aformulaofequalstatus,continuouslyapplied,toeveryphaseofinternationalcontacts,
untilthecobwebsoftheoldorderarebrushedoutofthemindsofthepeopleofalllands.
This means that the world must await a long process of education and a building up
of public conscience and an international morality, or, in other words, until there is a
world-widesentimentwhichwillbackupthemodernconceptionofaworldcommunity.
Thisbringsustotheinternationalmind,whichisnothingmoreorlessthanthehabitof
thinking of foreign relations and business affecting the several countries of the civilized
worldasfreeco-operatingequals.
1928
A DELIBERATE MATH “DUMB DOWN” WAS SERIOUSLY DISCUSSED IN 1928. A TEACHER NAMED
O.A.Nelson,JohnDewey,EdwardThorndike(whoconductedearlybehavioralpsychology
experiments with chickens), and other Council on Foreign Relations members attended a
ProgressiveEducationAssociationmeetingin1928atwhichO.A.Nelsonwasinformedthat
thepurposeof“newmath”wastodumbdownstudents.Nelsonrevealedinalaterinterview
withYoungParentsAlertthattheProgressiveEducationAssociationwasacommunistfront.
AccordingtotheNationalEducator(July,1979):
Mr. O.A. Nelson, retired educator, has supplied the vitally important documentation
neededtosupportthelink-upbetweenthetextbooksandtheCouncilonForeignRelations.
His letter was irst printed in “Young Parents Alert” (Lake Elmo, Minnesota). His story
isself-explanatory.
I know from personal experience what I am talking about. In December 1928,
I was asked to talk to the American Association for the Advancement of Science. On
December 27th, naïve and inexperienced, I agreed. I had done some special work in
teachingfunctionalphysicsinhighschool.Thatwastobemytopic.Thenextday,the
28th,aDr.ZiegleraskedmeifIwouldattendaspecialeducationalmeetinginhisroom
aftertheAAASmeeting.Wemetfrom10o’clock[p.m.]untilafter2:30a.m.
Wewere13atthemeeting.TwothingscausedDr.Ziegler,whowasChairmanof
the Educational Committee of the Council on Foreign Relations, to ask me to attend...
mytalkontheteachingoffunctionalphysicsinhighschool,andthefactthatIwasa
memberofagroupknownastheProgressiveEducatorsofAmerica,whichwasnothing
but a Communist front. I thought the word “progressive” meant progress for better
schools. Eleven of those attending the meeting were leaders in education. Drs. John
Dewey and Edward Thorndike, from Columbia University, were there, and the others
TheTurningoftheTides:c.1928 15
were of equal rank. I checked later and found that ALL were paid members of the
Communist Party of Russia. I was classiied as a member of the Party, but I did not
knowitatthetime.
Thesoleworkofthegroupwastodestroyourschools!Wespentonehourand
forty-ive minutes discussing the so-called “Modern Math.” At one point I objected
because there was too much memory work, and math is reasoning; not memory. Dr.
Zieglerturnedtomeandsaid,“Nelson,wakeup!Thatiswhatwewant...amaththat
thepupilscannotapplytolifesituationswhentheygetoutofschool!”Thatmathwas
not introduced until much later, as those present thought it was too radical a change.
A milder course by Dr. Breckner was substituted but it was also worthless, as far as
understandingmathwasconcerned.Theradicalchangewasintroducedin1952.Itwas
theoneweareusingnow.So,ifpupilscomeoutofhighschoolnow,notknowingany
math,don’tblamethem.Theresultsaresupposedtobeworthless.
[Ed.Note:Mr.NelsonwasformerlyassistantprincipalatWilsonHighSchool,Minneapolis,
Minnesota, as well as Johnson High School in St. Paul. This writer was fortunate enough
to verify the above story by calling a teacher colleague of the late Mr. Nelson. Also,
members of the “Young Parents Alert” in Lake Elmo, Minnesota provided the writer with
an audiocasette of the speech he gave at a Young Parents Alert education conference
onApril28,1979.]
Endnotes:
1ThereferencedNorthAmericanAssociationforMontessoriTeachersAssociationJournalispublishedbytheNorthAmerican
AssociationforMontessoriTeachersAssociation(ClevelandHeights,Ohio,1988,4thquarter).
2MuchoftheinformationintheentryconcerningtheformationoftheCouncilonForeignRelations,includingProf.Quigley’s
quote,istakenfromtherecentlyupdatededitionofDr.DennisLaurenceCuddy’sSecretRecordsRevealed:TheMen,theMoney,
andtheMethodsBehindtheNewWorldOrder(HearthstonePublishing,Ltd.:OklahomaCity,1999).
3
THETROUBLINGTHIRTIES
“And the builder of this new world must be education.... Plainly, the irst step
inthecaseofeachcountryistotrainanelitetothink,feel,andactinternationally.”Thepreceding
wordsofPaulMantouxofParis,FrancearetakenfromtheforewordtoInternationalUnderstanding
byJohnEugeneHarley,publishedbytheStanfordUniversityPressin1931.
A lock of individuals of collectivist persuasion jumped on Monsieur Mantoux’s bandwagon
in“TheTroublingThirties.”AldousHuxleybroughtalonghisBraveNewWorld;ProfessorGeorge
Counts contributed his Dare the School Build a New Social Order?; William Z. Foster (national
chairman of the Communist Party of the United States of America) wrote his Toward a Soviet
America; John Dewey co-authored The Humanist Manifesto I; the Carnegie Corporation added its
Conclusions and Recommendations for the Social Studies and its Eight-Year Study (which was in
the1990sreferredtobytheEducationCommissionoftheStatesasthemodelforOutcome-Based
Education); and surprisingly, Herbert Hoover proposed a Research Committee on Recent Social
TrendstoImplementthePlannedSociety.
Thethirtieswereindeedtroubling.Unfortunately,theaverageAmericanwasunawareofthe
importantstepsbeingtakentocollectivize(socialize)thisnation,particularlythatofutilizingthe
schoolsasthevehiclethroughwhichMantoux’s“newworld”couldbebroughtintobeing.
1931
INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING BY JOHN EUGENE HARLEY (STANFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS:
17
18
Stanford, Calif., 1931) was published. Excerpts from the foreword by Paul Mantoux of
Paris,Francefollows:
Andthebuilderofthisnewworldmustbeeducation.Educationalonecanlaythe
foundationonwhichthebuildingistorest.Onthispointakindofconsensushasbeen
reachedbythosewhotrustthefutureofinternationalcooperationandthosewhorefuse
to believe in it. When the latter go about repeating that to succeed in such a task one
wouldhavetochangehumannature,theydobutexaggeratetheacknowledgedneedfor
a gradual and patient reshaping of the public mind.... How can a well-prepared elite be
raisedthroughouttheworldtospreaditsinluenceoverthemasses,whocanthensupport
themintheirturn?...Hereweencountertherealproblem,anditisessentiallyaproblem
ofeducation....Duringthelastdecadeofthenineteenthcentury,inEngland,agroupof
mendevotedtothestudyofeconomicproblemsendeavoredtopreparethepublicmind
forbroadchangeswhich,intheirview,mustbeeffectedifsocialpeaceistobepreserved.
To this end they founded the London School of Economics and Political Science, which
today ranks among the most famous institutions of education. In our day, the problem
has become more far-reaching still. Brutal events have supplied evidence of a truth that
hadbeenslowlygainingground,namely,theinterdependenceofnationsandtheneedfor
establishingintheworldanorderandharmonyhithertolacking.
Some[undertakings]havespecializedinonebranchofknowledge,liketheInstitute
of Paciic Relations; others cover the whole ield of political science, like the Ecole des
Sciences Politiques, the London School of Economics, and the Deutsche Hochschule fur
Politik. Some are debating or research centers, widely differing in character from one
anotheraccordingastheirtendencyisscientiicratherthanpolitical;sucharetheRoyal
Institute of International Affairs, the Council on Foreign Relations, the Social Science
ResearchCouncil,andtheAmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience....theWorld
Education Association and the International Bureau of Education are endeavoring to
compareeducationincivilizedcountriesandtobridgedifferencesbyaprocessofmutual
borrowingofmethods....Plainly,theirststepinthecaseofeachcountryistotrainanelite
tothink,feel,andactinternationally.
1932
BRAVE NEW WORLD (DOUBLEDAY, DOTAN: GARDEN CITY, N.Y., 1932) BY ALDOUS HUXLEY,
the renowned English novelist and essayist, was published. In this famous work Huxley
satirized the mechanical world of the future in which technology replaced much of the
everydayactivitiesofhumans.
PROFESSOR GEORGE COUNTS OF COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY TEACHERS COLLEGE WROTE DARE the
SchoolBuildaNewSocialOrder?(JohnDayCompany:NewYork,1932).Heandmanyother
American educators traveling back and forth to Russia became completely convinced that
theSovietCommunistsystemwastheultimatesystem.Countswasdeeplyinvolvedin,and
a member of, the Carnegie Foundation-inanced Commission on the Social Studies which
producedtheAmericanHistoricalAssociation’sConclusionsandRecommendations:Report
oftheCommissionontheSocialStudiesin1934.HewasalsotheauthorofTheAmerican
TheTroublingThirties:c.1932 19
Road to Culture series (Quinn and Broden, Co., Inc.: Rahway, N.J., 1930–1934) and The
SovietChallengetoAmerica(JohnDayCo.:NewYork,1931).Excerptsfromthisentry’smajor
focus,Counts’sDaretheSchoolBuildaNewSocialOrder?,follow:
If property rights are to be diffused in industrial society, natural resources and all
importantformsofcapitalwillhavetobecollectivelyowned....Thisclearlymeansthat,if
democracyistosurviveintheUnitedStates,itmustabandonitsindividualisticafiliationsin
thesphereofeconomics....Withintheselimits,asIseeit,ourdemocratictraditionmustof
necessityevolveandgraduallyassumeanessentiallycollectivisticpattern.
The important point is that fundamental changes in the economic system are
imperative.Whateverserviceshistoriccapitalismmayhaverenderedinthepast,andthey
havebeenmany,itsdaysarenumbered.Withitsdedication[to]theprincipleofselishness,
itsexaltationoftheproitmotive,itsrelianceupontheforcesofcompetition,anditsplacing
ofpropertyabovehumanrights,itwilleitherhavetobedisplacedaltogetherorchangedso
radicallyinformandspiritthatitsidentitywillbecompletelylost.
TOWARDASOVIETAMERICA(ELGINENTERPRISES,INC.:LOSANGELES,1932)BYWILLIAMZ.Foster,
nationalchairmanoftheCommunistPartyoftheUnitedStates,waspublished.Fosterdiedin
1961inMoscowandwasgivenastatefuneralintheKremlin.Hisbookcalledfor
a U.S. Department of Education; implementation of a scientiic materialist philosophy;
studies revolutionized, being cleansed of religious, patriotic and other features of the
bourgeois ideology; students taught on the basis of Marxian dialectical materialism,
internationalism and general ethics of a new socialist society; present obsolete methods
ofteachingwillbesupersededbyascientiicpedagogy.Thewholebasisandorganization
ofcapitalistsciencewillberevolutionized.Sciencewillbecomematerialistic,hencetruly
scientiic.Godwillbebanishedfromthelaboratoriesaswellasfromtheschools.
[Ed. Note: Everything called for by Foster has taken place. “Scientific pedagogy” is
OBE/masterylearning/directinstruction(Pavlov/Skinner).Seethe1973entryforFoundations
of Behavioral Research, Second Edition, for some of the implications of implementing “a
scientiicmaterialisticphilosophy.”]
PRESIDENTHERBERTHOOVER APPOINTED A RESEARCH COMMITTEE ON RECENT SOCIAL TRENDSto
implementtheplannedsocietyin1932.(In1919FranklinRoosevelthadtoldafriendthathe
personallywouldliketoseeHooverintheWhiteHouse.)TheResearchCommitteewasnot
approved nor funded by Congress; it became an Executive Action and was underwritten
by the Rockefeller Foundation. No report was made to Congress or to the people during
the time it functioned. The work of that committee has been called “a monumental
achievement by the largest community of social scientists ever assembled to assess the
socialconditionofanation.”1
THENATIONALEDUCATIONASSOCIATIONCREATEDTHEEDUCATIONALPOLICIESCOMMISsion(EPC)
in 1932 for the purpose of changing the Goals for American Education. In 1944 the EPC
20
preparedavolumeofextremeimportanceentitledEducationforAllAmericanYouth.This
highlypromoteddocumenttold,inictionalformatandasthoughitwereafaitaccompli,
howthe“Planners”wouldsolvealltheproblems;notjustofyouth,butoftwoimaginary
communities—avillageandacity—throughinvolvingcitizensincooperationforthegoals
oftheplanners.Thefollowinggoalsarelaidoutinthisbook:
• federalprogramsforhealth,educationandwelfarecombinedinonegiantbureau
• HeadStartprograms
• gettingpre-schoolchildrenintothesystem
• teacherparticipationincurriculumdecisions
• federalfundswithoutfederalcontrol
• youthservicesthrougha“povertyprogram”
• removal of local control of political and educational matters “without seeming
todoso”
• sexeducation
[Ed. Note: The involvement of “citizens in cooperation for the goals of the planners” is
“participatorydemocracy,”unheardofpubliclyuntiltwentyyearslater.2]
THEEIGHT-YEARSTUDYWASINITIATEDBYTHECOMMISSIONONRELATIONOFSCHOOLANDCollege
oftheProgressiveEducationAssociationin1932.ChairmanoftheCommissionandauthor
ofTheStoryoftheEight-YearStudy(Harper&Brothers:NewYork,1942)WilfordM.Aikin
chronicled the study’s beginnings and purposes. Recounting the proceedings at the 1930
annualmeetingoftheProgressiveEducationAssociation,Aikinwrote:
In the course of... discussion many proposals for improvement of the work of our
secondary schools were made and generally approved. But almost every suggestion was
met with the statement, “Yes, that should be done in our high schools, but it can’t be
donewithoutriskingstudents’chancesofbeingadmittedtocollege.Ifthestudentdoesn’t
followthepatternofsubjectsandunitsprescribedbythecolleges,heprobablywillnotbe
accepted.”...[S]omeonewithcourageandvisionproposedthattheProgressiveEducation
Association should be asked to establish a Commission on the Relation of School and
College to explore possibilities of better co-ordination of school and college work and
to seek an agreement which would provide freedom for secondary schools to attempt
fundamental reconstruction.... All members agreed that secondary education in the
United States needed experimental study and comprehensive re-examination in the
light of fuller knowledge of the learning process and the needs of young people in
oursociety....(p.2)
It has been assumed that physical and emotional reactions are not involved in the
learning process, but if they are, they are not very important. The newer concept of
learning holds that a human being develops through doing those things which have
meaning to him; that the doing involves the whole person in all aspects of his being;
andthatgrowthtakesplaceaseachexperienceleadstogreaterunderstandingandmore
intelligentreactiontonewsituations.
Holdingthisview,theparticipatingschoolsbelievedthattheschoolshouldbecome
a place in which young people work together at tasks which are clearly related to their
purposes....Theschoolshouldstimulatehiswholebeing.Itshouldprovideopportunitiesfor
TheTroublingThirties:c.1933 21
thefullexerciseofhisphysical,intellectual,emotionalandspiritualpowersashestrivesto
achieverecognitionandaplaceofusefulnessandhonorinadultsociety.(p.17)
Beginningin1933andcontinuingthrough1941,theEight-YearStudylaidthegroundwork
for many of the education “reforms” and innovations we are encountering today. Most of
thefundingforthestudycamefromtheCarnegieCorporationofNewYorkandtheGeneral
EducationBoard.Commissionandworkingcommitteemembersofnotewhoparticipatedin
thestudyare:WilfordAikin,BrunoBettelheim,BurtonP.Fowler,FrancesKnapp,LouisRaths,
HaroldRugg,RalphTyler,HildaTaba,andGoodwinWatson.
Overtheeightyearsofthestudyivevolumeswerepublished:TheStoryoftheEight-Year
StudybyWilfordAikin;ExploringtheCurriculum:TheWorkoftheThirtySchoolsfromthe
Viewpoint of Curriculum Consultants by H.H. Giles, S.P. McCutcheon, and A.N. Zechiel;
Appraising and Recording Student Progress: Evaluation Records and Reports in the Thirty
SchoolsbyEugeneR.Smith,RalphW.Tylerandtheevaluationstaff;DidTheySucceedin
College?:TheFollow-upStudyoftheGraduatesoftheThirtySchoolsbyNealE.Droughtand
William E. Scott with preface by Max McConn; and Thirty Schools Tell Their Story: Each
SchoolWritesofItsParticipationintheEight-YearStudy.
[Ed.Note:Aswillbeseeninlaterentriesinthisbook,theEight-YearStudywasfoundational
tooutcome-basededucationandproposalstoremovetheCarnegieUnit.TheCarnegieUnit
has traditionally been the measure of participation; a certain number of units—hours in
each class—in various disciplines have been required of the student in order to graduate
orbeacceptedatacollege.TheCarnegieUnitmeasureisrepresentativeoftheeducational
philosophyrelectedinmoststateconstitutions—thatthestateisresponsibletoprovideand
makeavailableeducationalopportunitiestoallitscitizens.Theremovalofthisunithasbeen
acentralfeatureofcurrentOBE/MLreformplanswhichrelectthephilosophythatthestate
mustguaranteethatallcitizensreceiveandachieveaneducationaloutcomedeterminedby
thestate.Achangefrom“inputs”to“outputs.”]
1933
HUMANISTMANIFESTOI WAS ORIGINALLY PUBLISHED IN1933 IN THENEWHUMANIST(VOL.VI,
#3,1933:YellowSprings,Ohio),themainpublicationoftheAmericanHumanistAssociation.
Co-author John Dewey, the noted philosopher and educator, called for a synthesizing
of all religions and a “socialized and cooperative economic order.” The following are
excerpts taken from Secular Humanism and the Schools: The Issue Whose Time Has
Come by Onalee McGraw, Ph.D. (Critical Issues, Series 2, The Heritage Foundation:
Washington,D.C.,1976):
The basis of humanist belief is that there is no Almighty God, the Creator and
Sustainer of life. Humanists believe that man is his own god. They believe that moral
values are relative, devised according to the needs of particular people, and that ethics
arelikewisesituational.
Humanists reject Judeo-Christian moral and ethical laws, such as those contained
in the Ten Commandments, calling them “dogmatic,” “outmoded,” “authoritarian,” and
a hindrance to human progress. In humanism, self-fulillment, happiness, love, and
22
justice are found by each man individually, without reference to any divine source. In
the Judeo-Christian ethic, there is and can be no real self-fulillment, happiness, love,
or justice on earth that can be found which does not ultimately issue from Almighty
God,theCreatorandSustainer.
Several main differences between the humanist ethic and the Judeo-Christian ethic
becomeclearuponreadingtheHumanistManifestosIandII(1933and1973)andcomparing
themtothetenetsoftheJudeo-ChristianethiccontainedintheOldandNewTestaments....
Atissueisthebasicconceptconcerningthenatureofmanandthe“rules”bywhichmen
governthemselvesindividually,insociety,andingovernment.IntheJudeo-Christianethic,
man’sultimatedeliveranceandsalvation—hisindingameansoflivingtogetheronthis
planet,inpeace,harmony,justice,andlove—isthroughGod’sgiven“rules.”
Forthehumanist,man’sgreatness,hiscomingofage,histotalfulillmentisfound
whenhenolongerneedstheideaofGod.MangetsridofGod,notjusttodowhathewills
buttoregainpossessionofhumangreatness.
Is Humanistic Education unconstitutional? Inasmuch as humanistic curriculum
programs and “values clariication” and “moral education” teaching strategies are based
upon materialistic values found only in man’s nature itself, they reject the spiritual
and moral tradition of theistic faith and religion. Thus, many parents who subscribe to
Judeo-Christianbeliefopposehumanisticeducationinthetax-supportedschoolsongrounds
thatsuchprogramspromoteandadvocatethereligionofsecularhumanisminviolationof
theFirstAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesConstitution.
The U.S. Supreme Court cited Secular Humanism as a religion in the 1961 case of
Torcaso v. Watkins (367 U.S. 488). Roy Torcaso, the appellant, a practicing Humanist in
Maryland,hadrefusedtodeclarehisbeliefinAlmightyGod,asthenrequiredbyStatelaw
inorderforhimtobecommissionedasanotarypublic.TheCourtheldthattherequirement
forsuchanoath“invadesappellant’sfreedomofbeliefandreligion.”TheCourtdeclared
in Torcaso that the “no establishment” clause of the First Amendment reached far
more than churches of theistic faiths, that it is not the business of government or its
agents to probe beliefs, and that therefore its inquiry is concluded by the fact of the
professionofbelief.
TheCourtstated:“WerepeatandagainreafirmthatneitheraStatenortheFederal
Governmentcanconstitutionallyforceapersontoprofessabeliefordisbeliefinanyreligion.
Neithercanconstitutionallypasslawsorimposerequirementswhichaidallreligionsas
againstnon-believers,andneithercanaidthosereligionsbasedonabeliefintheexistence
ofGodasagainstthosereligionsfoundedondifferentbeliefs.”
TheCourthasalsostated“Amongreligionsinthiscountrywhichdonotteachwhat
would generally be considered a belief in the existence of God are Buddhism, Taoism,
EthicalCulture,SecularHumanismandothers.”TheTorcasoandAbingtoncasesdeined
secular humanism as a religion and prohibited the government from establishing a
religion of secularism by afirmatively opposing hostility to theistic religion, values,
andbeliefs.3
IN1933DR.PAULMORT,CHAIRMANOFTHEPROGRESSIVEEDUCATIONASSOCIATION’SCOMmittee
on the Emergency in Education and one of the foremost authorities in the U.S. on school
inance, wrote an article entitled “National Support for Our Public Schools,” which was
published in the December issue of Progressive Education (The Progressive Education
Association:Washington,D.C.,1933).Anexcerptfollows:
TheTroublingThirties:c.1934 23
At a time when schools should be particularly alert in helping to meet new conditions
[Depression era], far too many of the individuals equipped to help in meeting these
conditions have been removed from the payrolls, and in a vast number of communities
schoolshavebeenreducedtothetaskofdishingouttraditionalsubjectmatter.
[Ed. Note: Read this quote at the next school budget meeting when taxpayers are being
manipulatedintopayingmoreandmoretaxestopayforcontroversialprogramsthathave
nothing to do with “traditional subject matter.” You might point out that children were
compelled to receive a better academic (traditional subject matter) education during the
Depression due to hard times (less money). See the 1946 entry dealing with Community-
Centered Schools: The Blueprint for another quote by Paul Mort regarding how long it
takestoimplement“change.”]
DR. GEORGE HARTMANN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AT PENNSYLVANIA STATE
College, wrote “A New Deinition of the Educated Man” for the December 1933 issue of
ProgressiveEducation.HartmannwasactiveintheLeagueforIndependentPoliticalAction,
theFarmer-LaborerPoliticalFederation,andtheSocialistParty.Hewasco-authorofReadings
in Industrial Psychology (Appleton) and a frequent contributor to psychological journals.
Excerptsfrom“ANewDeinitionoftheEducatedMan”follow:
Somemayatonceprotest,“What?Iseducationtohaveasoneofitssymptomsthe
acceptance of radical views?” The answer is “Yes,” if “radicalism” means any serious
endeavortoalteroursocialarrangementsforthebetter.Wemustconsciouslyadoptand
foster the position that it is the prime business of education to remake our institutions
andourtraditions—andlearntorecognizethepossessionofthisspiritasoneofthemain
earmarksoftheeducatedman....Theprincipalobstacletotheacceptanceofthisoutcomeis
thepersistenceofasetof“inert”ideas(touseWhitehead’sphrase)whichlingerstoaflict
ourcivilization.Oneofthemostsubtleandperniciousoftheseinheritedandunexamined
postulatesistheviewthattheaimofeducation(orlife,forthatmatter)isthedevelopment
oftheindividual’spersonalityassuch....
…Forgoodorforill,wemustceasetrainingpeopleforwhattheyaregoingtodo,and
pointoutinsteadwhattheyshoulddo.Itwillprobablyfalltoourgenerationtoresurrectthe
word“ought”toitsrightfulstatusintheaffairsofmen—forwhatelsearevaluesifnotareas
ofexperiencewithanimperiouspushorpullemanatingfromthem?
There are some purists who will be frightened by the indoctrination which must
inevitably follow if this recommendation is effective.... Such an objection is silly, for
since indoctrination of attitudes occurs anyhow, our sole concern must be to ensure
thattherightonesareestablished....
Howanyonewiththeleastpretensionstohighereducationcanfailtobethrilledby
theultimateprospectsofasingleworldgovernment,theabolitionofwarandpoverty,the
enhancementofbeautyindailylife,andtheenlightenedpracticeofeugenicsandeuthenics,
isariddlewhichcanbeexplainedonlybyablind,exclusiveregardfortheimmediately
practicable.... What nobler and more enlightened aim for education in this century can
possibly be proposed than that it enlists the enthusiasms of youth for the attainment of
morerationalformsofgroupliving.
24
1934
CONCLUSIONS ANDRECOMMENDATIONS FOR THESOCIALSTUDIES(CHAS.SCRIBNER’SSONS:New
York,1934)compiledbytheAmericanHistoricalAssociationwaspublished.Thisbookwas
theresultofaprojectfundedtothetuneof$340,000bytheCarnegieCorporationofNew
York called “Investigation of the Social Studies in the Schools,” and was carried out by
the American Historical Association. Professor Harold Laski, a philosopher of British
socialism, said of this report: “At bottom, and stripped of its carefully neutral phrases,
the report is an educational program for a Socialist America.”4 Important excerpts from
Conclusionsfollow:
[Preface] The Commission is under special obligation to its sponsor, the American
Historical Association. Above all, it recognizes its indebtedness to the Trustees of the
CarnegieCorporation,whoseinancialaidmadepossiblethewholeive-yearinvestigation
of social science instruction in the schools, eventuating in the following Conclusions
andRecommendations.
The Commission could not limit itself to a survey of textbooks, curricula, methods
of instruction, and schemes of examination, but was impelled to consider the condition
and prospects of the American people as a part of Western Civilization merging into
aworldorder.(p.1)
Ofutmostimportanceisthefollowingadmissionoftheplanners’goalstochangeourfree
enterprise/representativerepublic:
TheCommissionwasalsodriventothisbroaderconceptionofitstaskbytheobvious
factthatAmericancivilization,incommonwithWesterncivilization,ispassingthrough
one of the great critical ages of history, is modifying its traditional faith in economic
individualism,andisembarkinguponvastexperimentsinsocialplanningandcontrolwhich
callforlarge-scalecooperationonthepartofthepeople....(pp.1–2)
Cumulative evidence supports the conclusion that in the United States as in other
countries, the age of laissez faire in economy and government is closing and a new age
ofcollectivismisemerging....(p.16)
Theimplicationsforeducationareclearandimperative:(a)theeficientfunctioning
of the emerging economy and the full utilization of its potentialities require profound
changes in the attitudes and outlook of the American people, especially the rising
generation—acompleteandfrankrecognitionthattheoldorderispassing,thatthenew
orderisemerging....(pp.34–35)
OrganizedpubliceducationintheUnitedStates,muchmorethaneverbefore,isnow
compelled, if it is to fulill its social obligations, to adjust its objectives, its curriculum,
its methods of instruction, and its administrative procedures to the requirements of
theemergingintegratedorder.
If the school is to justify its maintenance and assume its responsibilities, it must
recognizetheneworderandproceedtoequiptherisinggenerationtocooperateeffectively
in the increasingly interdependent society and to live rationally and well within its
limitations and possibilities.... Signed: A.C. Krey, Chairman; Charles A. Beard; Isaiah
Bowman(signedwithreservationsprintedasAppendixC);AdaComstock;GeorgeS.Counts;
AveryO.Craven;GuyStantonFord;CarltonJ.H.Hayes;HenryJohnson;A.C.Krey;LeonC.
Marshall;JesseH.Newton;JesseF.Steiner.(FrankA.Ballou,EdmundE.Day,ErnestHom,
andCharlesE.MerriamdeclinedtosigntheseConclusions.)(p.35)
TheTroublingThirties:c.1939 25
1939
M EIN KAMPF BY ADOLPH H ITLER (S TACKPOLE S ONS P UBLISHERS : G ERMANY, 1939) WAS
published.Excerptsfollow:
Academicschooltraining,whichtodayisthebe-allandend-alloftheState’sentire
educationalwork,canbetakenoverbythepopuliststatewithbutslightchanges.These
changesareinthreeields....
In the irst place, the childish brain must in general not be burdened with things
ninety-ivepercentofwhichitdoesnotneed,andwhichitthereforeforgets[emphasisin
original].Thecurriculumofprimaryandgrammarschools,inparticular,isahybridaffair.
In many of the individual subjects the material to be learned has increased to such an
extentthatonlyafractionofitsticksintheindividual’shead,andonlyafractionofthis
abundancecanbeused,whileontheotherhanditisnotenoughforthepurposeofaman
workingandhislivinginacertainield.Takeforinstancetheordinarycivilservantwho
hasgraduatedfromsecondaryschoolorfromtheupperrealschule,whenheisthirty-iveor
forty;andtesttheschoollearningwhichheoncesopainfullyacquired.Howlittleofallthe
stuffthatwasthendrummedintohimstillremains!Onewill,indeed,beanswered:“Yes,
buttheobjectoftheamountthatwaslearnedwasnotsimplytoputamaninpossession
ofagreatdealofinformationlater,buttotrainhispowerofintellectualabsorption,and
thethinkingpower,particularlythepowerofobservationofthebrain.”Thisistrueinpart.
Butstillthereisdangerthattheyouthfulbrainmaybedrownedinaloodofimpressions
whichitisveryseldomabletomaster,andwhoseindividualelementsitcanneithersift
norjudgeaccordingtotheirgreaterorlessimportance;andontopofthat,itisusuallynot
theinessentialbuttheessentialwhichisforgottenandsacriiced.Thusthemainobjectof
learningsomuchislost;forafterallitcannotconsistinmakingthebrainabletolearnby
unmeasuredpiling-upofinstruction,butincreatingforlaterlifeafundofknowledgewhich
theindividualneeds,andwhichthroughhimoncemorebeneitssociety....
Summingup:thepopuliststatewillhavetoputgeneralscholasticinstructionintoa
shortenedform,includingtheveryessentials.Outsideofthat,opportunitymustbeoffered
forthorough,specializedscholarlytraining.Itisenoughiftheindividualpersonisgivena
storeofgeneralknowledgeinbroadoutline,receivingathoroughdetailedandspecialized
trainingonlyintheieldwhichwillbehisinlaterlife....Theshorteningofthescheduleand
ofthenumberofclassesthusattainedwouldbeusedforthebeneitofthedevelopmentof
thebody,thecharacter,ofwillandresolution....
Thereshouldbeasharpdistinctionbetweengeneralandspecializedknowledge.As
the latter threatens, especially today, to sink more and more into service of Mammon,
general cultivation, at least so far as its more idealistic approach is concerned, must
bepreservedasacounter-weight.Heretootheprinciplemustbeincessantlypoundedinthat
industryandtechnology,tradeandcommercecanlourishonlysolongasanidealistically-
minded national community provides the necessary conditions. These conditions are
foundednotonmaterialisticegoism,butonself-denyingreadinessforsacriice.
[Ed. Note: This author has quoted extensively from Mein Kampf’s chapter on education
in order that the reader may see the similarity between Hitler’s views on education and
workforce training and those of American government oficials implementing OBE and
school-to-workprogramsinthe1990s.Theabovequotationsalsobearastrikingresemblance
toTheodoreSizer’sCoalitionofEssentialSchools’philosophyof“lessismore”andtothe
1988AssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment’sRobertMullerWorldCore
26
CurriculuminuseinEugene,Oregonandelsewhere.]
WORLDWARIIBEGANIN1939.
Endnotes:
1ThismaterialhasbeenexcerptedfromTheImpossibleDreambyK.M.Heaton(HartPublications:Bellingham,Wash.,1990).
ThisimportantbookmaybeorderedfromK.M.Heatonbysendingacheckfor$17.50to:HartPublications,1507Lincoln
Street,Bellingham,WA.98226.TheHon.JohnR.Rarick,formermemberofCongress,saysofMrs.Heaton’sTheImpossible
Dream:“ThisisadynamicvolumeofmustreadingforeveryAmericanwholovesthiscountryandoursystemofgovernment.
Herin-depthwritingarousesanawarenessofthegreatnessthisnationhasachieved,afearastowhereweareheading,and
ofhowfarwemustfallbeforeitwillallcometoahalt....Thereisanobvious,concertedprogramtoirrevocablychangeour
USA,yetmanygoondayafterday,takingforgrantedwhattheydidn’tearn,andpresumingtheUSAwillgoonforever.The
changeofoursystemfromoneofindividualrightsandfreedomstoaone-worldcollectiveistakingplacerightbeforeour
veryeyes.”
2Ibid,p.215.
3See1988entryforSupremeCourtJusticeClarenceThomas’srulingonprotectionintheworkplacefrom“abusiveandintru-
sive”training,renderedwhenThomasservedaschairmanoftheEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOC).
4“ANewEducationforaNewAmerica”(TheNewRepublic,July29,1936)carriedquotebyProf.HaroldLaski.
4
THEFOMENTATION
ofthefortiesandifties
MostWebster’sdictionariesdeinetheword“fomentation”asfollows:“tostirup
trouble, instigate; incite (as to foment a riot).” The forties and ifties will be remembered for the
radical,un-AmericanactivitiesandviewsofsomeAmericansandtheirpaidstaffswho,havingrisen
tothehighestlevelsinthetax-exemptfoundationsandgovernment,wereunfortunatelyacceptedby
themanonthestreetashavingthebestinterestsofthisnationatheart.
Had these individuals been dressed in dirty, ragged clothes, worn old shoes and funny felt
hats, they would likely have been accused of “fomenting” or instigating trouble—planning the
transformation of our nation from a sovereign, free constitutional republic to only one of many
socialist democracies subservient to an internationalist world government. However, the fact
that many of these gentlemen and their paid staffs were associated with Ivy League colleges,
major industries, and prestigious civic and religious institutions, wore Brooks Brothers suits and
button-down-collaredshirts,andmanyhadservedwithdistinctioninWorldWarIIworkedtoobscure
thefactthattheirgoalswerealientothoseoftheaverageMainStreetAmerican—forthatmatter,alien
totheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaanditsBillofRights.
UnitedStatesmembershipintheUnitedNationsEducational,ScientiicandCulturalOrganization
(UNESCO)in1946setinmotionthedestabilizationofoursocietythroughtherejectionofabsolute
moralsandvalues,Judeo-Christiantradition,andRomanlaw.LegislationauthorizingUnitedStates
membershipinUNESCOmarkedtheendofUnitedStatesautonomyinaverycrucialarea:thatof
education.FromthistimeonUNESCOwoulddictateeducationpolicytoourgovernmentandothers.
27
28
This legislation was accompanied by President Harry Truman’s remarkable statement: “Education
mustestablishthemoralunityofmankind.”Truman’srecommendationwasbolsteredbyGeneral
BrockChisholm,aCanadianpsychiatristandfriendofSovietagentAlgerHiss.Chisholmredeined
health to include “mental” health, and presented a paper entitled “The Psychiatry of Enduring
PeaceandSocialProgress”totheUnitedNationsWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)in1946which
“reinterpreted”(eradicated)theword“morality.”Chisholmassertedthat
Thereinterpretationandeventuallyeradicationoftheconceptofrightandwrong…these
arethebelatedobjectivesofpracticallyalleffectivepsychotherapy.
Brock Chisholm went on to recommend that teachers all over the world be trained in “no
right/nowrong”psychotherapeutictechniquesfoundintheschoolstoday.Theuseofthesetechniques
hasresultedin(1)ahighpercentageofthepopulace(60%ifthepollstakenduringthesummer
of1998relatedtothepublic’sapprovalofPresidentWilliamJeffersonClintonaretobebelieved)
respondingthatlyingunderoathisnotsuficientreasonforapresident’sremovalfromofice,and(2)
incrediblyimmoral/amoralandviolentbehaviorofAmericanyouth.
Hasthereadereverseenamoreexquisiteillustrationofthedialecticatwork?Createthechaos;
peoplenaturallycallforhelp.Thenextstepistoimposethetotalitariansolution.The“NewWorld
Disorder”(chaos),evidentonthenightlynews,willultimatelyrequirethesametotalitariancontrol
describedsowellbyGeorgeOrwellinhisnovel1984.Orwellsaid,“Ifyouwantapictureofthefuture,
imagineabootstampingonthehumanface—forever...andremember,thatisforever.”
If one believes, as does this writer, that the well-being of mankind and the stability of this
worldanditsinstitutionsdependontheruleoflaw,thenthe1940sand1950swillberememberedas
thecommencementoftheunravelingofcivicorderintheUnitedStatesofAmericaandthroughout
theworld.Theruleoflawisusuallybasedonconceptsofrightandwrong,groundedinsomevery
widelyacceptedvaluesthathavebeenlaiddownsinceearliesttimes,andevenspelledoutinRoman
law. Since the end of World War II, instead of the concept of law nations have been basing their
actionsontheUnitedNations’humanistic(non-absolutist)situationalethicsphilosophysetforthin
thestatementsofGeneralBrockChisholmandPresidentHarryTruman.
In1948,shortlyafterGeneralChisholmmadehisrecommendationtobanishtheconceptofright
andwrong,ProfessorsB.F.SkinnerandAlfredC.Kinseypublishedtheirbooks,WaldenTwoandSexual
BehaviorintheHumanMale,respectively.Skinner’snovel,WaldenTwo,recommended—amongst
otherradicalthings—that“childrenberearedbythestate,tobetrainedfrombirthtodemonstrate
only desirable characteristics and behavior.” Kinsey, as a taxonomic scientist, wrested human
sexualityfromtheconstraintsofloveandmarriageinordertoadvancethegrandschemetomove
America and the world toward the eugenic future envisioned by the elite scientists of the “New
Biology,”ashiftwhichwouldaffectthelegalandmedicalprofessions.1
In1953ProfessorSkinnerpublishedScienceandHumanBehaviorinwhichhesaid,“Operant
conditioningshapesbehaviorasasculptorshapesalumpofclay.”2Also,in1953,asifcommissioned
TheFomentation 29
bySkinnerandKinseytocomeupwithasystemtofacilitatethenecessary“changes”inbehavior
through operant conditioning and restructuring of the human personality (taxonomizing it),
ProfessorBenjaminBloomwiththeassistanceofProfessorDavidKrathwohlcompletedTaxonomy
ofEducationalObjectives—aclassiicationoflearningbehaviorencompassingthecognitive,affective
andpsychomotor“domains”oflearning.3Webster’sDictionarydeines“taxonomy”asfollows:“the
study of the general principles of scientiic classiication: systematics.” It should be noted that
“scientiic classiication” related to education of a human being involves breaking behavior down
intocategories—tobemeasuredandobserved—behavior(actions)whichcanbeisolatedfromthe
humanpersonalitywithitsimportantspiritualdimension.
BloomsaidinTaxonomythat“thephilosopher,aswellasthebehavioralscientistmustindways
ofdeterminingwhatchanges(values)aredesirableandperhapswhatchangesarenecessary.”He
statedthatfortheschoolstoattempttochangevaluesisavirtual“Pandora’sBox,”butthat
[O]ur “box” must be opened if we are to face reality and take action, and that it is
in this “box” that the most inluential controls are to be found. The affective domain
contains the forces that determine the nature of an individual’s life and ultimately the
lifeofanentirepeople.
KinseyandBloom,asscientists,wereinvolvedinthebreakingdownofman(taxonomizing)
into units of behavior which Skinner, as a behaviorist, could identify, measure and change. This
breaking down or “deconstructing of Man” was intended to separate man from his God-given,
freedom-providingidentity.Thisopenedthedoortothestudyofmethodstocontrolmanandsociety:
enterSkinner,representingtheBehavioristSchoolofthenon-science“science”ofpsychology.Bloom
changed the focus of education from a general, liberal arts education which beneited man as a
whole to a narrow training which would be based on the behavioral psychologists’ determination
of what changes in “thoughts, feelings, and actions” would be desirable and, perhaps, necessary
for the benefit of society as a whole.4 Bloom’s Taxonomy provided the finishing and crucial
touch to the foundation laid by Dewey and others of the bedrock of today’s education and
teachertraining.
TheworkofBloom,KinseyandSkinnerprovidedtheingredientsforfuturemoralchaoswith
whichwearestrugglingtodayatthenationalandinternationallevels.PeopleWeekly’scoverstory
fortheweekofJune23,1997,“HeartbreakingCrimes:KidswithoutaConscience?Rape,murder,
a baby dead at a prom: A look at young lives that seem to have gone very, very wrong,” offers
vividexamplesofincrediblyimmoral/amoralandviolentbehavior.MelissaDrexler,18—babywas
founddeadattheprom;DaphneAbdela,15—accusedofaCentralParkmurder;JeremyStrohmeyer,
18—accusedofkillinga7-year-old;CoreyArthur,19—accusedofmurderingJonathanLevin;and
AmyGrossberg,18—accusedofkillinghernewborn.Inaddition,thepastfewyearshaveprovided
Americans with news of tragedy after tragedy involving young people shooting their peers and
teachersatschoolsacrossthecountryinArkansas,Kentucky,Oregon,Washingtonstate,Georgia,
30
and with the most tragic of all because of the numbers involved, in Littleton, Colorado where
twelve students and one teacher were murdered, two perpetrators committed suicide, and many
otherswerecriticallyinjured.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the irst agreements with the Soviet Union in 1958,
includinganeducationagreement—somethingthatwouldnotcomeasasurprisetothosefamiliar
withtheWhiteHouse-directedplantomergetheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionexplainedto
NormanDoddin1953byRowanGaither,presidentoftheFordFoundation.Similaragreementshave
beensignedfromthattimeforward.Themostimportanteducationagreementsnegotiatedbetween
theCarnegieCorporationandtheSovietAcademyofScience,andthosesignedbyPresidentsReagan
andGorbachevin1985,remainineffecttothisday.
Thefortiesandiftiessetalltheessentialingredientsinplaceforimplementationinthesixties
ofasystemofeducationgearedtobehaviorandvalueschange.
1941
EDUCATION FOR DESTRUCTION WAS WRITTEN BY DR. B.R. BURCHETT AND PUBLISHED BY her
in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1941. The promotional flyer for Dr. Burchett’s book
readasfollows:
Arresting...Disturbing...Exciting
NOW for the First Time—the AMAZING STORY OF COMMUNISTS’ INIQUITOUS
CORRUPTIONOFAMERICA’SSCHOOLCHILDREN
HOW does the small Sovieteer minority control loyal teachers in our schools and
colleges?
HOW are anti-American, anti-religious, anti-Christ textbooks forced upon teachers
andstudents?
WHY are Washington and Jefferson ridiculed, while Marx and Lenin are canonized
intheschools?
WHY are boys and girls of 13 taught free love, sexual promiscuity, and other degrading
subjects?
WHAT’SGOINGONINOURAMERICANSCHOOLSANYWAY?
Theanswerstotheseandotherdismayingquestionsareallfound
inEducationforDestruction
[A]neyewitnessaccountbyDr.B.R.Burchett,formerHeadofDepartmentofLatininthe
Philadelphiapublicschoolsystem.ItisafearlessanddevastatingexposéofCommunism
in America’s schools, its concealed objectives, hidden motives, serpent-like power, and
itsviciousdemoralizationofchildrenandadolescents.EVERYparent...EVERYeducator...
EVERYclergymanshouldreadthisbook![emphasisinoriginal]
TheFomentation:c.1941 31
Dr.Burchetthasincluded,oppositethetitlepageofherbook,aphotographofoneofthe
classroomsintheschoolinwhichshetaught.Underthephotoarethewords“Nocommunism
inthepublicschools?”accompaniedbythefollowingcomments:
Anobserver,seeingthatthelargestposterinsightbearsthelettersU.S.S.R.,might
thinkthatthisisapictureofaschoolroominRussia.Itisapictureofaroominapublic
school in Philadelphia. Did Superintendent Broome know about this? Did the Board of
Education know about it? The picture is taken from Dr. Broome’s Annual Report to the
BoardofEducation,fortheyearendedJune30,1936....
There had been a branch of the Young Communist League meeting in the South
PhiladelphiaHighSchool.AccordingtothepapersMissWangermadeagreatvirtueofhaving
disbandedit.Strangely,therewasno“investigation”astohowitcametobemeetingherein
theirstplace,witharegularlyassignedroomandwithateacherassponsor.
In spite of the facts presented in Mr. Allen’s circular, and in spite of such an
amazingthingasthemeetingoftheYoungCommunistLeagueintheschool,Dr.Broome,
SuperintendentofSchools,accordingtothePhiladelphiaRecordofMay7,1936,said:“I
don’tproposetoinvestigateanygeneralstatement;ifshe(myself,Burchett)hasanything
speciictosayIwillbegladtohearherandinvestigate.”...Recently,aspecialcommittee
wasappointedtoconsidertheattacksonthe“booksofHaroldO.Ruggandothersonthe
groundofsubversiveteaching.”Dr.EdwinC.BroomewasamemberofthatCommittee.
Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thattheRuggbookswerewhite-washedintheCommittee
reportofFebruary26,1941.
Accordingtotheabovequotes,Dr.EdwinBroome,underwhomDr.Burchettworked,
was deeply involved in curriculum changes favorable to indoctrination of the students
in communism. Of special interest is the fact that Dr. Edwin Broome is the same Dr.
Edwin Broome about whom Dorothy Dawson wrote in her article entitled “The Blueprint:
Community-Centered Schools” for the Montgomery County, Maryland Advertiser, April
11, 1973. Mrs. Dawson personally typed the original Blueprint for Montgomery County
SchoolsforDr.Broometopresenttotheboardofeducationin1946.Anadditionalexcerpt
fromMrs.Dawson’sarticlefollows:
In1946Dr.EdwinW.BroomewasSuperintendentofSchools....FromtheMaryland
Teacher,May1953:“Dr.EdwinW.BroomeannouncesretirementfromSuperintendency”
byMrs.FlorenceMasseyBlack,BCCHighSchool.“EdwinW.Broome,thephilosopherwho
tookJohnDeweyoutofhiswritingsandputhimtoworkintheclassroomsofMontgomery
County, is being honored upon his retirement this year by various groups in the State
of Maryland and in his own county. He has served thirty-six years as superintendent of
schools and forty-nine years in the county system. Greatly inluenced by the late John
Dewey,EdwinW.Broomesettoworktoshowbyanalogy,speciicexample,andcurriculum
development,howeachteachercouldbringthatphilosophyintohiswork.Andsoitwas
thatJohnDeweycameintotheclassroomsofMontgomeryCounty.”
[Ed. Note: Additionally, the Maryland Teacher did not mention that Dr. Broome had also
servedacontroversialtermassuperintendentinthePhiladelphia,Pennsylvaniapublicschool
system.OnemightaddthatJohnDeweynotonlycameintotheclassroomsofMontgomery
County,butalsointoalltheclassroomsoftheUnitedStates,sincetheMontgomeryCounty
Plan was a pilot for the nation. This writer, when serving on her school’s Philosophy
Committee in 1973, had an updated copy of the “Montgomery County Philosophy” given
32
to her by her Harvard-educated, change-agent superintendent. He recommended it as one
philosophy statement to which our committee might wish to refer as we drew up a new
philosophyforourschooldistrict.(SeeAppendixIforfurtherexcerptsfromthe Blueprint
forMontgomeryCountySchools.)]
1942
IN1942TIMEMAGAZINE(MARCH16,1942)RANANEXTENSIVEARTICLEINITSRELIGIONsection
dealingwithaproposalbyProtestantgroupsintheUnitedStatesforaplanofactiontoward
“ajustanddurablepeace”fortheyearsfollowingtheendofWorldWarII.Excerptsfrom
Time’s“AmericanMalvern”follow:
These are the high spots of organized U.S. Protestantism’s super-protestant new
programforajustanddurablepeaceafterWorldWarII:
• Ultimately,“aworldgovernmentofdelegatedpowers.”
• CompleteabandonmentofU.S.isolationism.
• Strongimmediatelimitationsonnationalsovereignty.
• Internationalcontrolofallarmiesandnavies.
• Auniversalsystemofmoney...soplannedastopreventinlationanddelation.
• Worldwidefreedomofimmigration.
• Progressiveeliminationofalltariffandquotarestrictionsonworldtrade.
• “Autonomy for all subject and colonial peoples” (with much better treatment
forNegroesintheU.S.).
• “No punitive reparations, no humiliating decrees of war guilt, no arbitrary
dismembermentofnations.”
• A “democratically controlled” international bank “to make development capital
availableinallpartsoftheworldwithoutthepredatoryandimperialisticaftermath
socharacteristicoflarge-scaleprivateandgovernmentalloans.”
This program was adopted last week by 375 appointed representatives of 30-odd
denominations called together at Ohio Wesleyan University by the Federal Council of
Churches. Every local Protestant church in the country will now be urged to get behind
the program. “As Christian citizens,” its sponsors afirmed, “we must seek to translate
our beliefs into practical realities and to create a public opinion which will insure that
the United States shall play its full and essential part in the creation of a moral way
ofinternationalliving.”...
Themeetingshoweditstemperearlybypassingasetof13“requisiteprinciplesfor
peace” submitted by Chairman John Foster Dulles and his inter-church Commission to
Study the Basis of a Just and Durable Peace. These principles, far from putting all the
onusonGermanyorJapan,badetheU.S.givethoughttotheshort-sightednessofitsown
policies after World War I, declared that the U.S. would have to turn over a new leaf if
theworldistoenjoylastingpeace....
Some of the conference’s economic opinions were almost as sensational as the
extreme internationalism of its political program. It held that “a new order of economic
lifeisbothimminentandimperative”—aneworderthatissuretocomeeither“through
TheFomentation:c.1943 33
voluntary cooperation within the framework of democracy or through explosive political
revolution.”Withoutcondemningtheproitmotiveassuch,itdenouncedvariousdefects
in the proit system for breeding war, demagogues and dictators, “mass unemployment,
widespreaddispossessionfromhomesandfarms,destitution,lackofopportunityforyouth
and of security for old age.” Instead, “the church must demand economic arrangements
measured by human welfare... must appeal to the Christian motive of human service as
paramounttopersonalgainorgovernmentalcoercion.”
“Collectivism is coming, whether we like it or not,” the delegates were told by no
lessachurchmanthanEngland’sDr.WilliamPaton,co-secretaryoftheWorldCouncilof
Churches,buttheconferencedidnotveerasfartotheleftasitsdeinitelypinkoBritish
counterpart,thenowfamousMalvernConference(Time,Jan.20,1941).Itdid,however,
backupLabor’sdemandforanincreasingshareinindustrialmanagement.ItechoedLabor’s
shibboleththatthedenialofcollectivebargaining“reduceslabortoacommodity.”Iturged
taxationdesigned“totheendthatourwealthmaybemoreequitablydistributed.”Iturged
experimentationwithgovernmentandcooperativeownership....
The ultimate goal: “a duly constituted world government of delegated powers: an
internationallegislativebody,aninternationalcourtwithadequatejurisdiction,international
administrativebodieswithnecessarypowers,andadequateinternationalpoliceforcesand
provisionforenforcingitsworldwideeconomicauthority.”(pp.44,46–47)
1943
THE AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS (AFT) PUBLISHED THE BOOK AMERICA, RUSSIA and
theCommunistPartyinthePostwarWorldbyJohnL.ChildsandGeorgeS.Counts(TheJohn
DayCo.,NewYork).(ThereaderwillrecallpreviousentriesinthisbookrelatingtoGeorgeS.
Counts’sroleinthepromotionofcollectivismintheearlypartofthiscenturyandasimilar
agendamappedoutbytheFederalCouncilofChurchesreferencedearlier.)
Prior to reading excerpts from this remarkably naïve book, the reader is reminded
that it was written after Stalin’s mass terror of the 1930s, which included purges, trials,
self-denunciations, disappearances, imprisonments and executions. Excerpts taken from
thebook’sjacketfollow:
This book is the irst in a series projected for publication by The Commission on
EducationandthePostwarWorldoftheAmericanFederationofTeachers.…Itdemonstrates
beyondallargumentthatifthiswaristobefollowedbyajustandlastingpeace,America
andRussiamustindawaytogetalongtogether.FortheUnitedNations,includingAmerica
and Russia, is the only agency that can establish such a peace. Russia’s stupendous
achievements, and her vast area, population, and resources, make her a world power
secondtonone.Weareblindifwethinkwecancontinuehalfgratefulally,halfsuspicious
rival,ofRussia.Whatthen,standsinthewayofgoodrelationsbetweenAmericaandRussia?
Itisnotdifferencesinsocialsystemsandideologies,forthesecan[emphasisinoriginal]
exist side by side…. It is a twenty-ive year legacy of mutual suspicion, fear, and active
hostility.Theremovalofthislegacyrequiresconcessionsonbothsides.
Theprefacestatesinpart:
Among the subjects already chosen (by the Commission) for study are the problems of
34
American youth, education for world-citizenship, and the kind of educational program
requiredtomeetthedemandsofourtechnologicalsociety.
ExcerptsfromchapterX,“BasesofCollaboration,”arerevealing:
6. The United States, on her side, will have to make profound readjustments in her
historical policy with regard to the rest of the world in general and with regard to the
Soviet Union in particular…. The following constitute the bare minima of readjustments
requiredofourcountry:
a. She must abandon the notion that she can enjoy security and maintain her
democraticwayoflifebyadheringtoherhistoricpolicyofno“entanglingalliances.”
She cannot have peace if she continues to disregard the fact of world-wide
interdependence—economic,political,military,andcultural.(p.80)
c.ShemustenterunreservedlyintothepartnershipoftheUnitedNations….
e.Shemustreviseherestimateoftheenduringcharacterofacollectiviststate.She
mustbanishfromhermindthenaïvedoctrine,whichcontrolledherrelationswith
the Soviet Union in the early years of the Russian Revolution, that a collectivist
state,beingcontrarytothelawsofhumannature,economics,andmorality,must
soonerorlatercollapse.(p.81)…
g.ShemustrepudiateherearlierpolicytowardtheSovietUnion.Shemustconvince
the Russian people she will have no part whatsoever in any effort to isolate, to
encircle,andtodestroytheircollectiviststate.…Shemustshowbyword,deed,and
spiritthatsheispreparedtocollaboratewithnationsofdifferenttraditions,different
ideologies,anddifferenteconomicandpoliticalsystemsintheorganizationofthe
world for peace and progress…. All of this means that those privileged groups
in our own society which are fearful of any change in our property relations
[free enterprise system] and which were primarily responsible for the shaping
of the earlier policy must not be permitted to determine our postwar relations
withRussia.(p.82)
h. She must, inally, have a vivid consciousness of the weaknesses in her own
domesticeconomy.Shemustrealizethat,inspiteoftheveryrealadvancesmade
inrecentyears,wehaveonlybeguntofacetheproblemofrebuildingtheeconomic
foundationsofourdemocracy.Intheprocessofrebuildingperhapswemaybeable
tolearnsomethingfromtheexperiencesoftheRussianpeople.(p.83)
1945
IN1945WORLDWARIIENDED.THEPREPARATIONOFA“JUSTANDDURABLEPEACE”TOproduce
“adulyconstitutedworldgovernment”began.
UNITED NATIONS CHARTER BECAME EFFECTIVE ON OCTOBER 24, 1945. PLAYING AN IMPORtant
roleinthecreationoftheUnitedNationswastheUnitedStatesChamberofCommerce.In
1999 when parents ind their local Chamber of Commerce deeply involved in the highly
controversial,socialist/fascist,dumbing-downworkforcetraining—necessaryforaplanned,
global economy—the fact that the U.S. Chamber was a prime mover in establishing the
United Nations should not be forgotten. The following information is excerpted from an
TheFomentation:c.1945 35
important research paper by Erica Carle entitled “The Chamber of Commerce: Its Power
andGoals”(December,1983):
Two slogans were popularized in order to gain backing for Chamber leadership:
“Worldpeacethroughworldtrade”and“Morebusinessingovernmentandlessgovernment
inbusiness.”
TheChambersoughttocommercializetheworldunderitsowndirection.Todothisit
neededtoindwaystoaffectandbypassoperatingpoliciesofvariousstatesandnations.To
changenationalpolicies,andevenlaws,requiredpopularsupportandcollectiveaction.A
newtypeofblanketorganizationwasneeded,onethatcouldblanketnotonlygovernments,
but professions, unions, educational institutions, farms, industries, sciences, religions
andevenfamilies.Anorganizationwassoughtwhichcouldbringaboutthecooperation
and commercialization of all of these. A strong controllable international blanket
organizationwasneeded.
Bythe1930’splansforthenewblanketorganizationtoservetheChamber’spurposes,
the United Nations, were already well under way. The Chamber had the cooperation of
tax-exemptfoundations,someofwhich,suchastheCarnegieFoundationforInternational
PeaceandtheRockefellerFoundation,hadbeensetupearlyinthecentury.Largebanks
and trusts could see future proits for themselves if they cooperated with the Chamber;
andthecooperationofinternationalcorporationswasassumed,especiallysinceThomas
J.WatsonwasPresidentoftheInternationalChamberofCommerceandaTrusteeofthe
CarnegieFoundationforInternationalPeace.
World War II aided... efforts to establish a “rational” international commercial
system....TheUnitedNationsorganizationcouldbeusedtogaingovernments’compliance
withtheChamber’splansforauniied,controlledworldeconomy,andalsothecooperation
ofvariousnon-Governmentalorganizations.
The following are some of the measures the Chamber of Commerce has supported
to aid in the transfer of power from individuals and independent governments, groups,
businessesandprofessionstotheChamber-advocatedmanagementsystem:
1.CreationoftheUnitedNations.
2.CreationoftheOrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment.
3.RegionalGovernmentor“NewFederalism.”
4.Medicare(Commercializationofmedicalprofessions).
5.Postalreorganization.
6.OrganizedCrimeControlAct.
7.Contractingforschoolserviceswithprivateindustry.
8.Vouchersystemforeducation.
9.Managementandhumanrelationstechniquesforhandlingpersonnelinindustry.
10.Healthcareplanningcouncils.
11.Prepaidmedicalpractice(HMOs).
12.Federallanduseplanning.
13.Federally-imposedcareereducation.
14.EqualRightsAmendment.
15.Cross-townbusingfordesegregation.5
INDIANAUNIVERSITY ADDED TWO NEW FACULTY MEMBERS TO ITS ROSTER IN1945.DR.Burrhus
Frederic(B.F.)SkinnerbecamechairmanofthePsychologyDepartmentandcontinuedwork
36
on his forthcoming book, Walden II. Dr. Hermann J. Muller (future Nobel Prize winner),
zoologistandprivateadvocateofforcedsterilizationandselectiveeugenics,arrivedinthe
Zoology Department to join long-time faculty member Alfred C. Kinsey. A publicly-allied
communist,MullerhadauthoredthebookOutoftheNight:ABiologist’sViewoftheFuture
(The Vanguard Press: New York, 1935), which dealt with selective breeding and the
advocacy of cloning of masses of human “resources.” (Thirteen years after Muller’s death
in 1967 a sperm bank was established in California in Muller’s honor, the Repository
for Germinal Choice, which stores and distributes the sperm of Nobel Prize winners and
othersof“exceptional”ability.)
1946
“THEPSYCHIATRYOFENDURINGPEACEANDSOCIALPROGRESS”INTHEWILLIAMALANSONWhite
MemorialLecturesbyMajorGeneralG.B.[Brock]Chisholm,C.B.E.,M.D.,DeputyMinisterof
Health,Dept.ofNationalHealthandWelfare,Canada(Vol.9,No.1)waspublishedin1946.
The book contained a foreword by Abe Fortas, former U.S. secretary of state. The article
“ThePsychiatryofEnduringPeaceandSocialProgress”wasre-publishedintheMarch1948
(No.437)issueofInternationalConciliationpublishedbytheWorldHealthOrganizationand
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. This last version included a preface written
byAlgerHiss,formerpresidentoftheCarnegieEndowmentwhowouldlaterbeconvicted
of spying for the Soviet Union. It is important also to remember that Dr. David Hamburg,
former president of the Carnegie Corporation of New York who signed the Carnegie
Corporation/Soviet Academy of Science education agreement in 1985, is a psychiatrist.
ExcerptsfromBrockChisholm’sarticlefollow:
The re-interpretation and eventually eradication of the concept of right and wrong
which has been the basis of child training, the substitution of intelligent and rational
thinking for faith in the certainties of the old people, these are the belated objectives of
practicallyalleffectivepsychotherapy.Woulditnotbesensibletostopimposingourlocal
prejudicesandfaithsonchildrenandgivethemallsidesofeveryquestionsothatintheir
owntimetheymayhavetheabilitytosizethingsup,andmaketheirowndecisions?...If
theraceistobefreedfromitscripplingburdenofgoodandevilitmustbepsychiatrists
who take the original responsibility.... The people who matter are the teachers, the
young mothers and fathers, the parent-teacher associations, youth groups, service clubs,
schoolsandcolleges,thechurchesandSundayschools—everyonewhocanbereachedand
given help toward intellectual freedom and honesty for themselves and for the children
whosefuturedependsonthem....
The battle, if it is to be undertaken, will be long and dificult but the truth will
prevail—wheneverenoughpeoplewantitto.Withluckwehaveperhapsifteenortwenty
yearsbeforetheoutbreakofthenextworldwarifweremainasweare,twentyyearsin
whichtochangethedearestcertaintiesofenoughofthehumanrace,twentyyearsinwhich
torootoutanddestroytheoldestandmostlourishingparasiticalgrowthintheworld,the
treeoftheknowledgeofgoodandevil,sothatmanmaylearntopreservehismostprecious
heritage, his innocence and intellectual freedom, twenty years in which to remove the
necessityfortheperversesatisfactionstobefoundinwarfare.
TheFomentation:c.1946 37
IfthereaderisinclinedtodismisstheabovestatementsbyBrockChisholmasstatements
from an individual biased by his psychiatric profession and spoken at a point in time
remotefromtoday,pleasereadthefollowingstatementbyU.S.AmbassadortotheUnited
Nations Madeline Albright in Atlanta, Georgia, September of 1996, as it appeared in The
CongressionalDigestforJanuary1997:
Setting Global Standards. The United Nations is one instrument that we use to make
this world a little less inhumane, a little less brutal, a little less unfair than it otherwise
would be. This brings us to another important, and basic, function of the United
Nations. And that is its role in creating a global consensus about what is right and
whatiswrong.(p.14)
[Ed.Note:Thereadershouldreferbacktotheprefaceofthisbook,thedeliberatedumbing
downofamerica,fordiscussionoftheneedtocreaterobotswhodonotknowrightfrom
wrongandwhodonothaveaconscience—leavingthedeterminationofrightandwrongto
theproposedUnitedNations“GlobalConscience.”]
C.S.LEWIS WROTETHATHIDEOUSSTRENGTH(COPYRIGHT BYCLIVESTAPLESLEWIS:Macmillan
Company: New York, 1946). Lewis’s uncanny ability to predict accurately how society
wouldbemanipulatedintoacceptanceoftotalitariancontrolwasdisplayedinthefollowing
excerpt taken from a conversation Lewis’s ictitious Lord Feverstone had with a young
mannamedMark:
[Feverstone]“ManhasgottotakechargeofMan.Thatmeans,remember,thatsome
men have got to take charge of the rest—which is another reason for cashing in on it
assoonasonecan.YouandIwanttobethepeoplewhodothetakingcharge,notthe
oneswhoaretakenchargeof.Quite.”
“Whatsortofthinghaveyouinmind?”
“Quite simple and obvious things, at irst—sterilization of the unit, liquidation of
backwardraces(wedon’twantanydeadweights),selectivebreeding.Thenrealeducation,
includingpre-nataleducation.ByrealeducationImeanonethathasno‘take-it-or-leave-it’
nonsense. A real education makes the patient what it wants infallibly: whatever he
or his parents try to do about it. Of course, it’ll have to be mainly psychological at
irst. But we’ll get on to biochemical conditioning in the end and direct manipulation
ofthebrain....”
“Butthisisstupendous,Feverstone.”
“It’s the real thing at last. A new type of man: and it’s people like you who’ve
gottobegintomakehim.”
“That’s my trouble. Don’t think it’s false modesty, but I haven’t yet seen how
Icancontribute.”
“No,butwehave.Youarewhatweneed:atrainedsociologistwitharadicallyrealistic
outlook,notafraidofresponsibility.Also,asociologistwhocanwrite.”
“Youdon’tmeanyouwantmetowriteupallthis?”
“No.Wewantyoutowriteitdown—tocamoulageit.Onlyforthepresent,ofcourse.
Once the thing gets going we shan’t have to bother about the great heart of the British
public.We’llmakethegreatheartwhatwewantittobe.”(p.42)
[Ed. Note: Appendix XXVI contains an example of Brian Rowan’s literary fulillment of
38
Feverstone’srequestfor“atrainedsociologistwhocanwrite.”Itisalsointerestingtonote
thatWilliamSpady,the“fatherofOBE,”isasociologistaswell.ThedeinitionbyFeverstone
of“realeducation”notbeing“take-it-or-leave-itnonsense”relectsthe1990soutcome-based
educationreformcallforemphasison“outputs”ratherthanonconstitutionallysupported
“inputs”discussedinchapter1.]
COMMUNITY-CENTEREDSCHOOLS:THEBLUEPRINTFORMONTGOMERYCOUNTYSCHOOLS,Maryland,
wasproposedbyDr.NicholausL.EnglehardtandAssociates,Consultants,andwrittenby
Dr.WalterD.CockingofNewYorkCityonApril1,1946.Thismaterialwasprovidedbythe
late Dorothy Dawson who was secretary to the superintendent of schools of Montgomery
County, Maryland, Dr. Edwin Broome. Mrs. Dawson typed this Blueprint for presentation
totheMontgomeryCountyBoardofEducation.(SeeAppendixI.)TheLetterofTransmittal
thataccompaniedTheBlueprintsaid:
Dr.PaulMortandothershaveaccumulatedevidencewhichshowsaperiodofalmost
iftyyearsbetweentheestablishmentofneed[needsassessment]andtheschoolprograms
gearedtomeetit...iftheschoolasanagencyofsocietyistojustifyitselffortheperiod
aheadofus,itmustbeacceptedthatitsfundamentalfunctionistoservethepeopleofthe
entirecommunity,theveryyoungchildren,thechildrenofmiddleyears,earlyadolescent
youth,olderyouthandtheadultsaswell.
“LEARNINGANDPEACE:UNESCOSTARTSITSWORK”BYRICHARDA.JOHNSONWASPRINTEDin
the October 1946 (No. 424) issue of International Conciliation published by the Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace. This booklet gives the history of UNESCO (United
Nations Education, Scientiic, and Cultural Organization) from the Conference of Allied
MinistersofEducationin1943–45,throughlegislationauthorizingUnitedStatesmembership
in UNESCO (P.L. 565, 79th Congress) approved July 30, 1946. President Harry Truman’s
remarkable statement of the same date accompanied this legislation: “[E]ducation must
establishthemoralunityofmankind.”
THEEDUCATIONALTESTINGSERVICE(ETS) OFPRINCETON,NEWJERSEY, WAS FUNDEDwithan
initialendowmentof$750,000fromtheCarnegieCorporationin1946.
[Ed. Note: For further ampliication and understanding of the far-reaching implications
oftherelationshipbetweenEducationalTestingServiceandtheCarnegieCorporation,the
readershouldbesuretoread:1964entryregardingtheNationalAssessmentofEducational
Progress (NAEP) which ETS administers; two 1995 entries for articles from The Bismarck
(NorthDakota)TribunedealingwithNAEP;andAppendixIV.]
1947
NATIONAL TRAINING LABORATORY (NTL) WAS ESTABLISHED IN 1947. THE FIRST LABORAtory
session on human relations and group processes was held at Gould Academy in Bethel,
TheFomentation:c.1948 39
Maine. Founders of the National Training Laboratory had important connections with the
OficeofStrategicServices(OSS)—WorldWarIIforerunnertotheCentralIntelligenceAgency
(CIA).TheNTLwouldbecome—withtheNationalEducationAssociation(NEA)—apremiere
agencyforhumanrelationstraining(changeagent/brainwashing).
A 1962 book published jointly by NTL and the NEA entitled Five Issues in Training
addressedtheprocessof“unfreezing,changing,andrefreezing”attitudesinordertobring
aboutchangebystatingthefollowing:“TheChinesecommunistswouldremovethetarget
personfromthosesituationsandsocialrelationshipswhichtendedtoconirmandreinforce
thevalidityoftheoldattitudes.”(p.49)
This process is widely used in education, theology, medicine, business, government,
etc., by pressuring individuals to participate in “retreats,” removing them from familiar
surroundings to “unfreeze” their attitudes and values. People have been coming from all
overtheworldtoattendtheseretreatsatNTLinBethel,Mainesinceitsfounding.Anexcerpt
fromthe1977issueofNTLNewsletterfollows:
FromtheNewBritainworkshopdialoguesofthefoundersemergedthenotionsof“action
researchlaboratory”and“changeagent”whichweretermscoinedtodenoteaveryvigorous
proactivesocialchangekindofposture,amergingofradicaleducation,deviantbehavioral
science,andhumanisticdemocracy.
HIGHEREDUCATION FORAMERICANDEMOCRACY; V.3,ORGANIZINGHIGHEREDUCATION,report
of the President’s Commission on Higher Education (U.S. Government Printing Ofice:
Washington,D.C.,1947)wascirculated.Itrevealedthat:
The role which education will play oficially must be conditioned essentially by policies
established by the State Department in this country and by ministries of foreign affairs
in other countries. Higher education must play a very important part in carrying out in
this country the program developed by the United Nations Educational, Scientiic, and
CulturalOrganizationandininluencingthatprogrambystudiesandreportsbearingupon
internationalrelations....TheUnitedStatesOficeofEducationmustbepreparedtowork
effectivelywiththeStateDepartmentandwiththeUNESCO.(p.48)
1948
SEXUALBEHAVIORINTHEHUMANMALEBYALFREDC.KINSEYWITHWARDELLPOMEROY,Clyde
MartinandPaulGebhard(W.B.Saunders:Philadelphia,PA,1948)waspublished.Thisbook
andthecontroversial“research”itrepresentedbecamealightningrodaroundwhichmuch
socialturmoilwasgeneratedinthiscountryandabroad.
AsJudithReisman,Ph.D.,hasdescribedinherbook,Kinsey:CrimesandConsequences6
(InstituteforMediaEducation:Arlington,Va.,1998):
Threebookswrittenbyleadinglegal,scholarly,andscientiicauthoritiesandassistedby
Kinsey, were published in 1948 in tandem with Kinsey’s Sexual Behavior in the Human
Male.AllthreebookscalledforlegalimplementationofKinsey’s“grandscheme”toloosen,
40
alterand/oroverturnAmerica’slawsconcerningsexualbehavior.
Those books were: (1) Sexual Habits of American Men: A Symposium on the Kinsey
Report, edited by Albert Deutsch (Prentice Hall: New York, 1948); (2) American Sexual
BehaviorandtheKinseyReportbyMorrisErnstandDavidLoth(W.W.Norton:NewYork,
1948); and (3) a re-publication of the 1933 book The Ethics of Sexual Acts (Alfred A.
Knoff: New York, 1948) by René Guyon, French jurist and pedophile noted for having
coined the phrase in reference to children: “Sex before eight or it’s too late.” To further
elaborateontheconnectionsofthesebooksandideasgeneratedbythem,Reismanwrote
onpage189ofherbook:
Dr. Harry Benjamin, an endocrinologist and international sexologist, and close
friend and correspondent of both Kinsey and Guyon, wrote of their collaboration in his
IntroductiontoGuyon’s1948book:
Many... sex activities, illegal and immoral, but widely practiced, are
recorded by both investigators... Guyon speaking as a philosopher, and
Kinsey,judgingmerelybyempiricaldata...[are]upsettingourmostcherished
conventions.Unlesswewanttocloseoureyestothetruthorimprison95%of
ourmalepopulation,wemustcompletelyreviseourlegalandmoralcodes....It
probablycomesasajolttomany,evenopen-mindedpeople,whentheyrealize
thatchastitycannotbeavirtuebecauseitisnotanaturalstate.
[Ed. Note: The above extraordinary statement revealed the depth of some very perverse
thinking in the area of human sexuality—thinking which would become institutionalized
to the extent that in 1999 the American Psychological Association (APA) felt comfortable
publishinginitsJournalastudysuggestingthatpedophiliaisharmlessandevenbeneicial
ifconsensual.AccordingtoanarticleintheJune10,1999issueofTheWashingtonTimes,
entitled “Psychology Group Regrets Publishing Pedophilia Report: Practice Not Always
Harmful, Article Said,” the APA was taken by surprise when “its report provoked angry
publicreaction,includingaHouseofRepresentativesresolutioncondemningit.Itfollowed
upwithanabruptabout-faceinanapologeticlettertoHouseMajorityWhipTomDeLay”
which expressed regret—not that it supported the idea of acceptable adult-child sex—but
thatthearticlehadbeenpublishedinapublicjournal.]
Toprovethemarchtowardsexualrevolutionhad,indeed,reachedthecourts,Reisman
further quotes Manfred S. Guttmacher, M.D., author of The Role of Psychiatry and Law
(Charles C. Thomas: Springield, Ill., 1968) and special consultant to the American Law
InstituteModelPenalCodeCommittee:
In1950theAmericanLawInstitutebeganthemonumentaltaskofwritingaModelPenal
Code. I am told that a quarter of a century earlier the Institute had approached the
RockefellerFoundationforthefundsneededtocarryoutthisproject,butatthattime,Dr.
AlanGregg,manofgreatwisdom,counseledtheFoundationtowait,thatthebehavioral
scienceswereonthethresholdofdevelopmenttothepointatwhichtheycouldbeofgreat
assistance.Apparently,theInstituteconcludedthatthetimehasarrived.
TheFomentation:c.1948 41
WALDENTWO, A NOVEL BYB.F.SKINNER(THEMACMILLANCOMPANY:NEWYORK,1948)was
published. Skinner recommended in this novel that children be reared by the state; to be
trainedfrombirthtodemonstrateonlydesirablecharacteristicsandbehavior.Healsowrote
onpage312ofthepaperbackedition:
Whatwasneededwasanewconceptionofman,compatiblewithourscientiicknowledge,
which would lead to a philosophy of education bearing some relation to educational
practices.Buttoachievethis,educationwouldhavetoabandonthetechnicallimitations
whichithadimposeduponitselfandstepforthintoabroadersphereofhumanengineering.
Nothingshortofacompleterevisionofaculturewouldsufice.
The late Professor Skinner died before his ideal school described in Walden II would
becomesomewhatofareality—a“ModelSchoolforthe21stCentury.”Thefollowingexcerpts
fromWaldenTwocontainsomerestructuringterminologyandresembleinmanywayswhat
a“restructured”schoolissupposedtolooklikeinthe1990s:
Amuchbettereducationwouldcostlessifsocietywerebetterorganized.
Wecanarrangethingsmoreexpeditiouslyherebecausewedon’tneedtobeconstantly
re-educating.Theordinaryteacherspendsagoodshareofhertimechangingthecultural
andintellectualhabitswhichthechildacquiresfromitsfamilyandsurroundingculture.Or
elsetheteacherduplicateshometraining,inacompletewasteoftime.Herewecanalmost
saythattheschoolisthefamily,andviceversa.[emphasisinoriginal]
…Wedon’tneed“grades.”Everyoneknowsthattalentsandabilitiesdon’tdevelop
at the same rate in different children. A fourth-grade reader may be a sixth-grade
mathematician.Thegradeisanadministrativedevicewhichdoesviolencetothenatureof
thedevelopmentalprocess.Herethechildadvancesasrapidlyashelikesinanyield.No
timeiswastedinforcinghimtoparticipatein,orbeboredby,activitieshehasoutgrown.
Andthebackwardchildcanbehandledmoreeficientlytoo.
Wealsodon’trequireallourchildrentodevelopthesameabilitiesorskills.Wedon’t
insistuponacertainsetofcourses.Idon’tsupposewehaveasinglechildwhohashada
“secondaryschooleducation,”whateverthatmeans.Butthey’vealldevelopedasrapidlyas
advisable,andthey’rewelleducatedinmanyusefulrespects.Bythesametoken,wedon’t
wastetimeinteachingtheunteachable.Theixededucationrepresentedbyadiplomaisa
bitofconspicuouswastewhichhasnoplaceinWaldenTwo.Wedon’tattachaneconomic
orhonoriicvaluetoeducation.Ithasitsownvalueornoneatall.
Since our children remain happy, energetic, and curious, we don’t need to teach
“subjects”atall.Weteachonlythetechniquesoflearningandthinking.Asforgeography,
literature, the sciences—we give our children opportunity and guidance, and they learn
themforthemselves.Inthatwaywedispensewithhalftheteachersrequiredundertheold
system,andtheeducationisincomparablybetter.Ourchildrenaren’tneglected,butthey’re
seldom,ifever,taughtanything.[emphasisinoriginal](pp.118–120)
In the United States, 1990s teachers are instructed to act as facilitators and guidance
counselors. Computer technology will take care of workforce training and whatever
“education”remains.WisconsinhistoryteacherGeneMalonewroteashortreviewofWalden
Two.SomeofMalone’sexcerptsfollow:
WaldenTwoisictionbasedonaUtopiancommunitynamedafterHenryDavidThoreau’s
nature-Utopia, Walden Pond. Burris... telling the story of a planned society appears
42
to be B.F. Skinner speaking. Frazier is the planner/manager/founder of the Utopia....
The Utopia/Walden Two is presented in the United States. Burris and his friends are
givenatourofWaldenTwoandCastleisunimpressed.Burris,attheend,joinsWalden
Two.Quotesfollowfrompages:
92—“Communitylove”
245—“Wenotonlycancontrolhumanbehavior,weMUST.”
219—“Theneworder.”
189—“Psychologistsareourpriests.”
188—“WaldenTwoisnotareligiouscommunity.”
282—“Theirbehaviorisdetermined,yetthey’refree.”
286—“Whatislove,exceptanothernamefortheuseofpositivereinforcement?”
278—“Letuscontrolthelivesofourchildrenandseewhatwecanmakeofthem.”
274—“Behaveasyouought!”
186—“Wecanmakemenadequateforgroupliving....Thatwasourfaith.”
134—“OurgoalistohaveeveryadultmemberofWaldenTworegardourchildrenas
hisown,andtohaveeverychildthinkofeveryadultashisparent.”
135—“No sensible person will suppose that love or affection has anything to
dowithblood.”
112—“EducationinWaldenTwoispartofthelifeofthecommunity....Ourchildren
begintoworkataveryearlyage.”
108—“HistoryishonoredinWaldenTwoonlyasentertainment.”
105—“Wearealwaysthinkingofthewholegroup.”
160—“Weareopposedtocompetition.”
139—“Thecommunity,asarevisedfamily”
Conclusion: This ictional presentation of Skinner’s ideal community is much like the
language and laws in use today by the behavioral elite—describing their plans for your
children,yourschools,yourcountry.Itisbehaviormanagementbytheunchosen.
During the year of 1948, Dr. Skinner moved his family from Indiana University to
Cambridge,MassachusettstojointhefacultyofHarvardUniversity.
DURING1948ALGERHISS,WHOLATERWOULDBECONVICTEDOFSPYINGFORTHESOVIETUnion,
wrotetheprefacetoGen.BrockChisholm’slecture,“ThePsychiatryofEnduringPeaceand
SocialProgress,”whichwasre-publishedinInternationalConciliation(No.437,March,1948,
p.109).AlgerHisswasatthattimepresidentoftheCarnegieEndowmentforInternational
Peace,thepublisherofInternationalConciliation.TheprefacetoChisholm’slecture,which
redeinedtheword“health,”follows:
The World Health Organization came into formal existence early in February.
For nearly a year and a half its most urgent functions have been performed by an
InterimCommission.
Thenewspecializedagencycarriesononeofthemostsuccessfulpartsofthework
oftheLeagueofNations.TheConstitutionoftheWorldHealthOrganization,however,has
a far wider basis than that established for the League organization, and embodies in its
provisionsthebroadestprinciplesinpublichealthservicetoday.Deininghealthasa“state
ofcompletephysical,mental,andsocialwell-being,andnotmerelytheabsenceofdisease
TheFomentation:c.1949 43
orinirmity,”itincludesnotonlythemoreconventionalieldsofactivitybutalsomental
health, housing, nutrition, economic or working conditions, and administrative and
social tech- niques affecting public health. In no other ield is international cooperation
more essential and in no other ield has it been more effective and political difference
lessapparent.
The present issue of International Conciliation reviews the history of the Interim
Commission through its last meeting in February. The irst World Health Assembly will
conveneinJune1948.AbriefintroductoryarticlehasbeenpreparedbyDr.BrockChisholm,
ExecutiveSecretary,WorldHealthOrganization,InterimCommission.Dr.Chisholmisan
eminent psychiatrist and served during the war as Director-General of Medical Services
of the Canadian Army. The main discussion of the World Health Organization has been
contributed by C.E.A. Winslow, Professor Emeritus of the Yale University and Editor of
theAmericanJournalofPublicHealth.Dr.WinslowhasbeenamemberoftheBoardof
Scientiic Directors of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation,
MedicalDirectoroftheLeagueoftheRedCrossSocieties,andExpertAssessoroftheHealth
CommitteeoftheLeagueofNations.
AlgerHiss,President
NewYork,NewYork
February21,1948
1949
BASICPRINCIPLES OFCURRICULUM ANDINSTRUCTION(UNIVERSITY OFCHICAGOPRESS:Chicago,
1949)byProfessorRalphTyler,chairmanoftheDepartmentofEducationattheUniversity
ofChicago,waspublished.Tylerstatedthat:
Sincetherealpurposeofeducationisnottohavetheinstructorperformcertainactivities
but to bring about signiicant changes in the student’s pattern of behavior, it becomes
important to recognize that any statement of the objective... should be a statement of
changestotakeplaceinthestudent.
1950
I N 1950 “M AN OUT OF A J OB : PASADENA TRIES TOO L ATE TO H OLD ONTO I TS S CHOOL
Superintendent”wascarriedinLifeMagazine(December11,1950).Anexcerptfollows:
Lastmonthcriticismof[Willard]Goslintookaseriousturn.Amilitantcitizens’group
accusedhimofpermittingCommunisticinluencesintheschools—becausehecontinued
already established classes in sex education and favored the elimination of report cards.
Then while Goslin was in New York City on business, the school board sent him a
telegramaskinghimtoresign.
44
1951
“THEGREATESTSUBVERSIVEPLOTINHISTORY:REPORTTOTHEAMERICANPEOPLEONUNESCO”
fromTheCongressionalRecord,ProceedingsandDebatesofthe82ndCongress,FirstSession
in1951includedtheextendedremarksofHon.JohnT.Wood(Idaho)intheU.S.Houseof
Representatives,Thursday,October18.Excerptsfollow:
Mr. Speaker, I am herewith appending an article published by the American Flag
Committee... bearing the title “A Report to the American People on UNESCO.” Just how
carelessandunthinkingcanwebethatwepermitthisbandofspiesandtraitorstoexist
anotherdayinthislandwealllove?Aretherenolimitstoourcallousnessandneglectof
palpableandevidenttreasonstalkingrampantthroughourland,warpingthemindsand
imaginationsofevenourlittlechildren,tothelyingpropagandaandpalpableuntruthswe
allowtobefedtothemthroughthismonstrouspoison?...
UNESCO’sschemetopervertpubliceducationappearsinaseriesofninevolumes,
titledTowardWorldUnderstandingwhichpresumetoinstructkindergartenandelementary
grade teachers in the ine art of preparing our youngsters for the day when their irst
loyalty will be to a world government, of which the United States will form but an
administrativepart....
Theprogramisquitespeciic.Theteacheristobeginbyeliminatinganyandallwords,
phrases, descriptions, pictures, maps, classroom material or teaching methods of a sort
causinghispupilstofeelorexpressaparticularlovefor,orloyaltyto,theUnitedStatesof
America.Childrenexhibitingsuchprejudiceasaresultofpriorhomeinluence—UNESCO
calls it the outgrowth of the narrow family spirit—are to be dealt an abundant measure
of counter propaganda at the earliest possible age. Booklet V, on page 9, advises the
teacherthat:
Thekindergartenorinfantschoolhasasigniicantparttoplayinthechild’seducation.
Not only can it correct many of the errors of home training, but it can also prepare
the child for membership, at about the age of seven, in a group of his own age and
habits—the irst of many such social identiications that he must achieve on his way
tomembershipintheworldsociety.
WHILE YOU SLEPT: OUR TRAGEDY IN ASIA AND WHO MADE IT BY JOHN T. FLYNN (THE
Devin-AdairCo.,NewYork,1951)waspublished.ThisColdWartreatiseontheconnections
betweentheAmericanleft-wingeliteandCommunistorganizersconcludeswiththefollowing
statement and signiicant quotation which served as an early warning, heralded again
andagainthroughoutthisbook:
WhilewearmagainstRussia,weremaindefenselessagainsttheenemieswithinour
walls.Itisthey,notStalin’slyersorsoldiersoratomicbombers,whowilldestroyus.One
ofthegreatestofallAmericansoncemadeaspeechonthe“PerpetuationofourPolitical
Institutions.”Itistheseinstitutionsfromwhichwedrawourgreatstrengthandpromiseof
survival.ItwasAbrahamLincolnwhosaid:
Shallweexpectatransatlanticmilitarygianttosteptheoceanandcrushusata
blow?Never!AllthearmiesofEurope,AsiaandAfricacombinedwithallthetreasureof
theearth(ourownexcepted)intheirmilitarychest,withaBonaparteforacommander,
TheFomentation:c.1952 45
couldnotbyforcetakeadrinkfromtheOhioormakeatrackontheBlueRidgeinatrail
ofathousandyears….Atwhatpointthenistheapproachofdangertobeexpected?I
answer:Ifit[should]everreachusitmustspringupamongstus;itcannotcomefrom
abroad.Ifdestructionbeourlot,wemustourselvesbeitsauthorandinisher.Asanation
offreemenwemustlivethroughalltimesordiebysuicide.7
IMPACT OF SCIENCE UPON SOCIETY BY BERTRAND RUSSELL (COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS:
New York, 1951; Simon and Schuster: New York, 1953) was published. What follows
calls to mind the extensive use of behavior modiication techniques on students, causing
them to question and reject traditional values, and preparing them to willingly submit
tototalitariancontrols:
Education should aim at destroying free will so that after pupils are thus schooled
they will be incapable throughout the rest of their lives of thinking or acting otherwise
thanastheirschoolmasterswouldhavewished....Inluencesofthehomeareobstructive;
and in order to condition students, verses set to music and repeatedly intoned are very
effective....Itisforafuturescientisttomakethesemaximspreciseanddiscoverexactly
how much it costs per head to make children believe that snow is black. When the
technique has been perfected, every government that has been in charge of education
for more than one generation will be able to control its subjects securely without the
needofarmiesorpolicemen.
1952
SUBVERSIVEINFLUENCE IN THEEDUCATIONALPROCESS:HEARINGS BEFORE THESUBCOMmitteeto
InvestigatetheAdministrationoftheInternalSecurityActandOtherInternalSecurityLawsof
theCommitteeontheJudiciary:UnitedStatesSenate,Eighty-SecondCongress,SecondSession
on Subversive Inluence in the Educational Process was printed for the Committee on the
Judiciary(PrintingOfice:Washington,D.C.,Sept.9,10,23,24,25andOctober13,1952).
RobertMorriswascounselandBenjaminMandelwasdirectorofresearchforthisproject.
Excerpts from the testimony of Bella V. Dodd, New York, who was accompanied by her
attorneyGodfreyP.Schmidt,follow:
Mr.Morris:Dr.Dodd,howrecentlyhaveyoubeenassociatedwiththeCommunist
Party?
Mrs.Dodd:June1949.
Mr. Morris: Do you mean you severed your connection with the Communist Party
atthattime?
Mrs. Dodd: They severed their connection with me. I had previously tried to ind
my way out of the Communist Party. In 1949 they formally issued a resolution
ofexpulsion....
Mr.Morris:Dr.Dodd,willyoutelluswhatrelationshipyouboretotheCommunist
PartyorganizationwhileyouwerethelegislativerepresentativefortheTeachers’
Union?
Mrs.Dodd:Well,Isoongottoknowthemajorityofthepeopleinthetopleadership
46
of the Teachers’ Union were Communists, or, at least, were inluenced by the
Communistorganizationinthecity.
Sen. Homer Ferguson (Mich.): In other words, the steering committee, as I take
yourtestimony,wasusedforthepurposeofsteeringtheteachersalongtheline
thatcommunismdesired?
Mrs. Dodd: On political questions, yes.... I would say also on certain educational
questions. You take, for instance, the whole question of theory of education,
whether it should be progressive education or whether it should be the more
formal education. The Communist Party as a whole adopted a line of being
for progressive education. And that would be carried on through the steering
committeeandintotheunion.8
[Ed.Note: Let us look ahead to 1985 to the U.S.-Soviet Education Agreement signed by
PresidentsReaganandGorbachev,andtheCarnegie-SovietEducationAgreement.Itwasthe
sameRobertMorriswhoservedascounselfortheSenateJudiciaryCommittee’sinvestigation
wholater,in1989asthenewpresidentofAmerica’sFuture,Inc.,permittedthepublication
ofthiswriter’spamphlet“SovietsintheClassroom:America’sLatestEducationFad”—four
yearsaftertheagreementsweresigned.Atthattime,Mr.Morris—aspoliticallyknowledgeable
andastuteapersonasonecouldhopetomeet—wascompletelyunawareoftheagreements!
Themajorconservativeorganizationsandmediahadrefusedtopublicizethesetreasonous
agreements, with the exception of two well-known organizations which gave them “once
overlightly”treatment.]
COOPERATIVE PROCEDURES IN LEARNING (COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS: NEW YORK, 1952)
by Alice Miel, professor of education at Teachers College of Columbia University, and
associates at the Bureau of Publications at Teachers College of Columbia University was
published.Excerptsfollow:
[Foreword]AsistrueofmostofthepublicationsoftheHoraceMann-LincolnInstitute
ofSchoolExperimentation,CooperativeProceduresinLearningrepresentstheworkofmany
peopleandemphasizestheexperimentalapproachtocurriculumimprovement.
Havingjustcompletedaunitinsocialstudies,wespenttoday’sclassperiodplanning
theprocedureforanewunit.Istartedthediscussionbypointingoutthethreemethodsby
whichwehadstudiedotherunits:(1)individualprojectwork,(2)groupprojectwork,(3)
textbookwork.Iaskedtheclasstoconsiderthesethreemethodsandthentodecidewhich
theypreferred,orsuggestanothermethodforstudyingourcomingwork.
ItwasherethatInoticedthatmostofthosewhoseemedinfavorofgroupprojects
werestudentswhowerewelldevelopedsociallyandhadworkedwellwithothersinthe
past,whereasthosefavoringindividualprojectswerealmostentirelytheAstudentswho
obviously knew they were capable of doing good work on their own and would receive
morerecognitionforitthroughindividualwork.
[Ed.Note:Thecollectivistphilosophythatthegroupismoreimportantthantheindividualgot
offthegroundineducationinthe1950sasaresultoftheexperimentalresearchofeducators
conducting work similar to that of Alice Miel. By the 1990s egalitarian dumbing-down,
outcome-based education—with its cooperative learning, mastery learning, group grades,
total quality management, etc.—is the accepted method in the schools of education
TheFomentation:c.1953 47
andintheclassroom.]
IN 1952 “MODERN MATH” WAS INTRODUCED TO DUMB DOWN MATH STUDENTS SO THAT THEY
couldn’t apply the math concepts to “real life situations when they get out of schools,”
according to a “Dr. Ziegler” who served as chairman of the Education Committee of the
Council on Foreign Relations in 1928. (Refer to 1928 entry concerning O.A. Nelson, math
teacher,forbackgroundofthisentry.)
1953
NORMAN DODD, A YALE GRADUATE, INTELLECTUAL AND NEW YORK CITY INVESTMENT BANKER,
was chosen to be the research director for the Reece Committee of the U.S. House of
Representativesin1953.TheReeceCommitteewasnamedforitscreator,Rep.CarrollReece
ofTennessee,andwasformedtoinvestigatethestatusoftax-exemptfoundations.Doddsent
committee questionnaires to numerous foundations, and as a result of one such request,
Joseph E. Johnson, president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, invited
DoddtosendacommitteestaffertoCarnegieheadquartersinNewYorkCitytoexaminethe
minutes of the meetings of the foundation’s trustees. These minutes had long since been
storedawayinawarehouse.Obviously,Johnson,whowasaclosefriendofformerCarnegie
Endowment’spresidentandSovietspyAlgerHiss,hadnoideawhatwasinthem.
Theminutesrevealedthatin1910theCarnegieEndowment’strusteesaskedthemselves
thisquestion:“Isthereanywayknowntomanmoreeffectivethanwar,tosoalterthelife
ofanentirepeople?”Forayearthetrusteessoughtaneffective“peaceful”methodto“alter
thelifeofanentirepeople.”Ultimately,theyconcludedthatwarwasthemosteffectiveway
tochangepeople.Consequently,thetrusteesoftheCarnegieEndowmentforInternational
Peace next asked themselves: “How do we involve the United States in a war?” And they
answered,“WemustcontrolthediplomaticmachineryoftheUnitedStatesbyirstgaining
controloftheStateDepartment.”NormanDoddstatedthatthetrustees’minutesreinforced
whattheReeceCommitteehaduncoveredelsewhereabouttheCarnegieEndowment:“Ithad
alreadybecomeapowerfulpolicy-makingforceinsidetheStateDepartment.”
DuringthoseearlyyearsoftheCarnegieEndowment,warcloudswerealreadyforming
overEuropeandtheopportunityofenactmentoftheirplanwasdrawingnear.Historyproved
thatWorldWarIdidindeedhaveanenormousimpactontheAmericanpeople.Fortheirst
timeinourhistory,largenumbersofwivesandmothershadtoleavetheirhomestowork
inwarfactories,thuseffectivelyerodingwoman’shistoricroleasthe“heart”ofthefamily.
Thesanctityofthefamilyitselfwasplacedinjeopardy.LifeinAmericawassothoroughly
changedthat,accordingtoDodd’sindings,“[T]hetrusteeshadthebrashnesstocongratulate
themselvesonthewisdomandvalidityoftheiroriginaldecision.”Theysentaconidential
messagetoPresidentWoodrowWilson,insistingthatthewarnotbeendedtooquickly.
Afterthewar,theCarnegieEndowmenttrusteesreasonedthatiftheycouldgetcontrol
ofeducationintheUnitedStatestheywouldbeabletopreventareturntothewayoflife
asithadbeenpriortothewar.TheyrecruitedtheRockefellerFoundationtoassistinsuch
a monumental task. According to Dodd’s Reece Committee report: “They divided the task
in parts, giving to the Rockefeller Foundation the responsibility of altering education as it
48
pertains to domestic subjects, but Carnegie retained the task of altering our education in
foreignaffairsandaboutinternationalrelations.”
During a subsequent personal meeting with Mr. Dodd, President Rowan Gaither of
the Ford Foundation said, “Mr. Dodd, we invited you to come here because we thought
that perhaps, off the record, you would be kind enough to tell us why the Congress is
interestedintheoperationsoffoundationssuchasours?”Gaitheransweredhisownrhetorical
questionwithastartlingadmission:
Mr.Dodd,allofushereatthepolicymakinglevelofthefoundationhaveatonetimeor
anotherservedintheOSS[OficeofStrategicServices,CIAforerunner]ortheEuropean
Economic Administration, operating under directives from the White House. We operate
underthosesamedirectives....Thesubstanceunderwhichweoperateisthatweshalluse
our grant making power to so alter life in the United States that we can be comfortably
mergedwiththeSovietUnion.
Stunned, Dodd replied, “Why don’t you tell the American people what you just told
meandyoucouldsavethetaxpayersthousandsofdollarssetasideforthisinvestigation?”
Gaitherresponded,“Mr.Dodd,wewouldn’tthinkofdoingthat.”
Inpublic,ofcourse,Gaitherneveradmittedwhathehadrevealedinprivate.However,
onnumerouspublicoccasionsNormanDoddrepeatedwhatGaitherhadsaid,andwasneither
suedbyGaithernorchallengedbytheFordFoundation.Doddwassubsequentlywarnedthat
“Ifyouproceedwiththeinvestigationasyouhaveoutlined,youwillbekilled.”9
TheReeceCommitteenevercompletelyinisheditsworkofinvestigatingandreceiving
testimonyinopenhearingsinvolvingtherepresentativesofthemajortax-exemptfoundations.
The process was completely disrupted and inally derailed by the deliberately disruptive
activity of one of its members, Congressman Wayne Hays of Ohio. According to general
counselfortheReeceCommittee,ReneeA.Wormser’saccountinFoundations:TheirPower
andInluence(Devin-Adair:NewYork,1958,p.341),“[Hays]wasfrankenoughtotellus
that he had been put on the committee by Mr. [Sam] Rayburn, the Democratic Leader in
the House, as the equivalent of a watchdog. Just what he was to ‘watch’ was not made
clear until it became apparent that Mr. Hays was making it his business to frustrate the
investigationtothegreatestextentpossible.”
[Ed. Note: The Cox Committee, created by Congress as a result of Rep. E.E. Cox of
GeorgiasubmittingaresolutiontotheHouseofRepresentativesinthe82ndCongress,was
aforerunneroftheReeceCommittee.TheCoxCommitteewascreatedto“directathorough
investigation of foundations.” However, just as the Reece Committee which followed,
the Cox Committee was unable to get to the bottom of tax-exempt foundation affairs.
Again, according to Mr. Wormser, “The Cox Committee did ind that there had been a
Communist, Moscow-directed plot to iniltrate American foundations and to use their
fundsforCommunistpurposes.”]
SCIENCE ANDHUMANBEHAVIOR BYB.F.SKINNER(MACMILLAN&CO.:NEWYORK,1953)was
published. To quote Skinner again, “Operant conditioning shapes behavior as a sculptor
shapesalumpofclay.”
TheFomentation:c.1953 49
ALFRED C. KINSEY, ALONG WITH WARDELL POMEROY, CLYDE MARTIN, AND PAUL GEBHARD,
publishedSexualBehaviorintheHumanFemale(W.B.Saunders:Philadelphia,Pa.,1953).
According to Professor David Allyn, lecturer in the Department of History at Princeton
University, this book, along with Kinsey’s Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, served
tosolidifythemovewhich
changedtheway socialscientistsstudiedsexualitybybreakingfrom theacceptedsocial
hygienic, psychoanalytic, psychiatric and physiological approaches.... [Kinsey’s work]
played[a]criticalroleinthemid-centuryprivatizationofmorality.Inthepost-WWIIera,
expertsabandonedtheconceptof“publicmorals,”aconceptwhichhadunderpinnedthe
social control of American sexuality from the 1870’s onward…. In the 1950’s and 60’s,
however,sexualmoralitywasprivatized,andthestate-controlled,highlyregulatedmoral
economyofthepastgavewaytoanew,“deregulated”moralmarket....Kinsey’s[work]
arguedagainstgovernmentinterferenceinprivatelife.
[Ed.Note:TheabovestatementbyAllynwasmadeduringapresentationentitled“Private
Acts/Public Policy: Alfred Kinsey, the American Law Institute and the Privatization of
AmericanSexualMorality”atthe1995ChevronConferenceontheHistoryoftheBehavioral
andSocialSciencesaspartofaspecialsymposiumonAlfredKinsey.Allynacknowledgedthe
CharlesWarrenCenteratHarvardUniversityandtheRockefellerArchiveCenterasproviding
grantswhichmadehisresearchpossible.]
DR. LEWIS ALBERT ALESEN PUBLISHED A FASCINATING BOOK ENTITLED MENTAL ROBOTS (The
Caxton Printers, Ltd.: Caldwell, Idaho, 1953). Dr. Alesen, distinguished physician and
surgeon,servedaspresidentoftheCaliforniaMedicalAssociationfrom1952–1953,andalso
wroteThePhysician’sResponsibilityasaLeader.SomeexcerptsfromDr.Alesen’schapter7
ofMentalRobots,“TheToolsofRobotry,”follow:
HerbertA.Philbrick[doubleagentandauthorofILedThreeLives]hasbeenrecently
quotedasstressingthatSovietpsychiatryisthepsychiatryofPavlov,uponwhoseoriginal
workondogsthetheoryoftheconditionedrelexisbased.Thisconditionedrelexisthe
principleunderlyingalloftheproceduresemployedbytheSovietsintheirbrain-washing
andbrain-changingtechniques.Underitsskillfulusethehumancanbe,andhasbeenin
countlessinstances,soalteredascompletelytotransformtheconceptspreviouslyheldand
topreparetheindividualsotreatedforadocileacceptanceofallmannerofauthoritarian
controls.Thepsychiatristboaststhathepossessesthepowertoalterhumanpersonality,
and he has certainly made good his boast in many respects, at least to the extent of
being able to force phony confessions out of men like Cardinal Mindszenty, Robert
Vogeler, and a host of others who have been subjected to all manner of torture during
theirperiodofconditioning.
InabookentitledConditionedRelexTherapybyAndrewSalte,publishedin1949by
theCreativeAgePress,individualfreewill,freedomofchoice,and,ofcourse,individual
responsibilityarecategoricallydeniedinthesewords:
Wearemeatinwhichhabitshavetakenupresidence.Wearearesultoftheway
otherpeoplehaveactedtous.Wearethereactions.Havingconditionedrelexesmeans
carrying about pieces of past realities.... We think with our habits, and our emotional
trainingdeterminesourthinking.Wherethereisaconditionedrelex,thereisnowill.Our
50
“willpower”isdependentonourpreviouslylearnedrelexes.
CertainlyitistruethattheCommunists,bothinRussia,China,andtheIronCurtain
countries, have accomplished spectacular changes in the thinking of millions of their
citizens.Whetherornotthismasschangingisaltogethersincereordurableisnotforthe
momentassigniicantasthefactthatithastakenplace,andthatbaseduponittherehas
been, apparently, a ready acceptance of revolutionary doctrines radically defying former
customandacceptedusage,andtransformingtheindividualunderthisspellofpersuasion
or compulsion into an individual possessing entirely different characteristics from those
formerly exhibited. And thus, whole new social, economic, political, and even religious
regimeshavebeenacceptedinacomparativelyshorttime.
Inordertocomprehendatalladequatelywhathasbeenandwhatishappeningtothe
mentalprocessesandattitudesoftheAmericanpeopleduringrecentyears,andinorder
mostparticularlytobeawareofandalerttothecarefullyplannedgoalsoftheinnerand
hard-coresponsorsoftheso-calledmentalhealthprogram,itispertinenttoexplorebriely
the science and art of cybernetics. Cybernetics, according to Gould’s medical dictionary,
“The science dealing with communication and communication-control theory as applied
tomechanicaldevicesandanimals;andincludingthestudyofservo-mechanisms,thatis,
feed-backmechanicisms;JosiahMacy,Jr.Foundation,565ParkAvenue,N.Y.21,N.Y.,has
publishedaseriesofsymposiaoncybernetics‘CircularCausalandFeed-BackMechanisms
inBiologyandSocialSystems.’”
InaFreedomForumpresentationentitled“InsideU.S.Communism”byHerbertPhil-
brick,atHardingCollege,Searcy,Arkansas,April16,1954,anddistributedbytheNational
EducationProgram,Mr.Philbrickhadthistosayaboutcybernetics:
The Communists, I have discovered, have a favorite term for their system of
inluencing people in devious ways. The word they use as an over-all title of this
techniqueis“cybernetics.”Cyberneticsasapuresciencehasaverylegitimateandworth-
whilefunction.Ithastodowithhowtoimproveconduitsandcables,howtomakebetter
coaxialcablesfortelevision,howtoimprovetelephoneservice,howtomakemoreeficient
electronicbrains,etc.Ithasaverylegitimateserviceasapurescience.
But since a human being, to a Communist, is simply another machine; since
human nerve centers have exactly the same function as an electronic circuit; since
a human has not a soul—he is only a mechanical apparatus—the Communists have
decided that this particular science has a very useful application—not on machines
butonhumans.
Now we’ve heard a great deal more recently about brain-washing. Back in 1940
thatwordwasn’tfamiliartous,butwhatwasgoingoninsidetheseYoungCommunist
Leaguecellswasatechniqueofcybernetics,atechniqueofbrain-washing,ifyouwill;
thehighlydevelopedscienceofdemolishingthemindsandthespiritsofmen.[emphasis
inoriginal]TheCommunistsbragthattheirsisa“techniqueofSovietpsychiatry.”Now
Sovietpsychiatryisbasedonthesamebasicprinciplesasthatofourowndoctorsand
psychiatrists except that the Communists have a different purpose in their psychiatry.
Ourdoctorsworkwithunhealthymindsandtrytomakethemhealthyandwholeagain.
TheCommunistshavedecidedthatcyberneticsprovidesaverywonderfulwaytogoto
work on healthy minds and to destroy them. And of course we are now getting a bit
of that picture from our own prisoners of war who were jailed and imprisoned by
the North Koreans and the Red Chinese. One of my good friends is Robert Vogeler.
We’ve learned a great deal from Bob Vogeler about the technique of brain-washing.
It’sahorrifyingstory.
Iwouldsuggestthatyoufolkswhoareinterestedinthissubject,perhapssomeof
youstudents,couldadoptforspecialstudythisieldofcybernetics.Itisbrandnew.I
don’tknowofasinglebookonthesubjectinconnectionwithwhattheCommunistsare
TheFomentation:c.1954 51
doingwithit.Asamatteroffact,myownknowledgeisverylimitedbecausetheonly
facts I have are those few things which we have gathered from inside the Communist
Party which indicate that the Reds have been working around the clock in this study
ofthescientiicmanipulationandcontrolofinformation.Itisbasedontheindingsof
Pavlovwhichsaythataman,likeananimal,conditionedtorespondtocertainimpulses,
can be conditioned to respond to words, phrases and symbols. Therefore you pour in
thewords,phrasesandsymbolstowhichhewillrespondwithoutthinking[emphasisin
original].Andthenyouwithholdothercertainwordswhichwillcausehimtorespond
in a way which you may not desire. It is the scientiic control of human beings by
meansofcontrol[of]information.
Asthepatternfortheinternationalrobotofthefuture,someticulouslydrawntoscale
byourcondescendingplannersandmasters,becomesincreasinglyclear,itbehoovesusto
studythatplancarefully,todeterminetojustwhatextentithasalreadybeeneffectuated,
to appraise the multitudinous forces aiding and abetting its adoption, and to determine,
inally,whetherweasindividualsdo,infact,possesscharacteristicsofsuficientvalueto
justify any resistance to this seemingly almost overwhelming juggernaut of collectivism
which is rushing headlong upon us. Have we in America, the greatest land upon which
God’ssunhasevershone,succumbedtotheleshpotsofamodernEgypt?Havewebecome
sosoftenedbybellieslinedwithrichfood,wivescladinrichraiment,andhousingand
appurtenancesdesignedtoshieldusfromeveryintellectualendeavorthatwearenolonger
interestedinmakinganyefforttoreclaimandtoreinvigoratetheoneeconomic,social,and
politicalsystemwhichhasmadeallofthispossibleforus?
1954
ALICE A. BAILEY, AN AMERICAN THEOSOPHIST, WROTE EDUCATION IN THE NEW AGE (LUCIS
Trust: New York and London, 1954).10 The following information was written in the front
ofthebook:“ThepublicationofthisbookisinancedbytheTibetanBookFundwhichis
established for the perpetuation of the teachings of the Tibetan and Alice A. Bailey. This
fundiscontrolledbytheLucisTrust,atax-exempt,religious,educationalcorporation.Itis
publishedinDutch,French,Spanish,German,ItalianandPortugese.Translationintoother
languages is proceeding.” Following are some excerpts from chapter 3, “The Next Step in
theMentalDevelopmentofHumanity”:
TheMentalTransitionPeriod
There are three immediate steps ahead of the educational system of the world, and
some progress has already been made towards taking them. First: The development of
more adequate means of understanding and studying the human being. This will be
madepossibleinthreeways:
1. The growth and the development of the Science of Psychology. This is the science
oftheessentialman,andisatthistimebeingmoregenerallyrecognisedasusefulto,and
consistentwith,therightdevelopmentofthehumanunit.Thevariousschoolsofpsychology,
sonumerousandseparative,willeacheventuallycontributeitsparticularandpeculiartruth,
andthustherealscienceofthesoulwillemergefromthissynthesis.
2.ThegrowthandthedevelopmentoftheScienceoftheSevenRays.Thissciencewillthrow
lightuponracialandindividualtypes;itwillclearlyformulatethenatureofindividualand
52
racialproblems;itwillindicatetheforcesandenergieswhicharestrugglingforexpression
in the individual and in the race; and when the two major rays and the minor rays
(which meet in every man) are recognised and studied by the educator in connection
with the individual, the result will be right individual and group training, and correct
vocationalindications.
3. The acceptance of the Teaching anent [about] the Constitution of Man given by the
esotericists,withtheimpliedrelationofsoulandbody,thenatureofthosebodies,their
qualitiesandpurpose,andtheinterrelationexistingbetweenthesoulandthethreevehicles
ofexpressioninthethreeworldsofhumanendeavors.
In order to bring this about, the best that the East has to offer and the knowledge
oftheWestwillhavetobemadeavailable.Thetrainingofthephysicalbody,thecontrol
oftheemotionalbody,andthedevelopmentofrightmentalapprehensionmustproceed
sequentially,withdueattentiontothetimefactor,andalsotothatperiodwhereinplanned
coordinationofallaspectsofthemanshouldbecarefullydeveloped.(pp.69–70)
[Ed.Note:AfterreturningfromastintintheU.S.DepartmentofEducationintheearly1980s,
thisauthorattendedaschoolboardmeetingandnoticedthechangeagentsuperintendent’s
scrawlingsonablackboard,whichhadevidentlybeenusedaspartofsomesortofin-service
training.Hehaddividedacircleintothefollowingsections:physical,mental,creative,and
“spiritual.”Myreactionwas“Hmmm,”sinceitwashewithwhomIhadsparredoverthe
use of values clariication—which destroyed any real Judeo/Christian spirituality—when I
servedontheboardinthelate1970s.]
1955
THENEWYORKTIMESREPORTEDONAUGUST6,1955THATPRESIDENTDWIGHTD.Eisenhower
calledfortheirstWhiteHouseConferenceonEducation.Theannouncementfollows:
WASHINGTON, D.C.—Reservations have been made in eight hotels here for 2045 rooms
to be occupied November 20 through December 1 by participants in the White House
Conference on Education. This conference, irst of its kind to be called by a President,
will be unusual in many ways. The ground rules call for two or more noneducators to
eacheducatorinordertostirupthewidestpossibleeducationsupportbycitizenryinthe
States....However,thereallyunusualpartoftheconferenceplanliesinitssharpdeparture
from the conventional, somewhat haphazard way of conducting big conferences. The
President’scommitteehassetupsixsubjectstobediscussed;iveofthemtobethrashed
outattheconference,andonetobetakenhome.Eachoftheivequestionstobegoneinto
herewillbediscussedinsuccessiveall-delegatesessionsof200tablesof10personsplusa
discussionleader.Theivequestionsundermassconsiderationwillbe:
1.Whatshouldourschoolsaccomplish?
2. In what ways can we organize our school system more effectively and
economically?
3.Whatareourschoolbuildingneeds?
4.Howcanwegetgoodteachers—andkeepthem?
5.Howcanweinanceourschools—buildandoperatethem?
The question to be taken home is: How can we obtain a continuing interest in
education?
At the close of each all-delegate session a stenographic pool will be on hand to
TheFomentation:c.1958 53
compile the consensus at each table and to jot down the dissents. The 200 discussion
leaderswillconvenearound20tablesinasmallerroom,furtherreinetheresultsandgive
their“consensus”and“dissents”toasecondlightofstenographers.Themassofdelegates
thenproceedtoanotherquestion.Theleadersofthe20tablessubsequentlymovetotwo
tables. Their indings, set down by stenographers, will be forwarded to the conference
committeeforincorporationintheinalreport.
[Ed. Note: This conference was probably one of the irst national conferences to use the
manipulative and non-representative group dynamics/Delphi Technique to orchestrate the
participantsintoreachingconsensusonpre-determinedgoals.Anyonewhohasparticipated
inlocalorstategoal-settingcommitteesshouldrecognizethedrill.Thisconferenceprovided
anexcellentexampleofthedialecticalprocessatwork.]
1956
TAXONOMYOFEDUCATIONALOBJECTIVES:THECLASSIFICATIONOFEDUCATIONALGOALS,Handbook
II,AffectiveDomainbyDavidKrathwohl,BenjaminBloom,andBertramMassie(Longman:
New York/London, 1956) was published. This Taxonomy provided the necessary tool for
the schools of education to restructure education from academics to values (behavior)
change. The swinging door was inally propped open to incorporate attitudes, values and
beliefs into the deinition of education. It is impossible to overestimate the Taxonomy’s
importance.Anexcerptfollows:
Infact,alargepartofwhatwecall“goodteaching”istheteacher’sabilitytoattainaffective
objectives [attitudes, values, beliefs] through challenging the students’ ixed beliefs and
gettingthemtodiscussissues.(p.55)
1958
IN 1958 AT THE PEAK OF THE COLD WAR PRESIDENT DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER SIGNED THE
first United States-Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) agreements. These
agreementsincludededucation.
NATIONAL DEFENSE EDUCATION ACT WAS PASSED IN 1958 BY THE U.S. CONGRESS AS A result
ofSovietsuccessinspace,demonstratedbythelaunchingofSputnik.ThisAct,whichset
the stage for incredible federal control of education through heavy inancing for behavior
modification, science, mathematics, guidance counseling, and testing, etc., involved
“modern techniques developed from scientiic principles,” the full weight of which would
be felt at the end of the century. Title I, General Provisions, Findings and Declaration of
Policy,Sec.101ofthisActreads:
TheCongressherebyindsanddeclaresthatthesecurityoftheNationrequiresthefullest
developmentofthementalresourcesandtechnicalskillsofitsyoungmenandwomen.The
54
presentemergencydemandsthatadditionalandmoreadequateeducationalopportunitiesbe
madeavailable.Thedefenseofthisnationdependsuponthemasteryofmoderntechniques
developedfromcomplexscientiicprinciples.Itdependsaswelluponthediscoveryand
developmentofnewprinciples,newtechniques,andnewknowledge.
Endnotes:
1Forathoroughtreatmentofthissubject,pleasereadDr.JudithA.Reisman’sbookKinsey:CrimesandConsequences—The
RedQueenandtheGrandScheme(TheInstituteforMediaEducation,Inc.:Arlington,Va.,1998).Toordercall1–800–837–
0544.
2B.F.Skinner.ScienceandHumanBehavior(Macmillan&Co.:NewYork,1953).
3TheTaxonomyinvolves:Cognitive—howastudentperceivesorjudgesknowledgeorfacts;Affective—howastudentfeelsor
whathebelievesaboutasubject;Psychomotor—whatastudentdoesasaresultofwhatheperceivesorbelieves;converting
belieftoaction.
4SeeAppendixXIXforanexcellentcritiqueofBloom’sTaxonomy.
5Thisdocumentmaybeorderedfrom:EducationServiceCouncil,P.O.Box271,ElmGrove,WI53122.EricaCarle’slatestand
veryimportantbook,WhyThingsAretheWayTheyAre(DorrancePublishingCo.:Pittsburgh,Pa.,1996),canbeorderedin
hardcoverfrom:DorrancePublishingCo.,643SmithieldStreet,Pittsburgh,PA15222.
6ToorderDr.Reisman’sbook,call1–800–837–0544.
7SpeechbeforeYoungMen’sLyceum,Springield,Illinois,January,1837.
8Forfurtherinformation,purchaseSchoolofDarkness:TheRecordofaLifeandofaConlictbetweenTwoFaithsbyBellaV.
Dodd(P.J.Kennedy&Sons:NewYork,1954.Copyrighttransferredin1963toBellaV.Dodd,Devin-AdairPublishers).
9ThissectiondealingwiththeDoddReportwaswrittenbyRobertH.GoldsboroughandpublishedinhisbookLinesofCredit:
RopesofBondage,(TheAmericanResearchFoundation,Inc.:Baltimore,1989).Thisfascinatingbookmaybeobtainedby
sendingacheckfor$8.00to:RobertH.Goldsborough,P.O.Box5687,Baltimore,MD21210.
10 TheoficesofLucisTrust(formerlyLuciferPublishing)whichwerepreviouslylocatedacrossfromtheUnitedNationsBuilding
inNewYorkhaveofferedforsaletheRobertMullerWorldCoreCurriculum(aNewAgeelementaryeducationcurriculum),
writtenbyMullerwhoservedastheundersecretaryoftheUN.TheWorldCoreCurriculumstatesthatitisbasedonthe
teachingsofAliceBailey’sspiritguide,theTibetanteacherDjwhalKhul.ThepresentaddressforLucisTrustis:120Wall
St.,NewYork,NY.Muller’scurriculumcanalsobeorderedfrom:RobertMullerSchool,6005RoyaloakDr.,Arlington,TX.It
shouldbenotedthattheRobertMullerSchoolisamemberoftheUNESCOAssociatedSchoolsProject,certiiedasaUnited
NationsAssociatedSchool.
5
THESICKSIXTIES:
psychologyandskills
PresidentsEisenhower,KennedyandJohnson,whileostensiblyconcerningthem-
selveswithracialinjustice,economicinequities,andequaleducationalopportunities,were,infact,
responsibleforinstallingthelifelongcontrolsystem—thePlanning,Programming,BudgetingManage-
mentSystem(PPBS)—intoalldepartmentsofgovernment.Thiswasaccomplishedduringwhatwould
become“TheSickSixties”undertheguiseof“accountabilitytothetaxpayers,”athemewhichwillbe
repeatedthroughouttheremainderofthiscentury.
Americaneducationwouldhenceforthconcernitselfwiththeimportanceofthegroupratherthan
withtheimportanceoftheindividual.Thiswouldbetrueinspiteofthepushtowardsindividualized
emotional
healthratherthanonhisacademiclearning.Inordertochangesociety,itwasessentialtoidentify
theattitudinalchangesneededineachstudent;then,modifythestudent’sbehavioraccordingtothe
preconceivedmodelapprovedbygovernmentsocialengineersknownas“changeagents.”Thismodel
did not allow for competition or individual thought, belief, etc., but was conceived to standardize
(robotize)humanbeings—particularlyAmericans—sothattheentirepopulacewouldbeingeneral
agreementwithgovernmentpolicyandfutureplanningforworldgovernment.
RemovalofthelastsemblanceoflocalcontrolwouldcomethroughthepassageoftheElementary
55
56
andSecondaryEducationActof1965(ESEA),themostimportantpieceoflegislationtopassduring
LyndonJohnson’sadministration.
TwoofthemajorfederalinitiativesdevelopedwithfundingfromTheElementaryandSecondary
EducationActof1965whichhavecontributedtothe“deliberatedumbingdown”ofnotonlystudents
butteachersaswell,arelistedbelow:
1.the1965–1969BehavioralScienceTeacherEducationProgram(BSTEP),and
2.the1969publicationbythefederalgovernmentofPacesettersinInnovation,a584-pagecata-
logueofbehaviormodiicationprogramstobeusedbytheschools.
Pacesettersprovidedevidenceofaconcertedefforttodestroythelastvestigesoftraditionalaca-
demiceducation,replacingitwithabehaviorandmindcontrolsystemguaranteedtocreatethe“New
SovietMan”whowouldbeunlikelytochallengetotalitarianpoliciesemanatingfromhislocal,state
orfederal/internationalgovernment.ProfessorJohnGoodlad,thenation’spremierechangeagentwho
hasbeenreceivingfederalandtax-exemptfoundationgrantsforatleastthirtyyears,saidin1969:
Themostcontroversialissuesofthetwenty-irstcenturywillpertaintotheendsandmeans
ofmodifyinghumanbehaviorandwhoshalldeterminethem.Theirsteducationalquestion
willnotbe“whatknowledgeisofthemostworth?”but“whatkindsofhumanbeingsdowe
wishtoproduce?”Thepossibilitiesvirtuallydefyourimagination.1
Behaviorchangeonsuchamassivescalenecessitatedthecreationofmanyagenciesandpolicy
deviceswhichwouldoverseetheimplementationofthenecessaryinnovations.Threeagencieswere:
(1)theNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP),whichtestedstudentsatvariousgrade
levels;(2)theEducationCommissionoftheStates(ECS),whichenabledthestatestobecomeuniied
regardingeducationanditsoutreach—oneentitysupposedlycontrolledbyitsmemberstates,butin
realitycontrolledbyitsconsensuspolicywhichinvariablyrelectedfederalpolicy—and(3)theNational
DiffusionNetwork(NDN)whichservedasthetransmissionbeltandadvertisingagencyforfederally
fundedprograms,themajorityofwhichwereintendedtodestroytraditionalright/wrongabsolutist
valuesthroughpsychotherapeuticandbehavioraltechniques.2
CongressmanJohnM.AshbrookofOhio,towhosememorythewriterhasdedicatedthisbook,
expressedhisconcernovertheabove-describedradicalshiftinthedirectionofeducationbeforethe
U.S.HouseofRepresentativesonJuly18,1961inaspeechhedeliveredentitled“TheMythofFederal
AidtoEducationwithoutControl.”Withextraordinaryforesight,JohnAshbrookwarnedthat:
InthereportAFederalEducationAgencyfortheFutureweindthevehicleforFederaldomi-
nationofourschools.Itisarealandpresentdanger.…Thebattlelinesarenowbeingdrawn
betweenthosewhoseekcontrolanduniformityofourlocalschoolsandthosewhooppose
thisfurtherbureaucraticcentralizationinWashington.ItismysincerehopethattheCongress
willrespondtothischallengeanddefeattheaidtoeducationbillswhichwillimplementthe
goalsincorporatedinAFederalEducationAgencyfortheFuture.
Unfortunately,CongressmanAshbrook’swordsofwisdomdidnotconvincehisfellowcolleagues
TheSickSixties:c.1960 57
and,therefore,didnotinluencetheburgeoningsentimentofthemajorityinCongress.HadAshbrook’s
viewsprevailed,thecitizensofthisgreatnationwouldbeinafarbetterpositiontodealwiththe
problemswefaceathomeandabroadin1999.
1960
UNITEDNATIONSEDUCATIONAL,SCIENTIFICANDCULTURALORGANIZATION’SCONVENTIONAgainst
DiscriminationwassignedinParis,Francein1960.ThisConventionlaidthegroundworkfor
controlofAmericaneducation—bothpublicandprivate—byU.N.agenciesandagents.
SOVIETEDUCATIONPROGRAMS:FOUNDATIONS,CURRICULUMS,TEACHERPREPARATIONBYWilliam
K.Medlin(specialistinComparativeEducationforEasternEurope,DivisionofInternational
Education), Clarence B. Lindquist (chief of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Division of
HigherEducation),andMarshallL.Schmitt(specialistforIndustrialArts,DivisionofStateand
LocalSchoolSystems)waspublishedin1960undertheauspicesofU.S.DepartmentofHealth,
EducationandWelfareSecretaryArthurS.FlemmingandOficeofEducationCommissioner
LawrenceG.Derthick(OE–14037,Bulletin1960,No.17).Americansfamiliarwiththedetails
ofAmericanschool-to-workrestructuringwillseethattheUnitedStatesisadoptingtheSoviet
polytechnicsystemdescribedinthefollowingpaper.The“Pavlovianconditionedrelextheory”
discussedistheSkinnerianmasterylearning/directinstructionmethodrequiredinorderto
implementoutcome-basededucationandschool-to-work.Excerptsfromthisextraordinarily
importantreportfollow:
HIGHLIGHTS
Intheschoolclassroomandworkshop,inthemachinebuildingplant,atthecountry-
side,andwhereverwewent,wefeltthepulseoftheSovietGovernment’sdrivetoeducate
andtrainanewgenerationoftechnicallyskilledandscientiicallyliteratecitizens.Suchis
theconsensusofthethreespecialistswhoareauthorsofthisvolume.
TheideasandpracticesofSovieteducationformaphilosophyofeducationinwhichthe
authoritarianconceptpredominates....With60percentoftheadultmalepopulationilliterate
in1900,amassiveeducationaleffortwasdeemednecessarytotransformthissituationinto
onewherenewskillsandscientiicinquirycouldmeetnationalneeds.
ThecurriculumisuniiedandisthesameforallschoolsthroughouttheU.S.S.R.with
butslightvariationsinnon-Russiannationalityareas....PrinciplesofDarwinism,whichare
studiedingrade9ofU.S.S.R.schools,teachchildrenabouttheoriginoflifetogetherwith
thehistoryofevolutionintheorganicworld.Themainthemeofthecourseisevolution.
MajoreffortsofU.S.S.R.schoolsduringthepast30yearshavebeentotrainyoungsters
fortheGovernment’splannedeconomicprogramsandtoinculcatedevotiontoitspolitical
andsocialsystem....Scienceandmathematicsoccupy31.4percentofthestudent’stimein
thecompleteU.S.S.R.10-yearschool.
Accordingtoschooloficials,allworkofpupilsinthesesubjectshastobedoneinpen
andinkinordertoinculcatehabitsofneatnessandaccuracy.
U.S.S.R.plansaretobringallsecondaryschoolchildrenintolaboreducationandtrain-
ingexperiencesthroughtheregularschoolprogram.The“schoolofgeneraleducation”is
58
nownamedthe“labor-polytechnicschoolofgeneraleducation.”
Industrial and agricultural sciences and technical developments are causing Soviet
educatorstobeconcernedaboutfutureneedsforreadaptingtheschoolstogivemoreappro-
priateinstructionforthecomingageofautomation,atomicpower,andspace....Theauthors
considerthepolytechnicprogramintheSovietelementary-secondaryschools“asanintegral
partoftheSovietphilosophyofeducation.”Itisnotasubjectbutinfactatype[emphasisin
theoriginal]ofeducation,andothersubjects...contributetothepolytechnicarea.
Sovietpatriotism—idelitytotheSovietlandandtotheideasofcommunism—occupies
aleadingplaceinthiseducationalconditioning,andinthissensegivestheschoolapoliti-
calcharacteraswellasamoralone.Employingprimarilytheconditionedrelextheoryas
elaboratedbyPavlov(1849–1936),Sovietpsychologistshaveworkedoutasystemofdidactics
whicharestrictandixedintheirconceptionandapplication;onemightevenusetheterm
“narrow”todistinguishthemfromthebroadscopeofmethodsemployed,forexample,in
mostU.S.schools.Sovietpsychologistsmaintainthatfundamentallyall(exceptphysically
disturbedorhandicapped)childrencanlearnthestandardizedsubjectmatterthroughthe
teachingmethodsdevisedforallschools.Bydeinition,therefore,theyexcludefrompractical
considerationmanyeducationaltechniques….Thecurriculum,dominateduntilnowbythe
so-called“hard”subjects,isdesignedtogiveallfuturecitizensanintellectualfoundation
thatis,inform,atraditionalEuropeanone.Thissystematicapproachtoeducationtendsto
giveSovietteachersaclassroomcontrolthatappearscomplete.
Certainoftheirpsychologicalresearchindingsinthepastarenottheonlyexplanation
thatweobserveforthisprinciple,however,anditiswelltopointoutthatSovietpsycholo-
gistshaveonlyrecentlybeeninapositiontotryoutnewmethodsinconnectionwithamore
diversiiedcurriculum.AsoneMoscoweducatorpointedouttousinadiscussiononmethods,
theresearchersarenotalwayssuccessfulingettingtheirresultsandviewpointsadoptedin
schoolprograms.Psychologistsandotherresearchersarebusilyengagedinworkonsuch
areasasdevelopmentofthecognitiveactivityofpupilsintheteachingprocess(especially
inrelationtothepolytechniccurriculum);simpliicationinlearningreadingandarithmetic
skillsinthelowergrades;theformationofcharacterandteachingmoralvalues,including
Sovietpatriotism;psychologicalpreparationoffutureteachers;theprinciplesandmethods
formeetingindividualchildren’sneeds(suchas“self-appreciation”),3intermsofhandicaps
andasregardsachild’sparticularattitudes,peculiarities,andmaturity;andunderstanding
theinternal,structuralintegrityofeachschoolsubjectanditsinterrelationshipswithother
branchesofknowledge.TheseresearchactivitiesarecarriedoutunderSovietconditionsand
exemplifysomeofthemajorproblemswhicheducatorstherenowface.
Sovieteducatorsdeinetheirsystemasanall-roundtrainingwherebyyouthcanpar-
ticipateincreatingtheconditionsforasocialist,andultimately,Communistsociety.Such
participationcanbecomepossible,theyhold,onlyasstudentscultivateallthebasicdisci-
plinesandonlythrougha“steadyriseintheproductivityoflabor”...whichislinkedclosely
withtheeducativeprocess.Schoolchildrenandstudentsareengagedinatotaleducational
programwhichaimstoteachallthesamebasicsubjects,moralsandhabitsinordertopro-
videsocietywithfutureworkersandemployeeswhosegeneraleducationwillmakethem
socialist(Communist)citizensandcontributetotheirproductivityuponlearningavocation
(profession).(pp.10–11)
IN1960PRESIDENTDWIGHTD.EISENHOWERRECEIVEDAFINALREPORTFROMHISCOMmissionon
NationalGoalsentitledGoalsforAmericans.The372-pagevolumerecommendedcarryingout
aninternational,socialistagendafortheUnitedStates.Thisreport,followingontheheelsof
TheSickSixties:c.1960 59
the1955WhiteHouseConferenceonEducation’suseoftheDelphitechnique,4servedtocarve
instonetheuseofdialecticmethodsinpublicpolicymakingthroughtheuseofresults-based
“planning”byconsensus,notconsent.Thisalsomayhavemarkedthebeginningofrestructur-
ingAmericafromaconstitutionalrepublictoasocialistdemocracy.
BeforelistinganexcerptedversionofGoalsforAmericans,thewriterwouldliketopoint
outthatalthoughontheirfacethesegoalsmaysoundlegitimate,theyare,infact,blatantly
socialistic.Onlythoserecommendationswhichleantowardssocialismhavebeenincludedin
thisentry.
GOALSFORAMERICANS
II.EQUALITY.Everymanandwomanmusthaveequalrightsbeforethelaw,andanequal
opportunitytovoteandholdofice,tobeeducated,togetajobandtobepromoted
whenqualiied,tobuyahome,toparticipatefullyincommunityaffairs.
III.THEDEMOCRATICPROCESS....WithirmfaithinindividualAmericanresponsibil-
ity,theCommissionansweredthesequestionswithaconidentandyetmeasured
“yes.”Whilestressingprivateresponsibility,theCommissionalsoforthrightlyfavors
governmentactionatalllevelswhenevernecessarytoachievethenationalgoals....
TheCommissionadoptedasitsownhis[ProfessorWallaceS.SayreofColumbia
University] principal recommendations, that “the President be given unequivocal
authorityandresponsibilitytodevelopatrueseniorcivilservice,”andthatthepay
oftopgovernmentemployeesshouldbedrasticallyincreased.
IV.EDUCATION.AnnualPublicandPrivateExpenditureforEducationby1970Must
BeApproximately$40Billion—Doublethe1960Figure....Theremustbemoreand
betterteachers,enlargedfacilities,andchangesincurriculaandmethods.Aboveall,
schoolingshoulditthevaryingcapacitiesofindividuals;everystudentshouldbe
stimulatedtoworktohisutmost;authenticconcernforexcellenceisimperative.
Amongspeciicsteps,theCommissionrecommendedthat:
1.Smallandineficientschooldistrictsshouldbeconsolidated,reducingthetotal
numberfrom40,000toabout10,000.5
2.Teachers’salariesatalllevelsmustbeimproved.
3.Two-yearcollegesshouldbewithincommutingdistanceofmosthighschool
graduates.
4. Adult education should provide a new emphasis on education throughout
life.…
VI.DISARMAMENT.Disarmamentshouldbeourultimategoal.
VII. LESS DEVELOPED NATIONS. The success of the underdeveloped nations must
depend primarily on their own efforts. We should assist by providing education,
training,economicandtechnicalassistance,andbyincreasingthelowofpublic
andprivatecapital....Doublingtheirrateofeconomicgrowthwithiniveyearsisa
reasonableobjective....TheU.S.shareofsuchaneffortwouldrequireby1965an
outlowof$5to$5.5billionperyearofpublicandprivatecapital,ascomparedwith
60
$3.4billionperyearinthe1956–59period.…
X.THEUNITEDNATIONS.Akeygoalinthepursuitofavigorousandeffectiveforeign
policyisthepreservationandstrengtheningoftheUnitedNations.
AttheendoftheCommissiononNationalGoalsreportisthefollowing:
[A]ttributedtoAmericanAssembly,foundedbyDwightD.Eisenhowerin1950
whenhewasPresidentofColumbiaUniversity.
Attachedtothereportwasapamphletentitled“SuggestionsforHoldingaLocalAssem-
blyonNationalGoals.”Theprocessforarrivingat“consensus”explainedinthepamphletis
actuallygroupdynamics.Consensusisnotconsent!Thesedocumentsprovetherehasbeena
well-formulatedandfundedplantochangetheAmericansystemofgovernmentthroughdeci-
sion-makingbyunelectedtaskforces,Soviet-styleive-yearplans,Delphi-typediscussiongroups,
etc.Thistypeofparticipatorydecisionmakingcalledforbyregionalgovernment—involving
partnershipsandunelectedcouncils—istakingplaceineverystateofthenationtoday.Itis
rarelychallengedsincefewAmericansunderstandourconstitutionalformofgovernment,and
are,therefore,unabletorecognizetheimportantdifferencesbetweenarepresentativerepublic
andtheparliamentaryformofgovernmentfoundinsocialistdemocracies.
TEACHING MACHINES AND PROGRAMMED LEARNING: A SOURCE BOOK (DEPARTMENT OF Audio-
VisualInstruction,NationalEducationAssociation:Washington,D.C.,1960),editedbyA.A.
Lumsdaine(programdirectoroftheAmericanInstituteforResearchandprofessorofeducation
attheUniversityofCaliforniainLosAngeles)andRobertGlaser(professorofpsychologyat
theUniversityofPittsburghandresearchadvisorattheAmericanInstituteforResearch)was
published.ExtensiveexcerptsfromthisdocumentcanbefoundinAppendixIISomeinterest-
ingselectionsfollow:
[Chapterentitled]TheScienceofLearningandtheArtofTeachingbyB.F.Skinner
Recentimprovementsintheconditionswhichcontrolbehaviorintheieldoflearning
areoftwoprincipalsorts.The“lawofeffect”hasbeentakenseriously;wehavemadesure
thateffectsdooccurandthattheyoccurunderconditionswhichareoptimalforproducing
thechangescalledlearning.Oncewehavearrangedtheparticulartypeofconsequencecalled
areinforcement,ourtechniquespermitustoshapethebehaviorofanorganismalmostat
will.Ithasbecomearoutineexercisetodemonstratethisinclassesinelementarypsychology
byconditioningsuchanorganismasapigeon.(pp.99–100)…
In all this work, the species of the organism has made surprisingly little difference.
Itistruethattheorganismsstudiedhaveallbeenvertebrates,buttheystillcoverawide
range.Comparableresultshavebeenobtainedwithrats,pigeons,dogs,monkeys,human
children,andmostrecently—bytheauthorincollaborationwithOgdenR.Lindsley—with
humanpsychoticsubjects.Inspiteofgreatphylogeneticdifferences,alltheseorganismsshow
amazinglysimilarpropertiesofthelearningprocess.Itshouldbeemphasizedthatthishas
beenachievedbyanalyzingtheeffectsofreinforcementandbydesigningtechniqueswhich
manipulatereinforcementwithconsiderableprecision.Onlyinthiswaycanthebehaviorof
theindividualorganismbebroughtundersuchprecisecontrol.Itisalsoimportanttonote
thatthroughagradualadvancetocomplexinterrelationsamongresponses,thesamedegree
TheSickSixties:c.1961 61
ofrigorisbeingextendedtobehaviorwhichwouldusuallybeassignedtosuchieldsas
perception,thinking,andpersonalitydynamics.(p.103)
1961
PROGRAMMEDLEARNING:EVOLVINGPRINCIPLES ANDINDUSTRIALAPPLICATIONS(FOUNDAtionfor
ResearchonHumanBehavior:AnnArbor,Mich.,1961)editedbyJeromeP.Lysaughtwas
published. Appendix III contains signiicant material from this book. An excerpt from the
introductionbyThomasH.Millerfollows:
Tointroducethesubject,wewouldliketohaveeachofyouworkthroughtheirstlesson
ofDr.B.F.Skinner’scourseinpsychology.Wewouldhope,incidentally,thataportionof
thematerialissomewhatnewtoyousothatsomelearningwillactuallytakeplaceinyour
encounterwiththesubjectmatter.Further,wehopeitwilldemonstratecertainphenomena
thatwillbespokenofrepeatedlytoday,suchaseffectivereinforcementofthelearnerand
progressattheindividualrate.
Imagine yourself to be a freshman student at Harvard. You are taking, for the irst
time,acollegecourseinpsychology.Thisisyourirstdayinthatcourse.Yourintroduction
tothecourseconsistsofthepresentationoftheprogrammedlearningsequenceonthenext
pages.
Thedirectionsaresimple.Youshouldreadtheirststimulusitem,S-1,considerit,and
thenconstructinyourownwordsthebestpossibleanswer.Assoonasyouhavedonethis,
turnthepageandcompareyouranswerwiththeanswerlistedatR-1,theirstresponseitem.
Proceedthroughtheprogram,goingontoS-2onthenextpage.
Underthesectionentitled“PrinciplesofProgramming,”writtenbyRobertGlaser,weind
thefollowingexcerptstoberevealing:
Itisindeedtruethatthisbookwouldneverhavebeenconceivedwithoutthewell-known
andperhapsundyingworkofProfessorSkinner….ItislargelythroughProfessorSkinner’s
workthatallthistheoryandexcitementaboutteachingmachinesandprogrammedlearning
hascomeabout.
Theessentialtaskinvolvedistoevokethespeciicformsofbehaviorfromthestudent
andthroughappropriatereinforcementbringthemunderthecontrolofspeciicsubjectmatter
stimuli.Asastudentgoesthroughalearningprogramcertainofhisresponsesmustbestrength-
enedandshapedfrominitialunskilledbehaviortosubjectmattercompetence....Ourpresent
knowledgeofthelearningprocesspointsoutthatthroughtheprocessofreinforcement,new
formsofbehaviorcanbecreatedwithagreatdegreeofsubtlety.Thecentralfeatureofthis
processismakingthereinforcementcontingentuponperformancesofthelearner.(Oftenthe
word“reward”isusedtorefertooneclassofreinforcingevents.)...
Theterm“programming”referstotheprocessofconstructingsequencesofinstructional
material in a way that maximizes the rate of acquisition and retention and enhances the
motivationofthestudent....Acentralprocessfortheacquisitionofbehaviorisreinforce-
ment.Behaviorisacquiredasaresultofacontingentrelationshipbetweentheresponseof
anorganismandaconsequentevent.Inorderforthesecontingenciesofreinforcementtobe
effective,certainconditionsmustbemet.Reinforcementmustfollowtheoccurrenceofthe
behaviorbeingtaught.Ifthisisnotthecase,differentandperhapsunwarrantedbehavior
62
willbelearned.
ON JULY 18, 1961, CONGRESSMAN JOHN M. ASHBROOK DELIVERED A SPEECH BEFORE CONgress
entitled“TheMythofFederalAidtoEducationwithoutControl”(CongressionalRecord:pp.
11868–11880).Excerptsfromhisveryimportantspeech,whichdocumentedandexposedthe
plansfortheinternationalizationandtransformationofAmericaneducation,follow:
ThattherewasanydoubtoftheFederalbureaucrats’intentionsinthismatterwaslaidto
restwiththediscoveryofaHealth,Education,andWelfarepublication,AFederalEduca-
tionAgencyfortheFuture,whichisareportoftheOficeofEducation,datedApril1961....
Ifeelthatitspronouncementsareablueprintforcompletedominationanddirectionofour
schoolsfromWashington.Thepublicationwasnotpopularlydistributedandtherewassome
dificultyinobtainingacopy.
Fifty-six pages of indings contain recommendations which call for more and more
FederalparticipationandcontrolandrepeatedlystresstheneedforFederalactivityinformu-
latingeducationalpolicies.Itrecommendsareviewofteacherpreparation,curriculumand
textbooks.Itcallsforanimplementationofinternationaleducationprojectsincooperation
withUNESCOintheUnitedNations,andministriesofeducationabroad.Ofcourse,itrec-
ommendsanenlargedoficeofeducationandtheuseofsocialscientistsaskeyadvisers....
Itplacesstresson“implementinginternationaleducationalprojectsintheUnitedStatesand
bringingmaximumeffectivenesstothetotalinternationaleducationaleffort.”Wouldnotthe
Communists,withtheirfootholdsandiniltrationsintheseorganizations,lovethis?Nodetail
hasbeenoverlooked—“curriculumwillhavetoundergocontinualreshapingandupgrading;
andnewtechniquesandtoolsofinstructionwillhavetobedeveloped”and“teacherprepa-
ration,textbooks,andthecurriculuminthesesubjectieldsmustbeimprovedinthedecade
ahead.”Inthereport…weindthevehicleforFederaldominationofourschools.
…Thebattlelinesarenowdrawnbetweenthosewhoseekcontrolanduniformityofour
localschoolsandthosewhoopposethisfurtherbureaucraticcentralizationinWashington.
ItismysincerehopethattheCongresswillrespondtothischallengeanddefeattheaidto
educationbillswhichwillimplementthegoalsincorporatedinAFederalEducationAgency
fortheFuture.
Ashbrookwentontopointoutthat
[Under]TheMission[asstatedinthereport]…thebasicmissionoftheOfice[ofEducation]
to“promotethecauseofeducation”remainsunchangedsinceitsestablishmentin1867.
…Whatismeantwhenhe[SterlingM.McMurrin,CommissionerofEducation]says,“I
anticipatethatmuchofthisactivitywilltakeplacethroughnormaladministrativeprocesses
withintheOficeandtheDepartment”?InthejargonofWashingtonbureaucracythismeans
thatthereportwillbelargelyimplementedontheadministrativelevelwithoutCongressional
actionandapproval.
TheHouseCommitteeonEducationandLaborrecentlyvotedoutH.R.7904which
would extend the National Defense Education Act.… It is evident that the administration
haschosenthisvehicleforenactingpiecemealtherecommendationsofAFederalEducation
AgencyfortheFuture.
AshbrookcontinuedtoquotefromAgencyfortheFuturewhichhesaid“laidbarethereal
nemesisoftheFederalbureaucrats—thetraditionoflocalcontrol.”Thereportstated,“The
TheSickSixties:c.1961 63
traditionoflocalcontrolshouldnolongerbepermittedtoinhibitOficeofEducationleader-
ship.”TheCommitteeonMissionandOrganizationcalledfor
[An]OficeofEducationalResearchthatwouldadministeraseparateprogramofextra-mural
contracts and grants for basic and experimental research in disciplines bearing upon the
educationalsituation,andwouldservetheotherpartsoftheBureauwithadviceonresearch
problems….SinceitispresumedthattheCenters,orientedtoeducationasitisorganized
and administered, will deal with educational problems directly confronting schools and
colleges,itisbelieveddesirablethatextra-muralresearchbesigniicantlyattentivetobasic
problemsofhumandevelopment,trainingandteaching,regardlessofwhetherornotthey
areacknowledgedasimmediatelypressingproblemsbyeducators.Inshort,someresearch
shouldbeconductedpreciselybecauseitchallengestheassumptionsuponwhichpracticing
educatorsareproceeding.
Theaboveisobviouslyareferencetobehavioralsciencesresearchwhich,untilthattime,
hadnotfoundapermanenthomeatthelocalschooleducatorlevelnorwastheretheneedto
conductsuchresearchinordertochallengethe“assumptionsuponwhichpracticingeducators
areproceeding.”AttachedtotheCommittee’sreportwereappendicesfromwhichthefollow-
ingexcerptsaretaken:
AppendixB
TheMissionoftheOficeofEducationinthe1960s
Theschoolsoftomorrowmustpreparetheirstudentsforlivinginaworldofcontinu-
ousandrapidchange,presentingthemwithunprecedentedsocial,economic,andpolitical
problems.Wemust,infact,givetoeducationacharacterthatwillinitiateandsupporta
processoflifelonglearningifAmericansaretokeepabreastoftheacceleratingadventofnew
knowledgeandoftheincreasingcomplexityofmodernlife.Theseprospectiveconditions
arealreadysuggestedinpartbytherapidlyincreasingdemandforhighlyspecializedand
professionalskills.Duringthecomingdecade,newmeansmustbedevelopedforidentifying
andreleasingstudentpotential;curriculumswillhavetoundergocontinualreshapingand
upgrading;andnewtechniquesandtoolsofinstructionwillhavetobedeveloped.…
•Educationisbasictoefforttobringaboutanenduringlypeacefulworld.
•NextdecadewillbringcloserandmultiplerelationshipswithMinistriesofEduca-
tionabroadandinternationalorganizations,suchasUNESCO,theOrganizationof
AmericanStates,InternationalBureauofEducation.
•VariationsamongStatesandschooldistrictsinstandardsofinstruction,facilities,
staff, and services expose serious inadequacies. Our progress toward the ideal of
equalityofeducationalopportunityistragicallyuneven.
•Intheareaofinternationaleducationalcooperation,inparticular,itmustplaythe
majorrole,sinceonlytheFederalGovernmentcanenterintoagreementswithother
governments.Alongwiththeseresponsibilitiesshouldbeincludedthatofstimulating
andparticipatingactivityintheprocessofformulation,examination,andreformula-
tionofthegoalsofournationalsocietyintermsofeducationalobjectives.
•Thedevelopmentofuniform,consistentandcompatiblestatisticaldatainallStates
andinallinstitutionsofhighereducationwillcallforbothtechnicalandinancial
assistancetothesesourcesfromtheOficeofEducation….
•Economists,sociologists,andothersocialscientistswillbeneededonthestaffto
assistindealingwitheducationalproblemsintheirtotalcontext.
64
NationalDefenseEducationAct(NDEA)Amendmentof1961—AdditionalViews,which
accompaniedH.R.7904,includedveryimportanttestimonyregardingthedangersoftheNDEA
andtherecommendationsmadeintheaboveAgencyfortheFuturereport.Adiscussionofthe
dangersoffederalcontrolfollows:
We[theundersigned]reject,furthermore,thephilosophythattherecanexistFederal
aidtoanydegreewithoutFederalcontrol.WefurtherholdthatthereshouldnotbeFederal
aidwithoutFederalcontrol.ItistheresponsibilityoftheFederalGovernmenttososupervise
andcontrolitsallocationsthatwasteandmisuseiskepttoaminimum.Sincewedonot
desiresuchfederalcontrolintheieldofpubliceducation,wedonotdesireFederalaidto
education.
WeshouldneverpermittheAmericaneducationalsystemtobecomethevehiclefor
experimentationbyeducationalideologues.Acarefulanalysisofthewritingsandstatements
ofvocalandinluentialspokesmeninthegovernmentalandeducationalieldsindicatesa
desireonthepartofsomeoftheseindividualstoutilizetheeducationalsystemasameans
oftransformingtheeconomicandsocialoutlookoftheUnitedStates.
WepointtoastatementbyDr.HaroldRugg,formanyyearsprofessorofeducationat
TeachersCollege,ColumbiaUniversity,whodeclaredinFrontiersofDemocracyonMay15,
1943(pp.247–254)concerningtheteachers’colleges:
Letthembecomepowerfulnationalcentersforthegraduatestudyofideasandtheywill
therebybecomeforcesofcreativeimaginationstandingattheveryvortexoftheideational
revolution.Letusmakeourteachereducationinstitutionsintogreatdirectionindersfor
ournewsociety,pointersoftheway,dynamictrailblazersoftheNewFrontiers.
Wecouldsupplypagesofdocumentationanalyzingthetypeofnewfrontierplanned.It
isindeedaSocialistfrontier.Ithadbeenhopedthatthephilosophyofeducationexpressedby
Dr.Ruggandhiscohortsbackintheearlyforties,hadlongsincebeenrepudiated.However,
inAprilof1961,theU.S.DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfarepublishedabooklet
entitledAFederalEducationAgencyfortheFuture.AnyonewhodoubtsthattheFederalaid
toeducationbillsnowbeforeCongresswouldmeaneventualFederalcontrolofeducation,
shouldcarefullyreadandanalyzeforhimselfwhattheOficeofEducationisplanningfor
tomorrow’sschools.Theyopenlypredicttheir“need”fornewpowersonthepassageofthe
multimillion-dollaraidlegislationnowbeforeus.TheyrecommendthattheirOficeofEdu-
cationbeelevatedtothestatusofU.S.EducationAgency,“torelectthemoreactiveroleof
thisunitofGovernment.”TheyenvisionthenewAgency’smissionasoneof“leadership”
(p.42),“nationalpolicymaking”(p.43),“nationalplanning”(p.47),“topreparestudents
tounderstandtheworldoftomorrow”(p.40).TheOficeofEducationwritersfurthersay
“alongwiththeseresponsibilitiesshouldbeincludedthatofstimulatingandparticipatingin
theprocessofformulation,examination,andreformulationofthegoalsofoursocietyinthe
termsofeducationalobjectives”(p.43).
[Ed.Note:AcarefulwarningwassoundedthroughtheNationalDefenseEducationActAmend-
mentof1961—AdditionalViewswhentheCongressmensaid,“Werejectthattherecanexist
FederalaidtoanydegreewithoutFederalcontrol.Wefurtherholdthatthereshouldnotbe
FederalaidwithoutFederalcontrol.”Thisappliesaswelltoallofthevoucherandtaxcredit
proposalsbeforeustoday(in1999)lyingunderthebannerof“choice.”
TheMissionStatementoftheOficeofEducationclearlycalledfortheestablishmentof
theNationalCenterforEducationStatistics,theNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress,
and the “wholistic” approach to education through the inclusion of social scientists in the
TheSickSixties:c.1961 65
education process—a clear departure from academically oriented educational pursuits into
intrusiveareastotallyunrelatedtoeducation.
Eventakingintoaccountthecollectivistdirectiontakenbyradicaleducatorsintheirsthalf
ofthiscentury,thismovementcouldnothavebornefruithaditnotbeenforPresidentDwight
Eisenhower’sCommissiononNationalGoalswhichproducedGoalsforAmericansin1960.
Thesegoals,alongwiththeimplementationofPPBSandBloom’sTaxonomyofEducational
Objectives,seemtohaveprovidedthecatalystforthe“plannedeconomy”beingimplemented
intheUnitedStatesin1999.]
ONSEPTEMBER2,1961THE87THCONGRESSPASSEDTHEARMSCONTROLANDDISARMAmentAct
(P.L.87–297,H.R.9118)whichestablishedaUnitedStatesArmsControlandDisarmament
Agency.FollowingisthestatementofpurposeforthisimportantAct:
PublicLaw87–297
87thCongress,H.R.9118
September26,1961
ANACT
ToestablishaUnitedStatesArmsControlandDisarmamentAgency.
BeitenactedbytheSenateandHouseofRepresentativesoftheUnitedStatesofAmericain
CongressAssembled,
TITLE1—SHORTTITLE,PURPOSE,ANDDEFINITIONS
SHORTTITLE
SECTION1.ThisActmaybecitedasthe“ArmsControlandDisarmamentAct.”
SECTION2.AsusedinthisAct—
(a)TheTerms“armscontrol”and“disarmament”meantheidentiication,veriication,
inspection,limitation,control,reduction,orelimination,ofarmedforcesandarmamentsof
allkindsunderinternationalagreementincludingthenecessarystepstakenundersuchan
agreementtoestablishaneffectivesystemofinternationalcontrol,ortocreateandstrengthen
internationalorganizationsforthemaintenanceofpeace.
Aspartialfulillmentoftheprovisiontotake“thenecessarysteps…toestablishaneffective
systemofinternationalcontrol,ortocreateandstrengtheninternationalorganizationsforthe
maintenanceofpeace,”PresidentJohnF.Kennedy’sU.S.DepartmentofStatesimultaneously
issuedStateDepartmentPublication7277:TheUnitedStatesProgramforGeneralandComplete
DisarmamentinaPeacefulWorld.ThefollowingareexcerptsfromPublication7277:
[a]worldinwhichadjustmenttochangetakesplaceinaccordancewiththeprinciplesof
theUnitedNations.
Inordertomakepossibletheachievementofthatgoal,theprogramsetsforththefol-
lowingspeciicobjectivestowardwhichnationsshoulddirecttheirefforts.
• Thedisbandingofallnationalarmedforcesandtheprohibitionoftheirreestablish-
mentinanyformwhatsoeverotherthanthoserequiredtopreserveinternalorder
andforcontributionstoaUnitedNationsPeaceForce.
• Theeliminationfromnationalarsenalsofallarmamentsincludingallweaponsof
massdestructionandthemeansfortheirdelivery,otherthanthoserequiredfora
66
UnitedNationsPeaceForceandformaintaininginternalorder.
• Themanufactureofarmamentswouldbeprohibitedexceptforthoseofagreedtypes
andquantitiestobeusedbytheU.N.PeaceForceandthoserequiredtomaintain
internal order. All other armaments would be destroyed or converted to peaceful
purposes.
DuringtheCongressionaldebateovertheArmsControlandDisarmamentAct,thosefavor-
ingtheestablishmentoftheagencycalleditthe“PeaceAgency.”CongressmanJohnAshbrook,
anopponentofthemeasureanditsimplications,calleditthe“SurrenderAgency”andfurther
expressedhisconcernthattheagency“maywellbethebackdoorfortheone-worldersto
accomplishtheirgoalofanInternationalWorldCourt.”Additionally,SenatorJosephS.Clark
ofPennsylvaniadeclaredonthelooroftheU.S.SenateMarch1,1962thatthisnewinterna-
tionalfocuswas“theixed,determinedandapprovedpolicyofthegovernmentoftheUnited
States,”muchtohissorrow.
[Ed.Note:ThegoalperceivedbyAshbrook,ClarkandothersoftheArmsControlandDisarma-
mentActwastofurtherextendtheinluenceandcontroloftheUnitedNationsthroughUnited
StatescontributionstothepoweroftheUNregionalalliancessuchastheNorthAtlanticTreaty
Organization(NATO)andSoutheastAsiaTreatyOrganization(SEATO).Thedevelopmentof
education curriculum by United Nations Educational, Scientiic, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) and its outreach to the youth and communities throughout the world, coupled
withtheinternationalpoliticalandeconomicweightoftheUNthroughNATOandtheUN’s
treaty-makingcapacity,lendscredencetotheconcernsvoicedinCongressandelsewherethat
aone-worldgovernmenthasbeeninthemakingsincetheendofWorldWarII.]
“HARRISONBERGERON,”ONEOFTHESEVERALSHORTSTORIESBYKURTVONNEGUT,JR.,includedin
hisbookWelcometotheMonkeyHouse(DelacortePress/SeymourLawrence:NewYork,1961),
provideduncannyinsightintothenatureofAmerica’sdumbed-downsocietyintheyear2081.
Howtheelitist“planners,managers”dealwithAmericanswhoseintellectsandindependence
createproblemsforthesmoothfunctioningofasocietycontrolledforthebeneitofallisthe
focusofthestory.6Anexcerptfollows:
Theyearwas2081,andeverybodywasequal.Theyweren’tonlyequalbeforeGodand
thelaw.Theywereequaleverywhichway.Nobodywassmarterthananybodyelse.Nobody
wasstrongerorquickerthananybodyelse.Allthisequalitywasduetothe211th,212th,
and213thAmendmentstotheConstitution,andtotheunceasingvigilanceofagentsofthe
UnitedStatesHandicapperGeneral.
[Ed.Note:Thereaderwill,laterinthisbook,recallthisictionalforecastwhenencountering
outcome-based education, Individual Education Plans (IEP’s) for ALL—not just the handi-
capped—and the Reading Excellence Act passed by Congress October 16, 1998, which will
providefederaltaxsupportforSkinnerianphonicsinstructionprogramsdevelopedandused
withspecialeducationchildrenforover25years.In1999HouseEducationandWorkforce
CommitteeChairmanWilliamGoodling(PA)willalsoproposetheremovaloffundingfrom
presenttitlesoftheElementaryandSecondaryAct(ESEA)inordertocompletelyfundtheIndi-
vidualswithDisabilitiesinEducationAct(IDEA).Vonnegut’soficeof“HandicapperGeneral”
TheSickSixties:c.1962 67
maynotwaituntil2081!]
1962
INTHESEPTEMBER3,1962EDITIONOFTHEDANSMOOTREPORT7(VOL.8,NO.36)SMOOT’Sarticle
“StabbedintheBackontheFourthofJuly”dealtwithanIndependenceDayspeechgivenin
PhiladelphiabyPresidentJohnF.Kennedyinwhichhesaid:
ButIwillsayhereandnowonthisdayofindependencethattheUnitedStateswill
bereadyforaDeclarationofInterdependence—thatwewillbepreparedtodiscusswitha
UnitedEuropethewaysandmeansofformingaconcreteAtlanticPartnership—amutually
beneicialpartnershipbetweenthenewunionnowemerginginEuropeandtheoldAmerican
Unionfoundedhere175yearsago.
TodayAmericansmustlearntothinkintercontinentally.
OnJuly11,1961,accordingtoSmoot’sreport:
JamesReston(amemberoftheCouncilonForeignRelationsandanadmirerofPresident
Kennedy)commentedonthePresident’sspeechinaNewYorkTimesarticle:
Thisyear...PresidentKennedywenttoIndependenceHall,ofallplaces,andontheFourth
ofJuly,ofalldays,andvirtuallyproposedtorepealtheDeclarationofIndependencein
favorofadeclarationofinterdependence....Maybeitisjustthedrowsyindolenceofthe
summer, but American opinion seems remarkably receptive, or at least acquiescent, to
PresidentKennedy’sproposalforapartnershipoftheAtlanticnations....InWashington,
therewasnotawhisperofprotestfromasinglenationalleader.
1963
THEROLEOFTHECOMPUTERINFUTUREINSTRUCTIONALSYSTEMSWASPUBLISHEDASTHEMarch/
April,1963supplementofAudiovisualCommunicationReview(Monograph2oftheTechno-
logicalDevelopmentProjectoftheNationalEducationAssociation[Contract#SAE9073],U.S.
OficeofEducation,Dept.ofHealth,EducationandWelfare:Washington,D.C.,1963).James
D.FinnofLosAngeleswastheprincipalinvestigatorandDonaldP.Elywastheconsulting
investigatorforthisproject.(DonaldElyalsobecameprojectdirectorfortheU.S.Departmentof
Education’sProjectBEST:BasicEducationalSkillsthroughTechnology,whichwillbediscussed
inalaterentryinthisbook.)Excerptsfromachapterentitled“EffortlessLearning,Attitude
Changing,andTraininginDecision-Making”follow:
Anotherareaofpotentialdevelopmentincomputerapplicationsistheattitudechang-
ingmachine.Dr.BertramRaveninthePsychologyDepartmentattheUniversityofCalifornia
atLosAngelesisintheprocessofbuildingacomputer-baseddeviceforchangingattitudes.
Thisdevicewillworkontheprinciplethatstudents’attitudescanbechangedeffectively
byusingtheSocraticmethodofaskinganappropriateseriesofleadingquestionsdesigned
torightthebalancebetweenappropriateattitudes,andthosedeemedlessacceptable.For
instance, after irst determining a student’s constellation of attitudes through appropriate
68
testing procedures, the machine would calculate which attitudes are “out of phase” and
whichoftheseareamenabletochange.Ifthestudentwereopposedtoforeigntrade,say,
andafavorabledispositionweresoughtfor,themachinewouldselectanappropriateseries
ofstatementsandquestionsorganizedtorighttheimbalanceinthestudent’sattitudes.The
machine,forinstance,wouldhavedetectedthatthestudentlikedPresidentKennedyand
was against the spread of Communism; therefore, the student would be shown that JFK
favoredforeigntradeandthatforeigntradetounderdevelopedcountrieshelpedtoarrestthe
Communistiniltrationofthesegovernments.Ifthestudent’sattitudestowardKennedyand
againstCommunismweresuficientlystrong,Dr.Ravenwouldhypothesizethatapositive
changeinattitudetowardforeigntradewouldbeeffectivelybroughtaboutbyshowingthe
studenttheinconsistencyofhisviews.Thereisconsiderableevidencethatsuchtechniques
doeffectivelychangeattitudes.
Admittedly,trainingindecision-makingskillsisalegitimategoalofeducationinthis
ageofautomation,buttheproblemremains—doestheeducatorknowwhatvaluestoattach
tothedifferentoutcomesofthesedecisions?...Whataboutstudentswhosevaluesareoutof
linewiththeacceptablevaluesofdemocraticsociety?Shouldtheybetaughttoconformto
someoneelse’sacceptedjudgmentofpropervalues?Trainingindecision-makingisultimately
compoundedwithtraininginvaluejudgmentand,assuch,becomesacontroversialsubject
thatneedstoberesolvedbyeducatorsbeforethetoolscanbeputtouse.
UNIVERSITYOFPITTSBURGH’SLEARNINGRESEARCHANDDEVELOPMENTCENTERINTROducedin1963
theIndividuallyPrescribedInstruction(IPI)modelwhichwouldallowfortheimplementation
ofcontinuousprogressprogramsnecessaryforvaluechangeandschool-to-worktraining.A
goodexampleofwhatIndividuallyPrescribedInstructionisdesignedtodoisgiveninPlanned
ChangeinEducation:ASystemsApproach,editedbyDavidS.BushnellofProjectFocusand
DonaldRappaportofPriceWaterhouse&Co.(Harcourt,BraceandJovanovich,Inc.:NewYork,
1971).Excerptsfromchapter7,“IndividualizingInstruction”byRobertG.Scanlon,program
directorfortheIndividualizingLearningProgramofResearchforBetterSchools,Inc.,andMary
V.Brown,assistantprogramdirectortotheproject,arereprintedbelow:
IPIisaninstructionalsystemthatpermitstheteachertoplanandconductaprogram
ofstudiestailoredtotheneedsandcharacteristicsofeachstudent.Itsprocedureshavebeen
designedtoenabletheschooltomeetmoreoftheneedsofmoreindividualpupilsandtake
anewdirectioninthecontinuingsearchforwaystoadaptinstructiontoindividualpupils.
Therateoflearning,amountofpractice,typeofmaterials,andmodeofinstructionarethe
parametersofindividualdifferencesemphasizedinIPI.
Duringtheschoolyear1963–64,theLearningResearchandDevelopmentCenterand
the Baldwin-Whitehall public schools (a suburban Pittsburgh school system) initiated an
experimentalprojecttoinvestigatethefeasibilityofasystemofindividualizedinstructionin
anentireK–6school(Oakleaf).Thiscameasaresultofaseriesofexploratorystudiesbegun
in1951–1962designedtotestpreliminarynotionsinasingleclassroom.Theworkstarted
withtheuseofprogrammedinstructioninanintactclassroom.
Asworkproceeded,itbecameapparentthatthesigniicantindividualizationfeatureof
programmedinstructioncouldnotbeaugmentedunlesstheorganizationoftheclassroomwas
changedtopermitamorelexiblecontext.OutofthisexperiencegrewthecurrentIndividu-
allyPrescribedInstructionprojectinwhichvariouscombinationsofinstructionalmaterials,
testingprocedures,andteacherpracticesarebeingusedtoaccommodateindividualstudent
TheSickSixties:c.1963 69
differences.
IPIisasystembasedonasetofspeciiedobjectivescorrelatedwithdiagnosticinstru-
ments,curriculummaterials,teachingtechniques,andmanagementcapabilities.Theobjec-
tivesofthesystemare:
1.topermitstudentmasteryofinstructionalcontentatindividuallearningrates;
2.toensureactivestudentinvolvementinthelearningprocess;
3.toencouragestudentinvolvementinlearningthroughself-directedandself-initiated
activities;
4.toencouragestudentevaluationofprogresstowardmasteryandtoprovideinstruc-
tionalmaterialsandtechniquesbasedonindividualneedsandstyles.(pp.93–95)
[Ed.Note:IPIisnecessarytothesuccessofoutcome-basededucationbecauseitdoesaway
withnorm-referencedtestingandthetraditionalgradingsystem.TheCarnegieUnitisalsojeop-
ardizedbytheintroductionofIPI.ThefederallyfundedlaboratoryResearchforBetterSchools,
Inc.,inPhiladelphia,Pennsylvaniaield-testedIPI,thussettingthestageforSkinnerianmastery
learning/directinstructionandtheuseofSkinner’s“box”(thecomputer)tobeincorporated
intocurriculum.HomeschoolersandChristianeducatorsshouldberemindedthatthisproject
isrelectedinmanyofthecurricularandorganizationaldesignsadvocatedfortheiruse.]
IN1963ANATIONALPROJECTWASINITIATEDWHICHWASTHEFORERUNNEROFTHENAtionalAssess-
mentofEducationalProgress(NAEP)andbecamethemodelforindividualstateassessments
whichhavecreatedenormouscontroversyduetotheirfocusonattitudinalandvaluechange.
ThisstudywaspresentedinAPlanforEvaluatingtheQualityofEducationalProgramsinPenn-
sylvania:HighlightsofaReportfromEducationalTestingServicetotheStateBoardofEducation
oftheCommonwealthofPennsylvania(EducationalTestingService:Princeton,N.J.,June30,
1965).ThecombinationoftheSkinnerianmethodoftrainingandtheassessments’emphasis
onchangeinattitudes,valuesandbeliefsresultedinwhattheaverageparentconsidereda
“lethalconcoction,”absolutelyguaranteedtocreatea“robotizedcitizenfortheNewPagan
Age.”AlthoughAppendixIVofthisbookincludesverbatimtextfromthePlan,thefollowing
excerptsprovideafairlyclearpictureoftheintentofthoseinvolvedinthisseminalproject:
ThisCommitteeonQualityEducationsoughttheadviceofexperts[includingDr.Urie
BronfenbrenneroftheDepartmentofSociology,CornellUniversity;Dr.DavidR.Krathwohl
oftheCollegeofEducation,MichiganStateUniversity[aco-authorwithBenjaminBloom
ofTheTaxonomyofEducationalObjectives:AffectiveDomain];andDr.RalphTyler,director
oftheCenterforAdvancedStudyintheBehavioralSciencesinPaloAlto,California.These
expertsconstitutedaStandingAdvisoryCommitteefortheproject....
It[theCommittee]concludedthataneducationalprogramistoberegardedasadequate
onlyifitcanbeshowntocontributetothetotaldevelopmentofpupils....TheCommittee
recognizesthatmanyofthedesirablequalitiesthatschoolsshouldhelppupilsacquireare
dificulttodeineandevenmoredificulttomeasure.Itfeels,nevertheless,thatanyevalua-
tionprocedurethatleavesthesequalitiesoutofaccountisdeicientasabasisfordetermining
whethertheprogramofanyschooldistrictiseducationallyadequate....
Theirststepinjudgingthequalityofeducationalprogramsistodecideonthepurposes
ofeducation.Whatshouldchildrenbeanddoandknow[emphasisinoriginal]asaconse-
quenceofhavinggonetoschool?Whatarethegoalsoftheschools?Thesequestionshave
beenhighontheagendaoftheCommitteeonQualityEducation.Itsmemberswantedaset
70
ofgoalsthatwouldrelecttheproblemssocietyfacesintheworldoftoday....Measuresof
conventionalacademicachievement,forinstance,areatamoreadvancedstageofdevelop-
mentthanmeasuresofattitudeandvalues.
Measuresofprogresstowardthetengoalsareunequallydeveloped.Somearemore
dependableandvalidthanothers.Forexample,testsofreadingcomprehensionarerelatively
welldevelopedandreasonablywellunderstoodwhiletestsofsuchqualitiesasself-under-
standingandtolerancearelesswelldevelopedandpoorlyunderstood....Wheretheavailable
measuresareclearlyinadequate,intensiveresearchanddevelopmentshouldbeundertaken
immediately to bring them to the point where they can have full effect in the evaluation
program.
JAMESCLAVELLWROTETHECHILDREN’SSTORY(DELACORTEPRESS/ELEANORFRIEDE:NEWYork,
1963).InthisbookClavell,authorofKingRat,Tai-Pan,ShogunandNobleHouse,explainsmost
eloquentlyhowlittlechildrencanhavetheirmindsmanipulatedintobelievinganythingthe
teacherwantsthemtobelieve,eventothepointofbelievingtheirparentsareold-fashioned
andshouldgobacktoschooltounlearnbadthoughts,andthatGoddoesnotexist.Onthe
dustjacketofthebookwelearn:
ItwasasimpleincidentinthelifeofJamesClavell—atalkwithhisyoungdaughter
justhomefromschool—thatinspiredthischillingtaleofwhatcouldhappenintwenty-ive
quietlydevastatingminutes.He[Clavell]writes:“thechildren’sstorycameintobeingthat
day.ItwasthenthatIreallyrealizedhowvulnerablemychild’smindwas—anymindfor
thatmatter—undercontrolledcircumstances.”
Someexcerptsfromthelastpagesofthisremarkablebookfollow:
“Sitdown,Johnny,andwe’llstartlearninggoodthingsandnotworryaboutgrown-up
badthoughts.Ohyes,”shesaidwhenshesatdownatherseatagain,brimmingwithhappiness.
“Ihavealovelysurpriseforyou.You’reallgoingtostayovernightwithus.Wehavealovely
roomandbedsandlotsoffood,andwe’llalltellstoriesandhavesuchalovelytime.”
“Oh,good,”thechildrensaid.
“CanIstayuptilleighto’clock?”Maryaskedbreathlessly.
“Well,asit’sourirstnewday,we’llallstayuptoeight-thirty.Butonlyifyoupromise
togorighttosleepafterward.”
Thechildrenallpromised.Theywereveryhappy.Jennysaid,“Butirstwegottosay
ourprayers.Beforewegotosleep.”
TheNewTeachersmiledather.“Ofcourse.Perhapsweshouldsayaprayernow.In
someschoolsthat’sacustom,too.”Shethoughtamoment,andthefaceswatchedher.Then
shesaid,“Let’spray.Butlet’sprayforsomethingverygood.Whatshouldweprayfor?”
“BlessMommaandDaddy,”Dannysaidimmediately.
“That’sagoodidea,Danny.Ihaveone.Let’sprayforcandy.That’sagoodidea,isn’t
it?”
Theyallnoddedhappily.
So,followingtheirNewTeacher,theyallclosedtheireyesandsteepledtheirhands
together,andtheyprayedwithherforcandy.
TheNewTeacheropenedhereyesandlookedarounddisappointedly.“Butwhere’sour
candy?Godisall-seeingandiseverywhere,andifwepray,Heanswersourprayers.Isn’t
thattrue?”
TheSickSixties:c.1964 71
“Iprayedforapuppyofmyownlotsoftimes,butInevergotone,”Dannysaid.
“Maybewedidn’tprayhardenough.Perhapsweshouldkneeldownlikeit’sdonein
church.”
SotheNewTeacherkneltandallthechildrenkneltandtheyprayedvery,veryhard.
Buttherewasstillnocandy.
BecausetheNewTeacherwasdisappointed,thechildrenwereverydisappointed.Then
she said, “Perhaps we’re using the wrong name.” She thought a moment and then said,
“Insteadofsaying‘God,’let’ssay‘OurLeader.’Let’spraytoOurLeaderforcandy.Let’spray
veryhardanddon’topenyoureyestillIsay.”
Sothechildrenshuttheireyestightlyandprayedveryhard,andastheyprayed,the
NewTeachertookoutsomecandyfromherpocketandquietlyputapieceoneachchild’s
desk.ShedidnotnoticeJohnny—aloneofallthechildren—watchingherthroughhishalf-
closedeyes.
Shewentsoftlybacktoherdeskandtheprayerended,andthechildrenopenedtheir
eyesandtheystaredatthecandyandtheywereoverjoyed.
“I’mgoingtopraytoOurLeadereverytime,”Marysaidexcitedly.
“Me,too,”Hildasaid.“CouldweeatOurLeader’scandynow,teacher?”
“Oh,let’s,please,please,please.”
“SoOurLeaderansweredyourprayers,didn’the?”
“Isawyouputthecandyonourdesks!”Johnnyburstout.“Isawyou….Ididn’tclose
myeyes,andIsawyou.Youhad‘eminyourpocket.Wedidn’tgetthemwithpraying.You
putthemthere.”
Allthechildren,appalled,staredathimandthenattheirNewTeacher.Shestoodat
thefrontoftheclassandlookedbackatJohnnyandthenatallofthem.
“Yes,Johnny,you’requiteright.You’reavery,verywiseboy.Children,Iputcandyon
yourdesks.Soyouknowthatitdoesn’tmatterwhomyouask,whomyoushutyoureyesand
‘pray’to—toGodoranyone,evenOurLeader—noonewillgiveyouanything.Onlyanother
humanbeing.”ShelookedatDanny.“Goddidn’tgiveyouthepuppyyouwanted.Butifyou
workhard,Iwill.OnlyIorsomeonelikemecangiveyouthings.PrayingtoGodoranything
oranyoneforsomethingisawasteoftime.”[allemphasesinoriginal]
1964
ANARTICLEENTITLED“ETHICALEDUCATION”WASPUBLISHEDINFREEMIND,THEJOURNALofthe
AmericanHumanistAssociation,initsJune/July1964issue.Thefollowingisanexcerpt:
Atthe1962HumanistmeetinginLosAngelesfourwomenattendedaworkshoponhumanist
familyservicesandbegantolaythegroundworkfortheAHA’swidespreadinvolvementin
ethicaleducationforchildren....Thepurposeofahumanistethicaleducationprogramshould
betoprovidethechildwithtoolsbywhichhecanmakehisowndecisions.
[Ed.Note:Fromthistimeoneffortswouldbemadetodevelopandimplementhumanistic(no
right/nowrong)valueseducationundermanylabels,justafewofwhichwere/are:values
clariication;decisionmaking;criticalthinking;problemsolving;andmoral,character,citizen-
shipandciviceducation.]
72
IN1964THECARNEGIECORPORATIONAPPOINTEDRALPHTYLERCHAIRMANOFTHECOMmitteeon
AssessingtheProgressofEducationwhichcontinuedtheprojectbegunin1963thatwouldin
1969becometheNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP).
[Ed.Note:In1999NAEPisfundedbythefederalgovernmentandwidelyusedacrosstheUnited
States.IndividualstatesarepassinglegislationtouseNAEPasastatetestandparentsand
legislatorsaremistakenlybelievingthatthese“tests”(assessments)willgivetheminformation
abouttheperformanceoftheirchildreninacademicsubjects.Thisisamisconception;NAEP
tracksconformitytogovernment-generatedgoals.]
1965
THEBEHAVIORALSCIENCETEACHEREDUCATIONPROGRAM(BSTEP),FUNDEDBYTHEU.S.Depart-
mentofHealth,EducationandWelfare,wasinitiatedin1965atMichiganStateUniversityand
carriedoutbetweentheyears1965and1969.BSTEP’spurposewastochangetheteacherfrom
atransmitterofknowledge/contenttoasocialchangeagent/facilitator/clinician.Traditional
publicschooladministratorswereappalledatthisnewroleforteachers.(Formoreextensive
readingoftheBSTEPproposal,seeAppendixV.)
ELEMENTARYANDSECONDARYEDUCATIONACT(ESEA)OF1965WASPASSEDBYCONGRESS.This
markedtheendoflocalcontrolandthebeginningofnationalization/internationalizationof
educationintheUnitedStates.Useofgoal-setting,ManagementbyObjectives(MBO),Plan-
ning,Programming,BudgetingSystems(PPBS)andsystemsmanagementforaccountability
purposeswouldbetotallyfundedbyanddirectedfromthefederallevel.Thetableofcontents
forESEAincluded:
• Title I—Financial Assistance to local educational agencies for education of children
fromlow-incomefamilies
• TitleII—Schoollibraryresources,textbooks,andotherinstructionalmaterials
• TitleIII—Supplementaryeducationalcentersandservices,guidancecounseling,and
testing
• TitleIV—Libraries,learningresources,educationalinnovation,andsupport
• TitleV—GrantstostrengthenStateDepartmentsofEducation
• TitleVI—Vacant
• TitleVII—Bilingualeducationprograms
• TitleVIII—Generalprovisions
• TitleIX—Ethnicheritageprogram
ESEAtargetedlowincome/minoritystudentsforexperimentationwithSkinnerian“basic
skills” programs; i.e., Follow Through [mastery learning/direct instruction], Right-to-Read,
ExemplaryCenterforReadingInstruction(ECRI),ProjectINSTRUCT,etc.Bytheendofthe
1980sstatedepartmentsofeducationwouldbereceivingbetween60–75%oftheiroperating
budgetfromtheU.S.DepartmentofEducation—whichwasnoteveninexistenceatthetime
ofpassageoftheESEA!
TheSickSixties:c.1965 73
PRESIDENTLYNDONB.JOHNSONISSUEDANEXECUTIVEORDERIN1965INTRODUCINGTHEPlanning,
ProgrammingandBudgetingSystem(PPBS)intousethroughoutalldepartmentsoftheentire
federalgovernment.
THEEDUCATIONCOMMISSION OF THESTATES(ECS) WAS CREATED IN1965“IN ORDER TObring
somedegreeoforderoutofthischaos,”wroteHarvardUniversityPresidentJamesB.Conant
in1964inreferencetoeducationpolicymakingintheUnitedStates.ECSwastobemadeup
ofdues-paying“members”comprisingrepresentativesofeachparticipatingstate’slegislative
EducationCommitteesandtheirgovernors.TheCompetency-BasedEducation(CBE)move-
ment—whichevolvedintooutcome-basededucation(OBE),bothusingmasterylearningasa
base—wasorchestratedbyECS.SinceECSservedastheresourceandcoordinatorofinformation
lowingtostatelegislativecommitteesandgovernors’oficesacrosstheland,itisnowonder
thatallstatesendeduphavingthesamecurriculum.
A very important article, entitled “E.C.S. at 20: The Compact’s Potential Is Still To Be
Realized”byThomasTochwhichcoveredthehistoryofECS,wasprintedinEducationWeek
(October24,1984).Excerptsfollow:
“Somedegreeoforderneedstobebroughtoutofthischaos,”wroteJamesB.Conant,
the President of Harvard University, in 1964 in reference to education policy making in
thenation.“Wecannothaveanationaleducationalpolicy,”headdedinhisbookShaping
EducationalPolicy,“butwemightbeabletoevolveanationwidepolicy.”Thesolution,Mr.
Conantconcluded,wasa“newventureincooperativefederalism,”acompactamongthe
statestocreateanorganizationtofocusnationalattentiononthepressingeducationissues
oftheday.Thefollowingspring,theCarnegieCorporationandtheFordFoundationawarded
agranttoTerrySanford,whohadrecentlyleftthegovernorshipofNorthCarolina,totrans-
formtheConantideaintoreality.JohnW.GardnerwasCarnegie’spresidentatthetime.A
preliminarydraftofthecompactwascompletedbyJulyandendorsedbyrepresentatives
fromall50statesandtheterritoriesinSeptember.Withinivemonths,10stateshadratiied
theagreement,givingitlegalstatus.OutofthecompactwasborntheEducationCommission
oftheStates(E.C.S.)....
“Weinventedalittledevicetogetthecompactapprovedquickly,”Mr.Sanford,nowthe
PresidentofDukeUniversity,saidrecently.“Wedidn’tneedmoneyfromthelegislatures,we
hadplentyoffoundationfunding,soweagreedthatthegovernorscouldratifyitbyexecu-
tiveorder.”...
ButsincetheestablishmentunderGovernorJamesB.HuntoftheCommission’sTask
ForceonEducationforEconomicGrowthtwoyearsago,ECS’srolehasbeguntochange.The
taskforce’sreportActionforExcellencejoinedANationatRiskandtheCarnegieFoundation
fortheAdvancementofTeaching’sHighSchoolactedasprincipalvoicesinthechorusof
reform.ItgainedGov.Huntandseveralother“educationgovernors”whowerelinkedtoECS
widenationalpublicity,and,inmakingaseriesofspeciicreformrecommendations,thrust
ECSintothepolicy-makingarena.
PSYCHOSYNTHESIS: A MANUAL OF PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES (PSYCHOSYNTHESIS REsearch
Foundation:CrucibleimprintofAquarianPress,ThorsonsPublishingGroup:Northampton-
shire,England,1965)byDr.RobertoAssagioli,apracticingpsychiatristinFlorence,Italy,was
published.
74
Roberto Assagioli deined “psychosynthesis” as the “formation or reconstruction of
a new personality—the transpersonal or ‘spiritual Self.’” An excerpt from Psychosynthesis
explained:
Whatdistinguishespsychosynthesisfrommanyotherattemptsatpsychologicalunder-
standingisthepositionwetakeastotheexistenceofaspiritualSelf.…Weconsiderthatthe
spiritualisasbasicasthematerialpartofman…essentiallyweincludewithinthestudy
ofpsychologicalfactsallthosewhichmayberelatedtothehigherurgeswithinmanwhich
tendstomakehimgrowtowardsgreaterrealizationofhisspiritualessence.Ourposition
afirmsthatallthesuperiormanifestationsofthehumanpsyche,suchascreativeimagination,
intuition,aspiration,genius,arefactswhichareasrealandasimportantasarethecondi-
tionedrelexes,andtherefore,aresusceptibletoresearchandtreatmentjustasscientiically
asconditionedrelexes.
As psychology began to assert itself as an “acceptable science” in the “sick sixties,”
Assagioli’s“psychosynthesis”conceptiscreditedwithcreatingaparadigmthatenabledan
integration(synthesis)ofpsychologywithspirituality.Assagioliemphasizedaholisticworld-
view,layingthegroundworkforthefutureeducationalpedagogyof“holisticeducation”of
the1990s—teachingthe“wholechild.”Hewasalsotheoriginatorofagroupofexercisesfor
“SpiritualPsychosynthesis”basedonwhatwenowcall“roleplaying.”Theseinclude:“onthe
LegendoftheHolyGrail,”“onDante’sDivineComedy,”and“ontheBlossomingoftheRose.”
Assagioli’sviewofthehumanpsycheincludedaprogressionfromlowertohigherorder
“consciousness”(orthinking)whichissimilarto“NewAge”ideasabouttheevolutionofman
intoa“collectiveconsciousness.”Theseideaslaidthephilosophicalfoundationforcharacter
education,valuesclariication,andconsciousness-alteringtechniquesusedintheclassroom.For
example,the“sicksixties”werehallmarkedbytheemergenceof“transpersonalpsychology,”a
designationtypiiedtodaybythestatement,“I’mOK,you’reOK.”Oneofitspromoters—anda
discipleofRobertoAssagioli—wasJackCanield.Canield’snameappearsonmanyeducation
curriculaandtrainingprogramsutilizingbehaviormodiicationforvaluesclariication.
Signiicantly,RobertoAssagioli’sselectedappendicesinPsychosynthesisincludeanarticle
entitled “Initiated Symbol Projection” (ISP) written by a German psychiatrist named Hans-
carlLeurner.AccordingtoanotebyAssagioli,“Dr.Leurnernowpreferstocallhismethod
‘GuidedAffectiveImagery’”—aformofguidedimagerywidelypracticedinelementaryand
secondaryclassrooms,businesstrainingsessions,counselingsessions,andreligiousservices.
AdescriptionofwhatLeurnercalledhis“psycho-diagnosticandpsycho-therapeutictechnique”
isprovided:
Thesubjectisseatedinacomfortablechairoronacouch(lyingdown),askedtoclosehis
eyes, and induced to relax…a light hypnoid state has proved valuable. Deep and regular
breathing…[t]hen,inapsychologicalstatecharacterizedbydiminishedconsciousnessofthe
outerworld,reducedconsciouscriticismandself-control,thesubjectisaskedtovisualize….
Inthephenomenologyofmedicalpsychology,theyaresimilarto“hypnogicvisions.”
[Ed.Note:Thefactthatguidedimageryisapsychologicaltechniqueraisesaquestionregarding
itsuseintheclassroombyteacherswhoarenotprofessionaltherapists.]
TheSickSixties:c.1966 75
1966
PSYCHOLOGY BYWILBERTJAMESMCKEACHIE OF THEUNIVERSITY OFMICHIGAN ANDCHARlotte
LacknerDoyleofCornellUniversity(Addison-WesleyPublishingCo.,Inc.:NewYork,1966)was
published.Anexcerptfromachapterentitled“WhatDoesaPsychologistObserve?”follows:
Watson’sapproachtopsychology,withitsemphasisonobservablebehavior,becameknown
asbehaviorism.Themajorproblemwiththisapproachwasthatitexcludedfrompsychol-
ogysomeofitsmajorconcerns.Noonecandirectlyobservethemotives,feelings,percep-
tions,thoughts,andmemoriesofothers.Re-deiningthoughtintermsofmusclemovements
madethoughtameasurableevent,butignoredsomeofthepropertiesofthoughtthatmake
itpsychologicallyinteresting.Thebehavioristsbecamecommittedtothestudyofmuscle
movementsinplaceofananalysisofthought.(pp.4–5)
1967
THECOMPUTER INAMERICANEDUCATION EDITED BYDOND.BUSHNELL ANDDWIGHTW.Allen
(JohnWiley&Sons:NewYork,1967)waspublished.Excerptsfollow:
Thetechnologyforcontrollingothersexistsanditwillbeused,giventhepersistence
ofpower-seekingmotives.Furthermore,wewillneedtouseit,sincethenecessarysocial
changescannotcomeaboutiftheaffectedpeopledonotunderstandanddesirethem....How
doweeducate“run-of-the-mill”citizensformembershipinademocraticsociety?...Howdo
weteachpeopletounderstandtheirrelationshiptolongrangeplanning?...Andhowdowe
teachpeopletobecomfortablewiththeprocessofchange?Shouldweeducateforthis?We
shallprobablyhaveto.Buthow?...
Theneedforeducatingtoembracechangeisnotlimitedtoyoungsters....Education
fortomorrow’sworldwillinvolvemorethanprogrammingstudentsbyacomputer;itwill
equally involve the ways in which we program... parents to respond to the education...
childrengetforthiskindofworld.Totheextentwesucceedwiththeyoungstersbutnot
withtheparents,wewillhave...averyseriousconsequence:anincreasingseparationofthe
youngfromtheirparents....Itwillhavepsychologicalrepercussions,probablyproducingin
thechildrenbothguiltandhostility(arisingfromtheirrejectionoftheirparents’viewsand
valuesinlifestyles).(p.7)
PROJECTFOLLOWTHROUGH WAS INITIATED IN1967, FUNDED UNDER THEECONOMICOPportunity
Actof1964,andcarriedoutasapartofPresidentLyndonJohnson’s“WaronPoverty.”Follow
ThroughwasadministeredbytheU.S.OficeofEducationintheDepartmentofHealth,Edu-
cationandWelfare.OneofthemodelsofinstructionexaminedintrialunderFollowThrough
wastheDirectInstruction(DI)modeldevelopedbyW.C.BeckerandSiegfriedEngelmann.
DirectInstructionisbasedontheworkofthelateB.F.SkinnerofHarvard,EdwardThorndike
ofColumbiaUniversity,andIvanPavlovofRussia,eventhoughtheirworksarenotdirectly
quotedintheDIliterature.
AliceM.Rivlin,8amemberoftheBrookingsInstitutestaff,inalectureentitled“Systematic
76
ThinkingforSocialAction”fortheinstitute’sH.RowanGaitherLecturesSeriesattheUniversity
ofCaliforniaatBerkeley(underthesponsorshipoftheGraduateSchoolofBusinessAdminis-
trationandtheCenterforResearchinManagementScience,1970),criticallyevaluatedProject
FollowThroughanditsresults.FollowingareexcerptsfromRivlin’sspeech:
TheFollowThroughprogramisanotherexampleofacurrentattempttousefederal
fundstolearnhowtoproduceserviceseffectively—inthiscase,servicesforyoungchildren.
FollowThroughisaquasi-experiment,withastatisticaldesignfarlesssophisticatedthanthat
oftheNewJerseyincomemaintenanceexperiment.Therewasevidencethatchildrencould
moveaheadrapidlyinagoodpreschoolprogram,butthatwhentheyweredumpedback
intothesamedismalslumschoolthegainswerelost.TheobjectiveofFollowThroughwas
todeterminewhetherthegainsachievedthroughHeadStartcouldbemaintainedthrough
specialprogramsintheearlyyearsofelementaryschool....Theapproacheswereextremely
varied.TheBecker-Engelmannprogram[DirectInstruction],developedattheUniversityof
Illinois,emphasizedintensiveworkwithsmallgroupsofchildrenonthecognitiveskillsthat
deprivedchildrenoftenlack—verbalexpression,reading,mathskills.Themethodsinvolve
rapid-irequestioningofstudentsbyinstructorswithrewardsintheformofpraiseandstars
fortherightanswers.Itisahighly-disciplinedapproachandhasbeendescribedasanintel-
lectual“pressurecooker.”...
SinceFollowThroughwasnotascientiicallydesignedexperiment,thereisreasonto
questionwhethervalidconclusionscanbedrawnfromitabouttherelativeeffectivenessof
thevariousapproaches....Inanycase,therearenotenoughprojectsofanytypetosupport
deinitivestatementsaboutwhatworksbestwithdifferentkindsofpopulations.
[Ed.Note:AlthoughtheevaluationofFollowThroughcitedsomeacademicandself-esteem
gainsatsomeDirectInstructionmodelsites,itwouldhavebeenvirtuallyimpossibleforthese
gainsnottohavebeenmadeconsideringthemodelswithwhichtheywerecompared—the
non-academicfocusofthe“touchy-feely”openclassroom.HadtheDirectInstructionmodel
beenincompetitionwithatraditionalphonicsprogramwhichwasnotbasedonanimalbehav-
ioralpsychology(“scientiic,research-based”),itismostunlikelyitwouldhavebeenableto
pointtoanygainsatall.Unsuspectingparentsinthe1990sseekingmorestructuredacademic
educationfortheirchildrenthancanbefoundinschoolsexperimentingwithconstructivistic
developmentalprograms(wholelanguage,etc.)areturningtoDI,notrealizingtheyareembrac-
ingamethodbasedonmasterylearningandanimalpsychology.]
PLANNING,PROGRAMMING,BUDGETINGSYSTEM(PPBS)WASAPPLIEDTOEDUCATIONIN1967.During
RonaldReagan’stenureasgovernorofCalifornia,PPBSwasinstalledintheCaliforniaschool
system.TheCaliforniaAssemblypassedAB61(1967)whichauthorizedapilotstudyofPPBS;
ACR198(1970)createdtheJointCommitteeonEducationalGoalsandEvaluation;AAB2800
(1971)andSB1526(1971)setuptheessentialPPBSsubsystemstofacilitatefederalfundingand
centralizedcontrolofstateschools’goals,evaluationandmanagementofallschoolprograms
and people; AB 293 (1971), the “Stull Bill,” provided for teacher evaluation; the California
StateBoardofEducationapprovedProgramBudgetinginanewCaliforniaSchoolAccounting
Manual(PhaseIofPPBS);andReagansignedAB1207(1973),givingtheaccountingmanual
legalmandateindistrictsthroughoutthestate.PPBSimplementationineducation(andinother
governmentalfunctions)wasgivenconsiderableimpetusbyGovernorReaganwho“strongly
expressed”theintentofhisadministrationtoactivatePPBS,amanagementtoolofpolitical
TheSickSixties:c.1968 77
changethroughfunding,inImplementingPPBinState,CityandCounty:AReportonthe5–5–5
Project.(State-LocalFinancesProjectofTheGeorgeWashingtonUniversity:Washington,D.C.,
June,1969).ThisentrysummarizesthisReport,publishedincooperationwith:TheCouncilof
StateGovernments,TheInternationalCityManagersAssociation,TheNationalAssociationof
Counties,TheNationalGovernors’Conference,TheNationalLeagueofCities,andTheUnited
StatesConferenceofMayors.
1968
B.F.SKINNER:THEMANANDHISIDEASBYRICHARDI.EVANSWASPUBLISHED(DUTTONandCom-
pany:NewYork,1968).Evans’sexcellentcritiqueofthetotalitarianviewsofProfessorSkinner
wasfundedbytheNationalScienceFoundation.Extensivequotesfromthisbookareincluded
inAppendixXXIV.Afewpertinentexcerptsfollow:
“Icouldmakeapigeonahighachieverbyreinforcingitonaproperschedule.”...His[Skin-
ner’s]concernforwhathebelievestobetheinadequacyofourformaleducationsystemled
toapplyingtheprinciplesofoperantconditioningtoalearningsystemwhichhecalledthe
teachingmachine,butSkinner’sapproachisconcernedwithmorethanmerelymethodsand
techniques.Hechallengestheveryfoundationsbywhichmaninoursocietyisshapedand
controlled.(p.10)…
…“[F]orthepurposeofanalyzingbehaviorwehavetoassumemanisamachine.(p.
24)...Youcaninducehimtobehaveaccordingtothedictatesofsocietyinsteadofhisown
selishinterest.”(p.42)…
…“Ishouldnotbotherwithordinarylearningtheory,forexample.Iwouldeliminate
mostsensorypsychologyandIwouldgivethemnocognitivepsychologywhatsoever[mean-
ingthestudents,ed.].”(p.91)“...Itisn’tthepersonwhoisimportant,it’sthemethod.Ifthe
practiceofpsychologysurvives,that’sthemainobjective.It’sthesamewithculturalpractices
ingeneral:noonesurvivesasaperson.”(p.96)“...Itdoesbothermethatthousandsofteach-
ersdon’tunderstand,becauseimmediategainsaremorelikelyintheclassroomthaninthe
clinic.Teacherswilleventuallyknow—theymust[understand]—andIammoreconcerned
withpromotingmytheoriesineducation[operantconditioning].”(p.96)“...Ishouldliketo
seeourgovernmentsetupalargeeducationalagencyinwhichspecialistscouldbesentto
trainteachers.”(p.109)
In1953SkinnerwroteScienceandHumanBehavior(Macmillan&Co.:NewYork,1953),within
whichisfoundthefollowingquote:
Aratherobvioussolutionistodistributethecontrolofhumanbehavioramongmanyagencies
whichhavesolittleincommonthattheyarenotlikelytojointogetherinadespoticunit.In
generalthisistheargumentfordemocracyagainsttotalitarianism.Inatotalitarianstateall
agenciesarebroughttogetherunderasinglesuper-agency.
[Ed.Note:Obviously,evenbeforetheU.S.DepartmentofEducationwasestablishedandorga-
nizedteacherin-servicetraininghadtakenabehaviorist(performance-based)turn,Skinnerwas
advocatingtheseveryoperantconditioningmethodsinallphasesofeducation.Beginningin
1965,thefederalgovernmentimplementedseveralteachereducationprogramsbasedonper-
formance—performance-basedteachereducation—whichwouldfulillSkinner’splan.Skinner
78
wasalwaysmoreconcernedwith“how”teachersteachthanwith“what”teachersteach.The
readershouldrefertoBettyeLewis’sinesummaryoftheestablishmentoftheBehavioralSci-
enceTeacherEducationProgram(BSTEP)inAppendixVfordescriptionsoftheseprograms.]
THEMAY1968ISSUEOFTHEEDUCATIONALJOURNALTHEINSTRUCTORRANANARTICLEBYDr.Paul
Brandwein,adjunctprofessoratUniversityofPittsburgh,entitled“SchoolSystemoftheFuture”
whichoutlinedthechangesonthehorizonrelativetotherelationshipbetweenchildren,parents
andschools.Thefollowingquoteswillbeofinterest:
[Parents]oftenhavelittle,ifanyknowledgeoftherudimentsofthehumanenterprise
wecallteachingandlearning,oreventheelementsofthebehavioralsciencesundergirding
childdevelopment....Themostformativeyearsarewhatwecallpre-kindergartenyears....
Televisioncanbeutilizedtoprovidetheproperinstruction[indoctrination]totheparent...
aminimumofanhouraday...continuingoverfouroriveyears...aimedattheparentto
equiphimas“teacher.”
Learning is synonymous with environmental behavior change.... Learning... is the
modiicationofbehaviorthroughinteractionwiththeenvironment....[Newschoolsystem
structure]wouldmaintaincontinuityoversomenineteenyears,withthreecarefullyarticu-
latedperiodsofschooling...1.Primary,withtheirstfouroriveyearsinthehomewith
“informed”parentsasteachers;2.Secondary,withparentsasteacheraides;3.Preparatory,
tobeuseddifferentlyforchildrenwithvaryinggiftsanddestinations....Thestudentwould
beabletochoosevocationaltraining,studiesrelatedtosemi-skilledoccupation,orcollegiate
workforthenextfouryears,withoneyeargivenovertopublicservice....
[P]rimaryeducationwiththeparentsasteacherhastheaimofmakingthehomea
healthyandhealingenvironment....Educationmustheal.Ifitdoesnothealandmakestrong,
itisnoteducation.
Assumewithmethateducation,asprofessionandenterprise,wouldjoinforceswith
governmentandindustrytosupporteducationoftheparentinthemode,manner,andmorality
beittingtheearlyeducationofchildren.Teachersandbehavioralscientists—psychologists,
psychiatrists,sociologists,studentsofchilddevelopment—wouldbecalledupon.Wehave
common, indeed universal, communication with the home through radio, television, and
printedmaterials;andsoonotheraspectsofelectronictechnologywillbeavailable.
TheSecondaryYears,beginningwithkindergarten,concernthemselveswiththecon-
ceptsandskillsrequiredforeffectiveparticipationinoursociety....Instructure[emphasis
inoriginal],thecurriculummightwellbeorganizedintermsofcontinuousandprogressive
experience(synonyms:non-gradedcurriculum,continuousprogress)....Grades(marks,scores)
asweknowthemwouldnotbeused,buttherewouldbereportstotheparentsofchild’s
progress,similartowhatsomeschoolsaredoingnow.
Eachboyandgirlwouldchooseanareaofpublicservicecoordinatedwithhisgiftsand
destination.Careofchildren,careoftheagedandinirm,assistinginschoolsandinhospitals,
conservingournaturalresources,couldwellbeamongsuchtasks.Themajorpeace-seeking
andpeace-keepingstrategyofsocietyiseducation.Peaceisinevitable.
LEARNINGANDINSTRUCTION,ACHICAGOINNERCITYSCHOOLSPOSITIONPAPERPRESENTEDinJune
of1968totheChicagoBoardofEducation,wasproducedbytheplanningstaffinChicagomade
upof:Dr.DonaldLeu,WilliamFarquhar,LeeShulman,andtheChicagoandMichiganState
universitiesincollaboration.OnereferenceusedwasSovietPreschoolEducation,translated
TheSickSixties:c.1968 79
byHenryChauncey(EducationalTestingService,Princeton,N.J.).ExcerptsfromtheChicago
MasteryLearningProjectpositionpaper,LearningandInstruction,follow:
Weviewthechildwithhisdeinedcharacteristicsasinputtoaschoolorganization
whichmodiieshiscapabilitiestowardcertaingoalsandobjectivesasoutput.Theschool
organizationisanoptimaldeploymentofteachersemployingaspecialsubjectmatterwho
attemptthroughinstruction,withtheaidofselectedelementsofthecommunity,toachieve
speciiedoutputs.Thejointparticipationofthechildren,schoolandcommunityleavenone
oftheseelementsunchanged....
Thisemphasisshouldbeaccomplishedwithinthecontextofatrulyungradedstructure
whichweshalldenotebythetermsContinuousDevelopment-MasteryLearning.Thisapproach
hasthefollowingcharacteristics:(a)BeginningwithChicago’spresentconceptofContinuous
Development,theobjectivesofthelanguageartscurriculummustbemuchfurtherdifferenti-
atedandarticulatedinthemannercurrentlybeingconductedbySophieBloom[wifeofthe
lateBenjaminBloom]inChicago,andPittsburgh’sIndividuallyPrescribedInstructionProject.
IntheContinuousDevelopment-MasteryLearningapproach,alargenumberofsequentially
designatedobjectives,tiedintospeciiccapabilitiestobemasteredbypupils,areidentiied.
Thisisdonebycurriculumdevelopmentspecialistsincollaborationwithinstructionalperson-
nel.[ReferencesusedinthispaperwerefromthelateBenjaminBloom,JohnCarroll,Robert
Gagne,RobertGlaserandHenryChauncey,ed.]
ThefollowingisanexcerptfromanarticlepublishedinEducationWeek,March6,1985
entitled“HalfofChicagoStudentsDropout,StudyFinds:ProblemCalledEnormousHuman
Tragedy”:
CallingthedropoutprobleminChicago“ahumantragedyofenormousdimensions,”arecent
studyhasfoundthatalmosthalfofthe39,500publicschoolstudentsinthe1980freshman
classfailedtograduate,andthatonlyaboutathirdofthosewhodidwereabletoreadat
orabovethenational12thgradelevel.“Thesestatisticsabouttheclassof1984relectthe
destructionoftensofthousandsofyounglives,yearinandyearout,”saysthestudy,released
inJanuarybyDesignsforChange,anonproitresearchandchild-advocacyorganizationin
Chicago....“Mostoftheseyoungpeoplearepermanentlylockedoutofourchangingeconomy
andhavenohopeofcontinuingtheireducationorgettingapermanentjobwithafuture,”
theauthorswrote.
Professor Lee Shulman’s involvement in the Chicago Mastery Learning disaster was,
however,quicklyforgottenorconsideredunimportant.AccordingtoEducationDailyofMay
21,1987—twoyearslater:
Shulman,whoheadsStanford’sEducationPolicyInstitute,lastweekwasawarded$817,000
byCarnegieCorporationtodevelopoverthenext15monthsnewformsofteacherassessment
materialsthatwouldbethebasisofstandardsadoptedbyanationalteachercertiication
board.
TheEducationDailyarticlefurtherdiscussedtherequirementforteachercritiqueoftheway
twotextbookstreatphotosynthesisandhowthey(teachers)developedalessonplanbased
oneachone:
Theteacherthenwouldbedirectedtousethetextbookstotelltheexaminershowhe
80
orshewouldteachstudentswithvaryingreligious,culturalandethnicbackgrounds.
NineyearslaterEducationWeekofOctober23,1996reportedShulmanagainleadingthe
outcome-/performance-basedteachereducationbandwagonofsocialchangeagents:
Hissuccessfulperformanceasdeveloperofnewformsofteacherassessmentmaterialsleads
tohisbeingnamedPresidentoftheCarnegieFoundationfortheAdvancementofTeaching,
illingthevacancycreatedbythedeathlastyearofErnestL.Boyer.
AnexcerptfromanOctober21,1996NewYorkTimesarticleentitled“CarnegieFoundation
SelectsaNewLeader”emphasizedShulman’simportanceintheieldofbehavioralpsychol-
ogy:
He[Shulman]hasbeenaGuggenheimFellow,aFellowoftheAmericanPsychological
AssociationandaFellowoftheCenterforAdvancedStudyintheBehavioralSciences.Heis
theimmediatepastpresidentoftheNationalAcademyofEducationandaformerpresident
oftheAmericanEducationResearchAssociation.
INA1968SPEECHENTITLED“THEUNITEDNATIONSANDALTERNATIVEFORMULATIONS—TheHard
RoadtoWorldOrder,”RichardGardner,formerU.S.deputyassistantsecretaryofstateand
U.S.ambassadortoItaly,providedanaccurateforewarningandpictureoftheenvironmentin
whichAmericansandcitizensofothercountrieslivetoday,explaininghowtheelitistplanners
would,throughtheuseofgradualism,succeedintheircentury-longplantocreateaOneWorld
Government.InanexcerptfromthespeechGardnerexplainsthefollowing:
Inshort,wearelikelytodobetterbybuildingour“houseofworldorder”fromthebottom
upratherthanthetopdown.Itwilllooklikeagreat,“booming,buzzingconfusion,”touse
WilliamJames’sfamousdescriptionofreality,butanendrunaroundnationalsovereignty,
erodingitpiecebypiece,islikelytogetustoworldorderfasterthantheold-fashionedfrontal
attack.
ETHNAREID OF THEGRANITESCHOOLDISTRICT,SALTLAKECITY,UTAH RECEIVED$848,536in
federalgrantsunderTitleIIIoftheESEAin1968todeveloptheExemplaryCenterforRead-
ingInstruction(ECRI),aMasteryLearningprogram.Thisgrantfarexceededthelegalcapon
federaleducationprogramfundingatthattime.In1982Reidclaimedthathermasterylearning
program“isundoubtedlyoneofthoseingreatestusetodayintheUnitedStatesatallgrade
levels,K–12.”9
The120-pageteacherpre-servicetrainingmanualfromECRIwasdevotedtothetrainingof
teachersinstimulus-response-stimulus/operantconditioningtechniques(Skinner),andmate-
rialsonthe“adaptationofbirds,monitoringformsbeforeandafterinstruction”(observation
datasheetrecords).HowtoTeachAnimalsbyB.F.SkinnerandHowtoTeachAnimals:ARat,
aPigeon,aDogbyKathleenandShaunaReidarebothlistedasteacherandresourcemateri-
als.TheECRITeacherTrainingManualcitestheworkofSiegfriedEngelmann,thedeveloper
ofDISTAR(DirectInstructionSystemforTeachingandRemediation)/ReadingMastery,and
TheSickSixties:c.1968 81
DirectInstructionininstructingteachershowtouseoperantconditioning,stimulus-response-
stimulustogetdesiredbehaviors.ReviewedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducation’sJointDis-
seminationReviewPanel(JDRP)andapprovedasanexemplaryeducationprogramin1974,
ECRIwaspromotedthroughouttheNationalDiffusionNetwork(NDN),thefederallyfunded
transmissionbeltforcontroversialandmostlynon-academicprograms.
OnMay5,1984theoficersoftheArizonaFederationofTeachersunanimouslypasseda
resolution—spearheadedbyAnnHerzer,anArizonateacher—whichstatedinpartthatmem-
bersoftheArizonaafiliate
opposesuchprogramsasECRI,ProjectINSTRUCTand/oranyotherprogramsthatuseoper-
ant conditioning under the guise of Mastery Learning, Classroom Management, Precision
Teaching,StructuredLearningandDiscipline,andpetitiontheU.S.Congressforprotection
againsttheuseofsuchmethodsonteachersandstudentswithouttheirpriorconsent.
TheArizonaresolutionwassupportedbyDr.JeanetteVeatch,internationallyknownexpert
intheieldofreading,whoinaJuly1980lettertoAnnHerzercalledtheECRIprogram“amore
modernversionofbreakingchildrentotheheelofthoughtcontrol....Itissolagrantlydangerous,
damaginganddestructiveIamappalledatitsexistence.”Unfortunately,AlbertShanker,then
presidentofthenationalAmericanFederationofTeachers(AFT),tabledtheArizonaafiliate’s
resolutionatAFT’sAugust,1984nationalconventioninWashington,D.C.
Withthishistoricalperspectiveinmind,consideranarticlewhichappearedinEducation
WeekSeptember6,1997entitled“NewAFTPresidentUrgesMemberstoHelpFloundering
Schools.”ThelateAlbertShankerwouldbepleasedthattheAFTcontinuestosupportSkinner-
ianmasterylearning/directinstruction,forthearticlestatesinpart:“Alsofeatured[atAFT’s
QUESTConference]wasDirectInstruction,ascriptedsetoflessonsusedforteachingat-risk
students.”
JOHN GOODLAD’S ARTICLE, “LEARNING AND TEACHING IN THE FUTURE,” WAS PUBLISHED by the
NationalEducationAssociation’sjournalToday’sEducationin1968.ExcerptsfromGoodlad’s
articlefollow:
Themostcontroversialissuesofthetwenty-irstcenturywillpertaintotheendsandmeans
ofmodifyinghumanbehaviorandwhoshalldeterminethem.Theirsteducationalquestion
willnotbe“whatknowledgeisofthemostworth?”but“whatkindsofhumanbeingsdowe
wishtoproduce?”Thepossibilitiesvirtuallydefyourimagination.
TECHNOLOGY OFTEACHING BYB.FSKINNER WAS PUBLISHED(PRENTICEHALL:NEWYORK,1968)
andbecamepartoftheeducationalloreoftheday.Anexcerptfollows:
Absolutepowerineducationisnotaseriousissuetodaybecauseitseemsoutofreach.How-
ever,atechnologyofteachingwillneedtobemuchmorepowerfuliftheracewithcatastro-
pheistobewon,anditmaythen,likeanypowerfultechnology,needtobecontained.An
appropriatecountercontrolwillnotbegeneratedasarevoltagainstaversivemeasuresbut
byapolicydesignedtomaximizethecontributionwhicheducationcanmaketothestrength
oftheculture.Theissueisimportantbecausethegovernmentofthefuturewillprobably
82
operatemainlythrougheducationaltechniques.(p.260)
[Ed.note:Skinnerwas100%correct.Thegovernmentin1999“operatesmainlythroughedu-
cationaltechniques.”Thoseindividualsandagenciesconformingwithgovernmentpolicies,
criteria,etc.,arerewarded,whereasthosewhodonotconformareeitherignoredordenied
specialprivilegesandfunding.Inthelatetwentiethcentury,followingthephilosophyofB.F.
Skinnerthatthe“environmentisall,”allevilisattributedtotheenvironmentandnooneis
heldresponsibleforhisactions.]
“THEFOUNDATIONMACHINE”BYEDITHKERMITROOSEVELTWASPUBLISHEDINTHEDEcember26,
1968issueofTheWanderer.InthisimportantarticleMrs.Rooseveltdiscussedproblemsthat
hadbeencreatedbytheCarnegieCorporation’snewreadingprogramasfollows:
EvennowtheCarnegieCorporationisfacingprotestsfromparentswhosechildrenareexposed
tothetextbooksinancedbythefoundationunderits“ProjectRead.”Thisprojectprovides
programmedtextbooksforschools,particularlyin“culturallydeprivedareas.”Anestimated
ivemillionchildrenthroughoutthenationareusingthematerialintheprogrammedtext-
booksproducedbytheBehavioralResearchLaboratories,PaloAlto,California.Thiswriter
hasgoneoverthesetextbooksinthe“Reading”seriesinancedbytheCarnegieCorporation
andauthoredbyM.W.Sullivan,alinguist.Thesefoundation-fundedbooksrevealairepat-
ternthatamountstoanincitementtothesortofarsonandguerillawarfarethattookplace
inWatts,Washington,D.C.,andelsewhere.Ononepageintheseriesweindatorchnext
toawhiteporch.Thecaptionreadsinvitingly,“atorch,aporch.”Furtheralongthereisa
pictureofamansmilingwhileheholdsatorchaloft.Thecaptionbeneathitreads:“This
manhasat_rchinhishand.”Thechildrenarerequiredasanexercisetoinsertthemissing
lettertoillinthewordtorch.Thenextpictureshowstheburningtorchtouchingtheporch,
withacaption,“atorchonaporch.”Thus,thechildrenareledinstagestotheinalactthat
suggestsitselfquitenaturally.Thepictureintheseriesshowsahandmovingthehandsof
aclocktotwenty-iveminutespastone,whilethissameshackisbeingdevouredbylames.
Themessageisplain:anexampleofamanwhodeliberatelycommitsthecriminalactofset-
tingahomeonire.Tragically,theseyoungchildrenarebeingindoctrinatedwithapattern
ofanti-socialideasthatwillcompletelyandviolentlyalienatethemfromthemainstreamof
Americanmiddle-classvalues....OtherpicturesintheCarnegie-fundedsupposedlyeduca-
tionaltextsincludeacomparisonofalagwitharag,theransomingofanAmericansoldier
inaChineseprison,apicturethatshowspeoplekneelinginachurchtosaytheirprayers
besideapictureofahorsebeingtaughttokneelinthesameway,areferencetoacandidate
electedtopublicoficeasa“ruler,”apictureofaboystealingagirl’spurse,andanotherboy
throwingpointeddartsatacompanionwhomheusesastargetpractice.
Understandably,theCarnegie-inancedbooksarecausingconcerntolocallaw-enforce-
mentoficials,manyofwhomhavetocopewithriotornear-riotconditions.EllenMorphonios,
prosecutorforFloridainitsattorney’sofice,andachiefofitsCriminalCourtDivision,said
recently:“It’saslapinthefaceandaninsulttoeverymemberoftheNegrocommunity,saying
thattheonlywaytocommunicatewithNegrochildrenistoshowarobberorviolence.It’s
likesubliminaladvertising.Ifthisisn’tsubversiveanddeliberatelydoneaspartofamaster
plan.…Onlyasickmindcouldhaveproducedit.”
Repeatedinstancesofthistypeofanti-socialactivityobviouslyconstituteastrongargu-
mentforremovingthetax-exemptstatusoftheseeducationalfoundations,andforcurbing
theiractivitiesbyFederalregulationsandCongressionaloversight.
TheSickSixties:c.1968 83
[Ed.Note:TheprogrammedtextbooksusedinProjectReadarebasedonSkinneriananimal
psychology.Programmedinstructioncallsforindividualizedinstruction/self-instruction(pro-
grammedbooksandorteachingmachines)anddiffersfromthelecture/discussionmethodof
teachingwheretheteacher,nottheprogram,isthedispenserofknowledge.]
AGENDA FOR THENATION, EDITED BYKERMITGORDON(BROOKINGSINSTITUTION:WASHington,
D.C.,1968)andfundedbytheFordFoundation,waspublished.RalphTyler’sarticle“Invest-
inginBetterSchools”(pp.207–236)wasincludedinthecompilationofarticleswhichwere
writtenasacontributiontopublicdiscussionanddebateasanewpresidentandanewCon-
gressassumedtheirresponsibilites.Othercontributorsincluded:StephenK.Bailey,Kenneth
B.Clark,ClarkKerr,HenryA.Kissinger,EdwinO.Reischauer,andCharlesL.Schultze.The
followingexcerptedrecommendationsfromTyler’sarticlewhichrefertotheCertiicateofInitial
Mastery,nomoreCarnegieUnits,theEight-YearStudyandoutcome-basededucation,readlike
pagesoutofGoals2000:EducateAmericaActandreportspreparedbyMarcTucker’sNational
CenteronEducationandtheEconomy,theSecretary’sCommissiononAchievingNecessary
Skills(SCANS),etc.—allofwhichareinvolvedinthesocialisticrestructuringofthenation’s
schoolsandeconomy:
Whatisrequiredisamajorefforttofurnishhighschoolstudentswithsigniicantadultactivi-
ties—jobprograms,communityservicecorpsexperience,workinhealthcenters,apprentice
experienceinresearchanddevelopment,andinstaffstudiesconductedbypublicagencies.
Itwillbenecessarytoredesignthehighschoolinordertoopenittothecommunityandto
utilizemanykindsofpersonsineducation.Theschoolwillneedtoserveawiderrangeofages
andallowstudentstovarytheamountoftimedevotedtostudies.Tosupplyasubstitutefor
gradesandcreditsasqualiicationforemploymentopportunities,acertiicationsystemwill
needtobedevelopedtovalidatethestudent’scompetenceinvariousmajorareas.Thiswill
alsotendtoreducetheemphasisuponpurelyformalrequirementssuchasclassattendance
andthecompletionofprescribedcourses.
1968–1969. NARRATIVE REPORT OF PROJECT FUNDED UNDER TITLE III, ELEMENTARY AND Sec-
ondary Education Act (FY 1969)—Title of Project: OPERATION PEP, a Statewide Project to
PrepareEducationalPlannersforCalifornia(U.S.OficeofEducationGrantAwardNo.OEG
3–7–704444410–4439,7–1–68to6–30–69.$299,457granttoSanMateoCountySuperinten-
dentofSchools,RedwoodCity,California,ProjectDirector:DonaldR.Miller)wascompiled
andregisteredwiththeU.S.OficeofEducationintheDepartmentofHealth,Educationand
Welfare.Anexcerptfromthisreportfollows:
Major Objectives: The objectives of Operation PEP have been speciied with respect for
theeducationalneedsofsocietyandtherolerequirementsofprofessionaleducators.They
include:(1)toplan,develop,validate,andimplementaninstructionalprogramforeduca-
tionalplannersandmanagersfeaturingasystemapproachtoeducationalmanagement;(2)
toestablishanorderlydiffusionprocessforsystemapproachconcepts,principles,andpro-
ceduresinvolvingkeyagencies,organizations,andindividuals;(3)toprovideassurancethat
theprogramdevelopedbyOperationPEPwillbecontinuouslyrenewedandpresented,and
(4)topromotetheutilizationandadoptionofasystemapproachtoeducationalmanagement
84
andeducationalleadersinCalifornia.
[Ed.Note:Masterylearning/directinstructionitsintoPPBSsystemsmanagement,Manage-
mentbyObjectives(MBO)andcomputer-assistedinstructionasahanditsintoaglove.OBE
in1999isOperationPEPin1968.California’steachers’unionwasadamantlyopposedtoits
enablinglegislationandtoOperationPEPingeneral.]
1969
PACESETTERSININNOVATION:CUMULATIVEISSUEOFALLPROJECTSINOPERATIONASOFFebruary
1969 under Title III, Supplementary Centers and Services Program, Elementary and Second-
aryEducationActof1965(U.S.DepartmentofHealth,EducationandWelfare:Washington,
D.C.,1969) was published. This incredible 584-page catalog of education programs gives
abstractsofinnovativeprogramsdealingwithhumanisticeducation;i.e.,valuesclariication,
self-esteemprograms,individualizededucation,openclassroom,etc.ShirleyCorrell,Ph.D.,
presidentofFlorida’sPro-FamilyForum,wrote“AnEvaluationofHEW’sPublicationPacesetters
inInnovation”whichsaidinpart:
A thorough evaluation of HEW’s 584-page publication, Pacesetters in Innovation, is
alarming,eventooneaccustomedtothethrustoftoday’spublicschools,andevenmore
interestingwhenplacedinitsproperperspectiveoftotalHEWfunding.Itisdescribedas
aprogram“tosupportsupplementaryeducationcentersandservices,guidancecounseling
andtesting”onstateandlocallevels.ThesePACEprograms(ProjectstoAdvanceCreativity
inEducation)describe“Psychotherapy,”“BehaviorModiication,”“PsychoeducationClin-
ics,”“ChangedParent-StudentRelationships,”“TotalEnvironmentalControl,”“Humanistic
Curriculum,” “Sensitivity Training,” and attitudinal measuring devices, ad nauseam. One
program discusses “Experimental Buses featuring multichannel programming, individual
receiversandactiveresponseopportunities(allowingaudiopresentationsofcognitiveand/or
affective[emotional]instructionalmaterials.”Coulditbethatthere’smoretothisbusing
thanintegration?
IfoundthatPACE’sdirectionwasto“organizetheprocessofchangetorestructureand
reorganizetheschoolsystem.”Manydifferentmethodswereusedtoaccomplishthis.Teach-
ersaresubjectedto“SensitivityTraining”and“ChangeAgentry”training(aneducational
termusedtodescribetheroleofgroupleaderasthatofchangingtheattitudeofstudentsand
others),notonlytoconditiontheteacherstonewphilosophies,butto“spreadtheirinluence
toothersintheirowndistrictandthroughoutthestateviavariousvisitationprograms.”
Through the inluences of these and various other programs, “structured or graded
classesaresystematicallyphasedoutandreplacedbyungradedindividualizedinstruction”
(whichultimatelybecomestheoppositeofindividualizedinstructionasallchildreneventu-
allyareittoapre-conceivedmoldornormbycomputerizedassessment).
THEROLEOFTHESCHOOLINTHECOMMUNITYWASPUBLISHED(PENDELLPUBLISHINGCO.:Midland,
Michigan,1969).Thisslim136-pagebook,editedbyDr.HowardW.Hickey,Dr.CurtisVan
Voorhees,andassociates,was“writtentoserveasamuch-neededtextbookforteachersand
TheSickSixties:c.1969 85
studentsinCommunityEducation;andtoserveasahandbookonCommunityEducationfor
schooloficialsandcommunityeducationleaders.”ThefollowingexcerptsarefromTheRole
oftheSchoolintheCommunity:
ChapterIII.AnOverviewbyJackD.MinzeyandClarenceR.Olsen
Asthesocialforceshavesoughttobringactiontobearoncommunityproblems,theneed
foravehicleofactionhasbecomeapparent.Notallgroupshaveidentiiedthemosteffective
meansofimplementingtheirprogramsstructuredaboutcommunityproblems,butanumber
ofinluentialpersonsandgroupsareawareofthecommunityeducationconceptandare
extremelyoptimisticaboutitspossibilitiesasthemeansbywhichtheirgoalsofsocialengi-
neeringcanbeaccomplished.(p.40)
ChapterVI.ADevelopmentalProcessbyCurtisVanVoorhees
Whenacommunityschooldirectorattemptstoidentifycoursestobeincludedintheques-
tioningprocessitisimportanttoremember,aspreviouslymentioned,thatpeoplearetypi-
callyunabletoidentifymanyoftheirownproblemsandneeds.Whiletheymaysometimes
beabletoidentifywhattheywantinthewayofaclass,itisunlikelythatmanypeoplewho
needassistanceinpreparingnutritiousmealsareawareofthatfact.Andparentswhoare
inneedofinformationaboutchildhealthpracticesareunlikelytorecognizethattheyneed
suchhelp.Soitmustberememberedthatthesimpleexistenceofaproblemdoesnotguar-
anteeitsrecognitionbythepersonwiththeproblem.Communityschoolcoordinatorsmust,
therefore,developaquestioningformwhichwillgetattheunidentiiedproblemsofpeople
withoutundulyalarmingoroffendingtherespondent;theymustseektosolicitinformation
frompeoplewhichwillallowcommunityschoolcoordinatorstoplanbetterprogramsforthe
peopletheyattempttoserve—programsthatwillhopefullychange,inapositiveway,the
attitude,behaviorandlifestyleofthecommunityresidents.
[Ed.Note:Theterm“communityeducation”israrelyusedtodayduetoitssocialisticphiloso-
phycausingextremecontroversyinthe1960s,1970sandearly1980s.TheaverageAmerican
rejectedthenotionthatthecommunitywastheretoservehis/herneedsandthatdecision-
making by unelected councils was acceptable or perhaps preferable to decision-making by
electedoficials.Thechangeagentswiselydroppedthelabelandnowusetermssuchas“com-
munitarianism,”“participatorydemocracy,”“site-basedmanagement,”“school-basedclinics,”
“year-roundschools,”HillaryClinton’sItTakesaVillagetoRaiseaChildconcept,allofwhich
areindividuallyorcollectivelyCommunityEducation.AsAnitaHoge,awell-knowneducation
researcher,says,“Itdoesn’ttakeavillagetoraiseachildunlessyouliveinacommune.”At
aCommunityEducationConferenceheldinWashington,D.C.in1976acommunityeducator
fromAlaskastatedthat“communityeducationcouldbelikenedtothesysteminRussiaand
China.”10]
MASTERPLANFORPUBLICEDUCATIONINHAWAII—TOWARDANEWERAFOREDUCATIONINHawaii
waspublishedin1969bytheStateofHawaiiDepartmentofEducation,Honolulu,Hawaii.This
publicationwaspartiallyfundedunderTitleV,Sec.503,P.L.890–10(U.S.OficeofEducation).
ExcerptsfollowfromthisextraordinarilyfrankMasterPlanwhichwouldserveasamodelfor
therestofthenation:
ImplicationsforEducation...Second,thecomputerwillenhancelearning....Theteacherwill
operateasamanager....Theteacherwillhaveareadyrecordofeachstudent’sperformance
86
andareadyaccesstotheinformationthestudentneedsduringeachstageofhisprogress.
(p.36)
Perhapswemustgosigniicantlybeyondthepresent,minimumfamilyeducationalprograms
thatcandidlydiscussinterpersonalrelationships,familyconlictsandtensions,counseling
andrehabilitationservicesandthemanyareasthatneedtobeexploredbetweenaman,a
woman,andtheirchildren.(p.46)
Thetaskoftheschoolsduringthepaststable,relativelyunchangingworldwastoemphasize
ixedhabits,memorizationoffacts,anddevelopmentofspeciicskillstomeetknownneeds.
Butforafuturewhichwillincludevastchanges,theemphasisshouldbeonhowtomeet
newsituations,ontheskillsofresearch,observation,analysis,logicandcommunication,
onthedevelopmentofattitudesappropriatetochange,andonacommitmenttolexibility
andreason.(p.50)
Behavioralsciencessubjectmattershouldformapartofourmoderncurriculumtoprovide
abasisforselfknowledgeandbehavioralconcepts....Studyofethicaltraditions,concepts
andchangesinvaluestructureshouldbeemphasized....DepartmentofEducationshould
experimentwiththegrouptherapy,roleplayingandencountergroupapproachthatarepro-
fessionallyplannedandconducted,asabasisforunderstandingotherpeople,races,cultures
andpointsofview.(pp.51–52)
Fromthepointofviewoftheteacher,individualizedinstructionshouldprovideforopportuni-
tiestodiagnosethelearningstyles,andstrengthsandweaknessesofpupils;directassistance
byskilledcounselors,psychologists,socialworkersandphysicianswillassistinaccurateand
meaningfuldiagnosis....TheDepartmentshouldadoptteamteachingandnon-gradednessas
thebasicapproachtoclassroominstruction.Thepresentsystemofageandgradeclassiication
ofstudentsisexcessivelyrigidandnotconducivetoindividualizedinstruction.Anon-graded
approach,therefore,onaK–12basis,issoughtasanultimategoal.(p.54)
Theschoolsystemwillseekinancialsupportofeducationalprogramsonthebasisofedu-
cationaloutputs,thatis,theimprovement,growthandchangesthatoccurinthebehaviorof
thepupilasaresultofschooling.(p.55)
Thisschoolsystemwillsystematicallystudythebeneitsofanypromisingnon-educational
inputtoenhancelearning.Recentdiscoveriesfromtheieldofbio-chemistrysuggestthat
therealreadyexistsafairlyextensiveclassofdrugstoimprovelearningsuchaspersistence,
attentiveness,immediatememory,andlongtermmemory....Theapplicationofbiochemical
researchindings,heretoforecenteredinlowerformsofanimallife,willbeasourceofcon-
spicuouscontroversywhenchildrenbecometheobjectsofsuchexperimentation.Schoolswill
conceivablybesweptintoawholenewareaofcollaborationinresearchwithbiochemists
andpsychologiststoimprovelearning.Theimmediateandlong-termimpactonteachingas
wellasonlearningandtheethicalandmoralconsequencesofextensiveuseofchemicals
toassistinthelearningprocessmustbestudiedextensively....TheDepartmentshouldiniti-
atealongterm,continuingseriesofdiscussionswithindividualsdirectlyassociatedwith
theseresearchefforts.Laypersonsfromourcommunityshouldbeanintegralpartofthese
discussions.(p.56)
TheDepartmentshouldtaketheinitiativetoestablishastatecompactofallagencieswith
responsibilitiesineducationinthisstate.Thepurposeofsuchacompactwillbetocoordi-
TheSickSixties:c.1969 87
nateplanningandexecutionofeducationalprograms....Assumingthatthebasicperiodof
schoolingrequiredfortheyouthofHawaiimayremainattwelveyears,extendingtheschool
dayandtheschoolyearmaybethesolutiontothispressingproblem.Someofthebeneits
whichcanbeanticipatedfromanextendedschoolyearandaschooldayare:Animprove-
mentineconomicandprofessionalstatusofourteachers,...anincreaseduseoffacilitiesand
equipment.Schoolfacilitieswillbeinusethroughouttheyear....(p.62)
Thatoursystemofvaluesshouldchangeastheconditionsinwhichthesevaluesindtheir
expressionchangeisevidentinhistory....Ourpastalsohasshownthatsocietycourtstrouble
whenitclingsstubbornlytooutmodedvaluesafterexperiencehasclearlyshownthatthey
needtoberevised.Forexample,developmentsinoursocietyhavenowcastconsiderable
doubts on the worth of such deep-seated beliefs, still held strongly in some quarters, as
extremeandruggedindividualismorisolationismininternationalaffairs.Whilevaluestend
topersist,theyaretentative.Theyprovidethedirectionsbasictoanyconsciousanddirect
attempttoinluencepupilbehavior....Somewillargue,ofcourse,thatdirectandpurposeful
effortatchangingvalueorientationsofpupilsisnoconcernoftheschools.Butfromwhat
weknowofthepupilandhisdevelopment,theschoolisinescapablyinvolvedininluencing
hismoralvaluesandethicalstructure.(p.63)
Therolesandresponsibilitiesofteacherswillchangenoticeablyintheyearsahead.By1985
itshouldbemoreaccuratetotermateachera“learningclinician”fortheschoolswillbe
“clinics”whosepurposeistoprovideindividualizededucationalandpsychological“services”
tothestudent.11(p.69)
However,inthespringof1967,theDepartmentundertooktoinstallanew“System,”more
commonly referred to as “PPBS.” This sophisticated system of budgeting was crystalized
inthefederaldefenseagencyduringtheearly1960’s,andhas,since1965,beenformally
adoptedbyalldepartmentswithinthefederalgovernment....Fromalong-rangestandpoint,
PPBSissurelythedirectionwemustmovetowardifwearetodomorethansurviveina
rapidlyapproachingcomputerizedworld....However,operationally,thereareseveralreasons
whytheentirePPBSanatomycannotbetotally…operableatthistime.Althoughsomeof
theproblemsareduetothesystemitself,mostareduetothepresentundevelopedstateof
theeducationalindustry.Someofthesefactorsare:WhileweacceptthePPBSconcept,we
mustconstantlybemindfulthatthesystemisatoolofmanagement,notanendinitself,
not a panacea or solution for all our management problems. Further, it should never be
consideredareplacementforexperiencedhumanjudgment,butonlyanaidinarrivingat
soundjudgments...intheieldofeducation,whichdealsprimarilyinhumanbehavior,there
isalmostnoreliableresearchdataoncausalrelationships.Wedonotknowexactlywhyor
howstudentslearn....Cost/effectivenessanalysiswhichliesattheheartofPPBSisvirtually
impossiblewithoutthiskindofdata....Ascanreadilybeseen,themultiplicityandcomplexity
ofobjectivesandthedificultyofquantifyinghumanbehaviormakesitexceedinglydificult
tostateourobjectivesinthemannerspeciiedbyPPBS....Anothersigniicantproblem—this
timetodowithPPBS—isthatitdoesnotformallyallowforvalueconsideration.Andyet,
values—academic,economic,political,social,esthetic—appeartoplayacrucialroleinthe
decision-makingprocess.Buthowdowequantifyvalues?Howdowenegotiateconlicting
values?Whatwillbethepropermixofvaluesandhowdowefactoritintothearrayofalter-
nativesandthedecision-makingprocess?Thesearevitalquestionsthatmustbeansweredif
wearetorationalizethedecision-makingprocess.(pp.96–97)
Mountacomprehensiveandcontinuingefforttodevelopstandardsandasystemofmea-
88
surementthatwillpermiteffectiveevaluationofstudentandDepartmentofEducationper-
formance.(p.98)
[Ed.Note:PPBSandMBOareessentiallythesameasTQM.Ata1992TotalQualityManagement
(TQM)inEducationConferenceinSt.Paul,Minnesota—sponsoredbytheNationalGovernors’
Associationandattendedbythewriter—arepresentativefromIBMstatedthatTQMisamore
“sophisticated,reinedformofPPBS.”]
IN1969DONDAVIES,FORMERDEPUTYCOMMISSIONEROFEDUCATIONFORTHEU.S.OFFICEofEdu-
cationandeditorofCommunitiesandTheirSchools,wrote“ChangingConditionsinAmerican
Schools”aspartofthe“ElementaryTeacherTrainingModels,”asectionoftheBehavioralSci-
enceTeacherEducationProgram(U.S.OficeofEducation,DepartmentofHealth,Education
andWelfare[developedatMichiganStateUniversityunderHEWgrant]:Washington,D.C.,
1969).Thefollowingareexcerptsfrom“ChangingConditionsinAmericanSchools”:
(1)Movingfromamassapproachtoanindividualapproachineducation;
(2)Movingfromanemphasisonmemorizingtoanemphasisonthenon-cognitive,
non-intellectualcomponentsoflife;
(3)Movingfromaconceptofaschoolisolatedfromthecommunity;
(4)Movingfromafearoftechnologytousingmachineryandtechnologyforeducational
purposes;
(5)Movingfromanegativetoapositiveattitudetowardschildrenwhoaredifferent;
(6)Movingfromaprovincialperspectiveoftheworldineducationtoamulticultural
perspective;
(7)Movingfromasystemcharacterizedbyacademicsnobberytoonewhichrecognizes
andnurturesawidevarietyoftalentsandvalues;and
(8) Moving from a system based on serving time to one which emphasizes perfor-
mance.
[Ed.Note:1,2,4,7,and8shouldbefamilartothereader.TheyrepresentOBE/ML/DIand
technology.Numbers5and6areglobaleducation/valueseducation.]
PROFESSORDEANCORRIGAN, IN A1969 SPEECH BEFORE THE22NDANNUALTEACHEREDUCAtion
ConferenceattheUniversityofGeorgia,predictedthat“teachingmachineswillpaceastudent’s
progress,diagnosehisweaknessesandmakecertainthatheunderstandsafundamentalconcept
beforeallowinghimtoadvancetothenextlesson.”
[Ed. Note: Skinner said “computers are essentially sophisticated versions of the teaching
machinesofthe1960s…programmedlearning.”(SeeEducationWeek8/31/83.)]
AREPORTFROMTHESTATECOMMITTEEONPUBLICEDUCATIONTOTHECALIFORNIASTATEBoard
ofEducation—Citizensforthe21stCentury—Long-RangeConsiderationsforCaliforniaElemen-
taryandSecondaryEducation(CaliforniaStateAssembly:Sacramento,California,1969)was
preparedbyProfessorJohnI.Goodlad.FundedbytheElementaryandSecondaryEducation
Actof1965,theReportstates:
TheSickSixties:c.1969 89
Experimentation,Innovation,Implementation.
Wehaveseenthatmechanismsareneededforsystematicallydeterminingtheappropriate
responsibilitiesoflocal,state,andfederaleducationagencies.Similarly,weneedmechanisms
forsystematicallydeterminingthekindsofhumanbeingstobedevelopedinourschools.
Suchmechanismsdonotnowexistinthisstateoranystate.Weneed,too,mechanismsfor
appraisingthequalityofinnovationsandforsystematicallydetermininghowafullrangeof
projectsmightbeputinasingleschool.(p.471)
IMPROVINGEDUCATIONALASSESSMENTANDANINVENTORYOFMEASURESOFAFFECTIVEBehavior
byWalcottH.Beatty,chairmanandeditor(AssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevel-
opmentCommissiononAssessmentofEducationalOutcomes[NEAStockNo.611–17804]:
Washington,D.C.,1969)waspublished.Achapterentitled“ThePurposesofAssessment”by
RalphTyler,“thefatherofeducationalassessment,”wasincludedinthisimportantbook.The
followingexcerptsrelateprimarilytotheprincipleoftransferinlearning:
Thefunctionoftheschool’steachingistodevelopyoungpeoplewhosebehavioroutside
theclassroomiseffectiveandsigniicant.Therefore,inappraisingtherelativeeffectiveness
ofcurriculummaterialsorprograms,onegoesbeyondacheckingofprogramandpurpose
toconsiderwhetherthelearningsaregeneralizabletolifeoutsidetheschool.TheProgres-
siveEducationAssociation’sEight-YearStudy,forexample,followedagroupofhighschool
graduatesintocollegeandoccupationalrolestolearntheextenttowhichtheywereableto
utilizewaysofthinking,feeling,andactingthattheschoolhadtriedtodevelop....
Weareallfamiliarwiththegeneralprinciplethatanymeasuresofeducationshould
bebaseduponeducationalobjectives—whatkindoflearningareweseeking?Thirty-eight
yearsago,whenPaulDiederichandIbegansomeoftheseeffortsintheProgressiveEduca-
tionAssociation,muchwassaidaboutdeterminingeducationalobjectives.Wetalkedabout
educationalobjectivesatalevelsogeneralthatsuchobjectivesrepresenteddesirableand
attainable human outcomes. Now, as the people from conditioning have moved into an
interestinlearningintheschools,thenotionsofbehavioralobjectiveshavebecomemuch
morespeciic....
AsfarasIknow,onecannotverywellteachapigeonageneralprinciplethathecan
thenapplytoavarietyofsituations.TheobjectivesforpersonscomingoutoftheSkinnerian
backgroundtendtobehighlyspeciicones.WhenIlistentoGagne,whoisanintelligentand
effectiveconditioner,talkabouthumanlearningobjectives,Iwinceagooddealbecausehe
setsveryspeciicones.Iknowthatwecanattainlevelsofgeneralizationofobjectivesthat
arehigherthanthat....
AsagraduatestudentatChicago42yearsago,IdidastudywithJudd,whowasat
thattimearguingwithThorndikeovertheprincipleoftransferinlearning.Thorndikehad
demonstratedthattransferwasnotautomaticamongtheformaldisciplines;apersoncould
takeacourseinLatinandnotbeabletohandleotherkindsoflanguagesanymoreeffec-
tively.Thorndikereachedtheconclusionthateveryobjectivehadtobeveryspeciic,like
conditioningobjectives.Hisirsttreatiseonthepsychologyofarithmeticestablishedsome
3,000objectivesforelementaryschoolarithmetic.Judd,however,hadcomeoutofthesocial
psychologytradition,havingstudiedwithWundtatLeipzig.Hisviewwasthatgeneralization
wasnotonlypossiblebutwasessentialineducation.Thetaskheassignedmewastocheck
onThorndike’sviewthattheadditionofeveryoneofthe100pairsofone-digitcombinations
hadtobepracticedbythelearnerbeforehecouldaddallofthepairs.Thedesignofmystudy
wastotaketheprinciplesofgroupingforadditionandhelppupilsseethem.Inotedthat
90
iveandtwo,andsixandone,andzeroandsevenandthreeandfouralltotalsevenandhad
thestudentspractice21outofthe100,emphasizingthateachoperationillustratedageneral
principle.Ifoundthattheyoungstersintheexperimentalgroupwhohadpracticedononly
21illustrationsdidjustaswellontheaverageoverthesampleofthetotal100asthepupils
whohadpracticedsystematicallyeveryoneofthe100....
Thepossibilityofgeneralizationisofcoursenotnewtothereaderofthisbooklet.In
curriculumdevelopmentwenowworkontheprinciplethathumanbeingscangeneralize,
sotheydonothavetopracticeeveryspeciic.Thequestionisatwhatlevelofgeneralization
dowesetupobjectives.Thereareovergeneralizationsyoucanimmediatelysee;forexample,
theuseof“you”forbothsingularandpluralformsoftenconfusesstudentsingrammarexer-
cises.Theproblemoftheeffectivecurriculummakerandteacheristoigureoutthelevel
ofgeneralizationthatispossiblewithacertainchildoracertaingroup,thentoestablish
objectivesbasedonreachingthatlevelofgeneralization.Youwillhavetwentyobjectives
perhaps,butnotmore.Theconditioningview,baseduponspeciicsituationsandpractices,
mayinvolveseveralhundredobjectivesforacoursebecausespeciicpracticesmustbeused
toaccomplisheachaspectoftheconditioning.(pp.8–9)
“U.S.PLANTO‘TAKEOVER’GRADESCHOOLSINTIMATED”BYJOHNSTEINBACHERWASANarticle
whichappearedintheAnaheimBulletin(Anaheim,California)in1969.Excerptsfollow:
IstheU.S.OficeofEducation,adivisionoftheDepartmentofHealth,EducationandWelfare,
poisedforatotaltakeoverofeveryelementaryschoolinthenation?
ThatwasindicatedThursdayinafederallyfundedprojectatCalState,Fullertonby
BernardKravett,aprofessorattheschoolwhotookpartlastyearinafederallyfundedproj-
ectattheUniversityofWashington.KnownastheTri-UniversityProject,threeuniversities
wereinvolvedinamassivelyfundedfederalprojecttorestructuretheentirehighereducation
systemfortrainingteachers,which,ineffect,wouldmakelocalelementaryschoolsonlya
subsidiaryarmofthefederalgovernment....Thissystem,tobecalledTeacherPreparation
ExperiencedSystematically,istobeinstitutedatonce....Allteachertraininginstitutionswill
operatejointlywithlocalschooldistrictsandteacherorganizationsto“establishperformance
criteria which become behavioral objectives.” ...Students in colleges who are studying to
beteacherswillbeplacedin“clinicalsettings,”wheretherewillbeaclinicalcounselorfor
each12students....
Astheteachertraineesprogressthroughthefour-yearcourse,theywillbeconstantly
assessedbytestingandperformancecriteria,aswellasconstantlycounseledbythetrained
psychologists....Attheendofeachyear,theteachertraineewilleitherpassontothenext
levelorwillberecycledtotakeadditionalworkintheareasinwhichheisfounddeicient....
Thenewapproachistostressattitudinalchangesonthepartoftheteachersandthestu-
dents....
Builtintothesystemisastrongemphasisontheindingsofthebehavioralscientists.
Teachertraineeswillbecounseledintobecominga“goodteammemberonthefaculty,”and
thosewhocannotadaptto“teamstanding”willbewashedoutoftheteachercourses.The
teacheristolearnhowto“carryouttheorderoftheteamandtheteamleader.”...Thepurpose
oftheso-calledcollegeactivitieswillbeto“buildonbehavioralobjectivesinordertohelp
childrenindoutwhotheyareandhelpthechildinhisquestforidentity.Alleducationwill
bebuiltonbehavioraltasksratherthanoncoursecreditsandgradepointaverages,”hesaid.
Kravettsaidthefederalgovernmenthadinancednineuniversitiestocomeupwith“programs”
anditisfromtheseprograms,largelydevelopedinbehavioralsciencelaboratories,thatthe
TheSickSixties:c.1969 91
newelementaryprogramwillcome.California,hesaid,hasalongwaytogotocatchup
withtherestofthenationinacceptingthisnewprogram.However,hesaidthegovernment
wasspending“fantasticamountsofmoneyandtheFederalGovernmentistotallybehindit,
pushingitandprovidingallthemoneyyoucanpossiblyneed.”(p.4)
THENATIONALASSESSMENT OFEDUCATIONALPROGRESS(NAEP), MANDATED BY THEU.S.Con-
gress, was initiated in 1969. NAEP has periodically “assessed” (monitored the knowledge,
skills,andperformanceof)studentsaged9,13,and17,aswellasvariousgradelevels.The
subjectareasassessedhaveincluded:reading,writing,mathematics,science,citizenship,U.S.
history,geography,socialstudies,art,music,literature,computercompetence,andcareerand
occupationaldevelopment.NAEPalsohascollectedbackgroundinformationfromstudents,
teachers,andadministrators,andhasrelatedthesedatatostudentachievement.TheEduca-
tionalTestingService(ETS)in1983tookoverthecontracttoadministertheNAEPfromthe
Carnegie Corporation-spawned Education Commission of the States. This move effectively
keptCarnegieincontrolofeducationalassessment,sinceitwastheCarnegieFoundationfor
theAdvancementofTeaching(asubdivisionoftheCarnegieCorporation)whichhadprovided
the$750,000initialendowment(start-upfunds)tolaunchETSin1947.Throughanagree-
mentbetweentheAmericanCouncilonEducation,theCarnegieFoundationandtheCollege
EntranceExaminationBoard,allofwhomturnedovertheirtestingprogramsandaportionof
theirassetstoETS,themovetoestablishEducationalTestingServiceastheprimaryprovider
oftestingmaterialwasaccomplished.
In 1988 Congress established the National Assessment Governing Board (NAGB). The
purposeofNAGBwastoprovidepolicyguidancefortheexecutionofNAEP.Theboardwas
composed of nationally and locally elected oficials, chief state school oficers, classroom
teachers,localschoolboardmembers,andleadersofthebusinesscommunity,amongothers.
Speciically,NAGBhasbeenchargedbyCongresstoperformthefollowingduties:selectsubject
areastobeassessed;identifyappropriateachievementgoalsforeachagegroup;developassess-
mentobjectives;designamethodologyofassessment;andproduceguidelinesandstandards
fornational,regional,andstatecomparisons.
OVER A PERIOD OF THREE DECADES RESEARCH FOREDUCATION FORRESULTS:INRESPONSEtoA
NationatRisk,Vol.1:GuaranteeingEffectivePerformancebyOurSchoolswasconductedby
RobertE.Corrigan,Ph.D.,andBettyO.Corrigan.12Thisinalpublicationwaspublishedin1983
fortheReaganAdministration’suse.Ratherthanbeingtheprotectionfromharmfulinnova-
tionsthatconcernedparentshadbeenpromised,thisreportactuallyservedasaspringboard
forimplementingOBE.Thiswriterisincludingitunderthe“SickSixties”sincemostofthe
programscomprisingexperimentationhistory(pilotOBE/ML/DIprograms,includingonein
Korea)were,inthewordsoftheCorrigans,implemented“acrossourcountryoveraperiodof
22+years(1960–1983).”(Formorecompleteunderstandingoftheimpactofthisstudy,see
AppendixVI.)
Endnotes:
1JohnGoodlad,“AReportfromtheStateCommitteeonPublicEducationtotheCaliforniaStateBoardofEducation—Citizens
fortheTwenty-irstCentury—LongRangeConsiderationsforCaliforniaElementaryandSecondaryEducation,”1969.
2ThefunctionoftheNationalDiffusionNetworkhasbeendistributedthroughouttheU.S.DepartmentofEducation’sorganiza-
92
tionalsubdivisions.Thedisseminationprocessisnowcarriedonbyindividualoficesandtheirprojects.Thiswasdoneasa
resultofthe“ReorganizationofGovernmentaccordingtotheMalcolmBaldridgeAwardcriteria”(TQM)underVicePresident
AlGore’ssupervision.
3Thisisanotherterm,usedinthispublication,fortoday’s“self-esteem.”
4Thewriterrecommendsthatthosereadersinterestedintheradical,leftistsubstanceof“RecommendationsforDelphiDiscus-
sionGroups,”contactK.M.HeatonwhoseRoadtoRevolutioncontainsinformationonthissubject.SeeResourcesforHeaton’s
address.
5ThereadershouldturntotheinsidecoverofthisbookfortheexcellentcartoonbyJoelPettwhichcarriesthetitle“Consolida-
tion.”
6“HarrisonBergeron”hasbeenmadeintoavideo,availableatyourlocalvideostore.
7DanSmootwasaformerHarvardprofessorwhoservedfor9–1/2yearsintheFederalBureauofInvestigation.
8AliceRivlinlaterbecamedirectoroftheCongressionalBudgetOfice,andpresentlyservesasthechairmanoftheBoardof
ControlfortheDistrictofColumbia.
9EthnaReidwasquotedinDennisBailey’sarticle“LearningtoReadtheECRIWay”fortheJanuary8,1982issueofTheMaine
Times.
10 Audiotapeofmeetingfrompersonalileofresearcherwhoattendedconference.
11 IntheJanuary1969issueofToday’sEducation,journaloftheNationalEducationAssociation,twoprofessorsofeducationat
IndianaUniversityrefertoschoolsofthe1970sas“clinics,whosepurposeistoprovideindividualizedpsychosocial‘treatment’
forthestudent.”
12 TheCorrigans’organizationis:SAFELearningSystems,Inc.,P.O.Box5089,Anaheim,CA92804.
6
THESERIOUSSEVENTIES
“Concerned with grave, important, or complex matters, problems” and “giving
causeforconcern”aretwooutofivedeinitionsgiveninWebster’sDictionaryfortheword“seri-
ous”whichdeinitelyapplytothischapter,“TheSeriousSeventies.”Unfortunately,sincetheaverage
Americanwaspurposelykeptinthedarkaboutwhatwastakingplace,beingable“tobeconcerned”
wasanimpossibility.Tothechangeagentsroamingtheeducationlandscape,“change”wasthegoal,
andtheendjustiiedthemeans,evenifitmeantmisleadingthroughsemanticdeceptiontheparents
andtaxpayerswhopaidthebillsandprovidedtheresources—thechildrenandteachersuponwhom
thechangeagentswouldexperiment.
“The Serious Seventies” contains excerpts from important government documents, education
journalarticles,professionalpapers,andcritiquesbykeyeducationistsregardingthemajorcomponents
ofreformplannedfortheendofthecenturyasaresultoffederallegislationpassedinthe1960s.From
astudyofthekeydocumentsonedetectsavigoroustug-of-wartakingplaceatthehighestdecision-
makinglevelsineducation.Stringentdebatewascarriedonregardingtheprosandconsoftheuseof
systematicplanningandtechnologyinanareaofhumanendeavor(education)whichuntilthistime
hadhadrelativelylittleinterferencefrompolitical,socialandeconomicplanners(socialengineers).
Statecommissionersofeducation,localeducationagencysuperintendents,andespeciallyteachers
andschoolboardshadbeenabletomakedecisionsatthestateandlocallevel—decisionswhichthey
consideredtobeinthebestinterestofstudentsandthecommunitiesinwhichtheylivedandworked.
But“change”wasthenameofthisseriousnewgame.
A careful reading of “The Serious Seventies” documents, especially the 1972 Association for
93
94
EducationalComputingandTechnology(AECT)reportentitledTheFieldofEducationalTechnology:
AStatementofDeinition(October,1972),hasconvincedthiswriterthatsigniicantresistancetogoal
setting,systemsmanagement,computer-assistedinstruction,etc.,whichexistedatthebeginningof
the1970swas,unfortunately,overcome.Forinstance,theabove-referenceddocumentcontainedthe
followingmostimportantwarningregardingtheuseoftechnologyintheclassroom;awarningthat,
evidently,wasnotheededintheyearstocome.Thewarningreadinpart:
It should be clear that the concerned professional does not have to be a “liberal,” or a
“conservative.”Theconcernedprofessionalmust,however,showmoralsensitivitytothe
effectofwhatheorshedoes[intheieldoftechnology].Itdoesnotmatterwhatposition
anindividualcomestoaslongasitisnot“I’lldoitbecauseitcanbedone.”
Theaboverecommendationrelatingtotheethicaluseoftechnologyintheclassroomwasevidently
ignoredbythechangeagentswhodecidedinsteadthat“We’lldoitbecauseitcanbedone.”
In 1971 Phi Delta Kappan published a paper entitled Performance-Based Teacher Education
[PBTE]:WhatIstheStateoftheArt?Thispaperspelledouttheraisond’etreforthetransitionfrom
teachereducationbasedonknowledgeofsubjectmattertoteachereducationbasedontheability
to“perform”intheclassroom.SkinnerianmethodsadoptedbyMadelineHunterandotherswould
becomethefoundationforfutureteachertrainingandaccreditation,andultimatelythemethodfor
workforcetraining.ThispapermakesitalltooclearthatthepurposeofPBTEwasto“lowerstandards”
sothattheteachingprofessioncouldbemore“inclusive”—orso“they”said.However,thiswriter
believesinclusionwasmorethanlikelythecover(excuseacceptabletothosewhobelievedinequal
opportunity)toinstalltheperformance-basedsystemnecessaryfortheeventualimplementationofthe
school-to-workpolytechsystemplannedin1934andactivatedinthe1990s.Fromthistimeforward,
thedeliberatedumbingdownwouldproceedwithavengeance.
During“TheSeriousSeventies”theshipofeducationsetanewcourse.Navigatingthesenew
waterswouldrequireanewchart,oneentirelydifferentfromthatusedinthepast.
1970
A PROHIBITION AGAINST FEDERAL CONTROL OF EDUCATION, SECTION 432,GENERAL EDUcation
ProvisionsAct(GEPA),wasenactedin1970andreadsasfollows:
Sec.432.Noprovisionofanyapplicableprogramshallbeconstruedtoauthorizeanydepart-
ment,agency,oficer,oremployeeoftheUnitedStatestoexerciseanydirection,supervision,
orcontroloverthecurriculum,programofinstruction,administration,orpersonnelofany
educationalinstitution,school,orschoolsystem,orovertheselectionoflibraryresources,
textbooks,orotherprintedorpublishedinstructionalmaterialsbyanyeducationalinstitution
orschoolsystem,ortorequiretheassignmentortransportationofstudentsorteachersin
ordertoovercomeracialimbalance.(20U.S.C.1232a)EnactedApril18,1970,P.L.91–230,
TitleIV,sec.401(a)(10),81Stat.169.
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1970 95
[Ed.Note:Theinterpretationoftheaboveprohibitionliesintheeyesofthebeholder.Parents
andtraditionalteachershaveheldthatallcurriculumandteachingbasedonthefederally
fundedNorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratoryGoalsCollection,NationalDiffusionNet-
workPrograms,and“scientiicresearch-based”readingprogramsfundedundertheReading
ExcellenceActof1998shouldbecoveredbyGEPAandareconsequentlyillegal.Educrats,on
theotherhand,haveheldthattheonlywayforaprogramtobecoveredbyGEPAwouldbe
forthesecretaryofeducationtositonthesidewalkoutsidetheU.S.DepartmentofEducation,
developingcurriculum,andpassingitouttointerestedpassersby.]
THESHREVEPORT[LOUISIANA]JOURNALOFJANUARY20,1970CARRIEDANARTICLEENtitled“And
ItCametoPass”initsViewsfromOtherNewspaperssectioninwhichtheauthorasked:
JACKSON(MISS.)DAILYNEWS—HasHEWReplacedNRA[NationalRecoveryAct]?
Thirty-sevenyearsagoanunbelievingeditorsatdownandwroteaneditorialforhispaper,
TheMonroeEveningNewsofMonroe,Michigan,USA.ThedatewasWednesday,September
13,1933.
UndertheLeadLine,“NotThat!”,thatincredulousAmericannewspapereditorwenton
toaskhisreadersofthreedecadesago,“AretheschoolsofAmericatobeusedasapropaganda
agencytomouldpublicopinionintoconformitywiththepoliciesoftheadministration?”
Stillinatoneofutterdisbeliefthateditorwentontoquotefromaninterviewwith
oneLouisAlber,chiefofthespeakersdivisionoftheNationalRecoveryAct.“Justreadthese
astoundingutterancesbyMr.Alber,”theeditorchallengeshissubscribers.
TheruggedindividualismofAmericanismmustgo,becauseitiscontrarytothepurposes
oftheNewDealandtheNRAwhichisremakingAmerica.
RussiaandGermanyareattemptingtocompelaneworderbymeansoftheirnation-
alism-compulsion.TheUnitedStateswilldoitbymoralpersuasion.Ofcourseweexpect
someopposition,buttheprinciplesoftheNewDealmustbecarriedtotheyouthofthe
nation.WeexpecttoaccomplishbyeducationwhatdictatorsinEuropeareseekingtodo
bycompulsionandforce.
Mr.Alberwentontoexplainthata“primer”outliningmethodsofteachingtobe
used,alongwithmotionpicturesonthesubject,werebeingpreparedfordistributionto
allpublicandparochialschoolsandcommentedthat:“NRAistheoutstandingpartofthe
President’sprogram,butinfactitisonlyafragment.Thegeneralpublicisnotinformed
ontheotherpartsoftheprogram,andtheschoolsaretheplacestoreachthefuturebuild-
ersofthenation.”
FromourvantagepointinhistoryweknowthatthenotoriousNRAwaslaidtorestearlyin
itsincubationperiodbytheUnitedStatesSupremeCourt.
Whatisimportanttoeachandallofustodayiswhathastranspiredintheintervening
yearssince1933.Thateditoroflongagoremarked,“Soassweepingandrevolutionaryas
NRAis,itisonlyafragmentofagreaterprogramofwhichthepublicknowsnothing,and
thisunknownprogramistobeinculcatedintothemindsofpupilsintheschoolseverywhere,
byoficialeffortsandatgovernmentexpense....Nowourschoolsaretobecome—likethose
ofGermanyandRussia—anagencyforthepromotionofwhateverpolitical,social,andeco-
nomicpoliciestheadministrationmaydesiretocarryout.Andthetaxpayers,whetherthey
likeitornot,aretopayforhavingtheirchildrenconvertedtothosepolicies.”
TheEditorclosedbystating:“Thewholepropositionissoamazing,andsoalarming
initsimplications,thatwerefusetotakeitseriously.”
96
Takealookaboutyoutoday,withtheWashington-directedschoolpolicies.IstheHealth,
EducationandWelfareDepartmentdoingexactlywhatthedefunctNRAstartedouttodo?
REPORT OF THESTUDY,TITLEIII,ESEA BYEMERYSTOOF WAS PRODUCED BY THEEDUCAtional
InnovationAdvisoryCommissionandtheBureauofPlanningandDevelopmentoftheCali-
forniaStateDepartmentofEducationin1970.Excerptsfollow:
OriginoftheBureau...AnInstructionalProgramPlanningandDevelopmentUnitwasestab-
lishedbyStateBoardactionin1965andwasfundedthroughaTitleV,ESEAproject.This
unitwascomprisedofpersonsresponsibleforthestateleveladministrationofTitleIII,ESEA,
andco-ordinationofTitleV,ESEA.Ageneralconceptualmodelforeffectiveplannedchange
ineducation,aswellasamanagementmodelfortheadministrationofTitleIII,ESEA,was
submittedtotheStateBoard’sFederalAidCommitteein1965,withNovember10,1965as
theirstdeadlineforreceivingapplicationsforfunds.…
TwosigniicantdevelopmentsearlyinthestateadministrationofTitleIII,ESEA,were
(1) the project to Prepare Educational Planners (Operation PEP), and (2) the funding of
twenty-oneregionalplanningcenters.“PEP”sessionstrainedadministratorsinsystematic
planningprocedures,systemsanalysistechniques,“planning,programmingandbudgeting
system”andcost-beneitanalysis.PACE(ProjectstoAdvanceCreativityinEducation)was
toencourageschooldistrictstodevelopimaginativesolutionstoeducationalproblems,to
utilize more effectively research indings, to translate the latest knowledge about teach-
ingandlearningintowidespreadeducationalpractice,andtocreateanawarenessofnew
programs.Throughtheregionalcenters,theBureauhasendeavoredto(1)encouragethe
developmentofcreativeinnovations,(2)demonstrateworthwhileinnovationsineducational
practicethroughexemplaryprograms,and(3)supplementexistingprogramsandfacilities.
[Ed.Note:ThisisanexampleofhowtheFederalgovernmentbeganitstakeoverofallstate
and local education agencies, removing any semblance of what could be considered local
control.TheCaliforniareportexplainsexactlywhathappenedineverysinglestateduetoour
electedoficials’inabilitytoresisttakingfederalmoneyandtheirtrustofeducationchange
agents(administrators,principals,superintendents,etc.).HowmanyAmericanchildrenhave
beenseverelyhandicappedacademicallyandmorallybyexperimental,“innovative”programs
whichhadabsolutelynothingtodowithacademics,buteverythingtodowithattitude,value
andbeliefchange?]
IN1970LEONARDS.KENWORTHY,PROFESSOROFEDUCATIONATBROOKLYNCOLLEGEOFtheCity
ofNewYork,wroteTheInternationalDimensionofEducation:BackgroundPaperIIPrepared
fortheWorldConferenceonEducation(Asilomar,California,March5–14,1970),editedby
NormanV.Overly.TheconferencewassponsoredbytheAssociationforSupervisionandCur-
riculumDevelopment,NationalEducationAssociation,andtheCommissiononInternational
CooperationinEducation.Excerptsfromthereportfollow:
III.TheInternationalDimensionsofOurSchools:SomeOverallConsiderations
Hereandthereteachershavemodiiedindividualcourses....Schoolshaverewrittensyllabi
oraddedcourses....Butnowherehastherebeenarigorousexaminationofthetotalexperi-
encesofchildrenand/oryouthinschoolsandthedevelopmentofacontinuous,cumulative,
comprehensivecurriculumtocreatethenewtypeofpeopleneededforeffectivelivinginthe
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1971 97
latterpartofthe20thcentury....
…All the work we do in developing internationally minded individuals should be
directedtoimprovedbehavior.
Thatmeansthatalltheeffortsinthisdimensionofeducationmustbepredicatedonthe
researchintheformation,reinforcement,andchangeofattitudesandonthedevelopment
ofskills.Knowledgeistremendouslyimportant,butweshouldbeclearbynowthatitmust
becarefullyselectedknowledge,discoveredbythelearnersratherthantoldtothem,and
organizedbythemwiththehelpofteachersorprofessorsaroundconcepts,generalizations,
orbigideas.Teaching,therefore,becomestheprocessofhelpingyoungerpeopletoprobe,
discover,analyze,compare,andcontrastratherthantelling.
Thereisarichmineofdatanowonattitudeformation,change,andreinforcement
whichteachersneedtostudycarefullyandapplytothisdimensionofeducationaswellas
toothers.Forexample,weknowthatmostbasicattitudesarelearnedveryearlybutthat
attitudescanbechangedatanyage.Weknowthattimesofpersonalandsocietalcrisisare
thebesttimestobringaboutchange.Butwealsoknowthatpeoplemustnotbethreatened
bychanges.Theymustberelativelysecureandmuchoftheirresistancetochangerecognized
andtoleratedasamanifestationofaninnerstruggletorejecttheoldandacceptthenew.
Therefore,theacceptanceoftheoldviewswithequanimityisimportant,sothatthethreat
toapersonisminimal.Weknow,too,thatappealstoprideandself-interestmaybehelpful
inbringingaboutchange.Soarethestatementsandactionsofprestigepersons.Membership
innewgroupsisoftenhelpfulininsulatingapersonfromslippingbackintooldpatterns.
Wealsoknowthatchangingatotalgroupiseasierandmorelikelytoproduceresultsthan
tryingtochangeindividuals.Anditisclearthatconcentrationuponspeciicareasofchange
ratherthangeneralapproachesisusuallymosteffective....
Changedbehaviorisourgoalanditconsistsinlargemeasureofimprovedattitudes,
improvedskills,andcarefullyselectedknowledge—thesethree—andthegreatestofthese
isattitudes....
Theprogramemphasizesfeelingsaswellasfacts.Insomepartsoftheworldinthe
ieldofeducationtoday,theemphasisisuponcognitivelearningorintellectualdevelop-
ment.ThisisespeciallytrueintheUnitedStates.…Butintheinternationaldimensionsof
education,asinotherdimensions,theaffectivedomainoremotionaldevelopmentisjust
asimportant....
Weneedtogetatthe“gutlevel”inmuchofourteaching.Weneedtousemusic,art,
powerfulliterature,ilmsandotherapproacheswhichgetatthefeelingleveloflearning.
Forexample,thewriterhasfoundtremendouslyeffectivea10-minuteilmontheUnited
Nations,entitled“Overture.”Thereisnonarrativeinthisilm;thepicturesareshownagainst
abackgroundofmusic,withtheViennaSymphonyOrchestraplayingtheEgmontOverture.
Itisapowerfullearningdeviceandmovesitsviewersinawayfewotherapproachestouch
them.(pp.23–39)
1971
EDUCATION:FROMTHEACQUISITIONOFKNOWLEDGETOPROGRAMMED,CONDITIONEDREsponses
wassubmittedbyAssemblymanRobertH.Burke(70thCaliforniaAssemblyDistrict)tothe
CaliforniaLegislaturein1971.Anexcerptfollows:
INTRODUCTION
Severalmonthsago,myoficebeganaccumulatingmaterialwhichhadparticularsigniicance
98
intheareaofPlanning,Programming,BudgetingSystemsbecauseofitspotentialuseasa
toolofiscalaccountabilityintheieldofeducation.Aswesearchedintotheinformation
availableontheapplicationofthissubjectineducation,itbecameincreasinglydificultto
seeanyrelationshipbetweentheproposedprogramsandiscalaccountability.Itwasappar-
entafterastudyofthemethodsproposedforusebytheschoolsforaccountabilitypurposes
thatiscalaccountabilitywasbeingminimizedandthattechniqueswerebeingpromoted
forachievingbehavioralobjectives.Otherseeminglyunrelatedorganizations,projects,and
programswereuncoveredbecauseoftheirinluenceontheapplicationofaccountability
methods.Theywereaspartsinapuzzle—analyzedbythemselves,eachoftheseprojects
appearedtobeeitherharmlessoranexpressionofsomeone’s“dream.”Whenlinkedtogether
withother“harmless”programs,theywerenolongerformlessbutcouldbeseenasanentire
packageofplansoutliningmethodsofimplementation,organizationstructures(including
low-charts),computerization,useofbehavioralproilecatalogs,andgoalsandobjectives
determination.
CONTROVERSIALSEXOLOGISTSLESTERA.KIRKENDALLANDRUTHF.OSBORNEDEVELOPEDin1971a
programentitled“SexEducation—StudentSyllabusNo:216786,correlatedwithM.I.P.180800”
whichwasoneoftheirstsexeducationprogramstouseamasterylearningapproach.This
programwaspublishedbytheNationalBookCompany,ownedbyCarlW.Salser,executive
directorofEducationalResearchAssociates,anon-proiteducationalresearchcorporationin
Portland,Oregon.Mr.SalserisalsotheownerofHalcyonPressandisalong-timeadvocate
ofindividualizedinstructionandmasterylearning.
CarlSalseristheauthorofapamphletentitled“TheCarnegieUnit:AnAdministrative
Convenience,butanEducationalCatastrophe”andisasupporterofoutcome-basededucation/
masterylearning.FullimplementationofOBE/MLcallsfortheremovaloftheCarnegieUnit—the
“seattime”measureofsubjectexposureforstudentswhichdeterminesgraduationandcol-
legeentryeligibility.Salserwasamemberduring1981–1982ofthepresidentiallyappointed
NationalCouncilonEducationalResearchwhichhadoversightoftheactivitiesattheformer
NationalInstituteofEducationoftheU.S.DepartmentofEducation.
IN1971THESECRETARIATOFTHEUNITEDNATIONSEDUCATIONAL,SCIENTIFIC,ANDCULturalOrga-
nization(UNESCO)calleduponGeorgeW.ParkynofNewZealandtooutlineapossiblemodel
foraneducationsystembasedontheidealofacontinuouseducationprocessthroughoutthe
lifetimeofthelearner—ameansofbringinganexistingnationalschoolsystemintolinewith
lifelonglearning.TheresultofthiseffortwasabookentitledTowardsaConceptualModelof
Life-LongEducation,publishedin1973byUNESCO(EnglishEditionISBN92–3–101117–0).
Theprefaceofthebookcontainedthefollowinginterestingbiographicalsketchofthelittle-
knownDr.Parkyn:
TheSecretariatcalledonGeorgeW.ParkynofNewZealandtopreparethisirststudy.Dr.
Parkynhasrenderedextensiveservicetoeducationinmanypartsoftheworld:inNewZea-
land,asateacherinprimaryandsecondaryschools,asaseniorlecturerattheUniversity
ofOtago,andasdirectoroftheNewZealandCouncilforEducationalResearch,1954–1967;
atUNESCO,wherehemadesubstantialcontributionstotheWorldSurveyofEducation;at
StanfordUniversity,California,asavisitingprofessor;inNewZealandagain,asavisiting
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1971 99
lecturerinComparativeEducationattheUniversityofAuckland;andasProfessorofCom-
parativeEducationattheUniversityofLondon,InstituteofEducation....Dr.Parkynwas
askedtoreviewtheavailableliteratureinthisieldandtoinvolveseveralofhiscolleagues
atStanfordUniversity,California,indiscussionsonthebasicconcept.Psychologists,soci-
ologists,andanthropologists,aswellasprofessionaleducatorstookpartintheconceptual
stage, contributing a rich variety of views. Among those who helped the author in the
preparationofthestudywerehisresearchassistants,Mr.AlejandroToledoandMr.Hei-tak
Wu,andhiscolleagues,Dr.JohnC.Bock,Dr.MartinCarnoy,Dr.HenryM.LevinandDr.
FrankJ.Moore.
[Ed.Note:TheDr.HenryM.LevinmentionedaboveisthesameHenryLevinwhoseK–8
AcceleratedSchoolsProjectisoneoftheseventeenreformmodelsthatschoolsmayadoptto
qualifyfortheirshareofnearly$150millioninfederalgrants,accordingtotheJanuary20,
1999editionofEducationWeek(p.1).Thearticle“Who’sIn,Who’sOut”listedAccelerated
Learningasbeingusedinurbanschools.Itisbasedonaconstructivistphilosophywhichhas
echoesofandreferencestoMariaMontessori’sandJohnDewey’sphilosophiesofeducation
andincorporatesthecontroversialLozanovmethodofSuperlearning.]
PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO TEACHING BY ROBERT F. BIENTER (HOUGHTON MIFFLIN CO.: BOSton,
1971)waspublished.ThispopularpsychologytextwasrecommendedforuseinIntroduction
toEducationalPsychologycoursesinuniversitiesintheearly1970s.Chapter5,underthesub-
headingof“S-RAssociationismandProgrammedLearning,”isexcerptedhere:
Watson[JohnB.](whodidthemosttopopularizePavloviantheoryintheUnitedStates)
basedoneofhismostfamousexperiments(WatsonandRayner,1920)ontheobservation
thatyoungchildrenhavea“natural”fearofsuddenloudsounds.Hesetupasituationin
whichatwo-year-oldboynamedAlbertwasencouragedtoplaywithawhiterat.Afterthis
preliminaryperiod,WatsonsuddenlyhitasteelbarwithahammerjustasAlbertreached
fortherat,andthenoisefrightenedthechildsomuchthathecametorespondtotherat
withfear.Hehadbeenconditionedtoassociatetheratwiththeloudsound.Thesuccess
ofthisexperimentledWatsontobelievethathecouldcontrolbehaviorinalmostlimitless
ways, by arranging sequences of conditioned responses. He trumpeted his claim in this
famousstatement:
Givemeadozenhealthyinfants,wellformed,andmyownspecialworldtobringthem
upin,andI’llguaranteetotakeanyoneatrandomandtrainhimtobecomeanytypeof
specialistImightselect—doctor,lawyer,artist,merchant-chiefandyes,evenbeggarman
andthief—regardlessofhistalents,penchants,tendencies,abilities,vocations,andrace
ofhisancestry.(pp.152–3)
Lateroninthechapter,Skinner’scontributionsarediscussed:
AnevenmorestrikingexampleofSkinner’soverwhelmingenthusiasmforprogrammed
learningishisclaimthatmeremanipulationoftheteachingmachineshouldbe“reinforcing
enoughtokeepapupilatworkforsuitableperiodseveryday.”...Thusitisapparentthat
Skinner’senthusiasmhaspreventedhimfromseeingsomeofthedeicienciesofprogrammed
instruction. Many critics have been especially dissatisied with his attempt to refute the
chargethatprogramslimitcreativity.Clearlywhenthepersoncomposingaprogramdecides
inadvancewhatistobelearnedandhowitistobelearned,astudenthasnoopportunity
100
todevelopinhisownway.Heislimitedbywhattheprogrammerknowsandbyhowthe
programmerlearned....
Itistruethatthestudentmightusethematerialinanoriginalwayafterhehadinished
theprogram,butthereisthepossibilitythatprogrammedinstructioninterfereswiththis
process.Forexample,somestudentswhohavecompletedprogramsreportthatalthough
theyhaveprogressedquicklyandsatisfactorilyandfeelthattheyhavelearnedsomething,
theyaren’tsurewheretogofromhere.Typically,thenextstepistotakeanexam,usually
ofthemultiple-choicetype,whichishighlysimilartotheprograminwhichthatstimuli
arepresentedandresponsesarechosen.Butwhathappensaftertheexam?Ifthestudent
cannotrespondunlessheisstimulatedinthesamewayhewasintheprogramorexam,he
willrarelybeabletoapplywhathehaslearnedtoreallifesituations.
Whatwearedealingwithhereisthesubjectoftransfer…whichisbasictoeducation.
Ellishaspointedoutthatlittleresearchhasbeendoneonthetransferabilityofprogrammed
learning;inalmostallstudiestheexperimenterdeterminesthedegreeoflearningsolelyon
thebasisofeachchild’sperformanceonatestgivenimmediatelyafterthecompletionofthe
program.Skinnermaintainsthatthestudentcanbetaughttotransferideasthroughseparate
programsdesignedforthispurposeandthataproperlywrittenprogramwillweanthestudent
fromthemachine,butthereislittleevidencetobackupthiscontention.Onlogicalgrounds
aloneitseemsreasonabletoquestionthetransfervalueofprogrammedinstruction.
Marklenotesthatinordertoensurethatapproximately95percentoftheanswerswill
becorrect,asSkinnersuggests,programmersareforcedtokeeprevisingprogramsforthe
lowestcommondenominator—thesloweststudentsinthegroup.Thiseventuallyleadsto
programswhichmoststudentscancompletefairlyeasily,butitalsoleadstoprogramswhich
areoversimpliiedandrepetitious.(pp.168–171)
THEINDIVIDUALIZEDLEARNINGLETTER(T.I.L.L.):ADMINISTRATOR’SGUIDETOIMPROVELearning;
IndividualizedInstructionMethods;FlexibleScheduling;BehavioralObjectives;StudyUnits;
Self-DirectedLearning;Accountability,Vol.I(February22,1971:T.I.L.L.,Huntington,N.Y.)1
waspublishedandcirculated.Excerptsfollow:
OptingtobecomeagreaterforceinpromotingI.I.(IndividualizedInstruction),TheNortheast
AssociationforIndividualizationofInstruction(Wyandanch,N.Y.)hasgonenational—by
substitutingtheword“national”for“northeast.”....Theenlarged2–1/2dayconventionis
gearedtogiveregistrantsmoretimetowatchI.I.inactioninliveclassrooms.Severalofthe
nation’sI.I.leadersalreadylineduptorunworkshopsinclude:Dr.LloydBishop,NYU;Dr.
SidRollins,RhodeIslandCollege;Dr.RobertScanlon,ResearchforBetterSchools[Research
forBetterSchoolsandUniversityofPittsburghLearningResearchandDevelopmentCenter
(RobertGlaser)wereinstrumentalindevelopmentofIPIintheearly1960s,ed.];Dr.Edward
Pino,SuperintendentofCherryCreekSchools(Englewood,CO);Dr.RobertAnderson,Har-
vardUniversity;Dr.LeonLessinger,GeorgiaStateUniversity;Dr.RobertSinclair,University
ofMassachusetts;JaneRoot,StanfordResearchAssociates;andDr.GlenOvard,Brigham
YoungUniversity.RepresentativesofUSOE,NEA,NYStateDepartmentofEducationwillbe
present.(Thelattersupportstheconferencewithanannualgrant.)....
QUOTESYOUCANUSE:
DOWNWITHBOOKS.“Textbooksnotonlyencouragelearningatthewronglevel(imparting
factsratherthantellinghowtogatherfacts,etc.),theyalsoviolateanimportantnewcon-
cerninAmericaneducation—individualizedinstruction....Textbooksproducesupericially
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1971 101
knowledgeablestudents...whoknowvirtuallynothingindepthaboutanything....Agood
startwouldbeto...declareamoratoriumontextbookuseinallcourses.”DwightD.Allen,
Dean of Education, University of Massachusetts, writing on “The Decline of Textbooks,
Change.”2
RECOMMENDEDBOOKS:BehavioralObjectives:AGuideforIndividualizedLearning.Four-
volumesetcoveringmorethan4000objectivesrepresentingfouryears’workofmorethan
200teachers.Arrangedbysubjectarea.Coverslanguagearts,socialstudies,mathandsci-
ence. A comprehensive collection. Westinghouse Learning Corp., 100 Park Avenue, New
York,N.Y.10017.
MEETINGSSTRESSINGINDIVIDUALIZEDINSTRUCTION:NinthNationalSocietyforPro-
grammedInstructionConvention,March31–April3,1971.UniversityofRochester,Rochester,
N.Y. Heavy emphasis on applying principles and processes of individualized instruction.
Session on redesigning schools of tomorrow. Contact Dr. Robert G. Pierleone, College of
Education,UniversityofRochester,Rochester,N.Y.FirstEducationalTechnologyConference.
April5–8,1971.AmericanaHotel,N.Y.City,N.Y.Conferenceseminarsandworkshopswill
covercurriculumdesign,useofcomputers,programmedinstruction,simulation,innovation
theory,etc.
INFORTHCOMINGISSUES:Updateof46CaseStudiesofIndividualizedInstructionasorigi-
nallyreportedbyJackV.Edling,OregonStateSystemofHigherEducation.
“REVISEDREPORTOFPOPULATIONSUBCOMMITTEE,GOVERNOR’SADVISORYCOUNCILONEnviron-
mentalQuality”fortheStateofMichigan,tobeusedattheApril6,1971meetingofthesub-
committee,wasiledintheLibrary,LegislativeServiceBureauinLansing,Michigan.Excerpts
fromthisdisturbingreportfollow:
I.ConceptofaPopulationGoal
In general, the Subcommittee was in agreement with U.S. Senate Resolution No. 214, as
follows:
ThatitisthepolicyoftheUnitedStatestodevelop,encourage,andimplementattheearli-
estpossibletime,thenecessarypolicies,attitudes,socialstandards,andactionswhichwill
byvoluntarymeansconsistentwithhumanrightsandindividualconscience,stabilizethe
populationoftheUnitedStatesandtherebypromotethefuturewell-beingofthecitizens
ofthisNationandtheentireworld.
ItwasthefeelingoftheSubcommitteethattheintentoftheaboveResolutionshouldbe
encouragedbyvoluntarymeansanddueconsiderationgiventohumanrights.However,in
ordertoaccomplishtheabovegoal,stateandfederallegislationmustaccompanythisintent
toprovidedisincentives.
II.OptimumGoal
Anoptimumgoalistobeconsideredinpreferencetoamaximumcarryingcapacity.Asa
startingpoint,zeropopulationgrowthistherecommendedgoalforthecitizensofMichi-
gan....Thatthehumanpopulationonainite“spaceship”cannotincreaseindeinitelyis
102
obvious.Whatisnotsoobviousiswhatconstitutesan“optimum”levelofpopulationand
themethodsbywhichitistobelimited....
III.HowDoesSocietyObtainPopulationControl?
Constraintsonpopulationsizecanbedividedintotwotypes,biologicalandsocial.Biological
constraintsincludethelimitationofthoseenergiesandchemicalsrequiredtodrivehuman
societyasabiologicalsystem....Societalconstraintsaremoreappropriatesincethehuman
populationexplosionisbasicallyasocialproblem.Therearethreeclassesofsocialinstitu-
tionswhichcanbeutilizedtoobtainpopulationcontrol.Thesearethepolitical,economic
and education systems. Each of these represent powerful control systems which help to
regulatethebehaviorofoursociety.
Awiderangeofpublicpoliciesareavailablebywhichmancanaffectpopulationsize.
Somepoliciescanseektochangeman’sbasicvaluesandattitudeswithrespecttotheissues
ofpopulationsize.Otherpoliciescanseektodirectlyaffectman’sbehaviorswhichhave
consequencesforpopulationsize.Somesuggestedpolicygoalsarelisted.
GeneralPublicUnderstanding
Havingchildrenisapublicinterestaswellasaprivateinterest.Likewise,theuseofthe
environmentmustbeunderstoodtobeacollectiveresponsibilityratherthanaprivateor
individualresponsibility,sincethecostsandthebeneitsoftheuseoftheenvironmentare
indivisibletoallmembersofthecollectivity.Thisidearunscountertotheunderlyingethic
ofindividualismandprivatenessofoursociety,butisbasicifwearetomobilizethecol-
lectivewillwhichisnecessaryforsocialaction.Tochangesuchabasicsetofattitudesand
valuesrequirescooperationfromthefullrangeofopinionleadersinthesociety.Aprogram
ofeducationforleadersinallsectorsofsociety,suchasreligious,economic,political,edu-
cational,technical,etc.,isthereforecalledfor.
Sincebasicattitudesandvaluesareformedearlyinlife,andsinceitistheyouthof
societywhoareyetcapableofdeterminingthesizeoffuturefamilies,aprogramforalllevels
offormaleducationcanbeapowerfulwaytochangesociety’sattitudesandvaluesonthe
questionofpopulationsizeasoutlinedabove.
Theideathatfamilysizeisacollective,socialresponsibilityratherthanjustanindi-
vidualresponsibilitycanbefosteredbothdirectlybyexhortationsbyopinionleadersandin
theschools,andindirectlybytheactionsthatgovernmentandotherinstitutionsinsociety
take.Forexample,theproposaltoeliminatetheincometaxexemptionforchildreninexcess
ofthetwo-childfamilylimitcanbeapowerfulwayforgovernmenttosymbolizeitsdeter-
minationthatfamilysizeisacollectiveresponsibility.
Publicunderstandingoftheinterdependentnatureofournaturalandman-madeenvi-
ronmentisalsoimportantforenlightenedpublicsupportforpopulationcontrolpolicies.
Astate-wideeducationprogramconcerningecologyandpopulationbiologyisneededfor
bothstudentandadultsegmentsofoursociety.Thiswillrequirevigorousactiontoremove
thetopicofsexfromtheclosetsofobscurityinwhichconservativeelementsinoursociety
haveplacedit....
CulturalChanges
Twotypesofculturalchangesareneededinordertoreducethepopulationincrease:reduce
thedesiredsizeoffamilies,andreducethesocialpressuretomarryandhaveafamily.
Largefamiliescanbechangedfromaneconomicassettoaneconomicliabilityifall
membersofsocietycanbeofferedtheprospectthatthroughwork,saving,anddeferred
spending they can achieve economic security for themselves and their children. For the
103
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1971
alreadyafluentmiddleclass,largerfamiliescanbemadeaneconomicliabilitybyincreasing
theincentivesforandthecostsofadvancededucationfortheirchildren....
Culturalchangestoreducethesocialpressuretomarryandhaveafamilycanbepur-
suedbychangingeducationalmaterialswhichglorifymarriedlifeandfamilylifeastheonly
“normal”lifepattern,bygrantinggreaterpublicrecognitiontonon-marriedandnon-family
lifestyles,byfacilitatingcareersforsinglewomen....
[Ed.Note:Theaboverecommendationregardingreducingthesocialpressuretomarryand
haveafamilywassuccessfullycarriedoutoveraperiodof25yearsaccordingtoanarticle
entitled“InstitutioninTransition”byMichelleBoorsteinwhichappearedinTheMaineSunday
Telegram’sAugust30,1998issue,HomeandFamilySection,G–1.ThisAssociatedPressarticle
saidinpart:
They[PamHesseandRobLemar]shareahomeandafuturebutnotaformalvow—just
onecouplecaughtupintheseismicshiftstakingplaceinAmericanattitudestowardmar-
riageandchildbearing.
A soon-to-be-released Census Bureau report shows Hesse is far from an exception;
infact,she’sinthemajority.Thereport,thebureau’sirstcompilationofallits60years
of data on childbearing and marriage, inds that for the irst time, the majority of “irst
births”—someone’sirstchild—wereeitherconceivedbyorborntoanunmarriedwoman.
Thatisupfrom18percentinthe1930s.
Thisisconnectedtoanerosionofthecentralityofmarriage,saidStephanieCoontz
ofEvergreenStateCollegeinOlympia,Washington,whostudiesthefamilyanditsrolein
history.]
ReturningtothePopulationSubcommittee’sreport:
DirectBehaviorChanges
Twogeneraltypesofpublicpoliciesaredistributivepoliciesandregulativepolicies.Distribu-
tivepoliciesinvolvethedistributionofresourcesandopportunitiestopeoplewhochoose
tomodifytheirbehaviortoconformwiththesociallydesiredpatterns.Theythusoperate
as incentives rather than as oficial constraints. Examples include the elimination of tax
incentivesforlargerfamilies,monetaryincentivesforsterilizationoradoptedfamilies,and
removingtheincometaxdiscriminationagainstsinglecitizens....
Regulative policies involve direct constraints on behavior and necessarily generate
greaterpoliticalconlictthandistributivepolicies.Thisisbecauseregulativepolicieselimi-
natetheelementofvoluntarychoiceandapplyautomaticallyandcategoricallytoawhole
classofpeopleorofbehaviors.Examplesofsuchregulativepoliciesdesignedtocontrol
populationgrowthincludeforcedsterilizationandrestrictivelicensingprocedurestomarry
andtohavechildren.However,itdoesnotseemnecessary,desirable,orfeasibletoinvolve
regulativepoliciesforpopulationcontrolatthistime.Oneregulativetypepolicywhichisnow
ineffectandwhichallowspopulationincreaseisthelawforbiddingabortion.Restrictions
againstabortionsshouldberemovedtoallowindividualchoiceintheuseofthisback-up
methodofbirthcontrol....
Ageneralacceptanceofbirthcontroltoobtainpopulationstabilitywillcreateamore
staticethnic,culturalandracialstructureinsociety.Minoritygroupswillcontinuetostay
atanumericalminority.Minorityproblemsarebasicallysocialandshouldbesolvedinthat
manner.Anequilibriumconditionwillalsoalterthestructureofoureconomicrelationship
bothwithinoursociety(ashiftfromanexpandingeconomytoacompetitivedisplacement
economy) and between other countries that will still be experiencing increasing popula-
104
tions....
Immediateconsiderationmustbegivento(1)thedevelopmentofanintegratedsocial
controlofourpopulationsizeandgrowth,and(2)theimpactofasteadystablecondition
onoursociety.Thescopeandcomplexityofthistaskrequirestheattentionofahighlypro-
fessionalteamwhosetalentsandprofessionaltrainingareequaltothechallenge.Itisthe
recommendationoftheCouncilthatsuchateambebroughttogetherandchargedwiththe
promptdevelopmentofthedetailsofthisprogramandreportingbacktotheCouncil.
ApprovedbythePopulationSubcommittee,March30,1971.
Present:Dr.C.T.Black,Mr.RobertBoatman,ProfessorWilliamCooper,Dr.RalphMacMul-
lan,andM.S.Reisen,M.D.,Chairman
Surelyitisnocoincidencethattheabove-mentionedMichiganandU.S.Senaterecom-
mendedpoliciesonpopulationcontrolwerebeingdiscussedatthesametime(1971)thatthe
UnitedStateswasengagedin“PingPong”diplomacywithCommunistChina,theinternational
leaderinmandatorypopulationcontrol.Someexcerptsfollowfrom“ThePingHeardRound
theWorld”whichappearedintheApril26,1971issueofTimemagazine:
Dressedinanausteregraytunic,PremierChouEn-Laimovedalongalineofrespectfully
silentvisitorsinPeking’smassiveGreatHallofthePeople....Finallyhestoppedtochatwith
the15-memberU.S.teamandthreeaccompanyingAmericanreporters,theirstgroupofU.S.
citizensandjournaliststovisitChinainnearlyaquarterofacentury.“Wehaveopeneda
newpageintherelationsoftheChineseandAmericanpeople,”hetoldtheU.S.visitors.
...Yetinlastweek’sgesturestotheUnitedStatestabletennisteam,theChinesewere
clearlyindicatingthataneweracouldbegin.Theycarefullymadetheirapproachesthrough
privateU.S.citizens,buttheywererespondingtoearliersignalsthathadbeensentbythe
NixonAdministrationoverthepasttwoyears.
...Probablyneverbeforeinhistoryhasasportbeenusedsoeffectivelyasatoolof
internationaldiplomacy.
[Ed.Note:Backtofamilyplanning,Michigan-style.PopulationandFamilyPlanninginthe
People’sRepublicofChina,1971,abookpublishedbytheVictor-BostromFundandthePopula-
tionCrisisCommittee,hasatableofcontentsthatincludes:“ALetterfromPeking”byEdgar
Snow,authorofRedStarOverChina;“FamilyPlanninginChina”byHanSuyin,M.D.;and
“WhyNotAdoptChina’sPopulationGoals?”Inotherwords,itlookslikePingPongDiplomacy
mayhavebeenusedtoopenupthedialoguebetweenCommunistChinaand“private”Ameri-
cangroupssupportingpopulationcontrol.Thesewould,inturn,lobbyinCongressformore
liberalfamilyplanningpoliciesandforthelegalizationofabortionasrecommendedinthe
U.S.SenateJournalResolution#214andtheMichiganpaper.Hereagain,aswasthecasewith
the1985CarnegieCorporation-SovietAcademyofScienceseducationagreement,diplomacy
isbeingconductedbyprivateparties:tabletennisteamsandgroupssuchasthenon-proit
Victor-BostromFundandthePopulationCrisisCommittee.]
PERFORMANCE-BASEDTEACHEREDUCATION:WHATISTHESTATEOFTHEART?BYSTANLEYElam,
editor of Phi Delta Kappa Publications (AACTE Committee on Performance-Based Teacher
105
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1971
Education,AmericanAssociationofCollegesforTeacherEducation:Washington,D.C.,1971),
waspublished.Thispaperwasoriginallypreparedin1971pursuanttoacontractwiththeU.S.
OficeofEducationthroughtheTexasEducationAgency,Austin,Texas.Excerptsfollow:
TheAssociationispleasedtooffertotheteachereducationcommunitytheCommittee’s
irststateoftheartpaper....Inperformance-basedprograms...he[theteacher]isheldaccount-
able,notforpassinggrades,butforattainingagivenlevelofcompetencyinperformingthe
essentialtasksofteaching....Acceptanceofthisbasicprinciplehasprogramimplications
thataretrulyrevolutionary.
Theclaimthatteachereducationprogramswerenotproducingpeopleequippedtoteach
minoritygroupchildrenandyoutheffectivelyhaspointeddirectlytotheneedforreform
inteachereducation....Moreover,theclaimofminoritygroupyouththatthereshouldbe
alternativeroutestoprofessionalstatushasraisedseriousquestionsaboutthesuitabilityof
generallyrecognizedteachereducationprograms.
[Ed.Note:Theabovepaperwasoneoftheirst—andperhapsthemostinluential—profes-
sionalpaperssettingthestageforfull-blownimplementationofSkinnerianoutcome-based/
performance-basededucation.Thedeinitions,criteria,assessment,etc.,areidenticaltothose
foundinpresentprofessionalOBEliterature.(SeeAppendixVIIforfullerexcerptsfromthis
paper.)]
CONCERNREGARDINGTHEDELIBERATEDUMBINGDOWNOFAMERICAISNOTCONFINEDTOthisauthor
accordingtoanarticleentitled“YoungPeopleAreGettingDumber,”byDavidHawkins,edito-
rialstaffwriter,intheAugust26,1971issueofTheDallasMorningNews.Excerptsfromthis
interestingarticle,whichdiscussestheimportanceofacquiringalargevocabulary,follow:
JohnGaston,whobossestheFortWorthbranchoftheHumanEngineeringLaboratory
(halfhisclientsarefromDallas),droppedabombonmeaswediscussedaptitudetesting.
“Doyouknow,”hesaid,“thatthepresentgenerationknowslessthanitsparents?”
“Youmeantosaythatyoungpeoplearen’tsmarterthanweare—thatallwe’veheard
aboutthisgenerationbeingthelastandbestisn’tso?”
Gastonnoddedsolemnly:“Youngpeopleknowfewerwordsthantheirfathers.That
makesthemknowless.”Heixedmewithaforebodingeye:“Canyouimaginewhatadrop
inknowledgeof1percentayearfor30yearscoulddotoourcivilization?”
The question answered itself. And though I could hardly believe what Gaston was
saying,Iknewitwasn’tinstantsociology.
Whathesaysisbasedonhundredsofthousandsoftestsgiveninseveralpartsofthe
countrysince1922bywhatisprobablythemostprestigiousnon-proitoutitintheieldof
vocationalresearch.TheHumanEngineersdon’tevenadvertise.
ButGastonwasn’tthrough:“Wealsobelieve,”hewassaying,“thattherecentrisein
violencecorrelateswiththedropinvocabulary.Long[range]testinghasconvincedusthat
crimeandviolencepredominateamongpeoplewhoscorelowinvocabulary.Iftheycan’t
expressthemselveswiththeirtongues,they’llusetheirists.”
“Wetestmanygiftedpeoplewhoarelowinvocabularyandwetellthemall—wetell
theworld—tolearnthewords.Swallowthedictionary.Brilliantaptitudesaren’tworthmuch
withoutwordstogivethemwings.”
Gastonpausedandthendroppedanotherbomb.“Theonethingsuccessfulpeoplehave
incommonisn’thighaptitudes—it’shighvocabulary,andit’swithineverybody’sreach.
106
Successactuallycorrelatesmorewithvocabularythanwiththegiftswe’rebornwith.”
“Aptitudeswillonlyshowthemwhichroadtotake.Vocabularywilldeterminehow
hightheyclimb.Rightnow,thepresentgenerationisheadeddownwards.”
SOMEIMPORTANTSTATEMENTSBYPROFESSORJOHNI.GOODLAD,PRESIDENTOFEDUCAtionalInquiry,
Incorporated,appearedinAReporttothePresident’sCommissiononSchoolFinance(School-
ingfortheFuture:TowardQualityandEqualityinAmericanPrecollegiateEducation)October
15,1971.Goodladmakesthefollowingcommentsunder“Issue#9—EducationalInnovation:
Whatchangesinpurposes,proceduresorinstitutionalarrangementsareneededtoimprove
thequalityofAmericanelementaryandsecondaryeducation?”:
Theliteratureonhowwesocializeordevelopnormativebehaviorinourchildrenand
thepopulaceingeneralisfairlydismal....[T]hemajorityofouryouthstillholdthesame
valuesastheirparents....
Inthesecondparadigm...thesuggestionismadethattherearedifferenttargetsforthe
changeagent.Forexample,inasocialsystemsuchasaschoolprobablyivetoifteenpercent
ofthepeopleareopentochange.Theyarethe“earlymajority”andcanbecountedonto
besupportive.Asecondgroup,sixtytoninetypercent,aretheresisters.Theyneedspecial
attentionandcarefulstrategiesneedtobeemployedwiththem.Also,therearetheleaders,
formalandinformal,andtheirsupportiscritical.Inhisresearch,forexample,Demeternoted
sometimeagothespecialroleoftheschoolprincipalininnovation:
Buildingprincipalsarekeyiguresinthe(innovation)process.Wheretheyarebothaware
ofandsympathetictoaninnovation,ittendstoprosper.Wheretheyareignorantofits
existence,orapatheticifnothostile,ittendstoremainoutsidethebloodstreamofthe
school.
Fewpeoplethinkinthesewaystoday.Rather,asapeople,wetendtorelyuponcommon
senseorwhatmightbecalledconventionalwisdomaswemakesigniicantdecisionswhich,
inturn,seriouslyaffectourlives....Moreoftenthannot,schoolboardmembers,parentsand
thepublicmakeimportantdecisionsaboutwhatshouldhappenintheirschoolsbasedupon
thesepastexperiencesorotherconventionalwisdom....Theuseofconventionalwisdomas
abasisfordecision-makingisamajorimpedimenttoeducationalimprovement....
Thechildofsuburbiaislikelytobeamaterialistandsomewhatofahypocrite.Hetends
tobeastriverinschool,aconformist,andaboveallabelieverinbeing“nice,”polite,clean
andtidy.HedividesHumanityintotheblackandwhite,theJewandtheChristian,therich
andthepoor,the“smart”andthe“dumb.”Heisoftenconspicuouslyself-centered.Inall
theserespects,thesuburbanchildpatternshisattitudesafterthoseofhisparents....Ifwe
donotalterthispattern,ifwedonotresocializeourselvestoacceptandplanforchange,
oursocietymaydecay.Whatmaybeleftinthenottoodistantfutureiswhatotherformerly
greatsocietieshavehad,relectionsonpastglories....
In the social interaction model of change, the assumption is made that the change
agent is the decision-maker about the innovation. That is, it is assumed that he decides
whattheadopterwillchangeto.Thisisaseriousproblemfortwoverygoodreasons.First,
aswehaveshown,peoplecannotbeforcedtochangeuntiltheyarepsychologicallyready.
Thus,ateverystage,eachindividualis,infact,decidinghowfarheisreadyorwillingto
move,ifatall.
107
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1972
[Ed.Note:Asaformerschoolboardmember,thiswritercanrelatetotheabovequote.Princi-
palswhoresistedinnovationeventuallyendedupbeingforcedoutofthesystemundergoing
radicalchange.Theirtrialsandtribulationswereknownonlytothem,andwhattheyunder-
wentduringthechangeagents’activitiesintheirschoolscouldbedescribedasinhumane
treatment.]
THETRI-COUNTYK–12COURSEGOALPROJECT,THERESULTSOFWHICHWERELATERPUBlishedby
theNorthwestRegionalLaboratoryoftheU.S.DepartmentofEducationandusedextensively
throughoutthenationastheformulaicsamplefor“goalssetting,”wasinitiatedin1971.In
theappendixentitled“ClassiicationSystemfortheSchoolCurriculum”forherPractitioner’s
Implementation Handbook [series]: The Outcome-Based Curriculum (Outcome Associates:
Princeton,N.J.,1992),CharlotteDanielson,M.A.,aprominenteducatorandproponentof
outcome-basededucation,said:“Theknowledgeandinquiryandproblem-solvingskillssections
ofthistaxonomywereirstdevelopedbytheTri-CountyGoalDevelopmentProject,Portland,
Oregon.”3AssistantsuperintendentVictorW.Doherty,EvaluationDepartmentofthePortland
PublicSchoolsinPortland,Oregon,inaNovember2,1981lettertoMrs.OpalMoore,described
thisGoalDevelopmentProjectasfollows:
TheTri-CountyGoalDevelopmentProjectwasinitiatedbymein1971inanefforttodevelop
aresourceforarrivingatwell-deinedlearningoutcomestatementsforuseincurriculum
planningandevaluation.Atthattimetheonlylanguageavailablewasthebehavioralobjec-
tive,astatementwhichcombinedaperformancespeciicationwithalearningoutcomeoften
insuchawayastoconcealthereallearningthatwasbeingsought.Byfreeingthelearning
outcomestatementsfromperformancespeciicationandbydeininglearningoutcomesof
three distinctly different types (information, process skills, and values), we were able to
produceoutcomestatementsthatservedboththeplanningandevaluationfunctions.The
projectwasorganizedtoinclude55schooldistrictsinMultnomah,Clackamas,andWash-
ingtonCountiesandwritingwasdoneinitiallybyteacherswhosetimewasdonatedtothe
projectbymemberdistricts.
[Ed.Note:Thewriterbelievesthatthisverycontroversialprojectwhichprovidedthegoals
frameworkforOBEwasillegal—inclearviolationofthe1970GEPAprohibitionagainstfederal
governmentinvolvementincurriculumdevelopment.]
1972
THENEWPORTHARBORENSIGNOFCORONADELMAR,CALIFORNIACARRIEDANARTICLEentitled
“TeachersAreRecycled”initsJanuary20,1972issue.Thefollowingareexcerptsfromthis
importantarticle:
Education in California is inally going to catch up with the “innovative” Newport-Mesa
UniiedSchoolDistrict.WiththepassageoftheStullBill,AB293,allschooldistrictsare
mandated to evaluate their classroom teachers and certiicated personnel through new
guidelines.Anotherportionofthebillwillallowadistricttodismissateacherwithtenure,
withoutgoingtocourt.
Ateacherwillnolongerhavetheprerogativeofhavinghisown“style”ofteaching,
108
becausehewillbeheld“accountable”touniformexpectedstudentprogress.Hisjobwill
dependonhowwellhecanproduce“intended”behavioralchangesinstudents.
“Schooldistrictsjusthaven’thadtimetotoolupforit,”explainedDr.WilliamCun-
ningham,ExecutiveDirectoroftheAssociationofCaliforniaSchoolAdministrators(ACSA).
Untilrecently,hewassuperintendentoftheNewport-Mesadistrict.
The Newport-Mesa district, under the guidance of Dr. Cunningham, accomplished
thistaskyearsago.Infactwehavewarnedofthisappraisalplaninmanyofourcolumns
throughoutthepast2years.Itsformalnameis“staffperformanceappraisalplan,”atleast
inthisdistrict,andwasformulatedasearlyas1967.
In1968iveelementaryschoolsinourdistrict(California,Mariners,Presidio,Victoria,
MonteVista)andonehighschool(Estancia)wereselectedfromschoolsthatvolunteeredfor
theproject.Theywereacceptedonthebasisthatatleast60%oftheteacherswerewilling
toparticipateinthe“in-servicetrainingsessions”andto“apply”theassessmentprocesses
learnedatthesesessionsintheirownclassroomsituations.Atotalof88teachersparticipated
inallaspectsofthepilotstudy....
FORMALTRAININGSESSIONS:participantsattendedtwo2–1/2hoursessionstoacquire
theprerequisitetools.Evidencewascollectedtoshowthatbytheendoftheinaltrain-
ingsession,80%oftheparticipantshadacquiredaminimallevelofabilitytoapplythese
competencies.
PREREQUISITETOOLS:Teacherslearninghowtoidentifyordiagnosestrengthsandweak-
nesses,learningtowriteandusebehavioralobjectives,learningnewteachingtechniques
andprocedures,etc.Teacherslearnthesethroughworkshopsandin-servicetraining,having
acquiredtheseskills,teachershadtogothroughthe“appraisal”technique.
APPRAISALTECHNIQUE:Duringtheobservationphase,observationteamscomposedof
teachercolleaguesandaresourcepersonfromUCLAortheDistrictcollecteddataregard-
ingtheexecutionofthepreviouslyplannedlessons.Theobservationteamrecordedboth
theverbalbehaviorofpupilsandteacher(e.g.,teacherquestionsandpupilresponses)and
non-verbalbehaviorwhichcouldbeobjectivelydescribed....
Whatallthisamountstois“peergroup”analysis.Groupdynamicswouldbetheterm
usedinothercircles.Tobemoreblunt,otherswouldcallitsensitivitytraininginitspurest
form—role-playing,tosaytheleast....
Theteachermustcooperateandlearnthenewmethodsofteaching,writingbehavioral
objectives,playingpsychologist.
THENEWYORKTIMESCARRIEDALENGTHYFRONTPAGEARTICLEONAPRIL30,1972BYWilliam
K.Stevensentitled“TheSocialStudies:ARevolutionIson—NewApproachIsQuestioning,
Skeptical—StudentsExamineVariousCultures.”Thisarticleexplainedtheearlyhistoryofthe
twenty-six-yearcontroversywhichhasragedacrosstheUnitedStatesbetweenthosedesiring
educationforaglobalsocietyversusthosedesiringeducationinAmericanHistoryandWest-
ernCivilization;i.e.,thequestionof“socialstudies”versustraditionalhistory,and“process”
educationversusfact-basededucation.Excerptsfollow:
WhenC.FrederickRisingerstartedteachingAmericanHistoryatLakeParkHighSchoolnear
Chicago,heoperatedjustaboutasteachershadforgenerations.Hedrilledstudentsonnames
anddates.Hetalkedalotaboutkingsandpresidents.Andheworkedfromastandardtext
whosepatrioticthemeheldthattheUnitedStateswas“foundedonthehighestprinciples
thatmenofgoodwillandcommonsensehavebeenabletoputintopractice.”
109
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1972
Thatwastenyearsago,butitmightaswellbe50.Forthesocialstudiescurriculumat
LakeParkhaschangedalmostbeyondrecognition.The32-year-oldMr.Risinger,nowhead
ofthedepartment,hasabandonedthetraditionaltextandsethisstudentstoanalyzingall
revolutions,notjusttheAmerican,andfromallpointsofview,includingtheBritishone
thatGeorgeWashingtonwasbothatraitorandanineptgeneral.
AN ARTICLE ENTITLED“PEOPLECONTROLBLUEPRINT” BYCAROLDENTON WAS PUBLISHEDinthe
May,1972issue(Vol.3,No.12)ofTheNationalEducator(Fullerton,CA).Recommendations
madeinthetopsecretpaperdiscussedinthisarticleechothosementionedintheApril6,1971
MichiganGovernor’sAdvisoryCouncilonPopulationpaper.Excerptsfollow:
A“TopSecret”paperfromtheCenterfortheStudyofDemocraticInstitutions,nowinthe
handsofTheNationalEducator,revealsaplanfortotalcontrolofthepeopleoftheUnited
StatesthroughbehavioralmodiicationtechniquesofB.F.Skinner,thecontroversialbehav-
ioristauthorofBeyondFreedomandDignity....
Accordingtothe“DialogueDiscussionPaper,”marked“TopSecret”acrossthebottomof
thecoverpage,aconferencewasheldattheCenteronJanuary17through19,1972,atwhich
timeadiscussionon“TheSocialandPhilosophicalImplicationsofBehaviorModiication”
washeld.Thepaperinquestionistheoneprepared[by]fourindividualsforpresentationat
thatconferenceentitled“ControlledEnvironmentforSocialChange.”TheauthorsareVitali
Rozynko,KennethSwift,JosephineSwiftandLarneyJ.Boggs....
Thesecondpageofthepapercarriestheinscription,“ToB.F.SkinnerandJamesG.
Holland.”... Page 3 of the paper states that the “Top Secret” document was prepared on
December31,1971....
TheauthorsofthistomeareseniorstaffmembersoftheOperantBehaviorModiica-
tionProjectlocatedatMendocinoStateHospitalinCaliforniaandtheprojectispartially
supportedbyagrantfromtheNationalInstituteonAlcoholAbuse....
Onpage5ofthisblueprintfortotalitarianism,theauthorsstatethat“wearepresently
concernedwithcontrollingupheavalsandanarchicbehaviorassociatedwithsocialchange
anddiscontent.”...Theauthorsgoontosaythattheybelievean“Orwellianworld”ismore
likelyunderpresentlydevelopingsocietythanunderthekindofrigorouscontrolsofasociety
envisionedbySkinner....
Onpage6,theauthorsdeplorethegrowingdemandsfor“lawandorder,”statingthat
the population is now more apt to support governmental repression than previously, in
responseto“theirownfears.”...
They add that “with the rising population, depletion of natural resources, and the
increaseofpollution,repressivemeasuresmayhavetobeusedtoguaranteesurvivalofour
species.Thesemeasuresmaytaketheformofforcedsterilization,greatlyrestrictedusesof
energyandlimitsonpopulationmovementandlivinglocation.”...
Skinner,ontheotherhand,theyallege—“advocatesmoresophisticatedcontrolsover
thepopulation,sincepunishment(bythegovernment)forthemostpartworksonlytempo-
rarilyandonlywhilethepunishingagentispresent.”...
Ontheotherhand,theauthorsallege,operantconditioning(sensitivitytraining)and
otherbehavioraltechniquescanbeusedtocontrolthepopulationthrough“positiverein-
forcement.”
110
MARYTHOMPSON, SECRETARY AND MEMBER OF THE SPEAKERS’ BUREAU OF THESANTACLARA,
CaliforniaRepublicanWomen’sFederation,gaveaveryimportantspeechregardingPlanning,
Programming,BudgetingSystems(PPBS)onJune11,1972.Followingarekeyexcerpts:
WhenIwasirstaskedtospeaktoyouaboutPPBS(Planning,Programming,Budget-
ingSystems),IinquiredwhetheritwastobeaddressedtoPPBSasappliedtoeducation.I
shalldealwithitattheeducationleveltoday,howeveryoushouldrememberthatPPBSis
atoolforimplementingtheveryrestructuringofgovernmentatalllevelsineveryareaof
governmentalinstitutions.Whatisinvolvedistheuseofgovernmentagenciestoaccomplish
massbehavioralchangeineveryarea....
PPBSisaplanbeingpushedbyFederalandStategovernmentstocompletelychange
education....
TheaccountabilityinvolvedinPPBSmeansaccountabilitytothestate’spredetermined
educationgoals....
Oneleaderofeducationinnovation(ShellyUmans—ManagementofEducation)has
calledit“Asystematicdesignforeducationrevolution.”...
Inasystemsmanagementoftheeducationprocess,thechildhimselfistheproduct.
Note:thechild...hisfeelings,hisvalues,hisbehavior,aswellashisintellectualdevelop-
ment....
PPBSistheculminationofthe“peopleplanners”dreams....
Thenin1965themeansforaccomplishingtheactualrestructuringofeducationwas
providedintheElementaryandSecondaryEducationAct(ESEA).PresidentJohnsonhas
said that he considered the ESEA the most signiicant single piece of legislation of his
administration.Recallthatitwasalsothesameyearof1965whenthepresidentialorder
wasgiventointroducePPBSthroughouttheentirefederalgovernment.1965wastheyear
whichunleashedtheactualrestructuringofgovernmentalprocessesandformallyincluded
educationasalegitimateFederalgovernmentfunction....
PPBSisthesystemsmanagementtoolmadepossiblebytechnologyofcomputerhard-
waretoaffecttheplannedchange....
InordertomakeanexplanationofPPBSintelligible,youmustalsoknowthateducation
itselfhasbeenredeined.Simplyput,ithasbecometheobjectiveofeducationtomeasure
anddiagnosethechildinordertoprescribeaprogramtodevelophisfeelingsandemotions,
valuesandloyaltiestowardpredeterminedbehavioralobjectives....Drawingitrightdownto
basics,wearetalkingaboutconditionedresponsesinhumanterms.Pavlovexperimented
ondogs!...
Taking each element of PPBS will show how the process is accomplished. PLAN-
NING—Planningphase(pleasenotethattheprocessinvolvedwithasystemsapproachis
alwaysdescribedintermsof“phases”)alwaysincludestheestablishmentofgoalscommittees,
citizenscommittees,needsassessmentcommittees....Thesearereferredtoas“community
involvement.”Thecommitteesarealwayseitherselfappointedorchosen—neverelected.
Theyalwaysincludeguidancefromsometrained“changeagents”whomaybeadministra-
tors,curriculumpersonnelorlocalcitizens.Questionnairesandsurveysareusedtogather
dataonhowthecommunity“feels”andtotestcommunityattitudes.Theingeniousnessof
theprocessisthateverybodythinksheishavingavoiceinthedirectionofpublicschools.
Not so... for Federal change agencies, speciically regional education centers established
byESEA,inluenceandessentiallydetermineterminologyusedinthequestionnairesand
surveys.Thechangeagentsatthedistrictlevelthenfunctionto“identifyneedsandprob-
lemsforchange”astheyhavebeenprogrammedtoidentifythematthetrainingsessions
sponsoredbyFederaloficessuchasourCenterforPlanningandEvaluationinSantaClara
County.Thatiswhythegoalsareessentiallythesameinschooldistrictsacrossthecountry.
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1972 111
ItalsoexplainswhythreeyearsagoeveryschooldistrictwasconfrontedwiththeFamily
LifeEducationissueatthesametime....
Unknowingcitizens’committeesareusedbytheprocesstogenerateacceptanceofgoals
alreadydetermined.Whattheydon’trealizeisthatprofessionalchangeagentsareoperating
inthebehaviorist’sframeworkofthoughtandMr.orMrs.CitizenParentisoperatinginhis
traditionaleducationframeworkofthought.So,thelocalchangeagentsareabletofacilitate
agrouptoaconsensusinsupportofpredeterminedgoalsbyusingfamiliar,traditionalterms
whichcarrythenewbehavioristmeanings....
AnothernameforthisprocessisParticipatoryDemocracy,atermbytheway,which
wascoinedbyStudentsforaDemocraticSocietyintheirPortHuronManifestotoidentify
theprocessforcitizenparticipationindestructionoftheirownpoliticalinstitutions....
RichardFarsonofWesternBehavioralSciencesInstitutemadeareporttotheOficeof
EducationinSacramentoin1967.Hesaiditthisway:
Theapplicationofsystemsanalysisisaidedbyseveralphenomenathatwouldbeofhelp
inalmostanysituationoforganizationalchange.First,itisrelativelyeasiertomakebig
changes than to make small ones—and systems changes are almost always big ones.
Becausetheyarebig,itisdificultforpeopletomountresistancetothem,fortheygo
beyondtheordinarydecision-making,policy-makingactivitiesofindividualmembersofan
organization.Itisfareasiertomusterargumentagainsta$100expenditureforpartitions
thanagainstacompletereorganizationoftheworklow....
Teachers,youhaveprofessionalorganizationstoprotectyourprofessionalinterests.Use
themtoprotectyourpersonalprivacyandprofessionalintegrity.Encourageorganizationsof
teacherstotakepositionspubliclyinoppositiontoPPBS....
Webelievethetimehascometoestablishprivateschoolstokeepourchildrenfrom
fallingvictimtothebehavioristswhilethereisstillopportunitytodoso.BEAWAREOFTHE
FACTTHATTHEVOUCHERSYSTEMISLURKINGINTHEWINGSTOBRINGTHEPRIVATE
SCHOOLSINTOTHENATIONALCONTROL[emphasisinoriginal].
THELEDGEROFTALLAHASSEEFLORIDAONJULY27,1972INANARTICLEENTITLED“SCHOOLSto
TryNewProgram”quotedFloridastateeducationoficialsassayingthatanewprogrambeing
ield-testedinFloridawilltellteachersandparentsnotonlywhyJohnnycan’tread,butwhy
theschoolcan’tteachhimandhowmuchit’scostingtotry.Excerptsfollow:
“We’reputtingallthevariouscomponentstogethernow,”saidAssociateEducation
CommissionerCecilGolden.“Whatwe’redoingshouldsoonbecomeveryvisible.”However,
heestimatesitwilltakeseventotenyearsbeforetheprogramiscompletelyoperational....
Goldensaysitmaysoundlikealotofgibberishatthispoint,but“whenwebringitall
together”itshouldproduceamorelexibleandrelevanteducationalsystem....
HesaidmanypeopleintheStateDepartmentofEducationareworkingindependently
onvariousfacetsandaspectsoftheprogramand,likethoseassemblingtheatombomb,
“veryfewofthemunderstandexactlywhattheyarebuilding,andwon’tuntilweputall
thepartstogether.”
[Ed.Note:ThisarticlereferstoPPBS/MBO—theearlyyears.TheAtlantaConstitutionpub-
lishedanarticleentitled“GeorgiaSchoolsOKTrackingSystem”initsJuly1,1998issuewhich
describeslaterPPBSimplementationandwhichisincludedinthisbook’sentryofthesame
112
date.]
THEDONBELLREPORTOFSEPTEMBER8,1972REPORTEDONAWHITEHOUSECONFERenceonthe
IndustrialWorldheldFebruary7ofthatyear.Theconferencetitlewas“ALookatBusiness
in1990.”Excerptsfollow:
Asoneoftheparticipantsinthatconference,RoyAsh,PresidentofLittonIndustriesand
ChairmanofthePresident’sAdvisoryCouncilonExecutiveOrganization,laterappearedbefore
theLosAngelesChamberofCommercetotellWestCoastbusinessmenwhatwasdecidedat
theWhiteHouseConference.Thebillingforthislattereventisimpressivereading:
The Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce in cooperation with the U.S. Department of
CommerceandtheWhiteHouseStaff,ispresentingTheWhiteHouseConference,The
WorldAhead:ALookatBusinessin1990,Thursday,May18,1972.LosAngelesHilton.
3:00–6:30p.m.
FollowingispartofwhatRoyAshtoldhisLosAngelesaudience:
Theansweristhatincreasingeconomicandbusinessinterdependenceamongnations
isthekeynoteofthenexttwodecadesofworldbusiness—decadesthatwillseemajor
stepstowardasingleworldeconomy....
Someaspectsofindividualsovereigntywillbegivenovertointernationalauthor-
ity....
Asimportantly,internationalagreementsbetweenthesocialistandtheprivateprop-
ertyeconomiesaddadifferentdimensiontotheproblemsforwhichsolutionsneedto
befoundovertheyearsahead.ButasJeanFrere,ManagingPartnerofBanqueLambert,
Brussels,forecasts,thesocialistcountrieswilltakemajorstepstowardjoiningtheworld
economyby1990.HegoessofarastoseethembecomingmembersoftheInternational
Monetary Fund, the sine qua non for effective participation in multilateral commerce.
Thenalso,by1990animaginativevarietyofcontractualarrangementswillhavebeen
devisedandputintooperationbywhichthesocialistcountriesandtheprivatecapital
countrieswillbedoingconsiderablebusinesstogether,neitherbeingrequiredtoabandon
itsbaseidea....
These powerful factors of production—that is, capital, technology and manage-
ment—willbefullymobile,neithercontainednorcontainablewithinnationalborders....
As a framework for their [multinational corporations] development and applica-
tionwillbetheestablishmentofmoreeffectivesupranationalinstitutionstodealwith
intergovernmentalmattersandmattersbetweengovernmentsandworldindustry.Akey
intergovernmentalinstitutionthatneedstoworkwellinaworldeconomyistheInterna-
tionalMonetaryFund.TheIMFwillbecome,inRobertRoosa’s[BrownBros.Harriman
&Co.]words,themostadvancedembodimentoftheaspirationsthatsomanyhavefora
worldsociety,aworldeconomy.TheIMF,heforecastsfor1990,isgoingtobethesource
ofalloftheprimaryreservesofallthebankingsystemsoftheworld....
For,intheinalanalysis,wearecommandedbythefactthattheeconomiesofthe
majorcountriesoftheworldwillbeinterlocked.Andsincemajoreconomicmattersin
allcountriesarealsoimportantpoliticalmattersinandbetweencountries,theinevitable
consequenceofthesepropositionsisthatthebroaderandtotaldestinies—economic,politi-
cal,andsocial—ofalltheworld’snationsarecloselyinterlocked.Weareclearlyatthat
pointwhereeconomicissuesandtheirrelatedeffectscanbeconsideredonlyintermsof
atotalworlddestiny,notjustseparatenationaldestinies,andcertainlynotjustaseparate
go-it-alonedestinyfortheUnitedStates.
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1972 113
“THEFIELDOFEDUCATIONALTECHNOLOGY:ASTATEMENTOFDEFINITION”BYDONALDP.Ely,editor
andchairmanoftheDeinitionandTerminologyCommitteeoftheAssociationforEducational
ComputingandTechnology(AECT,aspin-offoftheNationalEducationAssociation),wascir-
culatedinOctober,1972.Inthispaperleadingspecialistsintheieldofeducationaltechnology
warnofthepotentialdangersofcomputersandtheneedforethicsinprogramming.Oneof
theparticipantsintheproductionofthispositionpapersaid:“Ifitisdecidedtheworkwill
bringaboutnegativeends,theconcernedprofessionalrefusestoperformit.”(SeeAppendix
VIIIforfullerexcerpts.)
DR.CHESTERM.PIERCE,M.D.OFHARVARDUNIVERSITYWROTEANARTICLEENTITLED“Becoming
PlanetaryCitizens:AQuestforMeaning”whichappearedintheNovember1972issueofChild-
hoodEducation.Excerptsfollowwhichincludealarmingrecommendationsfor“education”:
CreativeAltruism
Inthepastfortyyearssocialscienceexperimentationhasshownthatbyageivechildren
alreadyhavealotofpoliticalattitudes.Regardlessofeconomicorsocialbackground,almost
everykindergartnerhasatenaciousloyaltytohiscountryanditsleader.Thisphenomenon
isunderstandableinthepsychologicaltermsofloyaltytoastrongfather-igureandofthe
needforsecurity.Butachildcanenterkindergartenwiththesamekindofloyaltytothe
earthastohishomeland....
SystemsAnalysis
Childrencanbetaughttointegrateknowledgeofsystemsinever-wideningcircles.Idon’t
knowhowtotellyoutodoit,butasprofessionalsyouwillbechallengedtoindways.Just
becausenooneyetknowshowdoesn’tmeanitcan’tbedone....
NewViewsofParenting
Anotheressentialcurriculardecisionyouwillhavetomakeiswhattoteachayoungchild
abouthisfutureroleasamanorawoman.Alotwilldependonwhatyouknowandwhat
yourphilosophyisaboutparenting....Alreadywearehearingaboutexperimentsthatare
challengingourtraditionalviewsofmonogamousmarriagepatterns....
LearningtoRelinquish
Finally—perhapsmostdificultofall—youwillhavetoteachchildrenhowtounlearn,how
tore-learnandhowtogiveupthings....
PublicProblemNumberOne
Ifwetrulyacceptthattoday’schildmustgrow[up]tobeacosmopoliteand“planetary
citizen,”wefacemajorproblems.Howdoyougetachildtoseethatthewholeworldis
hisprovincewheneverydayontelevisionheseespeoplewhocan’tlivenextdoortotheir
neighbors, who argue about things like busing?... Before the horizon I think the major
problemtobesolvedinAmericaifwearetoenablepeopletogrowassuper-generalistsand
“planetarycitizens”istheeliminationofracism.Paradoxically,boththetwochiefdeterrents
andthetwochieffacilitatorstothisgoalarethepublicschoolsystemandthemassmedia....
Earlychildhoodspecialistshaveastaggeringresponsibilitybutanunrivaledimportancein
producing“planetarycitizens”whosegeographicandintellectualprovincesareaslimitless
astheirall-embracinghumanity.
114
BRUCEJOYCEANDMARSHAWEILOFCOLUMBIATEACHERS’COLLEGEWROTEMODELSOFTeaching
(PrenticeHall,Inc.:EnglewoodCliffs,NewJersey,1972).Thebookwastheproductofresearch
fundedbytheU.S.OficeofEducation’sBureauofResearchunderacontractwithTeachers’
College,ColumbiaUniversity,in1968.ModelsofTeaching’simportancelaynotonlyinthe
factthatthebookitselfwouldbeusedextensivelyforin-serviceteachertraininginbehavior
modiication,butthatthebookwouldserveasthefoundationfromwhichJoycewoulddevelop
his“ModelsofTeacherRepertoireTraining,”whichhasbeenusedextensively(sincethe1970s
tothepresent)inordertochangetheteacherfromatransmitterofknowledge(content)toa
facilitatoroflearning(behaviormodiier).SeveralexcerptsfromModelsofTeachingfollow:
Principlesofteachingarenotconceivedasstatictenetsbutasdynamicallyinteractivewith
socialandcognitivepurpose,withthelearningtheoryunderlyingprocedures,withavail-
ablesupporttechnology,andwiththepersonalandintellectualcharacteristicsoflearning
groups.Whatisemphasizedisthewiderangeofoptionstheteachermayadoptandadapt
tohisuniquesituation.
Inthepreface,whichhasasubtitle,“WeTeachbyCreatingEnvironmentsforChildren,”Joyce
andWeilexplain:
Inthisbookwedescribemodelswhichrepresentfourdifferent“families”ofapproachesto
teaching.Someofthemodelsfocusontheindividualandthedevelopmentofhisunique
personality.Somefocusonthehumangroupandrepresentwaysofteachingwhichempha-
sizegroupenergy,interpersonalskills,andsocialcommitment.Othersrepresentwaysof
teachingconcepts,modesofinquiryfromthedisciplines,andmethodsforincreasingintel-
lectualcapacity.Stillothersapplypsychologicalmodelsofoperantconditioningtotheteach-
ing-learningprocess.Fortheteacherweprovidesomeadviceonhowtolearnthevarious
modelsbasedonourexperiencesinthePreserviceTeacherEducationProgramatTeachers
College,ColumbiaUniversity.Forcurriculumandmaterialsdesignersweincludechapters
onsystematicplanningusingavarietyofmodelsofteaching.Forboth,wepresentasystem
fordecidingwhatapproachestoteachingareappropriateforwhatendsandhowmodels
canbeselectedtomatchthelearningstylesofchildren.(pp.xiii–xiv)
ExcerptsfromthetableofcontentsofModelsofTeachinginclude:
(2) Group Investigation—Democratic Process as a Source. The school is considered as a
modelofanidealsociety.Thischapterexploresavarietyofdemocraticteachingdesigned
byHerbertThelentobringaboutanewtypeofsocialrelationshipamongmen.…
(5) The Laboratory Method—The T-Group Model. The National Training Laboratory has
developed approaches to train people to cope with change through more effective social
relationships.Thismodelisthefatheroftheencounter-groupstrategies.
(6)ConceptAttainment—AModelDevelopedfromaStudyofThinking.Thismodelwas
developed by the authors from a study of work by Jerome S. Bruner and his associates.
[Brunerwillbeencounteredinalaterentryasadeveloper,alongwithB.F.Skinner,ofthe
humanisticsocialstudiescurriculum,Man:ACourseofStudy,ed.]
(7)AnInductiveModel—AModelDrawnfromConceptionsofMentalProcessesandGeneral
Theory-Building.ThelateHildaTabadevelopedaseriesofmodelstoimprovetheinductive
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1972 115
thinkingabilityofchildrenandadults.Herstrategiesarepresentedinthischapter....[In
1957aCaliforniaStateSenateinvestigativecommitteeexposedtheworkofHildaTabaas
harmfultochildren,ed.]
(12)Non-DirectiveTeaching—RogerianCounselingasaSource.Fromhisstudiesofcoun-
selingandtherapy,CarlRogershasdevelopedalexiblemodelofteachingemphasizingan
environmentwhichencouragesstudentstocreatetheirownenvironmentsforlearning.
(13) Classroom Meeting Model—A Model Drawn from a Stance toward Mental Health.
Another therapist, [William] Glasser, has also developed a stance toward teaching—one
which emphasized methods easily applicable to the classroom situation.... [In 1971 the
CitizensCommitteeofCalifornia,Inc.,presented“ABillofParticulars”fortheabolitionof
Dr.WilliamGlasser’stheoryfromtheOrangeCountyUniiedSchoolDistrictwhichstated
inpart:“Dr.Glasserhasdevelopedamethodofeducationwhichnegatesadesiretoachieve
andcompete;destroysrespectforauthority;expoundsa‘situationalethics’philosophy;and
developsgroupthinking.”WilliamGlasser’sphilosophyisacomponentofOutcome-Based
Education,ed.]
(15)AwarenessTraining—AModeltoIncreaseHumanAwareness.Gestalttherapistsand
otherhumanisticpsychologistshavefocusedonstrategiesforincreasingtheawarenessand
senseofpossibilitiesofindividuals.Anumberofmodelsforsensitivitytraininghavebeen
developedbyWilliamSchutz.
(16)OperantConditioning—ThepioneeringworkofB.F.Skinnerhasbeenfollowedbya
massofapproachestoteachingandtrainingbasedontheshapingoflearningtasksanduse
ofreinforcementschedules.Severalsuchmodelsareexploredhere.
(17)AModelforMatchingEnvironmentstoPeople—ThepsychologistDavidHunthasgen-
erateda“modelofmodels”—anapproachtoteachingwhichsuggestshowwecanmatch
teachingstylestolearningstylessoastoincreasegrowthtowardpersonallexibility.
(18) The Models Way of Thinking—An Operational Language. The chapter explores the
philosophicalandpracticalimplicationsofastancetowardeducationandincludesaspec-
trumofmodelswhichhavedifferentusesfordifferentstudents.
Oneindsthefollowinginformationinchapter16underthetitle“OperantConditioning”:
ThepersonmostresponsibleforapplyingbehavioralprinciplestoeducationisB.F.Skinner,
whoseTheoryofOperantConditioningprovidedthebasisforprogrammedinstruction.
TheTheoryofOperantConditioningrepresentstheprocessbywhichhumanbehav-
iorbecomesshapedintocertainpatternsbyexternalforces.Thetheoryassumesthatany
processoractivityhasobservablemanifestationsandcanbebehaviorallydeined,thatis,
deinedintermsofobservablebehavior.Eitherorbothofthetheory’stwomajoropera-
tions,reinforcementandstimulus-control,areemphasizedintheeducationalapplications
ofoperantconditioningtheory.
Conditioningreferstotheprocessofincreasingtheprobabilityofoccurrenceofexisting
ornewbehaviorinanindividualbymeansofreinforcement.Inoperantconditioningthe
response(behavior)operatesupontheenvironmenttogenerateconsequences.
Theconsequencesarecontingentupontheemissionofaresponse,andtheyarerein-
forcing.Forexample,theresponse“Passthebutter”operatesupontheenvironment,another
116
person,toobtainthebutter.Theresponseisreinforcedbythereceiptofthebutter.Inother
words,theprobabilitythatafuturedesireforbutterwillelicitthesameresponseisincreased
byitsinitialsuccess....Thestimulusandreinforcementareindependentvariablesuponwhich
theresponseisdependent.AsSkinnerphrasesit“thestimulusactingpriortotheemission
oftheresponse,setstheoccasionuponwhichtheresponseislikelytobereinforced.”(1)
Astimulusis“anycondition,eventorchangeintheenvironmentofanindividualwhich
producesachangeinbehavior.”(2)Itmaybeverbal(oral,written)orphysical.Aresponse
maybedeinedasaunitofbehavior....AccordingtoSkinner,reinforcementmustimmedi-
atelyfollowaresponseifitistobeeffective.Delayedreinforcementismuchlesseffective
inmodifyingbehavior.(pp.271–273)
Anoficialoverviewofthe“ModelsofTeacherRepertoireTraining”program,madeavail-
abletotheauthorwhileworkingintheU.S.DepartmentofEducation,statesunder“Brief
DescriptionofIntervention”thefollowing:
The objective of the intervention is to prepare teachers who can choose from a number
ofavailablealternativesthemostappropriatestrategytobeusedwithaparticulargroup
ofstudentsinaparticularsituationataparticulartime.“Mostappropriate”referstothe
effectivenessofthestrategyselectedvs.thealternativesintermsoftheprobabilitythatthe
students will learn what the teacher has predicted for them. The feasibility of achieving
thisobjectiveinaclinical,orcontrolledsituationhasbeenlongestablished.Thisinterven-
tionestablishesthatfeasibilityintherealworldoftheelementaryandsecondaryschool
settingsandoffersareliable,costeffectiveplantodoso....Themodelswhichhavebeen
selectedforthissystemareonesforwhichthereisempiricalevidenceand/ortheoretical
groundingwhichsupportstheprobabilitythatstudentswilllearnwhatispredictedfrom
them.Teacherslearntoselectthemodelsandmatchthemtotheobjectivestheyseek....The
familiesinclude:(1)BehaviorModiicationandCyberneticModelswhichhaveevolvedfrom
attemptstodevelopeficientsystemsforsequencinglearningtasksandshapingbehaviorby
manipulatingreinforcement....Clinicalanalysisguidesareusefultoprovidefeedbackabout
performanceandtosupporton-sitecoaching.Inadditiontoprintmaterialtherearemore
thanthirtyhoursofvideotapestosupportthetrainingsystem....Theprincipalcriterionof
effectivenessrestsuponexistingempiricalevidencethatpre-speciiedchangesinteaching
behaviorwillproducepredictablechangesinpupilperformance.
ThisinformationsuggeststhatSkinner—and,evidently,JoyceandWeil—believethatman
istrulyonlyaresponseorganismwithnointrinsicsoulorintellect,deinitelyaproductof
evolution.DuringaU.S.DepartmentofEducationJointDisseminationReviewPanelmeet-
ingatwhichBruceJoyceandJimStefansensubmittedapplicationforfunding,someofthe
participantsmadethefollowingstatements:
JOYCE:“Ithasbeendificultinthepasttobringaboutcurriculumchange,behavior
change. In California we are establishing a network of 100 school districts. New
strategiesforteachingandexportingprograms.”
COULSON:“Couldn’tagreemorethatwhatyouaredoingneedstobedone.Maybe
wearenotreadyyettotalkaboutselectiveuseofrepertoire.Youmustgatherdata
supportingselectiveuseofmethods.”
STEFANSEN:“Primaryclaimiswedoknowhowtotrainteacherstomakeultimate
choicessothatwhenthosebehaviorstakeplacestudentsareaffected.Questionis,
canyoutrainteacherstoacceptstrategieseachofwhichweknowarethebetterof
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1972 117
twoormorechoices?”
JACKSON:“NoquestioninmymindthatJoyceisontosomethingofgreatimportance.
Problemherehastodowithclaimsofeffectivenessratherthanevidenceofeffective-
ness.Relationshipbetweenteacherbehaviorandstudentachievement.”
(UNKNOWN PANEL MEMBER) “There are thousands of investigations to support
Skinnerstrategies.”
Thefollowingexcerptfromthe“ModelsofTeacherRepertoireTraining”—whichincludes
mostofthehighlycontroversialbehaviormodiicationmethodsinexistence—istakenfrom
ModelsofTeachingbyJoyceandwasfurnishedtothiswriterbytheMaineFacilitatorCenter
inAuburn,Mainein1985.4
(1)InformationProcessing—howdostudentsacquireandactoninformation?
ConceptAttainment—JeromeBruner,Goodnow,Austin
InductiveThinking—HildaTaba
Direct Instruction—Benjamin Bloom, Madeline Hunter, James Block and
EthnaReid[HowinterestingthatJoyceidentiiesthefourmostinluentialdevel-
opers and promoters of Skinnerian “Mastery Learning/Teaching” with “Direct
Instruction,”whichisthemethodattributedtoSiegfriedEngelmannandcalled
forintheReadingExcellenceActof1998,ed.]
(2)PersonalFamily—Howdoeseachpersondevelophis/heruniquepossibilities?
NondirectiveTeaching—CarlRogers
Synectics—ThomasGordon
ClassroomMeetings—WilliamGlasser
(3)SocialModels—Howdoestheindividualrelatetosocietyorotherpeople?
JurisprudentialInquiry—OliverandShaver
RolePlaying—Shaftel,CheslerandFox
(4)BehavioralModels—Howisvisiblebehaviorchanged?
TrainingModel
StressReduction—Decker
AssertivenessTraining—Wolpe,Lazarus
[Ed.Note:ThewriterhasgivenextensivecoveragetoModelsofTeachingsincetheseteacher
behaviormodiicationtrainingprogramshavebeenineffectforthirtyyearsandareprobably
themostinclusive.Itincludesmany,ifnotallofthecontroversialmethodsaboutwhichparents
complain,iftheyareluckyenoughtoindouttheyarebeingused.Mostparentsareunaware
ofthesemanipulativemethodsintendedtochangetheirchildren’sbehavior.Consideringthe
prevalenceofbehaviormodiicationintheschoolsitisawonderourschoolsandourchildren
arenotinworseshapethantheyare.Therehasobviouslybeenimmenseteacherandstudent
resistancetothistypeofmanipulation.]
PRESIDENT RICHARD NIXON CREATED THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION (NIE) IN 1972.
Servingasapresidentialassistantatthattime,ChesterFinn(whowouldlaterbeappointed
assistant secretary of education, Ofice of Educational Research and Improvement under
118
SecretaryWilliamBennettintheReaganadministration)wasoneoftheprincipalauthorsof
Nixon’sproposalforNIE.TheDecember8,1982issueofEducationWeekcontainedaninter-
estingarticleonthehistoryandpurposeofNIEentitled“SuccessEludes10-Year-OldAgency.”
Anexcerptwhichpertainstotheredeinitionofeducationfromacademic/content-basedto
scientiic,outcome-/performance-basedfollows:
“ThepurposeofaNationalInstituteofEducation,”saidDanielP.Moynihanwhowasthe
agency’sprincipaladvocateintheNixonAdministration,“istodeveloptheartandscience
ofeducationtothepointthatequalityofeducationalopportunityresultsinasatisfactory
equivalenceofeducationalachievement.”
ForthosewhohavedificultyunderstandingDanielMoynihan’seducationjargon,“develop
theartandscienceofeducationtothepointthatequalityofeducationalopportunityresultsin
asatisfactoryequivalenceofeducationalachievement”meansthateducationfromthattime
onwouldbeconsidereda“science.”Inotherwords,witheducationbecominga“science,”
behavioralpsychology(Pavlov/Skinner)wouldbeusedintheclassroomsofAmericainorder
to equalize results which would be predictable and could be scientiically measured. The
teacherandstudentwouldbejudgednotonwhattheyknow,butonhowtheyperform—like
ratsandpigeons—facilitatingthe“redistributionofbrains.”ProfessorJamesBlock,aleader
in Skinnerian/mastery learning circles, discussed this redistribution of brains in an article
publishedinEducationalLeadership(November1979)entitled“MasteryLearning:TheCur-
rentStateoftheCraft.”Blockexplainedthat:
One of the striking personal features of mastery learning, for example, is the degree to
which it encourages cooperative individualism in student learning as opposed to selish
competition.Justhowmuchroomisthereleftintheworldforindividualistswhoaremore
concernedwiththeirownperformancethantheperformanceofothers?Oneofthestriking
societalfeaturesofmasterylearningisthedegreetowhichitpressesforasocietybasedon
theexcellenceofallparticipantsratherthanonebasedontheexcellenceofafew.Canany
societyafforduniversalexcellence,ormustallsocietiesmakemostpeopleincompetentso
thatafewcanbecompetent?
ReturningtotheEducationWeekarticlereferencedabove,thestoryofNIEcontinued:
Amongtheserious,continuingobstaclestotheInstitute’sattainmentofitsgoals,thoseinter-
viewedforthisarticlecitedthefollowingthree:Understanding,Funding,andLeadership....
Under“Understanding”onereads:“Becauseeducationalresearchisarelativelyyoungareaof
socialscience,itdoesnotenjoywiderespectamongscholars,anditsrelationshiptoteaching
andlearningispoorlyunderstoodbymanyofthosewhoworkintheschools.”
Theirstdirectorchosenbythecurrent[Reagan]Administrationtoheadtheinstitute,
EdwardA.Curran,articulatedtheconservatives’positioninamemorandumtothePresi-
dentlastMaythatcalledfordismantlingtheinstitute.“NIEisbasedonthepremisethat
educationisasciencewhoseprogressdependsonsystematic‘researchanddevelopment.’
Asaprofessionaleducator,Iknowthatthispremiseisfalse,”wroteMr.Curran,whowas
dismissedfromtheagencyshortlythereafter.
[Ed.Note:EdCurranwastheirst“shoetodrop”;hewouldbefollowedbysomeofthenation’s
inestacademicteacherswhoalsoheldCurran’sviewthateducationisnotascience.
OfinteresttothiswriteristheextensiveinluenceNIE’sresearchhasonlocalclassroom
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1973 119
practiceconsideringitsratherpaltrybudget.Thereasonforthisliesinthefactthat90%of
alleducationresearchisfederallyfunded,thusguaranteeingthatNIEcontrols90%ofthe
nationalresearchproduct—teachingandlearning.WhentheNationalInstituteofEducation
wasinallyabolishednoneofitsfunctionswereeliminatedsinceitwassubsumedbytheOfice
ofEducationalResearchandImprovement.
“Equivalenceofeducationalachievement,”describedbyPatrickMoynihan,equalsPer-
formance-BasedEducation(PBE)andOutcome-BasedEducation(OBE),whichinturnequala
deliberatedumbingdownofAmericanteachersandyouth—necessaryinordertoimplementthe
performance-basedworkforcetrainingagendaplannedsincetheearlynineteenhundreds.
Goodacademic-andcontent-orientedteachersunderstandthateducationisnotsocial
science.In1999effortsarebeingmadetoencouragethesegoodteacherstogetoutoftheway
sothatteacherstrainedinperformance-basedSkinnerianteachingandTotalQualityManage-
mentcanbehiredtoreplacethem.]
1973
SCHOOLING IN THE UNITED STATES BY JOHN GOODLAD, M. FRANCES KLEIN, AND JERROLD M.
Novotney(CharlesF.KetteringFoundationProgram:McGraw-HillCo.,NewYork,1973)was
published.Excerptsfollow:
CONDITIONINGORBEHAVIORMODIFICATION:
Severalexperimentalpreschoolprogramsmakeextensiveuseofbehavioristtheory(now
called“operantconditioning”or“behaviormodiication”)asameansofinstructioninboth
thecognitiveandsocioemotionalrealms.[ProfessorLawrence]Kohlbergnotes:
Ingeneral,suchaprogramimpliesaplayforshapingthechild’sbehaviorbysuccessive
approximationfromresponses.Ateverystep,immediatefeedbackorrewardisdesirable
andimmediaterepetitionandelaborationofthecorrectresponseisused.Acarefuldetailed
programmingoflearningisrequiredtomakesurethat(a)eachresponsebuildsonthe
preceding,(b)incorrectresponsesarenotmadesinceoncemadetheypersistandinterfere
withcorrectresponses,and(c)feedbackandrewardareimmediate.
The Liverpool Laboratory School at the Research and Development Center in Early
ChildhoodEducationatSyracuseUniversityisaprogrambaseddirectlyonreinforcement
theory.…Theschoolistodeterminewhetherchildrencanlearncognitiveskillsduringthe
preschoolyearsandtoidentifytechniqueswhichwillbesuccessfulinbringingaboutsuch
learning.Theprogramisbuiltaroundahighlydetailedscheduleofreinforcement.Skillsto
betaughtarebrokendownintospeciiccomponents,eachofwhichisimmediatelyreinforced
whenitappearscorrectly.Teachersreinforceinfoursteps:intheirst,raisinsorcandies
areawardedforeachcorrectresponse;inthesecond,thecandiesarereplacedbytokens
whichcanbetradedforasmallprize;thethirdinvolvesdistributingtokenswhichcanbe
exchangedformorevaluabletokens.Twoormoreofthelattermaybetradedforaprize.In
thefourthstep,fourvaluabletokensarerequiredtoreceiveaprize....
BereiterandEngelmann[DirectInstruction/DISTAR/ReadingMastery(SRA)]alsouse
operantconditioningintheirprogram.Theirreinforcementprogramcontainsbothverbal
andtangiblerewards.Weberdescribesarapid-iresequenceinlanguagetraininginwhich
theteacherverballyreinforceseachresponseofthestudents:
120
Teacher:Whatisthesameasbeautiful?
Children:Pretty.
Teacher:Good.Youaresogood.Ifsomeoneisbeautifultheyarepretty.Whatisthe
oppositeofpretty?
Children:Ugly.
Teacher:I’llhavetoshakeeveryone’shand....
Shealsospeaksofanarithmeticlessoninwhichthechildrenweregivenacrackerforeach
correctresponse....
Teachingandmanagingbehaviorbymeansofoperantconditioningdoesnotappealto
allandraisesseveralmoralissues.Intheirstplace,itpostulatesanimageofthelearneras
passiveandreceptiveandleaveslittleroomforindividualityandcreativethinking.Accord-
ingtoWilliamE.MartininRediscoveringtheMindoftheChild:
A science of behavior emphasizes the importance of environmental manipulation and
schedulingandthusthemechanizationandroutinizationofexperience.Similarly,itstresses
performanceintheindividual.Doingsomething,doingiteficiently,doingitautomati-
cally—thesearethegoals.Itisthemechanizationofmanaswellasthemechanization
oftheenvironment.Theresultisthetriumphoftechnology:apushbuttonworldwith
well-trainedbutton-pushers.(pp.40–43)
[Ed.Note:Surely,ifAmericanparentsunderstoodthisdehumanizingmethodbeingimple-
mentedinthenation’sschoolsunderwhateverlabel—OBE,ML,DIinconjunctionwithcom-
puters—theywouldseethemanydangerstotheirchildren.Oneofthosedangersbeingthat
aftertwelveyearsofrewardsforcorrectanswers,willtheirchildreneverhavethecourageor
bemotivatedtodoanythingontheirown—totakeastandwhenwhatisleftoftheir“prin-
ciples”ischallenged?Ifthismethodisimplementedinallschoolsofthenation,andImean
ALL—public,private,religiousandhomeschool(inmanycasesduetotheuseofcomputers
or“Skinner’sbox”)asishappeningrightnow—ournationwillbecomeanationofrobotic
dronesrespondingtowhomeverwishestocontrolthemforwhateverpurpose.]
RONALDG.HAVELOCK’STHECHANGEAGENT’SGUIDE TOINNOVATION INEDUCATION WASpub-
lished(EducationalTechnologyPublishing:EnglewoodCliffs,NewJersey,1973).ThisGuide,
whichcontainsauthenticcasestudiesonhowtosneakincontroversialcurriculaandteaching
strategies,orgetthemadoptedbynaïveschoolboards,istheeducator’sbibleforbringing
aboutchangeinourchildren’svalues.Havelock’s GuidewasfundedbytheU.S.Oficeof
EducationandtheDepartmentofHealth,EducationandWelfare,andhascontinuedtoreceive
fundingwellintothe1980s.Ithasbeenrepublishedinasecondeditionin1995bythesame
publishers.
[Ed.Note:Whyisitthatthechangeagents’plansandtheirtoolsto“transform”oureduca-
tionalsystemneverchange,whileparentsandteachersaretold,repeatedly,thattheymust
bereadyandwillingtochange?]
FOUNDATIONSOFBEHAVIORALRESEARCH,SECONDEDITIONBYFREDN.KERLINGEROFNewYork
University(Holt,RinehartandWinston,Inc.:NewYork,1973)waspublished.Describingthe
121
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1973
purposeofwritingthistextbook,Dr.Kerlingerwroteinhispreface:
Thewritingofthisbookhasbeenstronglyinluencedbythebook’smajorpurpose:tohelp
studentsunderstandthefundamentalnatureofthescientiicapproachtoproblemsolution....
Allelseissubordinatetothis.Thusthebook,asitsnameindicates,stronglyemphasizesthe
fundamentalsorfoundationsofbehavioralresearch[emphasisinoriginal].
Toaccomplishthemajorpurposeindicatedabove,thebook...isatreatiseonscientiic
research;itislimitedtowhatisgenerallyacceptedasthescientiicapproach.
Kerlinger’streatiseonscientiicresearch,fromwhichthewriterquotes,wouldhavebeen
strengthened considerably had he included the following description of Wilhelm Wundt’s
theory:5
Athingmadesenseandwasworthpursuingifitcouldbemeasured,quantiied,andscientii-
callydemonstrated.Seeingtherewasnowaytodothiswiththehumansoul,heproposed
thatpsychologyconcernitselfsolelywithexperience.
Hence, behavioral psychology and scientiic research were born. With such a heavy
emphasisonquantiiable,measurable,andscientiicallydemonstrableperformanceasabase
forpsychologicalresearch,thewriterfeltitimportanttouseaninstructivetextwhichwould
helpthereaderunderstandthecomplexitiesofwhatisknownas“thescientiicmethod,”since
itisbeingsowidelyproclaimedasthebe-allandend-allofeducationalcurriculumdevelop-
mentandmethodologytoday.FredKerlingerstatesinhisFoundationsofBehavioralResearch
textbookthat:
Scientiicresearchisasystematic,controlled,empiricalandcriticalinvestigationof
hypotheticalpropositionsabout...thepresumedrelationsamongnaturalphenomena....If
suchandsuchoccurs,thenso-and-so-results....
Thescientist...systematicallybuildshistheoreticalstructures,teststhemforinternal
consistency,andsubjectsaspectsofthemtoempiricaltest.Second,thescientistsystemati-
callyandempiricallytestshistheoriesandhypotheses.
Thesestatementsleadonetobelievethatthetruescientiicmethodsooftenemployed
byscientistsdealingwithexperimentalmaterialwhichcanbereplicatedandtestedisbeing
employedbybehavioralpsychologists.However,thefollowingquotesfromKerlinger’stextbook
willquicklydispelthismisconception:
Manypeoplethinkthatscienceisbasicallyafact-gatheringactivity.Itisnot.AsM.Cohen
says:
Thereis...nogenuineprogressinscientiicinsightthroughtheBaconianmethodofaccumu-
latingempiricalfactswithouthypothesesoranticipationofnature.Withoutsomeguiding
ideawedonotknowwhatfactstogather...wecannotdeterminewhatisrelevantandwhat
isirrelevant.[FromAPrefacetoLogic(Meridian:NewYork,1956)byM.Cohen.]
Thescientiicallyuninformedpersonoftenhastheideathatthescientistisahighly
objectiveindividualwhogathersdatawithoutpreconceivedideas.Poincarepointedouthow
wrongthisideais.Hesaid:
It is often said that experiments should be made without preconceived ideas. That is
122
impossible.Notonlywoulditmakeeveryexperimentfruitless,butevenifwewishedto
doso,itcouldnotbedone.[FromScienceandHypothesis(Dover:NewYork,N.Y.,1952)
byH.Poincare.](p.16)
Inotherwords,ifweasparentsandcitizensbelievethatthesame“scientiic,research-
based”standardsappliedtoresearchineducationandpsychologyarethoseappliedtomedi-
cine,geology,orengineering,wearesadlymistaken.Ifwebelievethatobjectivecriteriaare
employed when evaluating educational curriculum or behavioral analysis, we are likewise
mistaken.Therefore,whenpresentedwithproposalsinacademiccurriculathatpurporttobe
foundedin“scientiic,research-based”evaluation,weshouldtakethemwithagrainofsalt!
For instance, Kerlinger, as a psychological researcher, wrote about “Science and Common
Sense”:
Commonsensemayoftenbeabadmasterfortheevaluationofknowledge….[One]view
would say that science is a systematic and controlled extension of common sense, since
commonsense,as[J.]Conantpointsout,isaseriesofconceptsandconceptualschemes
satisfactoryforthepracticalusesofmankind.Buttheseconceptsandconceptualschemes
maybeseriouslymisleadinginmodernscience—andparticularlyinpsychologyandeduca-
tion.Itwasself-evidenttomanyeducatorsofthelastcentury...tousepunishmentasabasic
toolofpedagogy.Nowwehaveevidencethatthisoldercommonsenseviewofmotivation
maybequiteerroneous.Rewardseemsmoreeffectivethanpunishmentinaidinglearning.
ThereaderbynowmayrecognizethefactthatB.F.Skinner’sbehavioraltheorieshave
conclusively inluenced psychological and educational theory, based on the last statement
above—thefactthat“rewardsaremoreeffectivethanpunishmentinaidinglearning.”Thisis
vintageSkinner,whoalsodidnotbelieveinpunishment.Skinnerthoughtthatapersoncould
becontrolledbytheenvironment—psychologicallyfacilitative“schoolclimate”—todowhat
isbestforhim.Badbehaviorshouldbeignored,accordingtoSkinner.Goodbehaviorshould
berewarded.Averygoodmethodofdogtraining!
Kerlingerwentontopointoutthat:
Ainaldifferencebetweencommonsenseandscienceliesinexplanationsofobservedphe-
nomena.Thescientist,whenattemptingtoexplaintherelationsamongobservedphenom-
ena,carefullyrulesoutwhathavebeencalled“metaphysicalexplanations.”Ametaphysical
explanationissimplyapropositionthatcannotbetested.Tosay,forexample,thatpeopleare
poorandstarvingbecauseGodwillsit,thatstudyinghardsubjectsimprovesthechild’smoral
character,orthatitiswrongtobeauthoritarianintheclassroomistotalkmetaphysics.
TheNewWorldDictionary(MerriamWebster:NewYork,1979)deines“metaphysics”
asfollows:“thebranchofphilosophythatdealswithirstprinciplesandseekstoexplainthe
natureofknowledge,natureofbeingorreality;metaphysical;beyondthephysicalormate-
rial;incorporeal,supernatural,transcendental.”Mostparentsandeventeachersareverywell
acquaintedwithwhatbehavioralscientistscall“metaphysics”inthiscontext.Thefactthat
behavioralresearchersdiscountthisimportantaspectofman’spersonalityandbeingiscon-
sistentwithwhatthiswriterperceivedwhengatheringtheresearchforthisbook—particularly
inthechapterentitled“TheFomentationoftheFortiesandFifties”whenKinsey,Bloomand
SkinnerbroughttogetherthepowerfultoolsforthedeconstructionoftheGod-fearing,edu-
catedmanoftheearlytwentiethcentury.Thereisnoplaceforthisbrandof“science”when
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1974 123
dealingwitheducationaltheoriesandmethodswhichwillinluenceforeverthecharacterand
conceptofman.
Thebottomlineforunderstandingthisconlictbetweenscienceandpsychologyisthat
the application of statistical methods to human behavior in the name of science is misdi-
rectedandinappropriate.Whenwemeasurenaturalphenomena,wegetresultsthatwillvary
dependingupontheenvironmentalfactorsaffectingthethingbeingmeasured.Forexample,
wecanmeasurethespeedatwhicharockfallsfromacertainheight.Althoughtherock’s
speedmaybeaffectedbyexternalfactors,suchasairresistance,thereisnothingtherock
cando,nodecisionitcanmakethatwillchangethespeedatwhichitfalls.However,when
weattempttomeasureaperson’sattitudesoropinions,thatpersoncanchangehisorher
attitude,opinion,orbeliefatanytime—oftenbecauseofaconscious,deliberatedecisionto
doso,asanactofwill.Suchdeliberateassertionofaperson’swillisextremelydificult,if
notimpossibletomeasure.
Thesocial“sciences”andpsychologyhavelongyearnedfortherespectabilityofscientiic
disciplines,andhavetoutedthemselvesasscienceformanydecades.However,bothields
emergedfromthesamehumanisticcesspoolsofthelastcentury.Indiscussingtheshiftto
modern“naturalistic”or“materialistic”science,thelateDr.FrancisSchaefferwarned:
Whenpsychologyandsocialscienceweremadeapartofaclosedcause-and-effectsystem,
alongwithphysics,astronomyandchemistry,itwasnotonlyGodwhodied.Mandied.And
withinthisframeworklovedied.Thereisnoplaceforloveinatotallyclosedcause-and-effect
system.Thereisnoplaceformoralsinatotallyclosedcause-and-effectsystem.Thereisno
placeforthefreedomofpeopleinatotallyclosedcause-and-effectsystem.Manbecomesa
zero.Peopleandalltheydobecomeonlyapartofthemachinery.6
1974
THENATIONALDIFFUSIONNETWORK(NDN),THETRANSMISSIONBELTFORFEDERALLYFUNDEDand
developedinnovativeand/orbehaviormodiicationprograms,wasestablishedin1974.This
network,whichbearsmuchoftheblameforthedilutionofabsolutevaluesofthosechildren
andparentsexposedtoNDNprogramsfromthemid-seventiestothepresent,wascreatedto
facilitatetheadoptionbylocalschoolsofinnovativeprogramswhichhadbeenapprovedby
theJointDisseminationReviewPanel(JDRP),afederalpanelofeducators.
Most,ifnotall,statesreceivedfundingfromtheU.S.DepartmentofEducationtosetup
FacilitatorCentersstaffedbyeducatorsfamiliarwithNDNprograms.Theseindividualswho
hadcontactsinschooldistrictsthroughouttheindividualstatespromotedtheprogramsand
arrangedforthe“developers,”orotherstaffassociatedwiththeprogram,tovisitthestateto
conductin-servicetrainingatschoolswhichhadadoptedtheprograms.
OftentheseprogramsweredescribedinbenignNDNprogramtermsandlewunderthe
bannerof“basicskills.”Localschoolboardsacceptedthemsincetheyweresubsidizedand
lessexpensivetoimplementthanprogramsdevelopedbyprivatesectortextbookcompanies.
TheNDN’spenetrationofthenationaleducationallandscapeintheearly1980sisexempliied
bythefactthatTexasalonehadapproximatelyseventeenNDNoficeswhichfacilitatedthe
adoptionofprograms.TheStateofMainereceivedsomesortof“goldmedal”forbeingthe
124
numberonestateinitsnumberofprogramadoptions.
ThereisnoquestionthattheNationalDiffusionNetworkprogramshavecausedmore
controversyamongparentsthananyotherprogramsdevelopedwithfederalfunds.Theregional
hearingsheldbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducationin1984totaketestimonyfromcitizens
regardingtheneedforregulationstoenforcetheProtectionofPupilRightsAmendment(PPRA)
consistedofemotionalandangrytestimonyfromteachersandparentsregardingthevalue-
destroyingprogramsintheNDN.Thetwomostdestructiveprogramsdevelopedpriorto1984
wereCurriculumforMeetingModernProblems,whichcontainedTheNewModelMeforthe
highschoollevel,andPositiveAttitudetowardLearning.Bothofthesecurriculaemployed
behavior modiication techniques, values clariication, role playing and, speciically, such
gamesas“TheSurvivalGame”—sometimesknownas“TheLifeboatGame”—wherestudents
wereenlistedtodecidewhoisworthyofsurvivalinashipwreck:thepriest,thelawyer,the
pregnantmother,angryteenager,etc.—purehumanisticcurricula.7
[Ed.Note:CritiquesofmanyofthemostcontroversialNDNprogramscanbefoundinthe
testimoniesgivenduringthehearingsforproposedregulationsfortheHatchAmendmentin
1984containedinChildAbuseintheClassroomeditedbyPhyllisSchlaly(PereMarquette
Press:Alton,Illinois,1984).8Mrs.Schlalytookituponherselftopublishtheseimportant
testimoniesduetotheU.S.DepartmentofEducation’sunwillingnesstodoso.Aslateas1994
theNDNcontinuedtolistTheNewModelMeasan“exemplaryprogram”initsEducational
ProgramsthatWork,thecatalogoftheNationalDiffusionNetwork.9Suchblatantcontinua-
tionofprogramsdesignedtodestroychildren’svalues,nomatterwhichadministrationisin
ofice,isshocking.]
A PERFORMANCE ACCOUNTABILITY SYSTEM FOR SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS (PARKER PUBlishing
Co.,Inc.:WestNyack,N.Y.,1974)byT.H.Bell,Ph.D.,waspublished.T.H.Belllaterserved
assecretaryofeducationduringPresidentRonaldReagan’sirstterminofice,1981–1985.
ExcerptsfromBell’sbookfollow:
USEOFTESTSINNEEDSASSESSMENT:
Theeconomic,sociological,psychologicalandphysicalaspectsofstudentsmustbetaken
intoaccountaswelookattheireducationalneedsandaccomplishments,andfortunately
thereareanumberofattitudeandinventoryscalesthatcanbeusedtoassesstheseadmit-
tedlydificulttomeasureoutcomes.(pp.33–34)
Mostoftheseeffortstomanageeducationtrytocenterinoneplaceaninformationcenter
thatreceivesreportsandmakesavailabletoallmembersofthemanagementteamvarious
typesofinformationusefultomanagers.(p.45)
[Ed.Note:Thereisnoquestioninthiswriter’smindthatthisonemanbearsmuchofthe
responsibility for the deliberate dumbing down of our schools. He set the stage for out-
come-basededucationthroughhisearlysupportforsystemsmanagement—Managementby
ObjectivesandPlanning,Programming,BudgetingSystems.Thesesystemslaterevolvedinto
full-blown Total Quality Management for education, having gone through the initial stage
ofProfessorBenjaminBloom’sMasteryLearningandendingupin1984asWilliamSpady’s
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1974 125
TransformationalOBE.Outcome-Basedorresults/performance/competency-basededucation
requiresmasterylearning,directinstruction,individualizedinstruction,systemsmanagement
andcomputertechnology.
Bell’searlieractivitiesinthe1970sasU.S.CommissionerofEducation,includinghis
roleinpromotingandsupportingdumbed-downliferolecompetenciesforK–12(see1975
AdultPerformanceLevelStudyandthe1983Delkerarticle)andhistestimonybeforetheU.S.
CongressinfavorofaU.S.DepartmentofEducation,shouldhavekepthisnameoffofany
listofpotentialnomineespresentedtoPresidentReagan.Concernsregardingthisnomination
expressedbyReagansupporterswereprovedwell-foundedwhen:Bellspearheadedthetechnol-
ogyinitiativein1981(seeProjectBEST,BetterEducationSkillsThroughTechnology);funded
in1984WilliamSpady’sinfamousFarWestLaboratory(UtahOBE)grantwhichpromisedto
(anddid!)putOBE“inallschoolsofthenation”;predictedthatschoolswouldbebookless
bytheyear2000;recommendedthatallstudentshavecomputers;andiredEdwardCurran,
thedirectoroftheNationalInstituteofEducation,whenCurranrecommendedtoPresident
Reaganthathisofice(theNIE)beabolished.
AccordingtoaformermemberoftheUtahEducationAssociationwhowasaclosefriend
ofBell’sinthe1970s,hadtheSenateCommitteethatconirmedT.H.Bellassecretaryofedu-
cationreadBell’sbook,APerformanceAccountabilitySystemforSchoolAdministrators,itis
unlikelyhewouldhavebeenconirmed.(SeeAppendixIXquotesfromBell’sbook.)]
“PARENTSFEAR‘BIGBROTHER’ASPECT OFNEWCONCEPT” BYMONICALANZA WAS WRITtenfor
thePassaic,NewJerseyTheHeraldNewsonMarch20,1974.Excerptsfollowfromtheirst
ofatwo-partseries:
Questioningthepurposeofmoderneducationalgoalsbyparentshasbroughttolight
thepossibilitythatanewcurriculumultimatelycouldforceallschoolchildrentoitapre-
conceivedmoldornormbycomputerizedevaluation[emphasisinoriginal].And,students
whodon’tcouldbebrandedmisitsandsenttoaschoolpsychologistfortherapy.Thethreat,
theysay,isintheformofabillbeforethestatelegislaturethatwouldtakeeffectJuly1,
ifpassed.ThisbillwouldprovidefortwonewEducationalImprovementCentersinNew
Jersey,bringingthetotalofsuchcentersinthestatetofour.Thecentersarecurrentlybeing
usedbythefederalgovernmenttoreachthegrass-rootslevelthroughitsElementaryand
SecondaryEducationAct....Underthestatedaimofdeveloping“criticalthinkingskills”in
children,thecenters,asagentsforthePlanning,Programming,BudgetingSystem(PPBS),
have been charged with using behavior modiication and sensitivity training to develop
thoseskills....
AttheCedarKnollscenterinMorrisCounty,JosephT.Pascarelli,programdeveloper,
recentlyconductedaworkshopwhichwasattendedbyanumberofteacherswhoreviewed
onemethodofsensitivitytraining,knownasthe“WhoShallSurvive”game.9Participantsin
thegamearegiventhesexes,backgroundsandcapabilitiesof15peopleinabombshelter
thatsupportsonlysevenpeople,andareaskedtodecidewhichsevenarethebestequipped
tore-populatetheearth.Theanswerthatnoneshouldbeputtodeathisnotaccepted.This
typeoftraining,accordingtoopponents,changesthevaluesofthestudentswhomayhave
beentaughtathomethatmurderiswrongunderallcircumstances.
Fromthesecondarticleintheseries,“TeachersTaughttoBe‘AgentsofSocialChange,’”the
readerisinformedthat:
126
Educational Improvement Centers (EICs) provide training to prepare teachers to become
agentsforsocialchange....
ApublicationentitledEducation:FromtheAcquisitionofKnowledgetoProgrammed
Conditioned Response states: “Teachers who are seemingly impervious to change will be
soughtoutandtrainedonanindividualbasis,andforceswhichblocktheadoptionofnew
ideaswillbeidentiiedandwaystoovercometheseforceswillbeexplored.”…
BehaviormodiicationwasthethemeofalearningcenterataworkshopattheNorth-
westernNewJerseyEICrecently.Ateacherrattledoffthethreedomainsofbehaviormodi-
icationaspropoundedbyaBenjaminBloom,whomorethanadozenyearsago,redeined
thepurposeofeducationas“behaviormodiication.”....
Themultitudeofprogramsavailableismind-boggling.Programsilterdownfromentities
liketheEducationalResourceInformationCenter[ERIC]andarepresentedtolocalschool
systemswithalourish.Theyarepraisedbygullibleadministratorsandputintoactionby
unwittingteachers....
Oneofthereasonsfortheircurrentsuccessisthatthelanguageusedinthepresen-
tationofnewprogramsisalmostunintelligible.Thereareteacherswhowilladmittonot
understandingthejargon,butnotpublicly—andthosewhodoseeunderlyingdangerssay
nothingforfearoflosingtheirjobs....
Thefatherofthemyriadfederallyinancedprogramsis“ProjectstoAdvanceCreativity
inEducation”(PACE).ThePACEprogramsaredescribedina584–pagepublicationentitled
PacesettersinInnovationwhichlistssuch“subjects”aspsychotherapy,sensitivitytraining,
behaviormodiication,andhumanisticcurriculum....
AccordingtotheDepartmentofHealth,EducationandWelfare(HEW)CatalogofAssis-
tance,thePACEprogramreachedsevenmillionchildrenduring1971and1972atacostof
$250million.TheOficeofEducationhasmorethan100suchprograms,andHEWfunded
70,000 behavioral research programs—some among prison inmates which were soundly
criticizedandarebeingwithdrawnfromtheprisonsystem....
Mr.ThomasHamilloftheEICNorthwest,saidthatfundsfor“speciickindsofresearch
anddevelopment”arechanneledto16nationallaboratoriesattachedtocollegesanduni-
versities,adozennationallaboratoriesstudying“individuallyprescribedinstruction,”and
anumberofEducationalResourceInformationCenters,fordeliverytotheEIC’s.
[Ed. Note: Whenever and wherever individualized education is mentioned in professional
educationalliterature,parentsshouldrealizethatMasteryLearning/OBE/DIistherequired
instructionalmethod.Homegrownindividualizedinstruction,non-programmedkitchentable
typeinstruction,withaparentinstructinghis/herchildusingtraditionaltextbooksandtests,
is not the same thing as institutionalized individualized instruction with its programmed,
computer-assisted instruction or programmed reading from a script, which often provides
immediatereinforcementwithtokens,candy—rewards.Alsoofinterestisthefactthatprison
inmatesareprotectedfromsubjectiontobehaviormodiicationtechniquesandworkersin
governmentoficesareprotectedfromsubjectiontotrainingprogramswhichareviolations
oftheirreligiousliberties,butprohibitionoftheuseofbehaviormodiicationtechniqueson
normal,Americanschoolchildrenisnon-existent.(See1988ClarenceThomas,chairmanof
the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and present U.S. Supreme Court Justice,
rulingconcerningemploymentprotection.)]
IN1974INDIVIDUALRIGHTSANDTHEFEDERALROLEINBEHAVIORMODIFICATION:REPORTofthe
Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights from the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate,
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1974 127
Washington,D.C.waspreparedunderthechairmanshipofNorthCarolina’slateSenatorSam
Ervin,who,unfortunately,wasunabletocontinuehisworkonthisimportantissuedueto
hisbeingcalledtoserveasamemberoftheSenateJudiciaryCommitteeinvestigatingthe
Watergatebreak-in.Ervinstatedintheprefacetothereport:
[T]echnologyhasbeguntodevelopnewmethodsofbehaviorcontrolcapableofalteringnot
justanindividual’sactionsbuthisverypersonalityandmannerofthinkingaswell.Because
itaffectstheabilityoftheindividualtothinkforhimself,thebehavioraltechnologybeing
developedintheUnitedStatestodaytouchesuponthemostbasicsourcesofindividuality,
andtheverycoreofpersonalfreedom.Tomymind,themostseriousthreatposedbythe
technologyofbehaviormodiicationisthepowerthistechnologygivesonemantoimpose
hisviewsandvaluesonanother.Inourdemocraticsociety,valuessuchaspoliticalandreli-
giouspreferencesareexpresslylefttoindividualchoice.Ifoursocietyistoremainfree,one
manmustnotbeempoweredtochangeanotherman’spersonalityanddictatethevalues,
thoughtsandfeelingsofanother.
IN1974ACURRICULUMFORPERSONALIZEDEDUCATIONBYROBERTSCANLON,FORMERPennsylvania
SecretaryofEducation,waspublishedbyoneoftheU.S.DepartmentofEducationresearch
laboratories,ResearchforBetterSchoolsinPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania.Predictingthefuture,
Scanlonstated:
Theemphasisinschoolsin1985willbetofreetheindividualfromsubjectmatterasbodies
ofknowledgeandprovidehimorherwithhigherorderskills....Onetypeisvaluesclariica-
tion.
IN A SPEECH GIVEN TO AND RECORDED BY THEASSOCIATION FORSUPERVISION ANDCURriculum
Developmentin1974,10Dr.LeonLessinger,superintendentofschoolsinBeverlyHills,Cali-
forniaandformerassociatecommissionerofeducationintheU.S.OficeofEducation,called
for the implementation of Skinnerian behavior modiication and discussed environmental
inluencewhenhesaid:
Wouldthatwehadsuchasystem;asystemofaccountability.Dowehaveahogcholera
vaccine?Threeingredientsofsuchavaccine:
1.Targettheexperienceintermsofoutcomes;
2.Self-pacedlearning.Wehavethetechnologynow.Modules.Smallgroupsworking
oncommonlearningtargets.Freelearnerfromhavingtobetherealwaysinfrontof
teacher.Ifweknowthetarget,wecandobeautifullyifweknowthetarget.
3.Useofcontingencyrewards.Maymakeyoufeeluncomfortable.Doesme,buthe
whoshirksthisresponsibilitydoesadisservicetothechildrenoftheUnitedStates.
BehaviorModiicationishere.Betterforustomasterandusewisely.Powerful...
powerful...powerful.
CarolinaInnexistsrightacrossfrommyschool.Intherestaurant,rugisred;inthebar,
rugisorange.IknowthatbecauseIhappentopassby!…Redintherestaurant—because
128
youfeeluncomfortableanditkeepsyoufromdillydallyingarounddinner.Ah,butinthe
bar,it’s[warm,comfortable]orange!
MAN,EDUCATION&SOCIETYINTHEYEAR2000,WRITTENBYGRANTVENN,DIRECTOROFtheChief
StateSchoolOficersInstituteandprofessorofeducationatGeorgiaStateUniversity,wasa
reportorsummaryofdiscussionswhichtookplaceattheFifthAnnualChiefStateSchool
OficersInstituteatJacksonHole,Wyoming,July25–August2,1974.ThereportoftheInstitute
wassponsoredbytheU.S.OficeofEducationincooperationwiththeCouncilofChiefState
SchoolOficers,fundedbytheOficeofEducation,U.S.DepartmentofHealth,Educationand
Welfare.Thereisanotationonthebackcoverwhichstates:“Theavailabilityofthisreport
islimited.AsinglecopymaybeobtainedfreeonrequesttotheU.S.OficeofEducationas
longasthesupplylasts.”Dr.Venn’sbestknownpublicationsareMan,EducationandWork
(1963)andMan,EducationandManpower(1971).ExcerptsfromDr.Venn’sintroductionto
theSummaryReportoftheInstitutefollow:
SevendaysofintensivestudyanddiscussionwiththetopleadershipoftheU.S.Ofice
ofEducationandspecialistsinvitedtospeaktotheChiefsreachedanapparentconsensus
regardingissuesthatarefacingMan,EducationandSociety:TheYear2000....
TheseventopicschosenforstudybytheExecutiveCommitteeoftheCouncilofChief
StateSchoolOficers,theU.S.OficeofEducationandtheInstituteDirector...follow:
1.TheRoleoftheFutureinEducation—AlvinTofler
2.EducationandHumanResourceDevelopment—WillardWirtz
3.TheInternationalSituation:TheRoleofEducation—FrederickChampionWard
4.EconomicMatters:PublicDollarAvailability—AllanK.Campbell
5.TheShapeofDemocracy:TheCitizenRole—ForbesBottomly
6.ThePublicandPrivateLifeoftheIndividual—HaroldShane
7.Energy,NaturalResourcesandGrowth—CharlesJ.Ryan
ExcerptsfromthebodyofDr.Venn’ssummaryfollow:
Wehavereachedapointwheresocietyeithereducateseveryoneorsupportsthem....
Technologicalchangehas,suddenlyanddramatically,thrownupachallengetoour
nation’spolitical,economic,andeducationinstitutions.Ifitistobesolved,itisgoingto
demandamassiveresponseonthepartofAmericaneducation.Technologyhas,ineffect,
createdanewrelationshipbetweenman,hiseducationandhissociety....
Thehome,thechurch,andtheschoolcannotbeeffectivemaintainerssincethefuture
cannotbepredicted....
Theclearestoverallapproachtoindingbetterwaysseemedtobeanewroleforthe
statedepartmentsofeducation....
Fromthequestionofinancestothequestionofvaluesthatshouldbetaughtinthe
schools,theconsensuswasthatleadershipandprioritychangingbystatedepartmentswas
themostimportantsteptobetaken....
Afterallthequestionshadbeenaskedandallthedialogueended,itappearedthatthe
mostdificultmatterwouldbeoneofinstitutingnewapproachestoeducation....
Tofler’sbeliefthattheschoolshavebeena“maintaining”institutionforastaticpredict-
ablesocietywasnotagreedtobyall,buttherewasagreementthateducationforthefuture
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1974 129
hadtoenditsrelianceonthepastaspredictorofthefuture....
The traditional cluster of knowledge, skills, values, and concepts will not help our
youngfacethefutureintheirprivatelife,theinternationalsituation,theircitizenrole,their
workrole,norintheareaofenergy,nationalresourcesorgrowth....
…Individuals need more learning about social process with a greater emphasis on
participationingroupdecisionmaking.Againwecomefacetofacewiththefactthatmany
problemsofthefuturemustbesolvedbasedonvaluesandprioritiessetbygroups.Many
ofthesevalueswillhavetobeenforcedbygroupactionandwillneedtheinvolvementof
manyindividualsinorderthatharddecisionscanbeimplemented.Manyofthefutureprob-
lemscannotbesolvedbyindividualdecisionoraction.Theheavyemphasisonindividual
achievementandcompetitionmayneedtoincludelearningaboutcooperationandgroup
achievement....
Aslearningbecomesmoretiedtothefuture,personalandsocietalchange“values”
cometotheforeground.Itisdoubtfulthatweshalleverreturntotheconceptofvaluesin
thesamewaywesawtheminthepast....Perhapsthereisaneedfortheclariicationofnew
valuesneededtosolvefutureproblems.Theymaybecomeclearaswebeginadeliberate
searchforvalueswewishtoteachandprovideexperiencesforouryounginusingthese
valuesinsolvingrealproblems....
Itwouldappearthatouryounghavebecomeisolatedfromthe“realwork”ofsociety
andfromtherealdecisionmakingofsociety.Decisionmaking[valuesclariication]may
becomethesubjectofthelearningprocessiftherearegreateropportunitiesfor“actionlearn-
ing”andgrouplearningbyteachersandstudents....
Theoveremphasisonknowledge,information,andtheorieshavecausedouryouthtobe
freedfromthetestingoftheirbeliefsinanon-controlledenvironment—therealworld....
Conclusions
InadditiontothethreeR’s,thebasicskillswouldappeartoincludegroupparticipation,
environmentalrelationshipsandplanningforthefuture!...Organization,structure,roleand
purpose,methods,content,inancing,relationshipsamongschoolandsociety,leadership
andtimeframesmustallbeevaluatedandchanged.Thegreatestdangerseemstobethat
simpleimprovementratherthanbasicchangemightbeattempted....
The following conclusions seem to be suggested as approaches which might bring
aboutmajorchange!...Thestatescollectivelyshouldestablishspeciicminimalcompeten-
ciesineachofthebasictoolskillareasandeachstateshouldmakethemtheirstpriority
forfunding,stafingandorganizing....
Annualstatereportsshouldbedevisedtoreplacethenormativeachievementtestin
thefuturewithcompetencyachievement....Thestatesshouldconveneataskforcetostudy
andreportthewaysthatarebeingtriedandwaysthatmightbeusedtoprovidealternatives
toearningthehighschooldiploma....
Studentsachievingminimalcreditsoughttobeencouragedtodeveloptheirunique
aptitudesandtotesttheseinthecommunity,workforce,andtheschoolsystems....There
shouldbeapolicydevisedineachofthestatesthatendsthelongheldbasicof“timein
place”[CarnegieUnit]astheevaluationoflearningforcredit.
Regulationsmustbedevelopedwhichencouragetheuseofthecommunity,adults,
studentsandotherlearningsitesthantheclassroomandteachers....Full-timeattendance
fromgradesonethroughtwelvemayhavebecomeabarriertolearning—whatarethealterna-
tives?...Educationalcreditshouldbeavailabletostudentsforactivitiesrelatedtotheirstudies
inwork,volunteeraction,communityparticipation,schoolvolunteerprogramsandother
programscontributingtothebettermentofthehome,school,communityandsociety....The
130
timetrapsoflearningfortheyoung,earningforthemiddle-agedandyearningfortheretired
mustbechangedtoaconceptofcontinuouslearning[UNESCO’slifelonglearning,ed.].
Greateruseofadultsandstudentsfromothercountriesandculturesshouldbeempha-
sized....Itisobviousthattheschoolsalonecannoteducateouryouth.StateDepartments
shouldencourage,throughpoliciesandinancing,theuseofothersocietalagenciesand
resourcestobepartoftheplannededucationalprogramofhighschoolandolderyouth....
Sincethefutureindicatesasmallershareofthepublicdollarforeducation,statesshould
developregulationsandpolicieswhichusetheentireyearandtheentiresocietyaseduca-
tionalresources....
Theiftystatesshouldorganizeacommissiontoestablishthevaluesthataresigniicant
inapproachingproblemsthatmustbefacedinthefuture....Sincechangeissogreatand
problemsolvingthenecessityofthefuture,thestateshouldestablishastudywhichwould
deinetheessentialskills,understandingsandapproachesthatouryoungshouldlearnin
ordertoparticipateinthesocialdecisionsthatmustbemadeinthefuture....
Knowledgeandinformationisnottheonlybasisforsolvingproblems;ourschools
needtohelpouryouthgainexperienceingroupdecisionmakingasabasisforfutureciti-
zenship....
Eachstateoughttolookattheproblemoftheroleoftheschoolinmakingtheentry
jobameansratherthananend....Wouldaplacementfunctionfortheschoolshelpmotivate
youth?...Everyhighschoolstudentoughttodevoteaportionoftheirtimetothedevelop-
mentofacareerrelatedtothefutureandsensiblepublicandprivatelife....
Mostresearchineducationhaslookedatpartsandpiecesratherthanthetotalrelation-
shipofman,educationandsociety.TheCCSSOshouldestablishalong-rangeplanningand
policygrouptolookatsocietalissuesandtheimplicationsforeducation.Atpresent,there
isnosuchbodylookingatthisproblem.CantheeducationChiefsaffordtoletothersdoall
thedirectingofthefuture?
[Ed.Note:Thereadercannothelpbutseethattheabovehighlycontroversialrecommenda-
tionsmadein1974havebeenimplementedwithhardlyahitch.]
PROFESSOR LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEVELOPMENT APPROACH CURRICULUM, “ETHIcal
IssuesinDecisionMaking,”wasdevelopedintheearly1970sandwasusedextensivelyin
laweducationcoursesinpublicandprivateschools.In1974Kohlbergwasstilldevelopinghis
classiicationsof“StagesofMoralDevelopment”toincludeaSeventhStage—thatof“Faith.”
Kohlberg’sprogramwaslistedintheNationalDiffusionNetwork’scatalogProgramsthatWork
asanexemplaryprogram.Kohlberg’sMoralDevelopmentApproachincludeseducationinthe
following“stagesofmoraldevelopment”:
Stage1—“Avoidpunishment”orientation:decisionsarebasedonablindobedienceto
anexternalpowerinanattempttoavoidpunishmentorseekreward.
Stage2—“Self-Beneit”orientation:decisionsarebasedonpremiseofdoingsomething
forothersiftheyreciprocate.
Stage3—“Acceptancebyothers”orientation:decisionsarebasedonwhetherornot
theirbehaviorsperceivedaspleasingtoothers.
Stage4—“Maintainthesocialorder”orientation:decisionsarebasedonixedrules
whichare“necessary”toperpetuatetheorderofsocietyasawhole.
Stage 5—“Contract fulillment” orientation: decisions are based on the individual
respecting impartial laws and agreeing to abide by them while society agrees to
131
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1975
respecttherightsoftheindividual.
Stage 6—“Ethical principle” orientation: decisions are based on “conscience” and
respectforeachperson’sindividualityisparamountwiththevaluesbelievedtobe
validforallhumanity.
AfterStage6,theindividualexperiencesdespair.Heorshehasdevelopedprinciplesof
justice,yetisfacedwithanunjustworld.Moralphilosophycannotsolvetheproblem.
Stage7—“Faith”orientation:decisionsareconcernedwith“whatistheultimatemean-
ingoflife?”
This“Faith”orientationstagedoesnotconlictwiththeprinciplesdevelopedthroughthe
irstsixstages;rather,itintegratesthosestagesandprovidesaperspectiveonlife’sultimate
meaning.InStageSeventheindividualadvancesfromanessentiallyhumantoacosmic
pointofview.WithStageSeventhereisamodiicationtoawiderviewoflife.Emphasis
changesfromtheindividualtothecosmos.
1975
SUPERINTENDENTRAYI.POWELL,PH.D.,OFSOUTHST.PAUL,MINNESOTAPUBLICSCHOOLSspoke
outregardingvaluesclariicationandsensitivitytrainingin1975,saying,“It’sallbrainwashing!”
Excerptsfollowfromamemorandumto“AllAdministratorsfromRayI.Powell”concerning
CenterBulletinNo.39:1974–1975,datedFebruary26,1975:
1. Parents have the prime responsibility for the inculcation of those moral and spiritual
valuesdesiredfortheirchildrenintheareasofabortionandbirthcontrol.Indeed,thisisan
inherentrightofparentsandmustnotbedenied....
Effectiveimmediately,theteaching,advising,directing,suggesting,orcounselingofstudents
inthesetwo(2)areascannotbe/shallnotbetheresponsibilitynorthetaskoftheSouthSt.
PaulPublicSchools.
Rather,theeffortsofthepublicschools,henceforth,shallbedirectedtowardsexpand-
ingthosecomplimentarylearningexperiencesinotherareasofthetotalcurriculumthatwill
enhancethesetwo(2)parentalvalues,i.e.:
• preservationofthefamilyunit.
• feminineroleofthewife,mother,andhomemaker.
• masculineroleofguide,protector,andprovider.
• advocacyofhomeandfamilyvalues.
• respectforfamilystructureandauthority.
• enhancementofwomanhoodandfemininity.
• restorationofmorality.
2.Therearemoreandmoreconcernsandquestionsbeingregisteredtodayregardingthe
questionableresultsandthetrueintentofSENSITIVITYTRAINING,aswellasitsgermaneness
tothegoalsandobjectivesofpubliceducation,thetrainingofeducators,andthelearning
experiencesofstudents.
Considerthesetwo(2)deinitionsofSENSITIVITYTRAINING(sourcesfurnishedupon
132
request):
Sensitivitytrainingisdeinedasgroupmeetings,largeorsmall,todiscusspubliclyinti-
mateandpersonalmatters,andopinions,valuesorbeliefs;and/ortoactoutemotions
andfeelingstowardoneanotherinthegroup,usingthetechniquesofself-confessionand
mutualcriticism.
Itisalso“coercivepersuasionintheformofthoughtreformorbrainwashing.”
Istheprimeconcernineducationtodaynottoimpartknowledge,buttochange“atti-
tudes,”sothatchildrencan/willwillinglyacceptacontrolledsociety?Arethepublicschools
beingunwittinglyre-shapedtoaccomplishthisandwithoutrealizingit?
[Ed.Note:Dr.Powellthenlists54termswhichcanallbeincludedunderSensitivityTraining,
afewofwhichare:T-GroupTraining,OperantConditioning,ManagementbyObjectives,Sex
Education,Self-Hypnosis,RolePlaying,ValuesClariication,SituationEthics,AlternativeLife
Styles,etc.HadallourschoolshadsuperintendentswithDr.Powell’scharacterandcourage,
mostoftheproblemsfacingourchildrenandfamiliestodaywouldnotexist.]
CONGRESSMANJOHNCONLANOFARIZONAISSUEDAPRESSRELEASEREGARDINGTHECONtroversial
federallyfundedprogramforten-year-oldchildrencalledMan:ACourseofStudy(M:ACOS)
(EducationDevelopmentCenter:Cambridge,Massachusetts,1975).OnApril9,1975Conlan
saidthatthe$7millionNationalScienceFoundation-fundedprogramwasdesignedbyateam
ofexperimentalpsychologistsunderJeromeS.BrunerandB.F.Skinner’sdirectiontomold
children’ssocialattitudesandbeliefsalonglinesthatsetthemapartandalienatedthemfrom
thebeliefsandmoralvaluesoftheirparentsandlocalcommunities.Asamatteroffact,ifty
commercialpublishersrefusedtopublishthecoursebecauseofitsobjectionablecontent.The
followinggorystoryofcannibalismisexcerptedfromM:ACOS(Vol.1):
Thewifeknewthatthespiritshadsaidherhusbandshouldeather,butshewassoexhausted
thatitmadenoimpressiononher,shedidnotcare.Itwasonlywhenhebegantofeelher,
whenitoccurredtohimtostickhisingersinhersidetofeeliftherewasleshonher,that
shesuddenlyfeltaterriblefear;soshe,whohadneverbeenafraidofdying,nowtriedto
escape.Withherfeeblestrengthsheranforherlife,andthenitwasasifTuneqsawheronly
asaquarrythatwasabouttoescapehim;heranafterherandstabbedhertodeath.After
that,helivedonher,andcollectedherbonesinaheapoverbythesideoftheplatformfor
thepurposeoffulillingthetaboorulerequiredofallwhodie.(p.115)
OCTOBER24,1975 THEWORLDAFFAIRSCOUNCIL OFPHILADELPHIA ISSUED“ADECLARAtionof
Interdependence”writtenbywell-knownhistorianandliberalthinktankAspenInstituteboard
memberHenrySteeleCommager.Thisalarmingdocument,whichcalledtomindPresident
Kennedy’sJuly4,1962speechcallingfora“DeclarationofInterdependence,”waswrittenas
acontributiontoournation’scelebrationofits200thbirthday,andsignedby125members
oftheU.S.HouseandSenate.Excerptsfollow:
WHENINTHECOURSEOFHISTORYthethreatofextinctionconfrontsmankind,itisneces-
saryforthepeopleofTheUnitedStatestodeclaretheirinterdependencewiththepeopleof
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1975 133
allnationsandtoembracethoseprinciplesandbuildthoseinstitutionswhichwillenable
mankindtosurviveandcivilizationtolourish....
Twocenturiesagoourforefathersbroughtforthanewnation;nowwemustjoinwith
otherstobringforthanewworldorder....
WEAFFIRMthattheeconomyofallnationsisaseamlessweb,andthatnoonenationcan
anylongereffectivelymaintainitsprocessesofproductionandmonetarysystemswithout
recognizingthenecessityforcollaborativeregulationbyinternationalauthorities.
[Ed.Note:In1976theNationalEducationAssociationproducedasocialstudiescurriculum
entitledADeclarationofInterdependence:EducationforaGlobalCommunitywhichCongress-
womanMarjorieHolt(R.-MD)describedas“anatrociousbetrayalofAmericanindependence.”
Itwasn’tuntilthe1980sand1990sthattherelationshipbetween“interdependence”or“new
worldorder”andAmerica’seducationofchildrenbecameprominentinoutcomesineach
state.Interdependenceisalsoanundergirdingconceptinglobaleducation.
In1976acoterieofinternationaliststhoughttheirplanswouldhavesmoothsailing,not
theresistancetheyencounteredatthegrassrootslevelwhichsetthembackagoodtwenty
years.Whatweareexperiencingin1999(Americansoldiersbeingdeployedworld-wideas
partofUnitedNations“peace-keeping”operations,andUNlandconiscationthroughexecu-
tiveorders,etc.)wasdelayedbytheactivismofcourageousAmericanstowhomweallowe
anenormousdebtofgratitude.]
U.S.COMMISSIONEROFEDUCATIONT.H.BELLMADETHEFOLLOWINGSTATEMENTINAU.S.Ofice
ofEducation(HEW)pressreleaseonOctober29,1975,dealingwithresultsoftheUniversity
ofTexasAdultPerformanceLevel(APL)Study.Thestudy,headedbyDr.NorvellNorthcutt,
wasfundedatapproximately$lmillionunderSec.309oftheAdultEducationAct.T.H.Bell’s
statementfollows:
OneoutofiveAmericanadultslackstheskillsandknowledgeneededtofunctioneffectively
inthebasicday-to-daystruggletomakealivingandmaintainahomeandfamily,according
toafour-yearinvestigationofadultfunctionalcompetencyreleasedtodaybyHEW’sOfice
ofEducation.ReferringtotheresultsoftheAdultPerformanceLevel(APL)studyas“rather
startling,”U.S.CommissionerofEducationTerrellH.Bellsaidthattheycallforsomemajor
rethinkingofeducationonseverallevels.“Tobeginwith,”Dr.Belladded,“adulteducation
hastobereshapedsothatstudentsreceivethekindofinformationthatwillmakemodernlife
easierforthem.IalsothinkthatStateandlocaleducationagencieswillwanttoexaminewhat
theyareteaching,evenattheelementarylevels,andperhapsreconsidertheirrequirements
forhighschoolgraduation.”APLresearchdeinesfunctionalcompetencyas“theabilityto
useskillsandknowledgeneededformeetingtherequirementsofadultliving.”
[Ed.Note:SecretaryBell’srecommendationswereadoptedbyOregonandPennsylvaniaone
yearlater.In1976Pennsylvaniacommencedimplementationofitscontroversial“Project’81"
which,accordingtoits1976StateDepartmentofEducationinformationalmaterials,“restruc-
turedPennsylvania’sGoalsofQualityEducationanddevelopedanewprogramofbasicskills
andinitiatedstudiesdesignedtohelpindevelopingcomprehensiveprogramsingeneraland
specializededucation.”Thesameinformationalmaterialsalsostatedthat“Pennsylvania’sCon-
temporaryFamilyLifeCompetenciesweretakenfromanoutlineofacoursebeingimplemented
134
atParkroseHighSchoolinOregonwhichfocusedonconsumereconomicscompetenciesand
makesuseofbothschoolandcommunityresources.”
Thereisnoquestioninthiswriter’smindthatthe“pre-determined”resultsoftheTexas
APLStudysetthestageforallstateeducationagenciestocommencedumbed-downcontinuous
progresscompetency-basededucation,whichisjustanotherlabelforBenjaminBloom’sand
WilliamSpady’soutcome-/performance-/results-based,school-to-work“education”—allof
whichuseSkinnerianpigeon-trainingmethods(masterylearninganddirectinstruction)—and
thattheinitialthrustforthistypeof“allchildrencanlearn/redistributionofbrains”lifelong
educationcamestraightoutoftheUnitedNations.]
THEDAILYWORLDOFNOVEMBER8,1975CARRIEDAVERYINTERESTINGARTICLEENTITLED“Plan-
ningIsSocialism’sTrademark”byMorrisZeitlin.TheDailyWorld(newspaperoftheCom-
munistPartyUSA)wasformerlyknownasTheDailyWorkerandwasfoundedin1924.The
importanceofthisarticleliesinitsblatantadmissionthatregionalism,whichisgradually
becomingtheacceptedmethodofunelectedgovernanceintheUnitedStates(unelectedcoun-
cilsandtaskforces,participatorydemocracy,public-privatepartnerships,etc.)istheformof
governmentusedindemocraticsocialistandcommunistcountries.Thefollowingareexcerpts
fromthisarticle:
Cities in industrially advanced countries develop complex economic, social and political
interaction.Inthisprocess,majorcitiestendtoconsolidateneighboringsmallercitiesand
settlements into metropolitan regions. Rationally, metropolitan regions should constitute
governmentalunitshavingcomprehensiveplanningandadministrativepowerswithintheir
boundaries.
In our country (the United States), rival capitalist groups, jealously guarding their
specialprerogatives,haverigidlymaintainedthetraditionalboundariesofstatesandcoun-
tieswhilenationaleconomicandsocialdevelopmenthascreatedmetropolitanregionsthat
overlapthoseboundaries.Wehavenoregionalgovernmentandnocomprehensiveregional
planningtospeakof.Regionalgovernmentandplanningremainconceptsoururbanscholars
andplannershavelongadvocatedinvain....
In socialist countries, metropolitan regions enjoy metropolitan regional government
andcomprehensiveplanning.OfthemanyregionsonthevastterritoryoftheSovietUnion,
theMoscowRegioncommandsspecialattention,forithasbeen,sincethe1917Revolution,
thecountry’seconomicandpoliticalcenter.
Theeconomicandfunctionaleficienciesandthesocialbeneitsthatcomprehensive
national, regional and city planning make possible in socialist society explain the Soviet
Union’senormousandrapideconomicandsocialprogress.Conversely,ourproit-oriented
rulingcapitalistclassmakescomprehensivesocialandeconomicplanningimpossible,caus-
ingwasteandchaosanddraggingtheentirenationintomiseryandsufferingasitsrule
deterioratesanddeclines.
PROJECTINSTRUCT ANOTHER MASTERY LEARNING PROGRAM MODELED ALONG THE LINES OFthe
ExemplaryCenterforReadingInstruction(ECRI),wasapprovedfordisseminationthroughout
thenationbytheU.S.OficeofEducation’sJointDisseminationReviewPanel(JDRP)May14,
1975.TheinalevaluationofProjectINSTRUCTstatedthat:
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1976 135
Theintentandemphasisin1970wasonbehavioralindicesandconcretewaysofshowing
accountability;andthedatawouldsuggestthatthereadingofthestudentsthemselvesmay
nothaveincreased,buttheimpactofProjectINSTRUCTintheLincoln,NebraskaPublic
Schoolsseemstobeveryextensiveandinluential.
[Ed. Note: According to the inal evaluation of Project INSTRUCT, Ronald Brandt, former
executiveeditoroftheAssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment’spublication
EducationalLeadership,wasinvolvedintheproject.]
1976
CHILDHOODINCHINA,ABOOKEDITEDBYWILLIAMKESSEN(YALEUNIVERSITYPRESS:NewHaven,
Connecticut,1976),wasreviewedbyKentGarlandBuritofTheChristianScienceMonitor.
ThefollowingexcerptsfromBurit’sreviewprovideinsightintothesimilaritiesofeducation
in Communist China in 1973 and Skinnerian Effective School Research used in American
restructuringinthe1980sand1990s:
Theywerewell-behaved,nonaggressivewithpeers....
The immediate yielding to a teacher’s request seemed remarkable to the Ameri-
cans....
Thestrategiesandcommunicationstyleoftheteachersisalsodescribed.Theyinitiate,
superviseclosely,andterminateallactivities.Theyteachbyrepetitionandbyformula.Their
verbalandnonverbalindicationsofapprovalareinahighratiotoindicationsofdisapproval.
Theydisciplinethroughpersuasionandmoralisticreasoningratherthanpunishment.They
exudeaconidentexpectationoftheirpupils’complianceandcooperation....
The curriculum is saturated with ideological goals, the team reported. The child is
exposedtorepeatedexhortationstoservethesociety.
[Ed. Note: The foregoing quote with its behavioral terminology could come from an issue
ofTheEffectiveSchoolReport,fromwhichthiswriterhasrepeatedlyquotedthroughoutthis
book.Educationinnon-violence,tolerance,peerresolution,cooperativelearning,andpoliti-
cally-correctcurriculum—allofwhichwillmodifythebehaviorofAmericanchildrensothat
theywillbeliketheaboveCommunistChinesechildren—istakingplaceinAmericanschools
in1999.(SeeApril21,1982Spadyquotecallingfortheabove“compliance.”)]
THELOSANGELESTIMESOFMAY21,1976(PART1–B)CARRIEDANARTICLEENTITLED“Cuban
ChildrenCombineStudies,Work”whichclearlyexplainedthecommunistwork-studysystem
andtheimpactofcommunityservice,bothofwhicharebeingimplementedintheUnited
Statesinthe1990s.Importantexcerptsfollow:
HAVANA(AP)—Thedoortothesideroomofanoldcigarfactoryhadbeenleftajar,anda
smallknotofchildrencouldbeseenpreparingboxesofcigarsforexport.“It’spartofour
educationsystem,”aCubantobaccooficialexplained.“Theyarehelpingandlearning.”
Thechildren,elementaryschoolpupilsabout9to11yearsold,wereexamplesoftheunique
Cubaneducationalsystemofcombiningstudieswithphysicalwork.Thesystem,startedin
1967,appliestoallschools,includingtheisland’sfouruniversities....
136
TheCubanssaytheideaistoproducewell-roundedcitizenscapableofmanuallabor.
Butthesystemalsoprovidesextrahandsforaneconomythaturgentlyneedsmoreproduc-
tion....SaysPrimeMinisterFidelCastro,“Thishelpstotemperthemfromearlychildhood
inthehabitsofcreativework,withoutrunningtheriskofpossibledeformationthroughthe
exclusiveexerciseofintellectualactivity.”...
OneexampleofthesystemisfoundatHavana’s1,639pupilU.S.S.R.-Cubatechnical
school,sonamedbecausetheSovietUnionequippedtheschoolandtrainedtheinstructors.
Thestudents,mainlyboys14to17,learnhowtomeltmetalandtomolditintomachine
parts.Theyaretaughthowtocast,weld,grindandoperatealathe.Girlsworkinlaboratories,
learningtooperatetestingequipmentformetalsandmachineparts.Theparts,produced
whilelearning,aresenttofactoriesthatmakemachinery.Thestudentsthemselvesspend
partoftheirtimeworkinginsidethefactories.Theschoolalsoteacheslanguage,culture,
sports,politicalphilosophyandordinaryschoolsubjects....
Thosewhostudyfortwoyearsbecomewhatarecalledgeneralworkersforthefac-
tories,whilefour-yearstudentsbecomeskilledtechnicians.Allareguaranteedfactoryjobs
upongraduation....
AttheUniversityofHavana,thereare54,000studentsthisyear.Full-timestudents
studyfourhoursaday,sixdaysaweekandworkanotherfourhoursdailyinields,factories
oratjobsrelatedtotheirfuturecareers....Manyolderstudentsilltheirworkrequirement
byteaching,tooffsettheteachershortagecreatedwhenhundredsofthousandsofCubans
emigratedafterCastro’s1959revolution....Thiscommitmenttoworkingforthegoodofthe
countryremainsaftergraduation.GraduatesmustserveanywhereinCubaforthreeyears,
thenareallowedtoreturnhometocontinuetheircareers.
LAWRENCEC.PIERCE DELIVERED A PAPER IN1976 ENTITLED“SCHOOLSITEMANAGEMENT”toa
meetingoftheAspenInstituteforHumanisticStudiesinwhichhereferredtosite-basedman-
agementasan“intermediatestructurebetweencentralizedschoolmanagementandeducation
vouchers.”Anexcerptfollows:
OnJanuary6,1976,SanFranciscoSchoolSuperintendentRobertF.Aliotoproposed
anorganizationalredesignofthedistrictthatincludedashiftfromschooldistricttoschool
sitemanagement.Hesaid,inpart:
Irecommendthatwemovetowardaschoolsitemanagementmodelthatvaluesstaffanda
communityinvolvementandstressesaccountability.Wemustrecognizetheprincipalasthe
instructionalleaderoftheschool.Wemustexpandthebudgetingandiscalcontrolateach
schoolsite....Wemustestablishateachschoolsiteoneactiveadvisorycommitteewhich
includesparents,students,andstaffrepresentativesoftheschool’sethnicpopulation....
Furthersupportforproposalstodecentralizeschoolmanagementarisesfromthedesire
toincreasepublicparticipationinschoolgovernancepolicies.Localcontroloftheschools,
originallyinstitutedtomakethemresponsivetothepeople,neverthelessprovedtobecum-
bersome,anditfrequentlyobscuredthestate’sresponsibilityforprovidingeverychildwith
abasiceducation.Inpursuitofgreateraccountabilityandhigherprofessionalstandards,
thependulumofschoolgovernment,whichintheearlydaysofthiscountryswungtoward
representativenessandlocalcontrol,laterswungbacktowardgreaterprofessionalautonomy
andstrongerexecutivecontrol....
...School site management is an intermediate structure between centralized school
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1976 137
managementandeducationalvouchers.
[Ed.Note:Readthatlaststatementagain.Twenty-oneyearslaterthecarefullylaidplansofthe
internationalistAspenInstituteforHumanisticStudiesarebeingimplementedundertheguise
ofunaccountablechoice/charterschools,fundedbythetaxpayers.School-sitemanagementis
anearlytermforsite-basedorschool-basedmanagementpromotedbytheNationalEducation
Associationinthe1980sand1990s.Ofextremeimportanceistheunambiguouscallforthe
useof(needfor)vouchers,whichwillsupplant“choice,”essentialfortheimplementationof
theinternationalschool-to-workagenda.Thedollaramountofthevoucherwilldependon
theschoolcouncil’sdeterminationofhowmuchitwillcosttotrainyourchildtobeajanitor
(verylittle)ordoctor(alot).]
LAWRENCEP.GRAYSONOFTHENATIONALINSTITUTEOFEDUCATION,U.S.DEPARTMENTOFEduca-
tion,wrote“Education,Technology,andIndividualPrivacy”(ECTJ,Vol.28,No.3,pp.195–208)
in1976.Thefollowingaresomeexcerptsfromthisimportantpaperwhichservesasaclear
warningregardingtheindiscriminateuseofbehavioristmethodsandtechnology:
Therighttoprivacyisbasedonabeliefintheessentialdignityandworthoftheindi-
vidual.Moderntechnologicaldevices,alongwithadvancesinthebehavioralsciences,can
threatentheprivacyofstudents.Fortunately,invasionsofprivacyineducationhavenot
beenwidespread.However,suficientviolationshavebeennotedtowarrantspeciiclegisla-
tionandtopromoteasharpincreaseinattentiontoproceduresthatwillensureprotection
ofindividualprivacy.Technologythatcanrevealinnermostthoughtsandmotivesorcan
changebasicvaluesandbehaviors,mustbeusedjudiciouslyandonlybyqualiiedprofes-
sionalsunderstrictlycontrolledconditions.Educationincludesindividualsandeducational
experimentation is human experimentation. The educator must safeguard the privacy of
studentsandtheirfamilies....
Privacyhasbeendeinedas“therighttobeletalone”(Cooley,1888)andasthe“right
totheimmunityoftheperson—therighttoone’spersonality”(WarrenandBrandeis,1890).
Individualshavetherighttodeterminewhen,how,andtowhatextenttheywillsharethem-
selveswithothers.Itistheirrighttobefreefromunwarrantedorundesiredrevelationof
personalinformationtoothers,toparticipateorwithdrawastheyseeit,andtobefreeof
unwarrantedsurveillancethroughphysical,psychological,ortechnologicalmeans.
JusticeWilliamO.Douglasexpressedtheconcernsofmanypeoplewhenhestated:
Wearerapidlyenteringtheageofnoprivacy;wheneveryoneisopentosurveillanceat
alltimes;whentherearenosecretsfromthegovernment....[Thereis]analarmingtrend
whereby the privacy and dignity of our citizens is being whittled away by sometimes
imperceptiblesteps.Takenindividually,eachstepmaybeoflittleconsequence.Butwhen
viewedasawhole,therebeginstoemergeasocietyquiteunlikeanywehaveseen—a
societyinwhichgovernmentmayintrudeintothesecretregionsofaman’slifeatwill.
(Osbornv.U.S.,1966,pp.341–343)
Behavioralscience,whichisassuminganincreasingroleineducationaltechnology,
promisestomakeeducationaltechniquesmoreeffectivebyrecognizingindividualdifferences
amongstudentsandbypatterninginstructiontomeetindividualneeds.However,behavioral
scienceismorethananunbiasedmeanstoanend.Ithasabasicvalueposition(Skinner,
1971)basedonthepremisethatsuch“valuesasfreedomanddemocracy,whichimplythat
theindividualultimatelyhasfreewillandisresponsibleforhisownactions,arenotonly
138
culturalinventions,butillusions”(Harman,1970).Thispositioniscontradictorytothebasic
premiseoffreedomandisdemeaningtothedignityoftheindividual.Behavioralscience
inappropriatelyappliedcanimpingeonindividualvalueswithoutallowingforpersonaldif-
ferencesandineducationcanviolatetheprivacyofthestudent....
Relecting on the ethical values of our civilization in 1958, Pope Pius XII com-
mented:
Thereisalargeportionofhisinnerworldwhichthepersondisclosestoafewconidential
friendsandshieldsagainsttheintrusionofothers.Certain[other]mattersarekeptsecret
atanypriceandinregardtoanyone.Finally,thereareothermatterswhichthepersonis
unabletoconsider....Andjustasitisillicittoappropriateanother’sgoodsortomakean
attemptonhisbodilyintegritywithouthisconsent,soitisnotpermissibletoenterinto
hisinnerdomainagainsthiswill,whateveristhetechniqueormethodused....
Whateverthemotivationsoftheteacherorresearcher,anindividual’sprivacymusttake
precedenceovereffectiveteaching,unlessgoodcausecanbeshowntodootherwise.Good
cause,however,doesnotrelievetheteacherorschooladministratorfromtheresponsibility
ofsafeguardingtheprivacyofthestudentandthefamily.Yet,manyteachersandadmin-
istratorsremaininsensitivetotheprivacyimplicationsofbehavioralscienceandmodern
technologyineducation....
Intentonimprovingeducation,educators,scientists,andothersconcernedwiththe
developmentandapplicationoftechnologyareofteninsensitivetotheissuesofprivacyraised
bytheuseoftheirtechniques.Forexample,manypsychologicalandbehavioralpractices
havebeenintroducedonthegroundthattheywillmakeeducationmoreeficientoreffec-
tive.However,improvementsineficiencythroughtechnologicalapplicationscanreinforce
thesepracticeswithoutregardtotheireffects.Whatisnowbeingdoneineducationcouldbe
wrong,especiallyifcarriedoutonamassivescale.Astheuseoftechnologybecomesmore
widespread,wemayreachthepointwhereerrorscannotbedetectedorcorrected.Thisis
especiallyimportantbecausetechnologyinteractswithsocietyandculturetochangeestab-
lishedgoalsandvirtues.Propagatinganerroronanationallevelcouldchangetheoriginal
goalstoittheerroneoussituation.Theerrorthenbecomesacceptablebydefault.
Indevelopingandapplyingtechnologytoeducation,potentialeffectsmustbeanalyzed,
sothatnegativepossibilitiescanbeidentiiedandovercomebeforemajorresourcesarecom-
mittedtoprojectsthatcouldproduceundesirablelong-termsocialconsequences.
Inmattersaffectingprivacyitisbettertoerronthesideoftheindividual,thanon
thatofresearchorimprovededucationalpractice.Violationsofprivacycanneverbefully
redressed.
________
Ftnt.No.14.Privacyisaconstitutionallyprotectedright;educationisnot.TheSupremeCourtruled
inGriswoldv.Connecticut(decidedin1965)thattherightofprivacyisguaranteedbytheConstitu-
tion.InRodriguezv.SanAntonioIndependentSchoolDistrict(decidedin1973),theCourtruledthat
educationisnotaprotectedrightundertheConstitution.
UNITEDNATIONSEDUCATIONAL,SCIENTIFIC,ANDCULTURALORGANIZATION(UNESCO)INParis,
FrancepublishedTheInternationalStandardClassiicationofEducation(ISCED–COM.75/WS/
27)in1976.Thispublicationrevealedeffortsatthehighestinternationalleveltosetupaclas-
siicationsystemwhichwillbeavailableforusebyplannersassignedtothemanagementof
theglobaleconomy.Somequotesfromtheintroductiontothis396-pagedocumentfollow:
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1976 139
TheInternationalStandardClassiicationofEducation(ISCED)hasbeendesignedas
an instrument suitable for assembling, compiling, and presenting statistics of education
bothwithinindividualcountriesandinternationally.Itisexpectedtofacilitateinternational
compilationandcomparisonofeducationstatisticsassuch,andalsotheiruseinconjunction
withmanpowerandothereconomicstatistics....
ISCED should facilitate the use of education statistics in manpower planning and
encouragetheuseofmanpowerstatisticsineducationalplanning.Forthispurpose,themost
closelyassociatedclassiicationsysteminthemanpowerieldistheInternationalStandard
ClassiicationofOccupations(ISCO),preparedbytheInternationalLabourOfice.
CATHERINEBARRETT,PRESIDENTOFTHENATIONALEDUCATIONASSOCIATION(NEA),GAVEaspeech
atthe1976NEAAnnualConferenceinwhichshemadethefollowingcommentsconcerning
thechangeintheroleoftheteacher:
Atthiscriticalmomentnoonecansaywithcertaintywhetherweareatthebrinkof
acolossaldisasterorwhetherthisisindeedmankind’sshininghour.Butitiscertainthat
dramaticchangesinthewayweraiseourchildrenintheyear2000areindicatedparticu-
larlyintermsofschooling,andthatthesechangeswillrequirenewwaysofthinking.Let
meproposethree.
First,wewillhelpallofourpeopleunderstandthatschoolisaconceptandnotaplace.
Wewillnotconfuse“schooling”with“education.”Theschoolwillbethecommunity,the
community,theschool.Students,parents,andteacherswillmakecertainthatJohnDewey’s
sound advice about schooling the whole child is not confused with nonsense about the
school’sprovidingthechild’swholeeducation....
Wewillneedtorecognizethattheso-called“basicskills,”whichcurrentlyrepresent
nearlythetotaleffortinelementaryschools,willbetaughtinonequarterofthepresent
schoolday.Theremainingtimewillbedevotedtowhatistrulyfundamentalandbasic—time
foracademicinquiry,timeforstudentstodeveloptheirowninterests,timeforadialogue
betweenstudentsandteachers.Whenthishappens—anditisnear—theteachercanrise
tohistruecalling.Morethanadispenserofinformation,theteacherwillbeaconveyorof
values,aphilosopher.Studentswilllearntowritelovelettersandlabnotes.Wewillhelp
eachchildbuildhisownrockettohisownmoon....
Finally,ifourchildrenaretobehumanbeingswhothinkclearly,feeldeeply,andact
wisely,wewillanswerdeinitelythequestion“Whoshouldmakewhatdecisions?”Teachers
nolongerwillbevictimsofchange;wewillbetheagentsofchange.
[Ed.Note:CatherineBarrett’sideaof“schoolisaconcept,notaplace”isanideawhosetime
mayhavecomeinthe1990s.Manyeducators,includingLewisPerelman(See1995Perelman’s
bookSchool’sOut),areofthesameopinion.Thisseemstofollowontheheelsoftheconcept
of“educationasbehaviorchange”insteadoftheacquisitionofknowledge.]
INTHESEPTEMBER1976ISSUEOFPHIDELTAKAPPAN,“AMERICA’SNEXTTWENTY-FIVEYears:Some
ImplicationsforEducation,”HaroldShanedescribedhisversionofthe“newandadditional
basicskills”asfollows:
Certainly, cross-cultural understanding and empathy have become fundamental skills, as
havetheskillsofhumanrelationsandinterculturalrapport…theartsofcompromiseand
140
reconciliation,ofconsensusbuilding,andofplanningforinterdependencebecomebasic….
Asyoungpeoplematurewemusthelpthemdevelop…aserviceethicwhichisgearedtoward
therealworld…theglobalservantconceptinwhichwewilleducateouryoungforplanetary
service and eventually for some form of world citizenship…. Implicit within the “global
servant”conceptarethemoralinsightsthatwillhelpuslivewiththeregulatedfreedomwe
musteventuallyimposeuponourselves.
[Ed.Note:ThewriterwouldliketocontrastHaroldShane’scommentswiththoseofC.S.Lewis
ascompiledinanarticle“C.S.LewisonLiberalArtsEducation”byGregoryDunnwhichwas
publishedinthenewsletterOnPrinciplefromtheJohnM.AshbrookCenterforPublicAffairs
(April1999,Vol.VII,No.2).ExcerptsfromDunn’sarticlefollow:
Theirstreasonwestudytheliberalartshastodowithfreedom.Thatfreedomisan
integralpartoftheliberalartsisborneoutof[C.S.]Lewis’sobservationthat“liberalcomesof
coursefromtheLatin,liber,andmeansfree.”11Suchaneducationmakesonefree,according
toLewis,becauseittransformsthepupilfrom“anunregeneratelittlebundleofappetites”into
“thegoodmanandthegoodcitizen.”12Weactmosthumanwhenwearereasonable,both
inthoughtanddeed.Animals,ontheotherhand,actwhollyoutofappetite.Whenhungry,
theyeat;whentired,theyrest.Manisdifferent.Ratherthanfollowourappetitesblindlywe
canbedeliberateaboutwhatwedoandwhenwedoit.Theabilitytoruleourselvesfrees
usfromthetyrannyofourappetites,andtheliberalartsdisciplinesthisself-rule.Inother
words,thissortofeducationteachesustobemostfullyhumanandthereby,tofulillour
humanduties,bothpublicandprivate.
Lewiscontrastsliberalartseducationwithwhathecalls“vocationaltraining,”thesort
thatpreparesoneforemployment.Suchtraining,hewrites,“aimsatmakingnotagoodman
butagoodbanker,agoodelectrician…oragoodsurgeon.”Lewisdoesadmittheimportance
ofsuchtraining—forwecannotdowithoutbankersandelectriciansandsurgeons—butthe
danger,asheseesit,isthepursuitoftrainingattheexpenseofeducation.“Ifeducationis
beatenbytraining,civilizationdies,”hewrites,forthe“lessonofhistory”isthat“civilization
isararity,attainedwithdificultyandeasilylost.”13Itistheliberalarts,notvocationaltrain-
ing,thatpreservescivilizationbyproducingreasonablemenandresponsiblecitizens….
Athirdreasonwestudytheliberalartsisbecauseitissimplyournatureandduty.Man
hasanaturalthirstforknowledgeoftheGood,theTrue,andtheBeautiful,andmenand
womenofthepasthavemadegreatsacriicestopursueitinspiteofthefactthat,asLewis
putsit,“humanlifehasalwaysbeenlivedontheedgeofaprecipice.”Inhiswords,“they
propoundmathematicaltheoremsinbeleagueredcities,conductmetaphysicalarguments
incondemnedcells,makejokesonscaffolds.”So,indinginthesoulanappetiteforsuch
things,andknowingnoappetiteismadebyGodinvain,Lewisconcludesthatthepursuit
oftheliberalartsispleasingtoGodandispossibly,forsome,aGod-givenvocation.…14
…Truly,weignoretheliberalartsonlyatourperil.Withoutthemwewillindourselves
increasinglyunabletopreserveacivilizedsociety,toescapefromtheerrorsandprejudices
ofourday,andtostruggleinthearenaofideastothegloryofGod.]
TODAY’SEDUCATION,THEJOURNALOFTHENATIONALEDUCATIONASSOCIATION,CARRIEDanarticle
intheSeptember–October1976editionentitled“TheSevenCardinalPrinciplesRevisited.”On
page1thisarticlestatedthat:
In1972,theNEAestablishedaBicentennialCommitteechargedwithdevelopinga“living
commemorationoftheprinciplesoftheAmericanRevolution.”This200thanniversarycel-
141
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1976
ebrationoftheDeclarationofIndependencewastofocusonthenext100yearsofeducation
inaninterdependentglobalcommunity.TheinitialworkoftheCommitteeculminatedin
theNEABicentennialIdeaBook.Amongitsideaswasthatofdevelopingadeinitivevolume
to“containareframingoftheCardinalPrinciplesofEducationandrecommendationsfor
aglobalcurriculum.”AfterrecognizingtheimportanceoftheoriginalCardinalPrinciples,
which were published in 1918, the Committee made the point that “today, those policy
statementsabouteducationareobsolete,educationtakenasawholeisnotadequatetothe
timesandtooseldomanticipatesthefuture.”AreporttobeissuedbytheNEA,proposing
cardinalpremisesforthetwenty-irstcenturyisthedirectandimmediateoutgrowthofthe
BicentennialCommittee’sbeliefthat“educatorsaroundtheworldareinauniqueposition
tobringaboutaharmoniouslyinterdependentglobalcommunitybasedontheprinciplesof
peaceandjustice….”EarlyinSeptember1975,a19-memberPreplanningCommitteebegan
thetaskofrecastingthesevenCardinalPrinciplesofEducationbydeveloping25guidelines
fortheproject.
[Ed.Note:MembersofthePreplanningCommitteereadlikea“Who’sWhoofLeadingGlobal-
ists.”Itincluded:formerSecretaryofEducationT.H.Bell,“Mr.Management-by-Objectives,”
whowasresponsibleforthegranttoWilliamSpadyoftheFarWestLaboratorytopilotOBE
inUtah,withplansto“putOBEinallschoolsofthenation”;ProfessorLuvernCunningham,
OhioStateUniversity,whosubsequentlyservedasadvisortotheKentuckyDepartmentof
Educationduringitseducationrestructuringinthe1990s;WillisHarman,StanfordResearch
Institute;RobertHavighurst,UniversityofChicago;TheodoreHesburgh,UniversityofNotre
Dame; Ralph Tyler, Center for Advanced Study in Behavioral Science; Professor Theodore
Sizer,CoalitionforEssentialSchools,whichcallsfora“lessismore”curriculumandremoval
ofgraduationstandards(theCarnegieUnit);DavidRockefeller;ProfessorBenjaminBloom,
fatherofMasteryLearning(theinternationallearningmethod);thelateMcGeorgeBundyof
theFordFoundation;andothers.]
FOUNDATIONSOFLIFELONGEDUCATIONWASPUBLISHEDBYUNESCO(UNITEDNATIONSEducational,
Scientiic,andCulturalOrganization)InstituteforEducation(PergamonPress:Oxford,N.Y.,
Toronto,Sydney,Paris,Frankfurt,1976).Inchapter4,“TheoreticalFoundationsofLifelong
Education:ASociologicalPerspective,”HenriJannedescribedaccuratelythehow,whatand
whyofdecentralization(site-basedmanagement,charterschools,choice,unelectedschool
councils,etc.)beingsoldtonaïveschoolboardsandcitizensas“localcontrol”:
Ineducationamonolithicstructureiscompletelyunacceptableasitcreatesorganizations
that,owingtotheirhomogeneityandtheirineluctable[inevitable]bureaucraticnature,are
aversetochangeandtoindividualorlocaladaptation....
Decentralization of the greatest possible number of decisions is indispensable in a
systemfoundedon...educationdeinedas“learning”ratherthan“teaching.”
[Ed.Note:“Learning,”asdescribedanddeinedbytheeducationalchangeagents,istheprocess
bywhichstudents/childrenareallowedtoacquiretheknowledgewhichwillbe“beneicial”to
thempersonallyastheypursuethefulillmentoftheirparticularliferoles(jobs).Thisprocess
istheoppositeofthetraditionalroleofeducationas“teaching”studentssubjectmatterwhich
canbeusedfordiversiiedpursuitslaterinlife.
In the 1977 entry dealing with UNESCO’s Development of Educational Technology in
142
CentralandEasternEuropethereaderwillnotethatthesocialistcountriesofEasternEurope
hadcentralizedsystemsofeducationandhadnotyetadaptedtheirsystemtoaccommodate
HenriJanne’sproposalsfor“lifelonglearning.”Janneexplainedabovehowtotakeacentral-
izedsystemofpedagogyandideasand“localize”theminordertochangetheirfocuswithout
everchangingthecentralizedcontrol.Thisgivesaninterestingperspectiveontheoft-seen
bumpersticker:“ThinkGlobally—ActLocally.”]
1977
ESSAYSINECONOMICS:THEORIES,FACTS,ANDPOLICIES,VOL.II(BLACKWELLPUBLISHers:Malden,
Massachusetts,1977)bythelateWassilyLeontiefwaspublished.Anexcerptfollows:
WhenIspeakofnationaleconomicplanning,thenotionIhaveinmindismeanttoencom-
passtheentirecomplexofpolitical,legislative,andadministrativemeasuresaimedatan
explicitformulationandrealizationofacomprehensivenationaleconomicplan.Withouta
cohesive,internallyconsistentplantherecanbe,inthissense,noplanning.Buttheprepa-
rationofascriptisnotenough,theplayhastobestagedandactedout.Itisincumbenton
anyonewhofavorsintroductionofnationaleconomicplanninginthiscountry—andIam
oneofthese—toproposeaplandescribinghowthismightbedone.Severalcongressional
committeesandatleastonecommissionappointedbythePresident,nottospeakofgroups
outsideofthegovernment,arenowengagedinthistask.(p.398)
Who’sWhoinAmericaincludesthefollowingreferencetoLeontief:“Economist,born
Leningrad,Russia,August5,1906,etal.”CurrentBiographyin1967listedLeontiefas:
The creator of the input-output system revolutionizing economic research and national
planningistheRussian-bornHarvardprofessorWassilyW.Leontief....Leontiefhasbeena
teacheratHarvardsince1931,anddirectoroftheHarvardEconomicResearchProjecton
theStructureoftheAmericanEconomysince1948....[Thisproject]wasfundedbyaninitial
four-yeargrantof$100,000fromtheRockefellerFoundation.
InalettertoAmericaneducator/researcher/writerGeneMalonedatedSeptember9,1993,
Leontief,professorattheInstituteforEconomicAnalysisofNewYorkUniversity,stated:“The
useoftheInput-Outputmethodineducationalplanningwasalreadydiscussedandhasbeen
practicallyemployedinFrance.”OBEissimilartoPPBS(Planning,Programming,Budgeting
System)andMBO(ManagementbyObjective),bothofwhicharebasedoninput-outputeco-
nomicsystemstheory.
LeontiefdiedFebruary5,1999attheageof93.TheNewYorkTimesFebruary8,1999
eulogysteeredclearofanymentionofLeontief’sworkinthepromotionofFive-YearPlans,
widelyassociatedwithsocialistplanning.However,theTimesarticleprovidedsomeextremely
interestingbackgroundinformationonLeontief:
Dr.Leontief,withthehelpofever-morepowerfulcomputers,continuedtoimproveinput-
outputanalysishisentirelife.
Withadvanceshemadeinthe1950sand1960s,thatanalysisbecameakeypartof
thenationalaccountingsystemsforbothcapitalistandcommuniststates....[H]epreached
adoctrineofappliedeconomics,sayingthatresearchshouldresultinpracticaladvances....
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1977 143
[H]ealsofoundtimetoserveaspresidentoftheAmericanEconomicSociety....
Partially through input-output analysis, he also became a leading authority on the
economiceffectsofworlddisarmamentandincreasedeconomiccontrols....
Hewasa1925economicsgraduateoftheUniversityofLeningrad,andhewasimpris-
onedinthatcityforanti-Sovietactivities.HewasallowedtoleavetheSovietUnionand
wenttoGermanywherehereceivedmaster’sanddoctoraldegreesfromtheUniversityof
Berlin.
Heservedin1929and1930inNanking,China,asaneconomicsadvisortotheChi-
neseMinistryofRailroads.HethencametothiscountryandjoinedtheNationalBureauof
EconomicResearchinNewYorkin1931.
In1932,hejoinedHarvardasaneconomicsinstructor.Hebecameanassistantprofes-
sorin1933,anassociateprofessorin1939andafullprofessorin1946.Twoyearslaterhe
foundedtheHarvardEconomicResearchProject,whichbecameacenterofinput-output
analysis.
DuringWorldWarII,hewasaconsultanttotheLaborDepartmentandtheOficeof
StrategicServices[OSS,CIA,NTL].
HeleftHarvardin1975tojointhefacultyatNewYorkUniversity,wherehewasafull
professorandalsoservedasdirectorofitsInstituteforEconomicAnalysisfrom1975–1991.
Hecontinuedtogiveclassesattheuniversityintohisnineties.
Dr.Leontiefthustaughtandranresearchorganizationsattwogreatuniversitiesall
thewhiledoingall-but-revolutionaryeconomicresearchthatwouldleadtomajoradvances
innationalplanning....Dr.Leontief...championedthecentralroleofgovernmentinplan-
ning.
“COMPETENCY-BASEDEDUCATION:ABANDWAGON INSEARCH OF ADEFINITION,” AN ARticleby
WilliamG.SpadyoftheNationalInstituteofEducation,waspublishedintheJanuary1977
editionofEducationalResearcher.Excerptsfollow:
InSeptember,1972,theOregonStateBoardofEducationpassednewminimumgradu-
ationrequirementsforstudentsenteringninthgradeintheFallof1974andnewminimum
standardsforlocalschooldistrictsfocusedonthenewrequirementsin1974.Thethrust
of these new requirements and standards involved the introduction of three domains of
“survivallevel”competenciesasminimumconditionsforhighschoolgraduationby1978:
personal development, social responsibility, and career development.... Although largely
unintendedandunanticipatedbythoseinvolved,the1972Oregonregulationsprovidedthe
irstsigniicantnudgethatsetinmotionacrossthenationoverthenextfouryearsaseries
ofactionsbystatelevelpolicymakersandadministratorstoconsider,formulateandimple-
mentregulationsandproceduresthattheynowassociatewiththetermCompetency-Based
Education(CBE)....
It is likely, therefore, both that the outcome goals required for graduation in CBE
systemswilleventuallyemergefromatensecompromiseamongthemanyconstituencies
inacommunityregardingthenecessary,thedesirable,andthepossible,andthatC-Based
diplomaswillbeviewedwithinitialifnotundyingskepticismbycollegesanduniversities....
Inshort,CBEprogramsrequiremechanismsthatcollectandusestudentperformancedata
asthebasisofdiagnosingweaknessesandnecessaryremediationnotonlyforstudentsbut
forthemselvesaswell....
AccordingtoinformationcompiledbyClarkandThompson(1976),nostatesoutside
ofOregonappeartouselanguageconsistentwithalife-roleconceptionofcompetencyin
144
either their current or pending regulations pertaining to mandated student proiciencies.
The possible exceptions refer to the need for occupational and consumer mathematics
skills.However,withinthenextyearNewYorkandPennsylvaniamaymakemoredecisive
movestowardimplementingapproachestoschoolingmorefullyresemblingthisconcep-
tionofCBE.Almostallotherstatesareconcernedwithcapacity-basedoutcomesinlimited
basicskillareas(e.g.,Arizona,Connecticut,Florida,Georgia,Idaho,Louisiana,Maryland,
NebraskaandTennessee),aslightlybroadersetofsubjectareaproiciencies(e.g.,Califor-
nia,Texas,VirginiaandWashington,D.C.)oras-yet-undeinedorelselocallydetermined
optionsconcernedwithsomekindofminimumproiciencyrequirements(e.g.,Colorado,
Kansas,MichiganandNewJersey).AsofOctober1976,inonlytwocases—Californiaand
Florida—couldstudentsleaveschoolinlessthan12yearswithadiplomaoncetheypasseda
state-determinedproiciencyexam(theOregonregulationsallowlocaldistrictstodetermine
whetherearlygraduationwillbeallowed)....
AsidefromOregon,ivestates—California,Maryland,Michigan,NewYorkandPenn-
sylvania—deserveparticularattentionoverthenextfewyearsassiteswherecurrentthinking
aboutsubstantialproicienciesorcompetency-basedreformssuggestrealpromise....
Pennsylvaniainafourthcasehasbeenexploringaconceptofsystemreformwitha
deiniteCompetency-Basedorientation.OriginallycalledCommunityLearningandcurrently
named“Project81,”thisprogramwouldbecenteredaroundfacilitatingstudentcapacities
andcompetenciesinivemajorareasofactivity,withastressonparticipationoutsidethe
schoolbuildingwhereappropriate.Theareasincludeabroadrangeofbasicskills,theworld
ofworkandleisure,communitygovernanceandinvolvement,andabroadrangeofcitizen
andpersonalsurvivalskills.
“CONCLAVEOFTHECHANGEAGENTS”BYBARBARAM.MORRISWASPUBLISHEDINTHEMarch1977
issueofTheNationalEducator.Excerptsfollowfromthisextremelyimportantarticlewhich
provesthatthefederalgovernmenthasbeendeeplyinvolvedinthefundingandimplementa-
tionofmoral/citizenship(values)education:
EarlyinJune1976,85toplevelmembersoftheeducationaleliteandanassortmentof
inluentialchangeagentsmetataninvitationonlyconferenceinPhiladelphiatodraftrecom-
mendationsonhowtoput“Moral/CitizenshipEducation”(MCE)programsineveryschool
inthecountry—public,privateandparochial.ConferenceparticipantsincludedHumanist
valueseducatorsLawrenceKohlbergandHowardKirschenbaumandrepresentativesofthe
federal government, foundations, PTA, NEA and the National Council of Churches. The
recommendationsthatresultedfromthatconferencewhichwassponsoredbyaPennsyl-
vaniaorganizationcalledResearchforBetterSchools(RBS)[afederallyfundededucation
laboratoryinPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania]havebeensubmittedtotheNationalInstituteof
Education,withwhomRBShasacontracttoresearch,developanddisseminatemoral/citi-
zenshipeducationprograms....
SoshakyisthebasisforMCEthatmuchconferencetimewasdevotedtotryingto
decidewhattocallMCEprogramssoastoavoidpublichostility.Herearesomeexamples
ofthethinkingofconferenceparticipantsrelatingtothisproblem:
• “‘Moral/Citizenship Education’ as a title can be sold; ‘Moral Education’ cannot.
Avoidsuchred-lagslogans.”
• “Wespentthreeconferencedaysquibblingabouttheterm‘Moral/CitizenshipEdu-
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1977 145
cation.’Thatisamajorproblem.”[emphasisinoriginal]
• “Theconceptofself-development(whichimpliesmoraldevelopment)ismoresal-
ableandwillengenderlessresistancethanmoraldevelopment.”
• “Itisimportanttolimittheparametersofwhatwe’reengagedin,ifnottochange
theactualtitle,toavoidreligiousantagonismsandcourtaction.”
THESCHOOLCOUNSELOR, PUBLICATION OF THEAMERICANPERSONNEL ANDGUIDANCEASSOcia-
tion,publishedaspecialissueonthesubjectof“Death”initsMay1977issue(Vol.24,#5).
Inthisissuearemarkableadmissionregardingtheresultsofsexeducationwasmadewhich
explainsclearlythepurposeofthesecontroversialhumanisticprograms:tocreatetheprob-
lemssexed,valuesed,druged,anddeathedweresupposedtosolve.AnexcerptfromThe
SchoolCounselorfollows:
HelpingStudentsClarifyValues:...
Thelastgoalistohelpstudentsclarifytheirvaluesonsocialandethicalissues.Anunder-
lying,butseldomspoken,assumptionofmuchofthedeatheducationmovementisthat
Americanshandledeathanddyingpoorlyandthatweoughttobedoingbetteratit.As
inthecaseofmanyotherproblems,manyAmericansbelievethateducationcaninitiate
change.Changeisevident,anddeatheducationwillplayasimportantapartinchanging
attitudestowarddeathassexeducationplayedinchangingattitudestowardsexinformation
andwideracceptanceofvarioussexualpractices.
[Ed.Note:Inlightofeventsinthe1990s,thequestionarises:Whatdoes“doingbetteratit”
mean?Thestatement“Deatheducationwillplayasimportantapartinchangingattitudes
toward death as sex education played in changing attitudes toward… wider acceptance of
varioussexualpractices”impliesthatourchildrenbeneittedfromexposureto“wideraccep-
tanceofvarioussexualpractices,”whenallonehastodoissurveythemorallandscapeto
seethedevastatingeffecttheseprogramshavehadonourchildren’slives.Thesameapplies
todeatheducationanditseffectonchildren’sunderstandingofthevalueoflife,relectedin
theincreasednumberofmurderscarriedoutbyyouth.]
JOANNEMCAULEY’SNATIONALCOUNCIL FOREDUCATIONALEXCELLENCE, A NATIONAL ORganiza-
tionofconcernedparentsandeducators,wasfoundedinthemid-1970sand,consideringthe
potentialithadforholdingthelineoninnovationstakingplaceinAmericaneducation,its
earlydemiserepresentedarealsetbackforparents,children,andteachers.Ms.McAuley’s
May/June1977issueofhernewsletter,TheSchoolBell,isproofthattheNationalSchoolBoards
Associationwas,atonetime,astrongproponentoflocalcontrol,nota“selloutthelocals”
organizationthatinthe1990swouldsupportsite-andschool-basedmanagement(taxation
withoutrepresentation)andcharterschools.Excerptsfollow:
NSBAPRESIDENTTELLSBOARDS:STANDUPTOFEDERALMEDDLING
OnMarch27,GeorgeW.Smith,immediatepastpresidentoftheNationalSchoolBoards
Association,warnedschoolboardmembersattendingtheNSBAconventioninHoustonthat
146
“TheCongressandthefederalbureaucracycouldbecomethecountry’smasterschoolboard
unlessschoolboardmembersstandupandbecounted.”Heurgeddelegatestocontinueto
forgeastrongNSBAtoconvinceCongressthatlocalschoolboardmembersaretrulyrep-
resentative,mostunselish,andthebestqualiiedpersonstorepresentthelocalviewpoint
ineducation.
Smithsaidlocalconstituenciescannotbeforgottenevenwhilethenewtrustisbeingbuilt
withCongress.“Wemustnotforgetourownconstituency,”henoted.Healsoadvisedboard
memberstobeawareof—andleeryof—proposalsforpublicinvolvementinpublicschool
operationsthatwouldshiftdecision-makingauthorityto“vaguelydeinedgroupsofcitizens
attheschoolsitelevel.”TheministerfromSanDiegocautionedthatthepowertomakea
decisionmustneverbedivorcedfromtheresponsibilityformakingthatdecision....
Hesaidschoolboardsmustbestrongforanotherreason—tocounterthemovements
of the courts and federal regulatory agencies into the operation of schools. “If we want
othergovernmentalunitstostoperodingourabilitytoprovideeducationalgovernance,we
mustexercisethatabilitymoreoftenandmoreeffectively.”Smithsaid,“Wherewecan,
weshouldworktogetherwithallsegmentsofthepublictowardtheimprovementofthe
schools.But,”heconcluded,“ourresponsibilityistoallthepeopleandwemustviewonly
the‘bigpicture.’”
[Ed.Note:Smith’sabilitytoforeseetheimplementationofsite-basedmanagement,thedown-
gradingoftheimportanceofelectedboardmembers,andthetransferofpowertopublic-pri-
vatepartnerships,etc.,istobelauded!WhileservingintheU.S.DepartmentofEducation
thiswriterattemptedtostopfederallyfundedprogramstotrainlocalschoolboardmembers
inconlictresolutionandinhowtoimplementeffectiveschoolresearch.]
“COMPETENCYTESTSSETIN26SCHOOLS:NEWCURRICULUMSHIFTSTEACHINGMETHODSinDis-
trict”wasthetitleofanarticlewhichappearedinTheWashingtonPostonAugust1,1977.
Excerptsfollow:
“Thematerialswillbestandardized,thelessonswillbestandardized,”Guinessaid.
“We’retakingtheplayout.We’retakingtheguessworkout.We’reputtinginaprecisepre-
dictedtreatmentthatleadstoapredictedresponse.”Guinessaidthatthenewcurriculum
isbasedontheworkinbehavioralpsychologyofHarvardUniversity’sB.F.Skinner,who
developedteachingmachinesandeventrainedpigeonsduringWorldWarIItopilotand
detonatebombsandtorpedoes.Thebasicidea,Guinessaid,istobreakdowncomplicated
learningintoasequenceofclearsimpleskillsthatvirtuallyeveryonecanmaster,although
atdifferentratesofspeed.“Ifyoucantrainapigeontolyupthereandpressabuttonand
setoffabomb,”Guinesremarked,“whycan’tyouteachhumanbeingstobehaveinan
effectiveandrationalway?Weknowthatwecanmodifyhumanbehavior.We’renotscared
ofthat.Thisisthebiggestthingthat’shappeningineducationtoday.”...
AccordingtoThomasB.Sticht,AssociateDirectorforBasicSkillsoftheNationalInstitute
ofEducation,similartechniques,calledcompetencyeducationormasteryteaching,arenow
beingusedinmanypartsofthecountry.Since1973,Stichtsaid,theyhavebeenadopted
bytheArmyandNavyforbasictrainingandtoteachentryleveljobskills.Theyhavebeen
usedsuccessfullyincollegecourses,hesaid,andalsototeachmentallyretardedchildren
whopreviouslyhadbeenclassedas“uneducable.”“Therehastobeawell-deinedseries
ofobjectives,”Stichtsaid,“andastepbystepcurriculumthatgivessomeway[through
MasteryTests]toknowyouhavemettheobjectives.”…
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1977 147
Butthesystemalsohasdetractorswhocriticizeitasrigidandmechanistic.“Wemust
be very careful,” said Lawrence G. Derthick, a former U.S. Commissioner of Education,
“about adopting any mechanical system of producing children like objects. There are so
manycomplicatingfactorsineachchild—emotional,psychological,thehomebackground,
thesensitivityofteachers—there’sdangerintryingtoturnoutchildrenlikenutsandbolts
orsteelpins.Humanbeingsaremorecomplex.”...
[Ed.Note:WilliamSpady,“fatherofoutcome-basededucation,”servedasconsultanttothe
D.C.schoolsatthisexacttime,workingoutoftheU.S.OficeofEducation’sNationalInstitute
ofEducation.Hispositionatthetimeislistedinhiscurriculumvitaeas“SeniorResearch
Sociologist,1973–1978.”WithSpady,ThomasSticht,associatedirectorforbasicskillsatNIE,
alsoworkedonthefailed,SkinnerianD.C.schoolreform.Inaddition,thereaderisurgedto
refertotheAugust8,1982WashingtonPostentrywhichparaphrasesStichtasfollows:“Ending
discrimination and changing values are probably more important than reading in moving
lowincomefamiliesintothemiddleclass.”Offurtherinterest,thesameThomasStichtwas
presidentofAppliedBehavioralandCognitiveSciences,Inc.,SanDiego,California,andhas
servedontheU.S.LaborDepartmentSecretary’sCommissiononAchievingNecessarySkills
(SCANS).]
DEVELOPMENTOFEDUCATIONALTECHNOLOGYINCENTRALANDEASTERNEUROPESTUDIES:Division
ofStructures,Content,MethodsandTechniquesofEducationwaspublishedanddistributedby
UnitedNationsEducational,Scientiic,andCulturalOrganization(UNESCO:Paris:ED–77/WS/
133:EnglishEdition)inNovemberof1977.Theauthorisincludingexcerptsfromthe“Sectionon
Methods,MaterialsandTechniques”sothatthereaderwillseehowAmerica2000/Goals2000
restructuringisidenticaltoeducationintheformerEasternEuropeancommunistcountries.
ThereadermustalsorememberthatAmericaneducationisunderthedirectionofUNESCO
duetoourmembershipintheUnitedNations.Excerptsfollow:
ThedevelopmentofeducationaltechnologyintheCentralandEasternEuropeancountries,as
commissionedbytheUNESCOSecretariat,issummarisedonthebasisoftheoralandwritten
informationsuppliedbythecountrieshavingattendedtheBudapestInternationalSeminar
onEducationalTechnologyin1976.Thecountriesinvolvedareasfollows:People’sRepublic
ofBulgaria,SocialistRepublicofCzechoslovakia,RepublicofFinland,RepublicofGreece,
SocialistFederalRepublicofYugoslavia,People’sRepublicofPoland,People’sRepublicof
Hungary,GermanDemocraticRepublic,UnionofSovietSocialistRepublics.Datawerealso
suppliedbytheSocialistRepublicofRumaniawhichcouldnotparticipateintheSeminar.
Thefactorsexercisingadecisiveinluenceonthepresentstandardsoftheapplication
ofeducationaltechnologyandthestrategiesandrateofitsfurtherspreadinthecountries
listedaboveareasfollows:
a.theoverwhelmingmajorityofthecountriesrepresented(8outof10)aresocialist
states;
b.exceptfortheSovietUnionandFinland,thenationsconcernedcanbeclassiiedinto
thecategoryoffairlydevelopedcountriesfromthetechnologicalpointofview.
Onthebasisoftheabovefactorssomeofthespeciiccharacteristicsofthedevelop-
mentofeducationaltechnologywillbeunderlined.Itfollowsfromtheessenceofthesocial-
148
iststructureofthestateinthecountriesconcerned,exceptFinlandandGreece,thattheir
educationalsystemiscentralized.Thiscreatesanextremelyfavourablesituationforcentral
statemeasuresdesignedtomodernizeeducation.Thesocialiststatepossessesthemeans
necessaryforeducation...forthewidespreaduseofmethodologybasedonsolidtechnologi-
calfoundationsandofthemediaandmeansofeducationaltechnology....Inasituationin
whichmillionsofstudentslearnandhundredsofthousandsofeducationaliststeach,onthe
basisofuniiedcurricula,decisionsinvolvingthedevelopmentofthemethodtobeadopted
ineducationandofthemediaandaidsofeducationaltechnologycallforverythorough
preparatorywork.…
Thesocialistcountriesalsohaveasubstantialadvantagefromtheaspectofthedevelop-
mentofeducationaltechnologybecausethetrainingandin-servicetrainingofteachersrest
onauniformbasis.Inaddition,curriculaareuniformintheindividualcountriesandforthe
differenttypesofschoolsharmonybetweenthecurricularactivitiesandthedevelopmentof
educationaltechnologycanbethereforeestablishedcomparativelyeasily.
[Ed.Note:Alowchartonpage11ofthestudyincludesunder“FactorsInluencingtheIntroduc-
tionofEducationalTechnology”allthecomponentsfoundinAmericaneducationalrestructuring
asfollows:AdequateCurricula;SystemofObjectives;SystemsofMeansofAssessment;Media
System;EnsuringAppropriateFacilities(schoolbuilding,hardware,media);AdequatelyTrained
Teachers(basictraining,in-service/furthertraining/information);ResearchandDevelopment;
andInternationalCooperation.]
1978
PROFESSOR BENJAMIN BLOOM, THE “FATHER” OF MASTERY LEARNING AND DEVELOPER OF the
TaxonomyofEducationalObjectives,presentedapaperentitled“NewViewsoftheLearner:
ImplicationsforInstructionandCurriculum”atthe1978AssociationfortheSupervisionand
CurriculumDevelopment(ASCD)AnnualConference.ThepaperwaspublishedinASCD’s
EducationalLeadershipApril1978issue(Vol.35,#7).Thefollowingquoteexplainsclearly
thereasoningbehindUNESCO’srequirementthatmemberstates,includingtheUnitedStates,
incorporateUNESCO’slifelonglearningphilosophyintotheireducationpolicies:
ContinuingLearning
Throughouttheworld,theinstructionandcurriculumintheschoolsisbeingstudied
todetermineitslong-termcontributiontocontinuinglearningthroughoutlife.TheEdgar
Faure(UNESCO)report“LearningtoBe”hashadgreatinluenceonthisthinking.TheFaure
report(Faure,1972)stressesthemanychangestakingplaceinallsocietiesandthedificulties
individualshaveinadjustingtorapidchangeinthesociety,intheirwork,andintheirlives.
Since,thereportcontinues,itisvirtuallyimpossibletoanticipateandplanforthechanges
thatwilltakeplace,theonlyadaptivemechanismpeoplehavetoadjusttoandcopewith
thesechangesistheirabilityandinterestincontinuinglearningthroughoutlife....
We,whoareresponsibleforthelearningofourstudentsforaten-to-sixteen-yearperiod,
mustextendoursightsbeyondtheperiodthatourstudentsareintheschoolsorcolleges.
Untilwedothisanduntilitbecomesapartofourcurriculumplanning,wewillneglectthose
objectivesofeducationthatrelatetotheentirelifeoftheindividual.(pp.574–575)
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1978 149
[Ed.Note:ItisimportanttorecallBloom’sdeinitionofeducation:“tochangethethoughts,
actions,andfeelingsofstudents.”Inotherwords,theaboverecommendationverysimply
callsforlifelongbrainwashing.]
INTHEAUGUST1978ISSUEOFTHENATIONALEDUCATORBARBARAMORRIS,EDITOROFTheBar-
baraMorrisReportandauthorofmanybooksrelatedtoeducationincludinghermostrecent
book,TheGreatAmericanConGame,15reportedonaspeechgivenattheUniversityofIllinois
byMaryF.Berry,assistantsecretaryintheU.S.OficeofEducation(1977),regardingChinese
education.ThefollowingexcerptsfromMorris’sreportaretooimportanttoleaveoutofthis
book:
Indeed,whatdoestheU.S.A.standtolearn?Let’stakealook.
RedChinahaseliminatedtestingandgrades.TheU.S.israpidlygoingthesameroute.
Testingisbeingdowngradedandscoffedat,andgrades,wheretheydoexistarejustabout
meaningless.
FortheRedChinese,accordingtoMs.Berry,truthisarelativeconcept.IntheU.S.
schoolsstudentsaretaughtthesamethingin“valuesclariication.”It’scalledsituationethics
anditmeansit’sokaytolieorcheatorstealorkillwhenitsuitsyourpurpose.
InRedChina,accordingtoMs.Berry,educationmustservethemasses.DittotheU.S.
Onlythesemanticsaredifferenthere.IntheU.S.educationisnotdesignedforthebeneit
ofindividuals,butforsociety.“Society”or“masses”—what’sthedifference?
InRedChina,accordingtoMs.Berry,educationmustbecombinedwithproductive
laborandstartsatsixyearsofage,withchildrenworkingatleastonehouradayproducing
voiceboxesfordolls.Atthemiddleschoollevel,childrenmakeautopartsaspartofthe
schoolday.Wearenotatthislowlevel,butSecretaryBerryfranklyadmits,“Wewilldraw
ontheChinesemodel....”WearefastapproachingtheChinesemodel.Wehavework/study
programsandtheU.S.OficeofEducationisworkingondevelopmentofLifelongLearning
programs—anotherChineseimport.Suchprogramswillenablepeopletoworkandstudy
theirentirelivesforthebeneitofthestate.
Ms.BerryadmittedU.S.LifelongLearningprogramsareindeeddrawnontheChinese
experience,thatsuchprogramsareexpectedtomeet“needsforintellectualfulillmentand
socialgrowth.ItisherethattheChinesehavesetthepatternfortheworldtofollow,andit
isherethatAmericanhighereducationmayhaveitslast,bestopportunityforgrowth.”
SecretaryBerrylamentedthattheU.S.isonlyslowlymovingintoLifelongLearning,but
that“Thecommunitycollegesystemwithitsnonconventionalenrollment,isoneharbinger
ofchange.Thetraditionalextensionprogramisanother....Butwehavetogobeyondthem
andbringfouryearinstitutionsandsecondaryinstitutions,aswellasprivateinstructional
facilitiesintotheLifelongLearningmovement.”
Ms.Berryisnottalkingaboutthefuturewhensherecommendsradicalproposalsfor
U.S.education.AmeetingoftheNationalCouncilfortheSocialStudies,heldinCincinnati
lastNovember,featuredseveralpresentationsonCommunistChineseeducationasamodel
forU.S.education.Inonesuchpresentation,teacherslearnedhowtheRedChineseeduca-
tionalsystem“isrelatedtoachievementofnationalgoalsandcitizenshippreparation...how
culturalactivitiesandrecreationalpastimesprovideavehiclefortransmittingnewsocial
values.”DoesthishelpyouunderstandwhyU.S.schoolsusuallylist“worthyuseofleisure”
or“citizenshipeducation”asagoalofeducation?
[Ed.Note:Americans,involvedinwhatwouldseemtobetheworthygoalofimplementing
150
character,citizenship,orciviceducationinthegovernmentschoolsorincommunitygroups,
orinseeking“commonground”withgroupswhoholddifferingviewsonpolitical,social,and
religiousissues,shouldthinkmorethantwicebeforebecominginvolvedinthisdangerous
dialogue.Thereasonthedialogueisdangerousisevidentwhenonestudiesthetrackrecordof
nationswhosecitizenshaveallowedtheirgovernmentstodeinemoralityorgoodcitizenship;
i.e.,NaziGermany,theSovietUnionandRedChina,tonamejustafew.]
FIFTHREPORTOFTHENATIONALCOUNCILONEDUCATIONALRESEARCH,FUNDEDBYTHEU.S.Ofice
ofEducation,waspublishedinanissuespanning1978–1979.Theveryclearconnectiondrawn
betweenmasterylearninganddirectinstruction,enablingonetounderstandthattheyare
essentiallythesameoratleastfraternaltwins,istheimportanceofthefollowingexcerpt:
TheLearningResearchandDevelopmentCenter(LRDC)attheUniversityofPittsburghhas
developedinstructionalmasteryoflearningprogramsprovidingindividualizedinstruction
inmath,science,reading,andearlylearningskills.Thesehavebeendisseminatednation-
allythroughProjectFollowThrough[DirectInstruction/DISTAR]andbyResearchforBetter
Schools(RBS).(pp.28–29)
1979
“GEORGIABASICLIFEPROCESSSKILLS,ESEA,TITLEII,PROPOSEDINSTRUCTIONALTIMEinSchool
Programs,” prepared by Lucille G. Jordan, associate state superintendent for Instructional
ServicesoftheGeorgiaDepartmentofEducation,wassubmittedtotheU.S.Departmentof
Educationforagrantin1979.Theparticularcurricularprogramswhichreceivedfundingunder
TitleIIwerejointlyfundedbyExxonCorporationandtheU.S.DepartmentofEducation.On
page34ofGeorgia’sgrantproposalanextraordinarycurriculumgraph/chartrecommendsthe
followingpercentagesoftimebespentatandbetween5,10,15and18yearsofageonthe
followingsubjects:
Basic3R’s:90%at5yrs.Decliningto40%at10yrs.Decliningto30%at15yrs.
Decliningto15%at18yrs.
LifeProcessSkills:(Criticalthinking,problemsolving,anddecisionmaking):5%at
5yrs.Increasingto40%at10yrs.Increasingto70%at15yrs.Increasingto90%
at18yrs.
CitizenshipandHumanitiesStudies:30%at5yrs.Increasingto40%at10yrs.Increas-
ingto70%at15yrs.Increasingto90%at18yrs.
ScienceandTechnology:25%at5yrs.Increasingto28%at10yrs.Increasingto30%
at15yrs.Increasingto55%at18yrs.
CareerEducation:20%at5yrs.Increasingto22%at10yrs.Increasingto30%at15
yrs.Increasingto55%at18yrs.
HealthandPhysicalEducation:10%forages5through18yrs.
[Ed.Note:Pleasenotethatthe“Basic3R’s”istheonlycurriculumareatargetedfordecrease
151
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1979
intimespentoninstruction.AnoficialoftheGeorgiaSchoolBoardsAssociationcitedthis
graphasbeingrepresentativeofBloom’sTaxonomy.Also,whywouldExxon,whowasin
theearly1980soneofthemajorcorporationscomplainingaboutilliteracyandworkerswho
arenoteducatedinbasicacademics,havefundedaprogramguaranteedtowaterdownbasic
academics?(Ina1976speechNEAPresidentCatherineBarrettrecommendedteachingbasic
skillsinonlyonefourthoftheschoolday.)]
THEU.S.CONGRESSFULFILLEDPRESIDENTJIMMYCARTER’SPROMISETOTHENATIONALEducation
AssociationbyvotingforaU.S.DepartmentofEducationin1979.NowtheUnitedStateswhich,
heretofore,hadbeenrepresentedatinternationalconferencesastheunenlightenedmember
ofthecrowd(noministerial/socialiststatus),couldjointhe“bigboys”oftheinternational
community:the“bigboys”beingthosecountrieswho,sinceWorldWarII,hadbeenrepre-
sentedatthesepolicy-planningconferencesbyministersofeducation.Interestinglyenough,
themajorityofteachermembersoftheNationalEducationAssociationwereopposedtothe
creationoftheU.S.DepartmentofEducation.
The new Cabinet-level department allowed the former Bureau of Research under the
NationalInstituteofEducationtobecometheOficeofEducationalResearchandImprove-
ment(OERI),whichwouldbecloselylinkedtotheParis,France-basedCenterforEducational
ResearchandInnovation(CERI),partoftheUnitedNations’OficeofEconomicCooperation
andDevelopment(OECD).OERI’sassistantsecretarywouldattendOECD/CERImeetingsat
whichhewouldreceivehis“marchingorders”relatedtointernationalrestructuringefforts
andprograms,allofwhichwereeitherbeingimplementedorwouldbeimplementedinthe
futureintheUnitedStates—effectiveschoolresearch,site-basedmanagement,school-to-work,
communityeducation,Concerns-BasedAdoptionModel(CBAM),etc.
ASTUDYOFSCHOOLINGINTHEUNITEDSTATESBYJOHNGOODLAD,PH.D.,DEANOFTHEGraduate
SchoolofEducation,UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngelesandassociatedwiththeInstitute
forDevelopmentofEducationalActivities(I.D.E.A.,fundedbyKetteringFoundation),was
compiledin1979afterbeingresearchedoveraperiodofseveralyears.UnderDr.Goodlad’s
direction,trainedinvestigatorswentintocommunitiesinmostregionsofthecountry.The
sampleofschoolsstudiedwasenormouslydiverseinregardtosize,familyincome,andracial
compositionofthestudentbody.TheresultofthelandmarkreportwasAPlaceCalledSchool:
ProspectsfortheFuture(McGraw-Hill:NewYork,1984)byGoodlad.
InAPlaceCalledSchool,Goodladproposedpushinghighschoolgraduationbacktoage
16andhavingallstudentstakeacorecurriculumuntilthen.Anew“fourthphaseofeduca-
tion”wouldcombinework,study,andcommunityservicetohelpeasestudents’transition
into careers, higher education, and adult responsibilities. The following three books were
additionallycommissionedtobewrittenasaresultofthisproject:
(1)SchoolingforaGlobalAge,JamesBecker,Editor(1979),intheprefaceforwhichDr.
Goodladmadethefollowingstatementwhichhascontributedtothedevelopmentofparent-
schoolpartnerships:
Parentsandthegeneralpublicmustbereached,also.Otherwise,childrenandyouthenrolled
inglobally-orientedprogramsmayindthemselvesinconlictwithvaluesassumedinthe
home.Andthentheeducationinstitutionfrequentlycomesunderscrutinyandmustpull
152
back.
(2)CommunitiesandTheirSchools,DonDavies,Editor(1981),inwhichthehistoryof
community education at the national and international levels (China, Tanzania, etc.) was
coveredandtheparticipatorydemocraticoperationofourschoolsandcommunitieswasrec-
ommended(governmentbyunelectedcouncils).
(3)ArtsandtheSchools,JeromeJ.Hausman,Editor(1980),inwhichtheroleofthearts
inschoolsandinsocietywasexaminedandthenthefocusshiftedtotheneedsoftheindi-
vidual.Artsaddressedcurricularissuesinvolvedindesigningandimplementingschoolarts
programsand,again,actualprogramsarediscussedandanalyzed.Thepolicyimplications
ofimplementingtheprogramsdescribedinthebookarethendiscussedalongwithchange
strategiesformovingfromrhetorictoreality.
ThefourbookswerepublishedbyMcGrawHill.ThestudyitselfwasfundedbytheNational
InstituteofEducation,U.S.OficeofEducationandthefollowingfoundations:Danforth;Ford;
InternationalPaper;TheJDR3rdFund;MarthaHoldenJenningsFoundation;CharlesStewart
MottFoundation;NeedmorFund;Pedamorphosis,Inc.;RockefellerFoundation;andSpencer
Foundation.TheAdvisoryCommitteeforAStudyofSchoolingincludedthefollowingpersons:
RalphW.Tyler,chairman;GregoryAnrig;StephenK.Bailey;LawrenceA.Cremin;RobertK.
Merton;andArthurJefferson.ThestudywasconductedundertheauspicesoftheInstitutefor
DevelopmentofEducationalActivities,Inc.(IDEA)andTheLaboratoryinSchoolandCom-
munityEducation,GraduateSchoolofEducation,UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles.
[Ed.Note:InatelephoneconversationwitharepresentativeofMcGrawHillPublishersin
1982,thiswriterwasinformedthatallfourbookswereprovidedtotheiftystateeducation
commissioners/superintendents. These four books provide an accurate picture of the role
played by the tax-exempt foundations and federal government in the restructuring/social
engineeringofAmericansocietyandschoolstoaccommodatetheperceived“needs”ofthe
21stcentury.]
SENATORJACOBJAVITS(NY) REQUESTED THATMR.ARTHURLIPPER’S ADDRESS TO THEWorld
CouncilonGiftedandTalentedChildrenbeprintedintheCongressionalRecord,September5,
1979(pp.11904–11905).SenatorJavitssaidinhisintroductiontothetextofthespeech:
Mr.President,thegiftedandtalentedchildrenofourNationhavelongbeenofcontinuing
interesttomefortheyrepresentthefutureleadershipoftheUnitedStates.Lastmonth,in
Jerusalem,theWorldCouncilonGiftedandTalentedChildrenhelditsThirdBiennialCon-
ferencetodiscussinternationalcooperativeeffortsonbehalfofthegifted,andtoconsider
researchandexchangeprogramstopromotethismostprecioushumanresource….Atthe
Jerusalemconference,ArthurLipper,III,aninvestmentbanker…andgreatfriendofthegifted
andtalented…forcefullypresentedtheideathatthedevelopmentofthegiftedrepresents
thebesthopeforfuturepeaceandstabilityintheinternationalpoliticalrealm….Iurgemy
colleaguestoconsidercarefullyhisremarks,andIaskthatthetextofMr.Lipper’saddress
totheWorldCouncilonGiftedandTalentedChildrenbeprintedintheRecord.
ThefollowingexcerptsfromLipper’sspeechrelectatotaldisregardforthegiftedand
talentedchildrenasindividualswhomightbecapableofdecidingforthemselveswhatthey
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1979 153
wishtodoorbecome.Itfocusesinsteadontheir“use”bythestatetoobtainpredetermined
globalgoals:
SomeyearsagoIreadthefollowingstatementinaschoolpublication:
OneofAmerica’smosttragicwastesofnaturalresourcesisthelossofpotentialforsocial
contributionwhichisinherentineconomicallydeprived,giftedchildren.
Properlyidentiiedatasuficientlyearlyage,throughculture-free,non-verbaltesting,
theveryyoungchildcanbeprovidedwiththeenvironment,economicandmotivational
supportnecessaryforfulldevelopmentasapositivesocialcontributor.
Withoutsuchearlyidentiication,thesocio-economicpressureimposedupontheeco-
nomicallydeprivedchildwhopossessessuperiorcognitiveabilityislikelytoresultineither
a“droppingout”oronlyadesiretoachieveimprovedpersonallifestyle.Thechosenor
availablemeansofobtainingabetterlifestylemaynotbesociallydesirable.Thereforetheir
trulyconstructivepotential,fromthestandpointofsociety[theState],maybeforeverlost.
Thesethoughtsseemtometobeapplicabletoallsocietiesandespeciallytothoseless
fortunatethanAmerica’s.Speciicallyanalyzedtheyare:
1)Identiiedearlyenough,poorbutgiftedchildrencanbegivenmedical,inancial
andemotionalsupportwhichprobablywillleadtothedevelopmentofpositivesocialatti-
tudes.
2)Notidentiiedandassistedthekidsmayeithernotachievetheirpotentialormay
usetheirtalentssolelyforthepurposeofbetteringtheirownlivesregardlessofthemeans
employedortheeffectsonothers.
Itisinterestingtonotethenumberofproudlyproclaimedprogramsforgiftedchild
identiicationanddevelopmentwhichmanyoftheSocialistandCommunistcountrieshave
asastatedandde-factomatterofpublicpolicy.Itisnotstrangethatthecapitalistcountries,
soquicktomakeuseofallother“natural”resources—includingthelaboroftheirownand
othercountries—havebeenslowertorecognizeandsecurethebeneitsaccruingfromthe
developmentoftheirowngiftedchildren.
Perhapsthewealthynationshavenotyetsensedthecompellingneedforbroadsocial
progress,baseduponthefuturecontributionofthegifted,ashavesomeofthenon-capital-
istcountries.
Inclosing,Mr.Lippermakessomerecommendations,themostalarmingofwhichfol-
lows:
Establishmentofboardingschools(publiclyfunded)tohousethoseidentiiedgiftedchildren
whoseexistinghomelifeisnon-constructiveintermsoftheirdevelopment.
[Ed.Note:Mr.Lipper,inhisferventdesiretoimplementworldsocialism,seemstohaveforgot-
tenthatindividuals,regardlessofrace,religion,talent,orincome,shouldnotbeconsidered
propertyoftheState(humanresources,humancapital,etc.)tobemoldedandmanipulatedfor
thebeneitofsocietyasawhole(theState).Also,whatandwhosecriteriawillbeemployed
todeterminewhether“homelifeisnon-constructive”?]
“K–12COMPETENCY-BASEDEDUCATIONCOMESTOPENNSYLVANIA”BYJOHNH.SANDBERG,direc-
torofteachereducationforCarnegie-MellonUniversityinPittsburgh,waspublishedinthe
October1979issueofPhiDeltaKappan.Excerptsfromthearticlefollow:
154
ItistoolatetostopProject’81,whichwillrunitscourseandprobablywillsoonbe
forgotten,butonemayhopethatotherstateswillthinkhardbeforeembarkingonsimilar
projects....WhileitispossiblethatImisunderstoodthemeaningorintentofthis“majorgoal”
[“gaintheskillsandknowledgetheywillneedasadults”],itstrikesmeasbeingunattainable
onitsface....Iwouldarguethatwecannot“seethatstudentsacquirethecompetenciesthey
needtobesuccessfulintheadultworld”becausewedon’tknowwhattheyarenowmuch
lesswhattheywillbetenyearsfromnow....Exchangingcourses,credits,andCarnegieUnits
for“newlydeinedcompetencies”willnoteliminatethisfundamentalproblem....
Finally,inthecaseofstudentswhoareknowntobecollegeboundandarelockedinto
acurriculumthatisdictatedprimarilybycollegerequirements(notlife-roleexpectancies),
whatisgoingtogive?Willphysicsgivewaytolawnmowerrepair?Chemistrytocooking?
Trigonometrytotilesetting?Willitreallymakeanydifferenceforthesestudentswhatthe
stateboardrequiresforgraduationaslongasHarvardwantsmaththroughcalculusandtwo
yearsofaforeignlanguage?...Iwouldbehappytosettleforashortlistofcompetenciesif
Ithoughtwecouldhandlethem:Teachchildrenhowtoread,towrite,todoarithmetic,to
draw,makemusic,andtogetalongwitheachother.
Wearenotdoingthesefewthingsforenoughkidsnow,soperhapsthisiswhatwe
shouldbeworkingoninsteadofmakingnewlistsofthingswewon’tknowhowtodo....I
applaudtheemphasisthatProject’81givestomakingbetteruseofeducationalresources
inthecommunity.ButasaBlueprintforstructuringpubliceducationandformeasuring
itsproducts,thecompetency-basedapproachembodiedinProject’81strikesmeastotally
ridiculous.AtrueskepticmightarguethatProject’81maybesafelyignoredontheground
thatthePennsylvaniaDepartmentofEducationisincompetenttochew,muchlessswallow,
whatithasattemptedtobiteoff.Likeothergrandioseeffortstoreformtheschools,the
projectmaygeneratesomewindandheatandseveralbillionpiecesofpaperandthengo
away,leavingallbutthe12pilotschooldistrictsuntouched.
Nevertheless,thePennsylvaniaDepartmentofEducationhasalreadydemonstrated,
withcompetency-basedteachereducation,itscompetencetoeffectchange—oratleastthe
illusionofchange—onalargescale.Project’81isamuchmoreextensiveundertakingwhose
potentialformischiefisincalculablygreater.ThemischiefcanoccurifPennsylvaniansdo
nottakealong,hardlookatwhereProject’81istakingthem.
INFORMATIONREGARDINGTHEPRELIMINARYPLANNINGFORSCHOOL-BASEDCLINICSWASrevealedin
theOctober22,1979issueofNation’sSchoolsReportwhich,underthesection“SchoolsCan
OfferHealthServices,”statedthefollowing:
SchoolswithconcentrationsofMedicaid-eligiblestudentscanqualifyforfederalmoney
iftheysetupscreeningandreferralprograms.AjointeffortbytheOficeofEducationand
theHealthCareFinancingAdministrationcouldmakeavailabletoschoolssomeofthe$46
millionthatwillprobablybespentonscreeningMedicaidchildren.
Historically,schoolshavebeenexcludedfromsuchpayments,saidRobertHeneson-
Walling,intheoficeofdeputycommissioneroftheBureauofEducationoftheHandicapped.
ButregulationsproposedjointlybythetwoagenciesandpublishedintheFederalRegister
October4wouldallowschoolstodothescreeningandevenprovidetreatmentandgetpaid
forit.
“It’sneverbeenclearthatschoolsmighttakethisinitiative,”hetoldNation’sSchools
Report.Tohelpinterestedschooloficialsgetstarted,thetwodepartmentswillpublisha
manual in November which will cover rules-of-thumb for oficials to decide whether to
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1979 155
undertakethescreening,howtodoit,andhowtogethelpfromstateandlocalagencies.
“It’snotaneither/orsituationfortheschooldistrict,”saidHeneson-Walling.Thereare
sevenoreightdegreesofinvolvementaschoolmightundertake.Someschoolsarealready
involvedinextensivehealthscreeningservices,becauseofrequirementsoftheEducation
forAllHandicappedChildrenAct,soitwouldbeanaturalstepforthemtobecomeprimary
healthdeliverycenters.(p.6)
[Ed.Note:TheUnitedStatesmodelwasgivenwidepublicityattheUnitedNations/UNICEF-
sponsoredInternationalYearoftheChildConference.TheU.S.DepartmentofHealth,Education
andWelfareservedasco-sponsoroftheInternationalYearoftheChild’sprogramintheUnited
States.Foraglimpseintothefutureroleoftheschoolsinprovidinghealthcareservicesturn
tothe1999entryforthe“LittleRedRidingHood”versionofthegovernment/privatesector
initiativesoutlinedintheU.S.DepartmentofEducation/U.S.DepartmentofHealthandHuman
ServicespublicationTogetherWeCan.The1999Congressionalproposaltocompletelyfund
theIndividualswithDisabilitiesinEducationActwouldgoalongwaytowarduniversalizing
theseactivities.Increasedschoolviolenceinthelate1990sisalsoleadingtoincreasesinthe
numberofschoolpsychologistswhocanbeusedfor“earlyscreening.”]
“BIGSCHOOLCHANGESPROPOSED”WASPRINTEDINTHEBANGOR(ME)DAILYNEWSONNovember
30,1979.ThearticlecoveredwhatcouldeasilybedescribedasfuturisticplansforVermont
publiceducation.Itstatedinpart:
MONTPELIER,VT—Ablueribboncommissionhasrecommendedaradicalrestructuringof
education in Vermont with year-round, ungraded schools and a policy of allowing some
studentstodropoutatage13.Inaddition,thecommissionsuggestedcreationofa4,000-
student,residentialschoolforstudentsages4through19.Thestate-runschoolwouldbea
centerforeducationalresearchandteachertraining....Thecommissionrecommendsstudents
shouldbepermittedtodropoutofformalschoolingatage13,aslongastheygetajobor
enrollinanalternativetrainingprogram.
[Ed.Note:Thisextraordinaryplanforradicalrestructuringseemedbeyondthepalein1979.
However,itdoesn’tseemsooutofreachin1999whenmostofitsrecommendationsarebeing
introducednationwide.Year-roundschoolhasbeenproposedinmanylocales,beingadopted
insomein1999.BoardingschoolshavebeenopenlyproposedbyformerSpeakeroftheHouse
NewtGingrich,buthavenotbeenwidelyembraced.However,theconceptofallowingstudents
todropoutatage13hasitsparallelinschool-to-workeffortswhichforcestudentstoselect
acareeremphasisbytheendofeighthgrade.]
INTHENOVEMBER1979ISSUEOFEDUCATIONALLEADERSHIP,MONTHLYPUBLICATIONOFtheAsso-
ciationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment,“MasteryLearning:TheCurrentState
oftheCraft”byJamesBlockwaspublished.Excerptsfollow:
Indeed,withthehelpofdedicatedpractitionersandadministrators,innovativeteachertrain-
ing institutions, progressive national and international educational organizations (ASCD,
NEA,NASA,UNESCO,IEA),leadingeducationalpublishers(McGraw-Hill,SRA,Westing-
houseLearningCorp.,RandomHouse),andpowerfulnewsmedia(TheNewYorkTimes,
CBS),MasteryLearninghashelpedreshapethefaceofcontemporaryeducationalpractice,
156
research,andtheory....EntireschooldistrictsthroughoutNorthAmerica(Chicago,Denver,
D.C.,NewOrleans,Vancouver)areactivelytestingthevalueofMasteryLearningfortheir
particulareducationalsituation.
[Ed.Note:TheabovequotebyJamesBlockcallstomindthe1921entryinthisbookwhich
chroniclestheestablishmentoftheCouncilonForeignRelations.Inthatentryaquotation
fromPropagandabyEdwardBernays,SigmundFreuds’snephew,alsoremarksonthepower
ofopiniontomoveanagendaforward:
Itremainsafactinalmosteveryactofourdailylives,whetherinthesphereofpoliticsor
business,inoursocialconductorourethicalthinking,wearedominatedby…smallnumber
ofpersons…andtechnicalmeanshavebeeninventedanddevelopedbywhichopinionmay
beregimented.]
SUPER-LEARNING BYSHEILAOSTRANDER ANDLYNNSCHROEDER, WITHNANCYOSTRANDER,(Dell
PublishingCo.,Inc.:NewYork,1979)waspublished.Beneaththetitleonthecoverisan
explanation of Super-Learning as “New stress-free, fast learning methods you can use to
developsupermemoryandimprovebusinessandsportsperformance.”Inrealitythis“learning
technique”isanupdatedversionofancientpracticesdrawnfrommanyreligionsandagrab-
bagofphilosophies,mostpresentedtothechosenrhythmsofcertainmusic.Thefollowing
areexcerptsfromthebook:
GeorgiLozanov(Lo-san-ov),aBulgariandoctorandpsychiatrist,whodidn’tsetout
tobeaneducator...didsetout,followingtheoldadage,tostudythenatureofman,ofthe
humanbeinginallitspotential.Likejustabouteverybodyelse,heconcludedthatwe’reonly
usingafractionofourcapabilities.Lozanovdevisedwaystoopenthereservesofthemind
and,asadoctor,putthemtoworktoimprovethebody,tohealmentalandphysicaldisease.
Butininvestigatingwhatthewholehumanbeingcando,hecouldn’thelpbeingdrawninto
creativeandintuitiveareas.Thenstillinvestigating,almostbynecessity,hebecameoneof
theleadingparapsychologistsinthecommunistworld.Atthesametime,Lozanovrealized
thatwithhisnewtechniques,theaveragepersoncoulddevelopsupermemory,couldlearn
factualinformationwithunheard-of-ease.(p.9)
...Amongothers,weweregoingtotalktoaBulgarianscientist,Dr.GeorgiLozanov,
whohadinvestigatedanumberofpeoplewithextraordinarymentalabilitieslikeKeuni’s.
Lozanovhadcometoclaimthatsupermemorywasanaturalhumanability.Notonlycan
anyonedevelopit,hesaid,butonecandoitwithease.Toprovehispointthereweresup-
posedlythousandsofpeopleinBulgariaandtheSovietUnionwhowerewellontheirway
toacquiringsupermemoryoftheirown.(p.14)
...Dr.Lozanovgreetedusinhisofice.Likethebrilliantlowersinthegardenoutside,
theroomwasawashwithbright,vividcolors.Aswe’dalreadydiscoveredattheconference
inMoscow,Lozanovhada“holistic”senseofhumoranda“cosmic”laughliketheMaha-
rishiofTMfame.Alithe,compactmanwithwarmbrowneyesandagreatcloudofcurly,
grayinghair,hecouldbeaskineticasahandballoneminuteanddeeplyserenethenext.
“Suggestologycanrevolutionizeteaching,”heasserted.“Oncepeoplegetoverpreconceived
ideasaboutlimitations,theycanbemuchmore.Nolongerisapersonlimitedbybelieving
thatlearningisunpleasant;thatwhathelearnstodayhewillforgettomorrow;thatlearning
deteriorateswithage.”...
TheSeriousSeventies:c.1979 157
Hegrewphilosophical,“Educationisthemostimportantthingintheworld.Thewhole
oflifeislearning—notonlyinschool.Ibelievethatdevelopingthishighmotivation—which
comesthroughthetechnique—canbeofthegreatestimportancetohumanity.”...
“Whatexactlyisthetechniqueofsuggestology?”weasked.Tocreatethisnew“ology,”
Lozanovandhisco-workershaddrawnfromanalmostdizzyingarrayofspecialties:mental
yoga,music,sleep-learning,physiology,hypnosis,autogenics,parapsychology,drama,to
namesome.Suggestology’sdeepestrootslayinthesystemofRajaYoga.“Thereisreallynoth-
ingnewaboutsuggestology,”Lozanovexplained.“Theapplicationisthenewthing.”...
Lozanov’ssuggestologyisbasically“applied”alteredstatesofconsciousnessforlearn-
ing,healing,andintuitivedevelopment.(p.17)
[Ed.Note:Lozanov’smethodologyhasbeenimplementedinschoolsystemsacrossthecoun-
try—includingHenryM.Levin’sAcceleratedSchoolsProjectparticipants—andpromotedas
beingphysicallyhealthfulandpsychicallyhelpful.Itsroots,aspointedoutinthequotesabove,
areintechniquesassociatedwithreligionandmindcontrol.IntheappendixtoSuper-Learn-
inga“Recap”iswritten,partofwhichthiswriterwishestoleavewiththereadersothat
itsconnectiontowhatisbeingpresentedtoteachersandparentsin1999undertheguiseof
“research-based”theoryandpracticecanbemorereadilyunderstood:
Howdoesitwork?Averyspeciickindofmusichasapsychophysicialeffectandcre-
atesarelaxed,meditativestateinthebody.Physiologicalresearchshowedthisparticular
musicslowsbodyrhythmstomoreeficientlevels.Thismusic-inducedrelaxationbrings
healthbeneits.Itovercomesfatigueandenhancesphysicalandemotionalwell-being.It’s
abitlikemantrameditationforitisamind/bodylinkthathelpsopenupinnerawareness.
Physiologicalresearchalsoshowsthiscalmedstateofthebodyfacilitatesmentalfunctioning
andlearning.Thebodyuseslessenergy,sothere’smoreforthemind.[emphasisinoriginal]
Thisparticularmusicinducesalertrelaxation—alertmind,relaxedbody.
Howcanyou,atwill,retrievewhatyouperceive?Theanswerisrhythm.Theconnection
ismadethroughsynchronizingrhythms.Datatobelearnedischantedwithintonationsin
rhythmintimetothemusic.Thepersonlearningbreathesalongrhythmicallyinarelaxed
state.Sodata,intonations,music,breathing,andbodyrhythmsareallsynchronizedtoa
speciicrhythmiccycle.Therhythm,intonations,music,andbreathingmakelinkswiththe
consciousmind.Harmonizedrhythmsstrengthentheinformationsignal.Consciousaware-
nessofunconsciousperceptionsisopenedupthroughthislinksoyoubecomeawareof
what’sinyourmemorybank.
Finally,superlearningisaboutlearningtolearn.Thereisasnowballingeffectonce
youbegintousethetechniques.Howdoyougoaboutdoingsuperlearningonyourown?
Theprocessisverysimple.Inadvance,getthemusic,organizeyourmaterialandtapeit,
readingitaloudatslow-pacedintervalsoverthespeciiedmusic.
Then,justrelaxandlistentoyourmaterialasyoubreathealongtothemusic.
Therootsoftheabove“learning”processgrowdeepinthemireoftheancientpractices
thathavecometobecalled“NewAge.”Thereaderisurgedtoremembertherhythmicchants
andsing-songrecitationsbeingofferedasdirectinstruction“learning.”Again,someofthe
therapeuticbeneitsfrommusicandwhatiscalled“musictherapy”aremostoftenobserved
amongthementallyilland,foralackofanotherdesignation,thelearningdisabled.Thesame
areas from which most of the “research-based” data—often called “scientiic”—draw their
reported“success.”]
158
STEPSTOBETTERWRITING:ASYSTEMATICAPPROACHTOEXPOSITORYWRITINGBYGENEStanford
(Holt,RinehartandWinston,Inc.:NewYork,1979)waspublished.Anexercisefromthisbook
isanexampleofthehumanisticinluenceexertedinawritingtextbookformat:
EXERCISEC.Ineachoftheintroductoryparagraphsbelow,underlinethethesissentence.
Thenindicateintheblankwhichconstruction(funnelorcontrast)wasused.Finally,number
thefactorsinthepreviewofmainsupportingpoints....
[Sampleparagraph]2.Toooftenparentsthinkthewaytorearachildistogivehimguidance
intheproperwaytothinkandact.This“guidance”toooftenbecomesanactualmolding
ofhispersonalitytosuittheparent,asisseeninparentallecturesbeginningwiththeold
clichés,“IfIwereyouIwould...”or“WhenIwasyourageI....”Theseparents,whilethey
mayhavethegoodofthechildatheart,areneverthelessmakingagravemistakebytrying
tocompelhimtoactorthinkincertainways.Whattheteenneedsinsteadisatypeoflove
whichgiveshimthefreedomandconidencetodevelophisownopinionsinmatterssuch
asreligion,morality,andchoiceoffriends.(p.87)
[Ed.Note:The1991articleentitled“Seniors’ChurchAttendance”fromEducationWeek(June
12,1991)showshowsuccessfulthistypeof“academic”curriculumhasbeeninchangingour
children’svalues.]
Endnotes:
1T.I.L.L.,67EastShoreRoad,Huntington,N.Y.11743
2See1998entryconcerningNewtGingrich’sstatementsaboutthefutureoftextbooks.Also,see1974entryforAPerformance
AccountabilitySystemforSchoolAdministratorsbyT.H.Bell.
3ThisquoteistakenfromDanielson’s67-pagebooklet,Practitioner’sImplementationHandbook[Series]:TheOutcome-Based
Curriculum,2ndEd.,byCharlotteDanielson(OutcomeAssociates,Princeton,NJ,1992).CharlotteDanielsonispresently
employedbytheEducationalTestingService,Princeton,NewJersey.
4TheMaineFacilitatorCenterwasfundedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducationanditsprimaryrolewastodisseminatefeder-
allyfundedNationalDiffusionNetworkprograms.Since1994theNDNhasbeendefundedanditsfunctionshavebeentaken
overbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducation’sregionallaboratories.
5ExcerpttakenfromTheLeipzigConnectionmentionedandreferencedearlierinthisbook.
6AnotherViewofPhilosophyandCulture:BacktoFreedomandDignitybyFrancisSchaeffer(CrosswayBooks:Wheaton,Ill.,
1989).
7Thisparticular“whoshallsurvive”activityisstillinusein1990sNDNprograms.
8ChildAbuseintheClassroommaybepurchasedfor$10.00bysendingacheckto:EagleForum,PereMarquettePress,PO
Box495,Alton,IL62002
9TheNationalDiffusionNetworkcatalog,ProgramsthatWork,maybepurchasedfor$16.95bycallingSoprisWestat1–303–
615–2829.
10 AudiocassetteofLessinger’sspeech(#612–20129)canbeorderedfrom:ASCD,1703NorthBeauregardSt.,Alexandria,VA
22311–1714.
11 Sayer,George.Jack:ALifeofC.S.Lewis(CrosswayBooks:Wheaton,1994).
12 Lewis,C.S.“OurEnglishSyllabus”inRehabilitationsandOtherEssays(OxfordUniversityPress:London,1939).
13 Ibid.
14 Hooper,Walter,Ed.“LearninginWar-Time,”inTheWeightofGloryandOtherAddresses(MacmillanPublishingCo.,New
York,1980).
15 SeeResourcespagefororderinginformationforBarbaraMorris’sTheGreatAmericanConGame.
7
THE“EFFECTIVE”EIGHTIES
“Producingadeiniteordesiredresult[emphasisadded],”theirstdeinitionforthe
word“effective”foundinWebster’sDictionary,istheappropriatedeinitionfortheword“effective”as
itisusedinthetitleEffectiveSchoolResearch(ESR)orEffectiveSchools(ES)—whichwillcharacterize
muchof“TheEffectiveEighties.”ThisisparticularlytrueasitrelatestotheSkinnerian“method,”
oftenreferredtoas“WhatWorks”education,morecommonlyknownasoutcome/performance/results-
basededucationandmasterylearning/directinstruction.TheevidencewhichlinksOBEtoESRis
irrefutable:“Outcome-BasedEducationincorporatestheindingsoftheEffectiveSchoolsResearch,
linkingthemtogetherintoacomprehensiveandpowerfulmodel,”statedCharlotteDanielson,M.A.
inherPractitioner’sImplementationHandbook[Series]:TheOutcome-BasedCurriculum.1
WhetherEffectiveSchoolsResearchappliedtoeducationhasbeentruly“effective”liesintheeyeof
thebeholderandinthebeholder’sdeinitionofthepurposeofeducation.2Disturbingreportscontinue
tosurfaceregardingsteepdeclinesinacademictestscoresinschoolswhichhaverestructuredusingthe
variouscomponentsofEffectiveSchoolsResearch.Thesescoresarefromschoolswhich,whileusing
ESR,havenotyetshiftedfromnorm-referenced(competitive)tests—whichcomparestudents’results
amongst their peers and which use “A-B-C-D-F” grading—to performance-based (non-competitive)
teach-to-the-testassessments.Examplesarethe“openbooktest”and“authenticassessment”—which
havethestudentscompetingagainstnoonebutthemselves,givingthemasmuchtimeasnecessary
to“master”thecompetencies.
Oncethenon-competitive,performance-basedassessmentsareinplace,thescoreswillnaturally
goup,thusallowingthesocialchangeagentstobreatheasighofrelief.The“lowtestscorecat”will
havebeenshovedbackintohisbagandthemediawillshoutfromtherooftopshowwellourchil-
159
160
drenaredoingonthenewperformance-basedassessments!Asusual,everyonewillgobacktosleep
believingalliswell—iftheywereeverawaketotheproblemintheirstplace.
The pre-non-competitive, performance-based academic test score decline should come as no
surprisetothechangeagentsinchargeof“effective”schools.The“father”oftheEffectiveSchools
Researchmethod,orSkinnerianmasterylearning,thelateProf.BenjaminBloom,saidinhis1981
bookAllOurChildrenLearning:“Thepurposeofeducationandtheschoolsistochangethethoughts,
feelingsandactionsofstudents.”AnevenmoreastonishingstatementwasmadeinTheEffectiveSchool
Reportbyoneoftheleadingchangeagents,ThomasA.Kelly,Ph.D.:“Thebrainshouldbeusedfor
processing,notstorage.”Withthiseducationalemphasis,academictestscorescouldhavedonenoth-
ingbutdecline.Ifthereisanyonereadingthisbookwhoquestionsthevalidityofthiswriter’sclaim
thatAmericahasbeen“deliberatelydumbeddown,”Iurgethemtokeepthesequotesinmind.
Letmeposethefollowingquestion:Howcouldthewriterofthisbookhavewrittenthisbook
hadherbrainnotbeenusedforstorage?Couldtheanswertothatquestionbethereasonwhythe
socialchangeagentsdonotwantthebraintobeusedforstorage?
Theeducationistsunderstandfullwellwhattheyaredoing,sincetheuseofSkinnerian/Pav-
lovianoperantconditioning(masterylearning/directinstruction)doesnotallowforthetransferof
information.Alltheyneedisabrainwhichknowshowtoimmediatelyprocesspredeterminedbits
andpiecesofinformation—oftennothingmorethansymbols,simplewordsorparagraphs,theknowl-
edgeofwhichcanbeeasilymeasured—asthosepiecesofinformationrelatetoworkforcetrainingor
amenialjob;i.e.,pushingabuttonlikeapigeoninSkinner’sexperimentswastrainedtopushthe
levertogetitskernelofcorn.
Thatisnotlearning;thatistrainingtothepointofautomaticity,broughtaboutbytheabove-
mentionedanimaltraining.Neitheristhistrainingthesameasrotelearningormemorization.Rote
learningormemorizationrequiresstorageofinformationinabrainwhichhasusedsomerelective
thinkingtodeviseamethodtorecallit.Relectivethinkingisessentialforlearning,allowingthebrain
tospendtimeexaminingtheessenceofthematerialwithwhichitispresented.
IfBloom’sandKelly’squotesdeinewhatthoseinchargeofeducationalrestructuringarelook-
ingforintermsof“results,”thosesameeducationistsshouldnotbeatallsurprisedorconcerned
aboutlowtestscores.Alltheyhavetodoiswaitforthenewperformance-basedassessmentstobe
putintoplacenationwide;afterwhichthepublic—someofwhomhavebeenvociferouslyopposedto
outcome-basededucation—willgetofftheirbacks.
Activitiesrelatedtoeducationin“TheEffectiveEighties”werenotgearedtoimprovingtheac-
ademicstandingofourchildren.Quitethecontrary;everysinglemajorgovernment-orfoundation-
fundedactivityhadasitsgoalimplementationofaglobalworkforcetrainingagenda.
In1984SecretaryT.H.Bellapprovedagrantintheamountof$152,530totheFarWestLabo-
ratoryforEducationalResearchandDevelopment(nowknownasEdWest)atwhichWilliamSpady
wasthedirector.Thisgrantwastocarryoutaprojectentitled“ExcellenceinInstructionalDelivery
Systems.”ThecoverletterfromtheUtahsuperintendentofschoolstoSecretaryT.H.Belltowhich
161
The"Effective"Eighties
theapplicationforgrantfundingwasattachedsaid,“This[theresearchasaresultofthegrant]will
makeitpossibletoputOutcome-BasedEducationinplace,notonlyinUtah,butinallschoolsofthe
nation.”Theinalreport(evaluation)totheU.S.DepartmentofEducationregardingtheresultsof
thisprojectstated:
Thefourmodelsofinstructionalorganizationoutlinedinthiscasebookaredificultprograms
to implement. The practices of the ten schools described in the case studies are indeed
commendable.Yetwedonotofferthesetencasestudiesas“exemplaryschools”deserving
emulation.3
So,whatdidthechangeagentsdo?TheyputOBE“intoeveryschoolinthenation.”
Suchmisuseoftaxpayerdollarsiswaste,fraud,andabusewhichcriesoutforaCongressional
investigation.Obviously,theintentionsofthoseinvolvedinthisgranthadnothingtodowiththe
purposeoftheprojectspelledoutinthegrantapplicaton:“TomakeavailabletoAmerica’seducators
practicalinformationaboutwhatreallyworkswell,whyitworkswell,andhowitcanbemadetowork
wellintheirlocalsites.”(pp.6–7)Therealpurposeofthisprojectwastoproposearadicalredesign
ofthenation’seducationsystemfromonebasedoninputstoonebasedonoutputs;fromoneoriented
towardthelearningofacademiccontenttoonebasedonperformanceofselectedskills,necessaryfor
theimplementationofschool-to-work,aredesignthoroughlydiscussedinthisbook.
Dr.BrianRowan,asociologistwhoservedasco-principalinvestigatorwiththeaboveRobert
Burnsonthismostfraudulentoffederalgrants—Utah’s“ExcellenceinInstructionalDeliverySystems
Project”—explainedclearlyhowdeceptivearetheclaimsofthosewhopromoteOBEandeffective
schoolresearchinapaperentitled“ShamanisticRitualsinEffectiveSchools.”(SeeAppendixXXVI.)In
presentinghispaperbeforetheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociationpriortohisparticipation
intheUtahgrantevaluation,Rowanknewfullwelltheprojectmisrepresenteditselfevenbeforehe
participated.But,togivecreditwherecreditisdue,RowanatleastputinwritingthetruthaboutOBE
andEffectiveSchoolsResearch;atruth,which,unfortunately,wasmadeavailabletoonlyaverysmall
segmentoftheeducationalestablishmentandhasremainedhiddenfromthepublic.
“TheEffectiveEighties”sawPresidentRonaldReagan,whohadaccusedtheSovietUnionof
beingan“EvilEmpire,”signingeducationagreementswiththeSovietUnion—agreementswhichare
stillineffect—andsettingupaTaskForceonPrivateSectorInitiativesintheWhiteHousewhich,
ineffect,startedtheballrollingforpublic-privatepartnerships(corporatefascism)whichareatthe
heart of the Carnegie Corporation/Marc Tucker/New American School Development Corporation’s
school-to-workagenda.ItisironicthattheU.S.DepartmentofEducation,underthestewardshipof
a Republican administration, effectively transformed the essential character of the nation’s public
schoolsfrom“teaching”—themosttraditionalandconservativeroleofschools—to“workforcetrain-
ing”—perceivedasliberaland“progressive.”
Secretary T.H. Bell ired Edward Curran, a traditional educator who headed up the National
InstituteofEducationandwhorecommendedtoPresidentReaganthatNIE—theheartofthe“rot”in
162
education—beabolished.AbolishingNIErequiredonlythatSecretaryBellgivehisapproval,while
abolishingtheDepartmentofEducation—anelectionpromisePresidentReaganhadmadewhichwas
incorporatedintotheRepublicanPartyPlatform—requiredthedificulttoobtainapprovalofCongress.
OnceEdCurranwasgone,therewasnofurtherresistancetotheplansofthosemembersofthead-
ministrationandtheircorporatecronies(school-businesspartnerships)whowishedtotransformthe
nation’sschoolsfromacademicstothepolytecheducationbeingimplementedtoday.
AsaconservativeRepublican,ithasnotbeeneasytocometotheaboveconclusionregardingthe
roleoftheRepublicanPartyinthe“deliberatedumbingdown”ofAmerica.Atthesametime,Imust
addthatitisverylikelytheDemocraticPartywouldhavebeenevenmoresteadfastinimplementing
thesameagenda,haditbeeninapositiontodoso.Thismarchtodestructionseemstojoinallforces
underitsbanner.
1980
SCHOOLINGFORAGLOBALAGEEDITEDBYJAMESBECKER(MCGRAWHILL:NEWYORK,1980)was
published.TheprefacebyProfessorJohnGoodladisexcerptedhere:
Parentsandthegeneralpublicmustbereachedalso[taughtaglobalperspective].Otherwise,
childrenandyouthenrolledinglobally-orientedprogramsmayindthemselvesinconlict
withvaluesassumedinthehome.Andthentheeducationalinstitutionfrequentlycomes
underscrutinyandmustpullback.
EDUCATIONAL GOALS: STUDIES AND SURVEYS IN COMPARATIVE EDUCATION WAS PREPARED for
theInternationalBureauofEducation,UnitedNationsEducational,Scientiic,andCultural
Organization (UNESCO: Courvoisier S.A.: La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland, 1980). Charles
Fitouriwrotethefollowingintroductiontothisdocumentwhichclearlyrelectstheinluence
ofUNESCOoneducation:
Thecrisisofeducation,aboutwhichsomuchhasbeenwrittensincetheearly1960s,may
beseenasthesourceoftheneedforchangeandinnovationwhichhasbeenfeltandex-
pressedsincetheearlyseventies.Butwhatkindofinnovation?Andforwhatpurpose?For
whatblueprintofsocietyandtotrainwhatkindofman?Thisbookoneducationalgoalsis
basedonsuchquestionsasthese.
ThefollowingexcerptsfromEducationalGoalsidentifytherootsofAmericaneducationre-
structuring:
TheInternationalBureauofEducation’sinterestintheproblemofeducationalgoalsand
theoriesdoesnotarisefrompurephilosophicalspeculationorasimpleacademicexercise.It
hasbeenaroused,andevenimposed,byaconfrontationwithcertainrealitieswhichsprang
upinthisareawhen,intheearly1970’s,theInternationalBureauofEducation(IBE)setout
toexaminetheprocessofeducationalinnovationinordertoattempttoanalyseitand,so
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1980 163
tospeak,exposeitsinnermechanism.Itwasthusthattheirststudiesundertakenmadeit
possibletoestablishwithagreatdegreeofcertaintythatanyinnovationineducationimplies
anorientationintheieldofvaluesand,byvirtueofthisfact,involvesthebasicproblem
ofeducationalgoals....
...Allthepedagogicalmovementsofthetwentiethcenturywhichpreachequalityof
educationalopportunity,afterhavingproclaimedittobearightforeveryone,aremoreor
lessfoundedonthevarioussocialistschoolsofthoughtwhichbegantoemergeattheend
oftheeighteenthcenturyandhavesincemarkedthecourseofthenineteenthcenturyand
agoodpartofthetwentieth....
ThisinterestledtothereportoftheInternationalCommissionontheDevelopment
ofEducation,entitledLearningtoBe,commonlyreferredtoasthe“FaureReport.”Inhis
statementintroducingthisreport,thepresidentofthecommissionwasanxioustopointout
thatthelatterhadbaseditsdeliberativeeffortsonthefollowingfourprinciples:
Theexistenceofaninternationalcommunitywhich...isrelectedincommonaspirations,
problemsandtrends,andinitsmovementtowardsoneandthesamedestiny;“beliefin
democracy”;“thecompletefulillmentofman”astheaimofdevelopment;andinally,
theneedfor“over-all,life-longeducation.”
In so doing, the International Commission on the Development of Education was
indangerofsuccumbingtotheillusion—generousthoughitmaybe—oftheexistenceof
universalanduniversallyacceptedgoals.Indeed,althoughthefourprincipleswereunable
to win unanimous support from the international community, one of them, at least, did
notraiseoppositionofanysort,evenifithappenstobetheonewhichismostcommonly
violatedinpractice.Referredtohereisthebeliefindemocracy....Thereportplacesspecial
emphasisonthis,statingthat:
Strongsupportmustbegiventodemocracy,astheonlywayformantoavoidbecoming
enslavedtomachines,andtheonlyconditioncompatiblewiththedignitywhichtheintel-
lectualachievementsofthehumanracerequire;theconceptofdemocracyitselfmustbe
developed,foritcannolongerbelimitedtoaminimumofjudicialguaranteesprotecting
citizensfromthearbitraryexerciseofpowerinasubsistencesociety.Furthermore,andin
conjunctionwiththis,moresupportmustalsobegiventoeducationalrequirements,for
therecannot—orwillnot—beademocraticandegalitarianrelationshipbetweenclasses
dividedbyexcessiveinequalityineducation;andtheaimandcontentofeducationmust
bere-created,toallowbothforthenewfeaturesofsocietyandthenewfeaturesofde-
mocracy.
…Thisworldsolidarityhasitsprerequisitesandconditionswhichhavebeendescribed
byUNESCOinthefollowingterms:
[T]heremustirstofallbeagreementonasystemofvaluesandawillingnesstoembark
onajointexaminationoftheirimplications:valuesofjustice,equality,freedomandfel-
lowship.Thesewillbebasedonanewawarenessintworespects,namely:recognitionof
theunityofmankind,withallitsdiversepeoples,racesandcultures,andtheassertion
ofadesiretolivetogether,actuallyexperiencednotsimplyasanecessityforsurvivalor
coexistencebutasthedeliberatechoiceoffashioningacommondestinytogether,with
jointresponsibilityforthefutureofthehumanrace.
Insuchcircumstances,theconsciousnessoftheworld’ssolidarity,whichissomuch
needed,canonlybethefruitofanactiveandcontinuousprocessofeducation,whichmust
beputinhandwithoutdelayandtowhichUNESCOmustmakeitsfullcontribution.
…Theparticipants,havingagreedtodevelopandstimulaterelectiononeducational
164
goals,consideredthat:
1.UNESCOshouldgiveparticularattentiontothedevelopmentsatregionalandin-
ternationallevels,ofcomparativestudiesoneducationalgoals,fromthepointof
viewbothoftheirinluenceonthedevelopmentofeducationaltheories(historical
dimension)andoftheirimpactoneducationalrealities(sociologicaldimension);
2.multidisciplinaryteams,comprisingphilosophers,historians,teachers,sociologists,
economists, psychologists, planners, etc., should be involved in this work of re-
lectionandresearch;
3.thethemeslistedbelowshouldberegardedasprioritythemes:
3.1Determinationofthegoalsunderlyingeducationforinternationalunderstanding
andpeace.
3.2UNESCO’scontributiontotheformulationanddevelopmentofaninternational
dimensionofeducationbasedonacertainconceptionofmodernman.
3.3Implicitgoalsandexplicitgoalsofeducation.
3.4Roleofgoalsintheemergenceofanewtypeofrelationshipbetweenschool
andsociety.
3.5Formaleducationandnon-formaleducationastheyrelatetotheexplicitgoals
andimplicitgoalsofeducation.
3.6Elucidationofadialecticofeducationalgoalsandculturalandeducationalpolicy:
philosophyofeducationandideology.
3.7Waysofdeterminingeducationalgoalsincertaincontextswherethereisaclash
betweentraditionandinnovation.
3.8Elucidationofeducationalgoalsonthebasisofthechild’srealneedstaking
accountoftheeconomic,socialandculturalenvironment.
“POLICY ABOUTPOLICY:SOMETHOUGHTS ANDPROJECTIONS” BYLUVERNL.CUNNINGHAMwas
publishedintheNovember1980issueofTheExecutiveReview(InstituteforSchoolExecu-
tives:TheUniversityofIowa,Vol.1.,No.2).Afootnoteonpage1stated,“Thepaperwasthe
WalterD.CockingLecturepresentedatthe34thAnnualNationalConventionofProfessors
ofEducationalAdministrationinAugust,1980,atOldDominionUniversity.”Someexcerpts
fromCunningham’s“PolicyaboutPolicy”follow:
Localschooloficialsandtheirconstituencieswillbefacingseveralcriticalpolicymatters
inthisdecade(somenew,someenduring).Theseissueswilltestseverelythestructuresand
processesofpolicymakingwithinlocaldistricts....Localandstateauthoritieswillsoonhave
todevelopfreshpoliciesinregardto:theirstfouryearsoflife;life-longlearning;secondary
education; equity; classroom control and discipline; global education; languages; human
resourcedevelopment;incentives;testing;andresourceacquisitionandallocation.Iwould
hope,therefore,thatagoodmanyboardswoulddeveloppolicyaboutpolicy....
Theobjectofmyconcernistheimprovementofpracticewithinthelocalunitsofgov-
ernment(localschooldistricts)whereeducationalpolicyisdeveloped....
Thestructureandprocessesoflocaldistrictgovernanceandmanagementhavechanged
littleoverthepastcentury.Inmanyplacestheyappeartobecreakingandgroaningatthe
seamsandatleastwarrantinspectionifnotreform....
Additionalstepsmustbetakentopermitbetterintegrationofexpertsintopolicymak-
ing....Thenewprofessionsofcivilstrategistandsystemsanalystdemonstrateratherwell
whatIhaveinmindonabroaderscale.
Theseveralproposalsforchangingthegovernanceandmanagementoflocalschool
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1980 165
districtswhichfollowareintendedtoachievepracticalobjectives.
(1)Pursuepolicydevelopmentprocesseswhichareopento,indeed,requirethepartici-
pationofcitizensandprofessionals.
(2)Extendandintensifythecitizenroleineducationpolicydevelopmentandpolicy
making.
[Ed.Note:ThewriterhasselectedthetwoproposalsaboveinordertoemphasizeDr.Cun-
ningham’sinluenceonthedilutionanddiminutionoftheroleofelectedschoolboardmem-
bers.ThisisthephilosophywhichDr.CunninghamtookintoKentuckywhenheservedasa
consultantduringthatstate’seducationreform.
Implementationoftheabovetwopolicieshasbeenresponsibleforasubtle,gradual,and
unhealthy trend towards the council form of government found in undemocratic, socialist
countries.Beforeweknowit,ifAmericansdonotvociferouslyobjecttothisgradualerosion
oftheelectiveprocess,theirtownsandcitieswillberunbyunelectedcitizenswhoareac-
countabletoabsolutelynoone,sinceunelectedpeoplecannotberemovedfrom(votedout
of)ofice.Thiswriterhasalwayswondered:Ifmembersofourcommunitieswantsomuchto
servethecommunity,whydon’ttheyrunforofice?Whydoweseesomanypeoplesigning
uptobemembersofunelectedtaskforcesandcouncils?Isitbecausetheydon’twanttorun
theriskofnotwinning,orisitthatanappointedpositionisonewhichrequireslittleorno
accountabilityandtheywon’thavetoanswerfortheirmistakes?]
Cunninghamcontinues:
Periodically,inthehistoryofAmericaneducationleadershavesuggestedthatboards
ofeducationhavebecomeanachronisms,havefulilledtheirmission,shouldbereformed,
orquietlyfadeaway.Therewasaperiodattheturnofthecenturywhenthenotionofabol-
ishingschoolboardsattractedsupportfromthethen-emergingprofessionsofeducational
administrationjoinedbyelitesfromthebusinessandhighereducationcommunities.The
themewasrevisedandrevitalizedinthelate1920’s,principallybyCharlesJudd,thenchair-
manoftheDepartmentofEducationattheUniversityofChicago....
Theseproposedchangesarebasedessentiallyontherecognitionthatthecomplexityof
today’spublicinstitutionsissuchthattheyareoftennotgovernableormanageablewithin
presentapproachestotheirgovernanceandmanagementandarelikelytobelesssointhe
future.…Myproposalsthereforeretaintheprinciplesoflocalcontrolandpolicydetermination
bycitizensbutchangetheconditionsunderwhichpolicyisdeterminedandadministration
isperformed....Itisexpectedthatthepresentpatternofschoolboardbehaviorandideol-
ogybealteredinfavorofpracticeswhichwillallowsounder,morerationallydetermined
schooldistrictpolicy.
The following proposals are amongst those included under “Synopsis of the Policy about
PolicyProposals”:
(1)Thatlocalboardsofeducationdevelopdiscreteanddeinitivepolicyaboutpolicy,
someofwhichareimpliedbythesubsequentproposalsforchangeinthegovernance
andmanagementoflocalschooldistricts.
(2)Thateducationalpolicybecometheprimaryandcontinuingpolicyfocusoflocal
schooloficialsasdistinctfrompersonnel,business,andphysicalfacilities….
(4)Thatpolicymakingagendabepreparedtwotothreeyearsinadvancetoframethe
workoftheboard,administrativestaff,professionalorganizationleaders,student
166
leaders,andcitizengroups....
(7)Thatemployeesalaryandwagedeterminationprerogativenowretainedbyboards
ofeducationoflocalschooldistrictsbemovedtothestatelevel.
(8)Thatrepresentativesofprofessionalgroups(teachersandadministratorsorganiz-
ations)forlocalschooldistrictsbecomemembersofthelocalboardsofeducation
andassumepolicyandaccountabilityresponsibilitiesequivalenttothatofice....
(11)Thatoneormorestatespassspeciallegislationallowingschooldistrictstosuspend
(foraperiodoftime)currentstatutes,rulesandregulationsfortheirgovernance
andmanagement;and
(12)Thatprocessesofpolicydevelopmentandtheirenunciationaswellastheprocesses
ofmanagementbedesignedtoincludegenuine,sustainedstudent,parent,citizen,
andprofessionaleducatorinvolvement.
YehezkelDrorsuggeststhatforpurposesofcurrentpolicymaking,thefollowingele-
mentsshouldbestandardfeaturesofapreferablepolicy-makingmethod:
(1)Thereshouldbesomeclariicationofvalues,objectives,andcriteriafordecision
making....
(2)Explicittechniques,suchassimulationandtheDelphimethod,shouldbeused
asfarastheyareappropriate,andknowledgefromvariousdisciplinesshouldbe
broughttobearontheissuesinvolved....
Theweightofproposaloneisnottolocatewaystoreducetheinterferenceormeddling
onthepartofschoolboardmembersintheeverydayadministrationoftheschoolsystem.The
everydaymeddling(orinvolvementifyouprefer)ofschoolboardmembersinadministrative
mattersthatoccursacrossthecountryisunderstandable.Infact,boardmembersbelieve
deeplythattheyareservingtheirconstituentswhentheyinterfereandmeddle.Administrators
oftenhavelittleunderstandingoforpatienceforthissenseofresponsivenessthatboard
memberspossess.Asaconsequenceconsiderableinstitutionalenergygoesintodisputesover
theboundariesofboardmemberandsuperintendentauthorityandresponsibility.
Thusproposaloneisbasedonthepremisethatbothpolicyandadministrativeactivity
canbemoreeficientandeffectiveifthereisasubstantialalterationinthegroundrulesfor
thoseactivities....
Thereareconstitutional,statutory,andotherlegalproblemsassociatedwiththepro-
posals.Iftakenseriouslytheymayleadtorathergeneralre-examinationoftheconstitutional
andstatutoryprovisionsforthegovernanceandmanagementoflocaldistricts.Forexample,
manycurrentschoolboardresponsibilitiesmayneedtobemanagedinotherways.Deter-
miningsalariesandwagesofschoolpersonnel,constructing(evennaming)schoolbuildings,
authorizingtheissuanceofbonds,settingschooltaxelectionsorreferendaofothersorts,
theapprovaloffederalapplicationsforfunding,andothersuchdecisionsmaybedesignated
asresponsibilitiesofothergovernments.
Theremovalofthecollectivebargainingfunctionfromlocaldistrictsandplacingitat
thestatelevelwouldclearoutunderbrushandpermitboardsofeducationandtopschool
oficialstofocusmoredirectlyuponpedagogicalandlearningpolicy.
TheworkofDr.Cunninghamseemstohavelaidthegroundworkforschoolsite-based
managementwhichhasreducedtheroleofelectedschoolboardmemberstorubberstampersof
decisionsmadeprimarilybyschoolpersonnelandcarefullyselectedpoliticallycorrectmembers
ofthecommunity.Dr.CunninghamservedasaconsultanttotheStateofKentucky’sEduca-
tionReformCommissionin1989.Thefollowingquotesaretakenfromamemorandumdated
November2,1989fromLuvernL.CunninghamandLilaN.CarolofLeadershipDevelopment
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1980 167
AssociatesregardingPreliminaryModelsofGovernanceforKentucky.Therecommendations
shouldcomeasnosurprisetothosewhohavereadtheaboveexcerptsfromCunningham’s
1980paper.
Eachgovernancemodelisdesignedtofacilitatetheachievementofequaleducationalop-
portunityforeverylearnerenrolledinthepublicschoolsoftheStateofKentucky.
ModelOne,“TotalEducationalGovernanceSystemforLifetimeLearning,Structural
FeaturesandHighlights”—
Policymakingresponsibilityforatotaleducationalsystemincludinghighereducation
isconcentratedinasingleBoardofRegents.AChancellorwouldbeselectedastheadminis-
trativeheadofanewlyintegratedsystemencompassingprovisionsforlifetimelearning.Local
schooldistrictswouldbedissolvedandsite-basedcontrolandmanagementinstituted.
Thismodelisacompletesystemofgovernanceforastatesystemofeducation.…Itis
comprehensiveandallinclusive,allowingforathoroughapproachtoaccountability.
Thegovernancestructureisdesignedtomeeteachindividual’slifetimepubliclearning
needsbeginningwiththeearlyyearsoflifethroughtheretirementperiod.Personswould
beexpectedtocontinuealifetimeoflearningconsistentwiththerequirementsofthe21st
century,asportrayedsoclearlyinbusinessandindustrysponsoredstudiesaswellasthose
producedthroughcitizensgroupsandpublicsponsorship.Lifetimeeducationalcounseling
andlifetimecurriculumdevelopmentwouldbechallengingnewresponsibilitiesoftheinte-
gratedsystem.
Thisbureauisthecentraladministrativecenterforlifetimelearning.Lifetimelearning
isamuchlargerexpectationforeachcitizenthanwehaveacknowledgedthroughpolicyin
thepast.Compulsoryeducationstatutesusuallybracketedtheagesofivethroughsixteenas
ourexpectationforfreepublicschoolingintheUnitedStates.Lifetimelearningontheother
handsuggestsareconsiderationofthecompulsoryeducationrequirementspushingtaxpayer
responsibilitybothdownwardandupwardthroughtheageranges.Obviouslylifetimelearning
hastremendousimplicationsforeducationalinancemovingawayfromtraditionalconcepts
offundingtowardnewideassuchasindividualentitlementstobeexpendedthroughoutthe
lifetime.Eachcitizenwouldhavealifetimelearningaccounttodrawonasneeded.
[Ed.Note:Forabroadviewofwhatthislastparagraphcouldimply,pleasesee“WhenIsAs-
sessmentReallyAssessment?”inAppendixXI.ManyofLuvernCunningham’sproposalswere
incorporatedintoGeorgia’sapplicationtotheNewAmericanSchoolDevelopmentCorporation
entitled“TheNextGenerationSchoolProject.”Inthe1999entrydealingwithalettertothe
editorinAthens,Georgia,someofthedetailsofGeorgia’sapplication—whichlaterbecamea
designwhichwasofferedbytheGeorgia2000Partnershipforschoolsystemstatusleadingto
grantreceivingandeducation/businesspartneringunderGoals2000—arestated.Thereader
shouldcomparethatletter’scontentstoCunningham’sproposals.]
COURSEGOALSCOLLECTIONWASCOMPLETEDIN1980–81BYTHEU.S.DEPARTMENTOFEducation’s
NorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratoryinPortland,Oregon,havingbeeninitiatedin1971
astheTri-CountyCourseGoalProject.Accordingtothepricelistforthecollection,70,000cop-
ieswereinusethroughouttheUnitedStatesin1981.DescriptorswithintheCollectionstate:
“Thecollectionconsistsoffourteenvolumeswith15,000goalscoveringeverymajorsubject
taughtinthepublicschoolsfromK–12.”
CourseGoalsCollection,basedon“thetheoreticalworkofBloom,Tyler,Gagne,Piaget,
Krathwohl,Walbesser,Mager,andothers,”blatantlyrecommendstheuseofMasteryLearning
168
whenitstates:“TheK–12GoalsCollectionprovidesaresourcefordevelopingdiagnostic-pre-
scriptiveMasteryLearningapproaches,bothprogrammedandteachermanaged.”
ThiscollectionalsoadvocatestheuseofManagementbyObjectivesandPlanning,Pro-
grammingandBudgetingSystemswhenitasserts:
Perhapsthegreatestneedaddressedbytheprojectisforasoundbasisforaccountability
ineducation...assistancesuchasPlanning,Program,BudgetandManagementsystemsor
evengeneralconceptssuchasManagementbyObjectives.
TheuseofvaluesclariicationandbehaviormodiicationisalsoencouragedwhentheGoals
Collectionpointsoutthat:
Value goals of two types are included: those related to processes of values clariication;
secondly, those representing values, choices that might be fostered in the context of the
discipline.
Goalsstatesunder“Content”thatthereistobenonebecause
[E]stablishedfactschange,causingmanyfact-boundcurriculatobecomeobsoleteduring
theapproximatelyive-yearlagbetweentheirinceptionandtheirwidespreaddissemination,
andsocialmobilityandculturalpluralismmakeitincreasinglydificulttoidentifytheim-
portantfacts.
TheCourseGoalsCollectionisevidenceofillegalfederalinvolvementincurriculumdevel-
opment.Theextentofitsusenationwidein1981isobvioussince70,000copiesweredistributed
andtherewereonlyapproximately16,000schooldistrictsinthenation.Isitanywonderall
statesnowhavethesamegoals?
CharlotteDanielson,M.A.,intheappendixtoherPractitionersImplementationHand-
book[series]:TheOutcome-BasedCurriculum,2ndEd.(OutcomesAssociates;Princeton,N.J.,
1992)entitled,“ClassiicationSystemfortheSchoolCurriculum”acknowledgedheruseofthe
CourseGoalsCollectiondevelopedbytheTri-CountyDevelopmentProject.Inthe“Introduction
toOutcome-BasedEducation”toDanielson’sHandbooksheinextricablyconnectsOutcome-
BasedEducationtoEffectiveSchoolsResearchwhenshesays:
Outcome-BasedEducationisasystemfortheorganizationanddeliveryoftheinstructional
program in elementary and secondary schools which assures success for every student
[emphasisinoriginal].ItincorporatestheindingsoftheEffectiveSchoolsResearch,link-
ingthemtogetherintoacomprehensiveandpowerfulmodel.Educatorsinoutcome-based
schoolsknowthatiftheyorganizetheirschoolsproperly,andofferhigh-qualityinstruction,
allstudentswillsucceedwithnochangeinstandards.(p.1)
[Ed.Note:ProbablythemostimportantquoteinvolvingtheaboveGoalsProject—atleastas
itrelatestothedeinitionofscientiic,research-basedinstruction—isonefoundinIndiana
SenatorJoanGubbins’sexcellentreportentitled“GoalsandObjectives:TowardsaNational
Curriculum?”preparedfortheNationalCouncilonEducationalResearch,September26,1986
aspartofaninvestigationoftheNWRELGoalsProject.Onpage16ofherreportisthefol-
lowingstatement:
Ibelievethepersonalvaluinggoals(includedintheGoalsProject)wouldbemoreproperly
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1981 169
classiiedasbehaviormodiicationprocedures.Therefore,theProject’sdeinitionofbehavior
modiicationisilluminating:
[P]rocedures used in programs of behavior modiication or behavioral management
are based on principles derived from scientiic research (e.g., stimulus-response-rein-
forcement).
Americanssupportingtheuseofmasterylearning,outcome-basededucation,anddirect
instruction to teach reading, take heed! When advised that such instruction is “scientiic,
research-based,”remembertheaboveU.S.DepartmentofEducationdeinition!]
1981
“ABROAD-GAUGEDRESEARCH/REFORMPLANFORSECONDARYEDUCATION—INTHETRADItionof
theEight-YearStudy,”proposedbyTheProjectonAlternativesinEducation(PAE)in1981,was
submittedforconsiderationandreceivedfundingfromtheU.S.DepartmentofEducationand
theNationalEducationAssociation.TheprojectwasconductedbyleadingAmericanchange
agents,includingMarioD.Fantini,JohnGoodlad,RalphTyler,RonaldS.Brandt,HerbertJ.
WalbergandMaryAnnRaywid.Explanatorycoversheetofthegrantproposalwassubmitted
on“TheJohnDeweySociety”letterhead.PAEcalledforpubliclyfundedchoiceschoolsusing
“effectiveschool[outcome-basededucation]research”andprinciplesoftheEight-YearStudy.
Thesecalledfor“inculcationofsocialattitudes,developmentofeffectivemethodsofthink-
ing,socialsensitivity,betterpersonal-socialadjustment,acquisitionofimportantinformation,
consistentphilosophyoflife,”etc.
IN1981OFFICEOFEDUCATIONALRESEARCHANDIMPROVEMENT:ANOVERVIEWWASPREparedby
staffmembersoftheU.S.DepartmentofEducationforAssistantSecretaryDonaldSenese’s
useatCongressionalbudgethearings.Excerptsfromthepaperfollow:
Federalfundsaccountforapproximately10percentofnationalexpendituresoneducation.
TheFederalshareofeducationalresearchandrelatedactivities,however,is90percentof
thetotalnationalinvestment.
TheCommitteeonCoordinatingEducationalInformationandResearch(CCEIR),Council
ofChiefStateSchoolOficers(CCSSO),inits1980MissionStatementdeined“research”as:
Forpurposesofbrevity,theterm“educationalinformationandresearch”willbeusedto
includebasicandappliedresearch,development,improvement,evaluation,policystudy,
information systems development, data reporting and analysis, and the dissemination of
knowledgeandinformationgainedfromsuchinquiry.
[Ed.Note:Inotherwords,justabouteverythingthatgoesonintheclassroomsofAmerican
publicschools,withtheexceptionofsalaries,schoolbuildings,busesandthepurchaseof
equipment, is either a direct or indirect result of funding by the U.S. Department of Edu-
cation—asresearch!
Congresshasrecognizedthefederalgovernment’ssupposedlimitedauthorityinedu-
cation.In1970ESEA:GeneralEducationProvisionsActwasamendedtoincludea“Prohibition
170
against Federal Control of Education.” This section prohibits the federal government from
exercisingany“direction,supervision,orcontroloverthecurriculum,programofinstruction,
administrationorpersonnelofanyeducationinstitution,school,orschoolsystem,orover
theselectionoflibraryresources,textbooks,orotherprintedorpublishedinstructionalma-
terialsbyanyeducationalinstitutionorschoolsystem.”TheEducationAmendmentsof1976
extendedthisprovisiontoallprogramsintheEducationDivisionoftheU.S.Departmentof
Health,EducationandWelfare.
Althoughsuchaprohibitionsoundslikearestrictionagainstfederalcontrol,ineffect
itleavesoutmorethanitincludes;themostimportantcomponentoffederalcontrolbeing
“research”and“development.”Whocareswhetherthefederalgovernmentisnotallowedto
extenditslongarmdownintothechoiceofcurriculumortheselectionofresources?Thepoint
isthatthefederalgovernmentitselfwasinvolvedinthedevelopmentofthatcurriculumor
thoseresources,teachertraining,testdevelopment,etc.,atoneofitsresearchlabsorcenters,
orpaidtohaveitdevelopedbyschoolsystemsacrossthenation.]
ASSOCIATIONFOREDUCATIONALCOMPUTINGANDTECHNOLOGY(AECT—ASPIN-OFFOFtheNational
EducationAssociation)receivedan$855,282federalcontractfor“ProjectBEST”(BetterEdu-
cationSkillsthroughTechnology)in1981.Anexplanatorybrochurestates:
WHATISPROJECTBEST?ProjectBESTisacooperativeeffortinvolvingboththefederal,
state,andlocalgovernmentandtheprivatesectorintheplanninganduseofmoderninfor-
mationtechnologiestoimprovetheeffectivenessofbasicskills,teachingandlearning.
OnasheetcirculatedwithintheU.S.DepartmentofEducationasaninternaldocument
entitled“ProjectBESTDisseminationDesignConsiderations,”thereappearedthefollowing
information:
PROJECTDESIGNFEATURES
WhatWeCanControlorManipulate? = Stateparticipation/selectionprocess
Roleofadvisors
Contentofprogram
Trainingofstateleaders
Resourcepeopleutilized
Basicskillscontentareasemphasized
Perceptionofneedtousetechnology
BEST’s promotional lyer blatantly discussed how the project would serve not just in
education,butforotherprogramareasaswell,toimplementthenational/internationalman-
agementsystem(MBO,PPBS,TQM):
Inaddition,theStateTeamapproachandthecommunicationsnetworkwithprofes-
sionalassociationsandothergroupsestablishedbytheprojectwillserveasamodelforthe
statesinimplementingsimilareffortsinotherareasofeducation,orinsuchprogramareas
ashealth,humanservices,housing,transportation,etc.
William Spady, at that time serving as executive director of the Association of School Ad-
171
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1981
ministrators,andDr.ShirleyMcCune,servingasheadoftheStateServicesDivision,Denver,
Colorado,werelistedasmembersoftheadvisoryboardforProjectBEST.
[Ed.Note:ProjectBESTwasusedasavehicletoassistin“StateCapacityBuilding”—aprocess
tobetterenableschooloicials,administrators,legislatorsandotherstoprovidesupportive
documentationand“research”forschoolreformefforts.StateCapacityBuildinggrantshave
beenfundedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducationandareusuallymatchedwithstatebudget
funding.]
ALLOURCHILDRENLEARNINGBYPROFESSORBENJAMINBLOOM(MCGRAWHILLPUBLISHingCo.:
NewYork,N.Y.,1981)waspublished.Excerptsfollow:
Inanattempttomaximizecurriculumeffectiveness...curriculumcentersthroughoutthe
worldhavebeguntoincorporatelearning-for-masteryinstructionalstrategiesintotheredesign
ofcurriculum.(p.123)
AccordingtoBloom:
[T]heInternationalAssociationfortheEvaluationofEducationalAchievement(IAEEA)isan
organizationof22nationalresearchcenterswhichareengagedinthestudyofeducation....
Thisgrouphasbeenconcernedwiththeuseofinternationaltests,questionnaires,andother
methodstorelatestudentachievementandattitudestoinstruction,socialandeconomicfac-
torsineachnation.Theevaluationinstrumentsalsorepresentaninternationalconsensus
ontheknowledgeandobjectivesmostworthlearning.(pp.33–35)
AnotherextremelyimportantstatementbyBloominAllOurChildrenLearningisfound
onpage180:“Thepurposeofeducationandtheschoolsistochangethethoughts,feelings
andactionsofstudents.”
HUMAN INTELLIGENCE INTERNATIONAL NEWSLETTER IN ITS MARCH/APRIL 1981 ISSUE REported
thatcriticalthinkingskillsresearchwastakingplacewithintheUnitedNationsEducational,
ScientiicandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO),theOficeofEconomicCooperationandDevel-
opment(OECD),andtheWorldBankwhichplannedon“increasingthebank’sinternational
educationandtrainingbudgettoabout$900millionayear.”4Thenewsletterrelatedthatthe
U.S. Department of Education’s National Institute of Education “has awarded a three-year
contracttotalingapproximately$780,000toBolt,BeranekandNewman,Inc.,ofCambridge,
Massachusettstoanalyzecurrentprogramsofinstructiononcognitiveskills.”TheJuly/August
issueofthenewslettercontainedthefollowing:
Thesearchfornewreferentialsystemsandnewvaluesmodifyingexistingbeliefsshouldbe
basedonmodernmicrobiology.Ascientiicapproachshouldbefreefromdoctrinalbias,and
itsindingsapplicabletoallman-kind.IdeologicalconfrontationsbetweenEastandWest,
MarxismandLiberalism,ArabsandJewsdohaveeconomic,historical,andpoliticalbases,
butnobiologicalbasis.Theseantagonismshavebeencreatedbythehumanbrainandcould
besolvedbythewiserbrainsoffutureman.
172
[Ed.Note:ItshouldbenotedthatMarilynJagerAdams—deeplyinvolvedin“scientiic,re-
search-basedphonicsinstruction”throughherserviceontheCommitteeonthePreventionof
ReadingDificultiesinYoungChildrenfortheCommissiononBehavioralandSocialSciences
andEducationoftheNationalResearchCouncil—hasbeenalongtimeassociatewiththe
above-mentionedBolt,BeranekandNewman.]
THEAPRIL/MAY1981 ISSUE OFTODAY’SEDUCATION, THENATIONALEDUCATIONAssociation’s
monthlyjournal,carriedanarticleentitled“EffectiveSchools:WhattheResearchSays”by
MichaelCohen,seniorassociateandteamleaderoftheResearchonInstructionTeamofthe
NationalInstituteofEducation,U.S.DepartmentofEducation.Someexcerptsfromthearticle
follow:
According to Ronald Edmonds of the Harvard University Graduate School of Education,
these[effectiveschool]studiessuggestthatdifferencesineffectivenessamongschoolscan
beaccountedforbythefollowingivefactors:
• Strong administrative leadership by the school principal, especially in regard to
instructionalmatters.
• Schoolclimateconducivetolearning[i.e.,positive,or“psychologicallyfacilitative,”
schoolclimate,ed.];thatis,asafeandorderlyschoolrelativelyfreeofdiscipline
andvandalismproblems.
• Schoolwideemphasisonbasicskillsinstruction(whichentailsacceptanceamong
theprofessionalstaffthatinstructioninthebasicskillsistheprimarygoalofthe
school).
• Teacherexpectationsthatallstudents,regardlessoffamilybackground,canreach
appropriatelevelsofachievement.
• Asystemformonitoringandassessingpupilperformancewhichistiedtoinstruc-
tionalobjectives....
...[T]heivefactorsidentiiedascontributingtoschooleffectivenesssuggesttheclas-
sicalmodelofabureaucraticorganization:agoal-orientedorganizationwithahierarchical
authoritystructureandacentralmanagerwhomonitorsbehavioranddeliberatelyadjusts
organizationalperformanceonthebasisofclearandagreed-upongoalsandoffeedback
regardinggoalattainment....
Theprincipalmustbewillingtoclearlysetthedirectionfortheschoolandtoholdthe
staffaccountableforfollowingthatdirection.Thestaff,inturn,mustbewillingtoviewthe
principal’sdirectionevenifitinvolvesgivingupsomeclaimstotheirownautonomy.
[Ed.Note:ThereadershouldkeepinmindthatEffectiveSchoolResearchhasbeenusedover
thepasttwentyyearsininnercityschoolsandschoolslocatedintheSouth;thatitstrack
record, if judged by academic test scores, leaves much to be desired. In fact, Washington,
D.C.andSecretaryRiley’shomestateofSouthCarolina—bothofwhichhaveusedEffective
SchoolResearch—hadthelowestacademictestscoresinthenation,tobefollowedbymany
innercityschools,especiallythoseinthesouthernpartofthenation.Inthisregard,thereader
shouldre-readthe1913entrycontainingquotesfromFrederickT.Gates,directorofcharity
fortheRockefellerFoundation.]
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1981 173
INA1981ALASKAGOVERNOR’STASKFORCEREPORTONEFFECTIVESCHOOLINGTOTHEHonorable
JayS.Hammondthefollowingstatementsweremadeinregardtomasterylearninganddirect
instruction(highlystructuredlearningactivities):
Ithasbeendeterminedthatinthelearningofspeciicskillsandfactualdatathatitispossible
toenhanceachievementbyusingtheapproachofmasterylearning,whereininstructional
objectivesareclearlydeined—andinstructionalactivitiesaretieddirectlytoobjectives.Ithas
beendemonstratedthatdirectinstruction—highlystructuredlearningactivity—iseffective
withcertaingroupsofstudents.Theseapproacheswillassiststudentswithlowachievement
tomoveclosertothecurrentmeanoraverage.Yet,ahighlystructuredsystemofinstruc-
tionappliedtoeveryonemayinfactimpedetheprogressofthosestudentsachievingata
levelabovethecurrentmeanoraverage.Theresultisthat,whilevariance(orthespread
ofscoresfromthemean)isreduced,thereisareductioninbothdirections.Lowachievers
maymoveclosertothemean,buthighachieversmaywelldolikewise.Theexamplespre-
sentedaboveregardingachievementmaywellapplytotheoperationofschools.Ifeffective
schoolingpracticesaretoonarrowandarigidsystemresults,varianceamongdistrictswill
bereduced,butthelimitingofcreativityandthelimitingofschoolsintheirabilitytoadapt
tolocalcircumstanceswillcausereductioninvariancefrombothaboveandbelowthemean
oraverage.(pp.38–39)
[Ed.Note:Theintroductiontothisreportwhichstated:“AspartoftheTaskForceeffortseveral
studieswereconductedbyNorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratoryundercontractwiththe
(Alaska)DepartmentofEducation,”shouldexplaintothereaderthattheU.S.Departmentof
Educationhasfunded—andcontinuestofund—masterylearninganddirectinstructionpro-
gramseveninthefaceofevaluativeevidencethatstronglysuggeststhataverageandabove
averagestudentsdonotbeneitfromsucheducationalapproaches.]
TWOIMPORTANTCONFERENCESFOR“SCHOOLIMPROVEMENT”WERESPONSOREDBYTHENORTHwest
RegionalEducationalLaboratory(U.S.DepartmentofEducation)in1981.Theyaredescribed
below:
MEETING THE FUTURE: Improving Secondary Schools with Goal-Based Approaches to
Instruction.MarriottHotel,Portland,Oregon.Majoraddresses:“AlternativeFuturesforOur
Society and Implications for Education” by Dr. Harold Pluimer, Futurist and Educational
Consultant, Minneapolis, Minnesota and “School Effectiveness and Implications for Sec-
ondarySchoolImprovement”byDr.AlanCohen,ProfessorofEducation,UniversityofSan
Francisco.
SessionsonInnovativePractices:“ImprovingGoals,ObjectivesandCompetencies;Making
theCommunityaResourceforLearning”;“LearningthroughMasteryTechniques;Organizing
forContinuousProgress”;“InvolvingTeachersasAdvisorstoStudents”;“Individualizing
ProgramsforAllStudents”;“ManagingInstructionwithComputers”;“DevelopingOptions
forStudentAssessment”;“ImprovingRecordKeepingandReportingProcedures”;“Increasing
StaffMotivationthroughGroupPlanningandDecision-Making”;“TechniquesforManaging
School Improvement”; “Concerns-Based Adoption Model”; “Force Field Analysis”; “Cur-
riculumAlignmentProcesses”;“StaffDevelopmentModels,”and“WisconsinR&DCenter
ModelforSchoolImprovement.”
174
MICROCOMPUTERSINTODAY’SSCHOOLS:AConferenceforEducationalLeaders.Benson
HotelandNWRELHeadquarters,Portland,Oregon.Majoraddresses:“WhyWeWentfor
MicrosandWhatOurCommunityHadtoSayaboutIt”byDr.BillyReagan,Superintendent,
Houston,TexasPublicSchools;“Tomorrow’sTechnologyinToday’sSchools”byDr.Dexter
Fletcher,WorldInstituteforComputer-AssistedTeaching,andothers.
THENATIONALEDUCATIONASSOCIATIONPUBLISHEDNEASPECIALCOMMITTEEONINSTRUCtional
TechnologyReportwhichwaspresentedtotheir60thRepresentativeAssembly,heldJuly4–7,
1981.Anexcerptfromthereportrelatedtotheproblemsofprogrammedlearning(computer-
assistedinstruction)follows:
In its coming involvement with a technology of instruction, the profession will be faced
againwiththechallengeofleadership—byexampleandbyeffectivecommunication—the
challengeofconvincingthepublicthateducationismuchmorethantreatingstudentslike
somanyPavloviandogs,tobeconditionedandprogrammedintodocileacceptanceofa
do-it-yourselfblueprintoftheGoodLife.
Theproblemsassociatedwithtechnology,initsinalanalysis,areproblemsoffreedom
andcontrol.Whosefreedom?Whosecontrol?Asaresultofitsstudy,thecommitteeurges
the Association to view the problems and promises of instructional technology not as a
singleissuebutratherasabroadcontinuumofissuesaffectingallaspectsofeducationand
teaching—from purposes to products, from political pragmatism to professional practice.
Mostproblemsproducedbytechnologyhavetodowiththehumanuseofhumanbeings.
Inhisbook,TheIllusionofTechnique:ASearchforMeaninginaTechnologicalCivilization
(Doubleday:NewYork,1978),WilliamBarretteobservesthat—
Humancreativityexceedsthemechanismsitinvents,andisrequiredevenfortheirintel-
ligentdirection....Ifwetrytoleefromourhumanconditionintothecomputerweonly
meetourselvesthere.
“FAMILIES AND SCHOOLS: A SYSTEM OF MUTUAL SUPPORT,” A SPEECH DELIVERED IN 1981 by
SecretaryofEducationT.H.BellbeforeaFreemanInstituteaudienceinUtah,includedBell’s
recommendationthatschoolsshoulduseProfessorLawrenceKohlberg’s“EthicalIssuesin
DecisionMaking”toteachvalues.(AsynopsisofKohlberg’sStagesofMoralDevelopmentis
containedina1975entryonthetopic.)
IN1981MAINE’SSTATECAPACITYBUILDINGGRANTFROMTHENATIONALINSTITUTEOFEducation
(NIE),U.S.DepartmentofEducation,wasexaminedandverbatimnotestakenbythiswriter
fromtheileatNIE.ThesameCapacityBuildingGrantsweremadetoalliftystatedepart-
mentsofeducation.Thewriterhasselectedthisimportantgrantasanexampleoffederal
controloflocaleducationthroughfederalfunding.Thefollowingverbatimnoteswillhelp
thereaderunderstandthefarceoflocalcontrolandwhytheU.S.DepartmentofEducation
mustbeabolished.
Thisparticulargrantwasofextremeinteresttothewriterduetoherinvolvementinthe
lateseventies—alongwithBettinaDobbs,thepresidentofGuardiansofEducationforMaine
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1981 175
(GEM)—inastatewide,grassrootsefforttostoptheverycontroversialStateHealthEduca-
tionProgram(SHEP)fundedinpartbytheKelloggFoundation.Believeitornot,asawordof
encouragement,GEMwasinstrumentalinstoppingthiseducationprograminmanyschool
districts(agoodexampleofDavidandGoliathinthetwentiethcentury).Evidently,theabove-
referencedNIEgrantwasusedtofurthertheimplementationofthisandotherhealtheducation
programs.Otherstateswouldusethesegrantsforwhateverprogramstheyperceivedtobe
ofimportancetothematthattime.Statebudgetrequestsformatchingfundswouldbelisted
simplyas“StateCapacityBuilding.”
NIE Grant G–80–0025 was in the amount of $98,000 per year for four years. Maine’s
sharetowardstotalfederalfundingwastobe$118,025outofthefour-yeartotalof$392,000.
Excerptsfromthegrantrequestfollow:
Thesesystemswillemphasizestaffdevelopmentasprimaryvehicleforpromotingutilization
ofstateandnationalinformationresourcesforpurposeofschoolimprovement....
BriefdescriptionofProject:ThisprojectisattemptingtodevelopameansbywhichMaine
educatorscaneasilyacquireanduseinformationforproblemsolvingandschoolimprove-
ment....
OBJECTIVES:
1.Developcomputerizedinformationresourcebasewhichincludesnational,stateand
localresources.
2.Developaninformationservicethatprovideseasyaccesstotheinformationresource
base.
3.Reinementofcomputerprogramandinitiationofrevisionofdatacollectionforms
(uponrecommendationofaTechnicalAssistanceTeamfromtheNationalInstitute
ofEducation).
4.Developasystemforcoordinating,disseminating,anddistributingschoolimprove-
menteffortswiththestateeducationagency....
1/30/80...D_____wantedtoknowaboutatechnicalassistanceteamatNIEthatworkswith
projectedcontentofprivatedatabanks....BelieveB_____headssuchateamandcouldhelp
herwithherilebuildingactivities....
DEVELOPMENTOFMAINEDATABASE:
Administration,coordinationandfacilitationofDevelopmentofaStatewideSchoolPractice/
ImprovementSystem....AmeetingwasheldwiththeSystemsAnalystoftheStateEducation
Agencytoexploreprivateiledevelopmentoptionsavailablethroughthestategovernment
computer.... Model for staff development.... Training of State Health Education Program
(SHEP)staffincompletingandeditingdatacollectionforms....SHEPwillreceiveprintouts
forallhealtheducationresourcesenteredintoMaineResourceBank.
EARLY IN1981 THEPRESIDENT’STASKFORCE ONPRIVATESECTORINITIATIVES WAS INstalledat
734JacksonPlace,N.W.,Washington,D.C.MembershiplistedonTheWhiteHouseletterhead
readlikea“Who’sWho”ofindividualsingovernmentagencies,universities,tax-exemptfoun-
dations,non-governmentalorganizations,business,media,laborunions,andreligion.The
namesofsomeindividualsonthetaskforcefollow:WilliamAramony,president,UnitedWay;
176
WilliamJ.Baroody,Jr.,president,AmericanEnterpriseInstitute;HelenG.Boosalis,mayor,
CityofLincoln,Nebraska;TerenceCardinalCooke,archbishopofNewYork;GovernorPierreS.
Dupont,Delaware;SenatorDavidDurenberger;LuisA.Ferre,formergovernorofPuertoRico;
JohnGardner,chairman,IndependentSector;EdwardHill,pastor,Mt.ZionBaptistChurch;
MichaelS.Joyce,executivedirector,JohnM.OlinFoundation;EdwardH.Kiernan,president,
InternationalAssociationofPolice;ArthurLevitt,Jr.,chairman,AmericanStockExchange;
RichardW.Lyman,president,RockefellerFoundation;ElderThomasS.Monson,TheMormon
Church;WilliamC.Norris,chairmanandCEO,ControlDataCorporation;GeorgeRomney,
chairman,NationalCenterforCitizenInvolvement;C.WilliamVerity,Jr.,chairman,Armco
Steel,Inc.;JeriJ.Winger,irstvicepresident,GeneralFederationofWomen’sClubs;Thomas
H.Wyman,president,CBS,Inc.;andWilliamS.White,president,C.S.MottFoundation.5
Thistotallynewandun-Americanconceptofpartnershipsbetweenpublicandprivate
sector has been readily accepted by our elected oficials who ignore its roots in socialism
and its implications for the discontinuation of our representative form of government and
accountabilitytothetaxpayers.Underthe“partnership”process,determiningresponsibility
whensomethinggoeswrongislikepinningjellotothewall.
Suchachangeingovernment,ifpresentedinclearlanguagetocitizensatthepolls,would
be rejected. However, when implemented gradually, using the Marxist-Hegelian Dialectic,
citizensdon’tevennoticewhatishappening.Theshiftisawayfromelectedrepresentatives.
Intime,aftervotershavebecomeevenmoredisenchantedwiththecandidatesandelection
results,fewerandfewercitizenswillvote.Atthatpointahighly-respectedmemberofthepublic
willenterthepicturetoproposeasolutiontotheproblem:somesortofcompromisetoward
parliamentaryformofgovernmentfoundinsocialistdemocracieswhichwillbeacceptableto
AmericansunfamiliarwiththeprotectionsguaranteedbytheU.S.Constitution.
Onesaystooneself,conidently,“Thiswillneverhappen.”Lookaroundyou.Whatdo
yousee?Site-basedmanagementinyourlocalschools,transferringdecision-making,tradi-
tionallyexercisedbyelectedschoolboards,topoliticallycorrectappointeesandthecreation
ofunelectedtaskforcesatallgovernmentlevels;proposalsto“separateschoolandstate”
whichmakenomentionofgovernmentalandsocialstructureconsequences—effortstohave
governmentmoney(taxes)payforservicesdeliveredbyprivatereligiousorhomeschools,etc.,
withnopublicrepresentation.Therecanbenoaccountabilitytothetaxpayersunderasystem
soalientotheUnitedStates’formofrepresentativegovernment.
Howclean,neatandtidy.Wholesaledestructionofanentire,wonderfulsystemofgov-
ernmentwithoutiringashot.
AsaU.S.DepartmentofEducationliaisonwithTheWhiteHouseduringtheearlydaysof
thisinitiativethiswriterinquiredofoneofPresidentReagan’spoliticalappointeeswhetherthis
initiative,wasnotcorporatefascism;apoliticallyincorrectquestionthatresultedinsomeone
elsereplacingmeasLiaisonwithTheWhiteHouse.
AVERYIMPORTANTNATIONALASSESSMENTOFEDUCATIONALPROGRESS(NAEP)REPORT,ingal-
leystage,entitledMeasuringtheQualityofEducation:ConclusionsandSummary,waspro-
videdtothiswriterin1981,sheddinglightnotonlyontheresponsibilityofmajortax-exempt
foundationsinthedevelopmentofanationalcurriculum,butalsoontheroleofthefederal
governmentinsettingstandards/goalsforAmericaneducation.Excerptsfollowfrom(1)a
coverlettersignedbyWillardWirtz,formersecretaryoflabor,andArchieLapointe,executive
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1981 177
directoroftheNAEP,and(2)thereportitself:
(1)
Inadifferentsense,thisreportisdesignedtomeettheresponsibilitiesimposedatleastim-
plicitlybythethreefoundationswhichinitiatedandhavesupportedtheproject;theCarnegie
Corporation,theFordFoundation,andtheSpencerFoundationhavebecomecriticaland
constructiveforcesinAmericaneducation.
(2)
Conclusions...Insteadofdetermining“whatisbeingtaught”andbasingtheobjectiveson
thispresentpractice,thecontrollingquestionis“whatoughttobetaught.”...Itisspeciically
recommendedthatcautionbeexercisedagainstputtingtheAssessmentresultsinaformthat
couldbemisconstruedasconstitutingnational—or“federal”—standards....
Summary...Thereportrelectsmostsigniicantlythecarefullyconsideredconclusionsofthe
CouncilofSevenwhichwasestablishedatthebeginningoftheproject.Selectedprimarily
fortheirrecognizedresponsibilityandgoodsense,theyalsorelectavarietyofexperiences
andinstitutionalinterests:GregoryAnrig,thenMassachusettsCommissionerofEducation
andnowPresidentoftheEducationalTestingService;StephenK.Bailey,whoistheFrancis
KeppelProfessorofEducationalPolicyandAdministrationofHarvardGraduateSchoolof
Education; Charles Bowen, Director of Plans and Program Administration for University
RelationsoftheIBMCorporation;ClareBurstall,DeputyDirectoroftheNationalFounda-
tionforEducationalResearchinEnglandandWales;EltonJolly,ExecutiveDirectorforOp-
portunitiesIndustrializationCenters;LaurenResnick,Co-DirectoroftheLearningResearch
andDevelopmentCenteroftheUniversityofPittsburgh;andDorothyShields,Directorof
EducationfortheAFL-CIO....
...ItwastheCouncil’ssuggestionandeventuallyitsdecisiontoshapetheentirereport
intermsoftheAssessment’spotentialroleindevelopinghigherandmoreeffectiveeduca-
tionalstandards.WherewehadbeentimidaboutthistheCouncilmovedboldly.Theywere
right....
...Measuring student achievement is an entirely different business from measuring
otheraspectsofthenationalcondition....Theygettotheiranswerswithouthavingtomake
valuejudgments.Notsoofthemeasurersof“educationalachievement.”Thekeytermisn’t
deinedexceptastheydevelopitsmeaning.Therestofthisisthatoncethatdeinitionis
workedout,themeasuringprocessdependsatcriticalpointsonwhatareinsigniicantpart
valuejudgments.Whetheraneducationalstandardis“better”or“higher”dependsonhow
itconsistswithultimateeducationalpurposes...
...ThoseinchargeoftheAssessmentareinapositiontoguidetheirpoliciesentirely
byadeterminationofwhatever“quality”means.Theyfacenocompetitionandaresub-
jecttonopoliticalpressures.InnovationandexperimentationarepartoftheAssessment’s
authentictradition.Itcanprovidenotonlycompetencebutconscienceandcourageinthe
implementationofthenewnationalpurposetoimproveeducationalstandards.
...AstatementintheNAEPDESIGNANDDEVELOPMENTDOCUMENTcoveringthe
1979–1980Reading/LiteratureAssessmentissuccinctlydescriptive:
Theirststepinanyassessmentcycleisobjectivesdevelopment.Theobjectivesidentifythe
importantknowledge,skills,andattitudeswithinanassessmentareawhicharegenerally
beingtaughtorshouldbetaughtinschools.Theseobjectivesthenbecometheframework
fordevelopingassessmentexerciseswhichmeasuretheobjectives.
Althoughthereislittlepublicawarenessofthesestepsintheprocessofsettingeducational
178
standards, they affect that process vitally and give any standard its determinative char-
acter....
...This new emphasis will mean that teaching will be increasingly oriented toward
theseobjectives,whichisgoodorbaddependingontheirquality.Ifthesestandardsareto
determineaccountability,itiscriticalthattheirmeasurementrelectultimateeducational
purposesratherthanwhatmightbedangerousexpediencies....The1979–1980Reading/
LiteratureAssessment,reportedthisyear,appearstorelectacriticalchangeinNAEPem-
phasis.Itembodieselementsofobjectives-settingthatareessentialtoaqualityconceptof
educationalstandards....
...Twophrasesinthedesignanddevelopmentpassagequotedabovearecritical.Ob-
jectivesareto“identifytheimportantknowledge,skillsandattitudes.”Thisistoinclude
those“whicharegenerallybeingtaughtorshouldbetaughtintheschools.”Theemphasis
isadded,butisconsistentwiththeoriginalcontext.Thisstatementcontrastswiththe1970
NAEPdescriptionoftheobjectivessetfortheirstReadingassessment.Theseweredescribed
asinvolvingno“distinctly‘new’objectives,”butas“restatementsandsummarizationsof
objectiveswhich(have)appearedoverthelastquartercentury.”...
...The1969–1970CitizenshipAssessmentincludedagrouptaskexercisedesignedto
determine,byobservingstudents’groupinteraction,theirabilityto“applydemocraticpro-
ceduresonapracticallevel.”...Thiscapacityforinnovationandexperimentationhasbeen
lost,largelyasaconsequenceofbudgetaryconstraints.
Service Facility... In 1977–78, when the Texas legislature was considering the enactment
ofaminimumcompetencytestingprogram,theTexasEducationAgencymadeextensive
useofNAEPmaterialsinconductingastatewidesurvey(TexasAssessmentProject—TAP)
ofstudentachievementinReading,Writing,Mathematics,andCitizenship.Thesampling
planwaspatternedaftertheNationalAssessment.BoththeWritingandtheCitizenshipas-
sessmentswerebasedlargelyonitemsandexercisesselectedbyaTexasEducationAgency
staffpanelfromamongthoseprovidedbyNAEPofices.AftertheTexasassessmenthad
beencompleted,extensivecomparisonsweremadebetweentheTexasresultsandavailable
NAEPdata,andreportedtothelegislativecommitteeforconsiderationinconnectionwith
theadoptionofthe“TexasAssessmentofBasicSkills.”Thecircumstancesunderwhichthe
legislationwasadoptedprecludeanyclearidentiicationoftheeffectofthecomparisons.
ThereismoreevidenceofsubstantialinluenceoftheTAPinitiativeontheFRAMEWORK
FORTHESOCIALSTUDIESandLANGUAGEARTSFRAMEWORKwhichhavebeendeveloped
andontheSTATEBOARDGOALSwhichhavebeensetfor1983.
LargerpotentialforNationalAssessmentusefulnessissuggestedbythetenyearsor
soofcooperationbetweenNAEPoficesandtheConnecticutStateBoardofEducation,in
connectionwiththeadministrationoftheConnecticutAssessmentofEducationalProgress
(CAEP). A 1980 State Board report notes that “The CAEP program is modeled after the
NationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP)initsbasicgoals,designandimple-
mentation.”ThisisclearlyrelectedinthepatternofthetwelveConnecticutassessments
insevensubjectsalsocoveredbyNAEPsurveys.TheCAEPsamplingdesignislikeNAEP’s,
exceptthatstudentsareassessedatgraderatherthanagelevels.Goalsandobjectivesused
fortheConnecticutassessmentsparallelclearlytheobjectivesandsubobjectivesidentiied
fortheNationalAssessment.ManyCAEPitemsareNAEPitems;thiswastrueofallitems
inthe1979–1980ConnecticutScienceAssessment....
…ComparableusesofNationalAssessmentmaterialshavebeenmadeinanumberof
otherstates.ArecentNAEPstaffsummaryliststwelveStatesashavingcloselyreplicated
theNationalAssessmentmodel,andtwelveothersashavingdrawnonNAEPoficesfor
technicalandconsultativeadvice.Thereisclearconirmationinthisrecordofnotonlya
substantialservicepotential,butalsoofasigniicantprospectforintegratingstateandna-
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1981 179
tionwideassessmentprograms.
[Ed.Note:Asonereadstheexcerptsinparttwoofthisreport,itisimportanttobearinmind
thedenialsofcomplicityemanatingfromtheU.S.DepartmentofEducationandtherespective
statedepartmentsofeducationwhenconfrontedwithchargesthatthestateassessmentsuse
testitemsfromtheNAEPTestItemBank.Theresistancetosuchuseresultsfromthepublic’s
traditionalaversiontonationaltestsandnationalcurriculum—withwhichalloftheabove
entitieshavedeniedinvolvement.Clearly,denialisinvaininlightoftheevidencecontained
inthisdocument.]
THE NATIONAL CENTER FOR CITIZEN INVOLVEMENT ISSUED A REPORT ENTITLED THE AMERIcan
Volunteer,1981:StatisticsonVolunteers.Onerevealingstatementfromthereportfollows:
VolunteerPopulation:92million,44%ofwhomworkaloneinaninformal,un-
structuredenvironmentonprojectsoftheirownchoice;therestofwhomwork
instructuredactivities.
[Ed.Note:Obviously,themajoreffortrelatedtovolunteerismwas—andis—toconvincethe
44% who are, in effect, “doing their own thing,” to join in the government-private sector
“PointsofLight”volunteerismpartnershipinitiatedbythen-PresidentGeorgeBush,aswellas
PresidentBillClinton’sAmeriCorps.Thatwaytheywillworkonlyonpoliticallycorrectand
government-approvedprojects.]
MALCOLMDAVIS,THEDIRECTOROFTHEOFFICEOFLIBRARIESANDLEARNINGTECHNOLogy,Ofice
ofEducationalResearchandImprovementattheU.S.DepartmentofEducation,inresponse
tothiswriter’scommentin1981thatcomputercoursewarecouldallowchildrentolearnat
home,responded,“Inessence,inthefuturealleducationwilltakeplaceinthehome,butthe
schoolbuildingswillbeusedforsocializationpurposes.”Thisquoteisnotexact;however,it
representsthiswriter’srecollectionofitsixteenyearslater.Iwassostunnedbyhiscomment
thatIrecallitoftenwhenlookingattheissueof“choice”andespeciallythatofhomeschool-
ing.
ThiscommentwasechoedbyAlvinTofler,GeorgeGilderandLewisPerelmanduring
aProgressandFreedomFoundationconferenceinAtlanta,GeorgiainAugustof1995.This
conferenceprecededanddealtwithissuesmoldingthe“ContractwithAmerica”whichNewt
GingrichputforthforRepublicancandidatestoadoptastheirplatformsin1996.LewisPerel-
man’sbook,School’sOut(AvonBooks:NewYork,1992),dealswiththisveryconceptand
Perelmanattendedtheconferenceasanexpositorof“conservative”positionsoneducation
forProgressandFreedomFoundation.
[Ed.Note:A1992proposaltotheNewAmericanSchoolsDevelopmentCorporation(NASDC)
fromTheCenterfortheNewWestofDenver,ColoradoincludedaplanfromitsNewWest
LearningCenterDesignTeamwhichprovidedaclearpictureofthecommunityofthefuture.
“HomeSchoolFamilies”wouldbelinkedto“PublicSchools,Communities,PrivateSchools,
Businesses,AlternativeSchools,andHigherEducation”withtheNewWestLearningCenter
servingasthe“hub”ofthewheel,orcommunity.Whilethisproposalwasnotselectedas
180
a recipient of NASDC funding, and, fortunately, has not been funded by any government
entity—YET—itsdescriptionofchangesinlocalgovernanceandrelationshipsofcommunity
elementsmetthecriteriaestablishedbyNASDC.(SeeAppendixXIandXII.)]
1982
PROFILESINEXCELLENCE:1982–1983:SECONDARYSCHOOLRECOGNITIONPROGRAM:AResource
Guide(OficeofEducationalResearchandImprovementoftheU.S.DepartmentofEducation:
Washington,D.C.,1982)listedtheKennebunk,MaineHighSchoolasonewhichschoolsacross
thenationmightwishtoemulate.TheGuidestated:
Themajorgoaloftheschool’scurriculumistoindividualizethelearningprocessforthe
student.Thedistrictisintheprocessofdevelopingadatabankforstudentsandatesting
programfordeterminingexpectancyinstructionallevelsforeachstudent.Oncethisisinplace,
staffwilldevelopanIndividualEducationPlan(IEP)foreachstudenttomeetindividual
needs.Themajordificultytheschoolisencounteringinimplementingthisnewprocessis
thesecondarystaffwhoaretrainedassubjectmatterteachers.Teachersneedtoberetrained
tofocusonindividualneedsratherthanoncontentareas.
“FROMSCHOOLINGTOLEARNING:RETHINKINGPRESCHOOLTHROUGHUNIVERSITYEDUCAtion”by
DonGlineswaspublishedintheJanuary1982issueoftheNationalAssociationofSecondary
SchoolPrincipals’Bulletin.6Thefollowingareexcerpts:
Theimplicationsoftheseglobalconcernsforschools,educators,andeducation,aremon-
umentaliftheviewsofmostfuturewritersarecorrect.Earlyrecognitionofthiscamein
the1974book,LearningforTomorrow:TheRoleoftheFutureinEducationbyAlvinTofler
(RandomHouse:NewYork,1974),andTheThirdWave(WilliamMorrow:NewYork,1981)
[bythesameauthor].
Onepassagestates:“Americaneducationisobsolete;itproducespeopletoitintoa
reasonably well-functioning industrial society and we no longer have one. The basic as-
sumptiondrivingAmericaneducation,onebothdeceptiveanddangerous,isthatthefuture
willbelikethepresent.Schoolsarepreparingpeopleforasocietythatnolongerexists.As
societyshiftsawayfromtheindustrialmodel,schoolswillhavetoturnoutadifferentkind
ofperson.Schoolsnowneedtoproducepeoplewhocancopewithchange.”...
Whatdopeoplewhowillbeintheirprimeintheyear2050,assumingsocietymakes
itthroughthecomingtransitionaldecades,needtoshapetheirfutures?Isthecurrentcur-
riculum—history,mathematics,science,newversionsofDickandJane,alltaughtasseparate
subjects,reallyappropriatefortheconcludingyearsofthetwentiethcentury?Themajority
offutureswritershaveaclearanswer:No.Theyillustratethatinstantinformationretrieval
notonlyendsjobsintheworldofwork,itendssubjectsintheworldoflearning!...
Thepotentialtechnologyexiststoeliminatemostcurrentclassroomsbeforetheturn
ofthecentury,movingfromacampustoacommunity-orientedlearningsystem.Apostliter-
atesocietyisonthevergeofarriving;readingwillbecomealuxury,aleisurepastime,ora
choice,butnotanabsoluteessential.
Yet,theseventhgradeprogramsinjuniorhighandmiddleschoolscontinuewiththe
bleaknessof50yearspast.MoststillrequireEnglish,history,science,math,andphysical
181
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1982
education,alongwithasemesterofartandasemesterofmusic.Theyhaveperiod1,2,3
schedules;A,B,Creportcards;tardies,notesfromhome;textbooks.Perhapsevenworseis
thefactthatmostcollegesstillprepareteachersforthisantiquity;andadministrators,who
inspiteofthegoalsprofessedingraduatecourses,continuetoperpetuatethesystem.Isit
anywonderthatLearningforTomorrowlabeledtoday’seducationobsolete?
RonBarnes,inTomorrow’sEducator:AnAlternativetoToday’sSchoolPerson(Tran-
sitions,Inc.:Phoenix,Arizona,1977),haslistedhisdescriptorsofaNewAgeeducator—a
personwhothinkssystematically;acceptsandpromotesdiversity;demonstratesaholistic
perspectivetowardlife;strivesforself-awareness;promotesinterdependence;iscomfortable
withtheunknown;considershumanvaluesofhighestpriority;isexperimental;workstoward
changingschools;hasamoreopenapproachtoknowledge;andisatruefuturist.
OUTCOME-BASEDINSTRUCTIONALMANAGEMENT:ASOCIOLOGICALPERSPECTIVEBYWILLiamSpady
was published in 1982, supported by a contract from the National Institute of Education
(NIE–P–80–0194).Thisimportantpaper,whichprovidedacompleteoverviewofthephilosophy
behindOBE,theorganizationaldimensionsofoutcome-basedpractice,theoperationalchar-
acterofoutcome-basedpractice,etc.,alsocarriedsomeinterestingcommentsregardingOBE’s
relationshiptoProjectFollowThrough.Excerptsfollow:
ImplicationsforFollowThrough...Despitethelimitationsofformalvalidationdatasources,
however,thereisastrongcasetobemadeforimplementingfullydevelopedOB[outcome-
based]modelsinFollowThroughsites.Philosophically,aswellasempirically,thisapproach
isinherentlysuitedtotheclienteleservedbyFollowThroughprogramsandpossessesan
operationalcharacterthatiswellsuitedforaffectingpositivelyboththecognitiveandaf-
fectiveoutcomeagendassoughtbyavarietyofcurrentFollowThroughmodels.
RecognizingthatOBpracticeresemblessomeofthesemodels,itsuniquepowerap-
pearstobethatitpossessesainebalancebetweenfocusandlexibility,andstructureand
responsiveness,andthatitcontainselementssuitabletoavarietyofstudentmotivational
andlearningstyleswithoutleaningheavilytowardanyoneorientation.Thatis,itisasin-
clusionaryinitsmethodologyasitisintheconditionsforstudentlearningsuccessittries
toestablish.
AinalpointregardingtheinherentappealofOBpracticeforFollowThroughimple-
mentationisitsbasicopenness.Publicinvolvementingoalsetting,publicvisibilityofob-
jectivesandstandards,andperformancerecordsandreportingsystemswhichdescribethe
actualbehaviorbeingsoughtallhelpto“demystify”theeducationalprocessandfacilitate
clearerunderstandingandcommunicationbetweenparentsandtheschool.
TheNetworkforOutcome-BasedSchoolsitselfrepresentsauniqueandpowerfulresource
fortechnicalassistanceandimplementationtoanysitesorientedtowardOBpractice.
[Ed.Note:TheaboveexcerptsshouldbeofinteresttothosepromotingDISTAR/ReadingMastery,
theSkinnerian“systematic,intensive,scientiicresearch-based”phonicsreadingprogramwhich
wasoneoftheFollowThroughmodels.HowironicthatWilliamSpadyshouldsaythatthe
outcome-basedpracticewhich“conservatives”saytheydetestissimilartotheFollowThrough
modelwhichtheyhaveembraced.ItisobviousSpadyisnotreferringtotheOpenClassroom
FollowThroughmodel,sincethatmodeldidnotinclude“publicvisibilityofobjectivesand
standards,performancerecordsandreportingsystemswhichdescribetheactualbehaviors
beingsought.”Inotherwords,SpadyismakingitclearthatOBpracticeisafraternaltwinof
182
theFollowThrough’sDirectInstructionmodeldevelopedbySiegfriedEngelmann,whichhas
alsobeenembracedby“conservatives”!]
“LEARNINGTOREADTHEECRIWAY”BYDENNISBAILEYWASPUBLISHEDINTHEMAINETimeson
January8,1982.InthearticleBaileypointsoutthat
PatrickGroff,aneducationprofessor,wroteina1974issueofToday’sEducation:“Sofar,
masterylearninghasnotpresentedtheempiricalevidencenecessarytoconvincereasonable-
mindedteachersthatallstudentshavethesameaptitudeforlearningeverysubject.”
[Ed.Note:ThatProfessorGroff,professoremeritus,SanDiegoStateUniversity,wouldmake
the above comment is interesting in light of recent events; namely, his co-founding with
RobertSweetoftheRighttoReadFoundation(RRF)whichhastakenapositioninsupport
oftheReadingExcellenceActof1998.InsupportingthislegislationGroff’sorganizationhas
indicatedsupportforthe“scientiic,research-based”readingmethodusedinECRI,thevery
techniquewhichhesays“hasnotpresentedtheempiricalevidencenecessarytoconvincerea-
sonable-mindedteachersthatallstudentshavethesameaptitudeforlearningeverysubject.”
ECRIisthemirrorimageofSiegfriedEngelmann’sDISTARdirectinstruction,theSkinnerian
operantconditioning-basedreadingprogrampromotedinRighttoReadnewslettersandon
itswebsite.]
WILLIAM (BILL) SPADY, “THE FATHER OF OBE,” MADE THE FOLLOWING STATEMENT DURING a
conferenceheldattheU.S.DepartmentofEducationin1982(attendedbythiswriter).This
writerwrotedownverbatiminshorthandSpady’sfollowingcomment:
TwoofthefourfunctionsofMasteryLearningare:Extra:wholeagendaofacculturation,
socialroles,socialintegration,getthekidstoparticipateinsocialunit,affective;andHid-
den:asystemofsupervisionandcontrolwhichrestrainsbehaviorofkids;theoutcomeof
thehiddenagendashouldbethefosteringofsocialresponsibilityorcompliance.
“STATEOFPRECOLLEGEEDUCATIONINMATHEMATICSANDSCIENCE”WASPREPAREDBYPaulDeHart
Hurd,professoremeritus,StanfordUniversity,fortheNationalConvocationonPre-College
EducationinMathandScience,NationalAcademyofSciencesandNationalAcademyofEn-
gineeringinWashington,D.C.in1982.InthispaperProf.Hurdassertsthat:
IntheCommunistcountriestherearecomprehensiveexaminationsattheendofthepri-
mary,middle,andsecondaryschoolstoassessastudent’sactualprogress.Testresultsare
notinterpretedinacompetitivesenseastowhohasdonewellorpoorlycomparedtoother
studentsoranorm,butratherwhetherastudenthasmasteredtheprescribedsubjectmat-
ter.Iftestresultsarebelowexpectancy,thestudentistutoredbytheteacherandstudents.
Theobjectistoavoidfailures.
[Ed.Note:ThisdeinitionisstrikinginitssimilaritytothedeinitionofOBE/masterylearning/
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1982 183
directinstruction,whichusesnon-competitive,criterion-referencedtestsratherthantraditional
norm-referencedtestswhichcomparestudentstooneanother.Anothercommonfeatureamong
thesetechniquesiscontinuousprogresswherebystudentscanhaveallthetimeand/ortu-
toringtheyneedinorderto“master”thecontent.Continuousprogressisnecessarytocarry
outUNESCO’slifelonglearningconcept.This“exitexam”processisbeinglegislatedintoan
increasingnumberofstates.]
INASPEECHENTITLED“REGULATEDCOMPETITIONINTHEUNITEDSTATES”DELIVEREDBEforethe
top52executivesinNorthernTelecom’sWorldwideCorporationmeeting,forwhichtheedited
proceedingswerepublishedintheFebruary1982issueoftheInnisbrookPapers,7Harvard
ProfessorAnthonyOettingeroftheCouncilonForeignRelationsmadethefollowingextremely
elitiststatements:
Ourideaofliteracy,Iamafraid,isobsoletebecauseitrestsonafrozenandclassicaldeinition.
Literacy,asweknowittoday,istheproductoftheconditionsoftheindustrialrevolution,
oforganization,oftheneedforaworkforcethatcould,ineffect,“writewithaineround
hand.”Ithastodo,inotherwords,withtheBobCratchitsoftheworld.
Butasmuchaswemightthinkitis,literacyisnotaneternalphenomenon.Today’s
literacyisaphenomenon(andDickenssatirizedit)thathasitsrootsinthenineteenthcen-
tury,andonedoesnothavetoreachmuchfartherbacktothinkofcivilizationswithdifferent
conceptsofliteracybased,forexample,onoral,ratherthanwritten,traditions.
Thepresent“traditional”conceptofliteracyhastodowiththeabilitytoreadandwrite.
Buttherealquestionthatconfrontsustodayis:Howdowehelpcitizensfunctionwellin
theirsociety?Howcantheyacquiretheskillsnecessarytosolvetheirproblems?
Dowe,forexample,reallywanttoteachpeopletodoalotofsumsorwriteina“ine
roundhand”whentheyhaveaive-dollar,hand-heldcalculatororawordprocessortowork
with?Or,dowereallyhavetohaveeverybodyliterate—writingandreadinginthetraditional
sense—whenwehavethemeansthroughourtechnologytoachieveanewloweringoforal
communication?8
Whatisspeechrecognitionandspeechsynthesisallaboutifitdoesnotleadtowaysof
reducingtheburdenontheindividualoftheimposednotionsofliteracythatwereaproduct
ofnineteenthcenturyeconomicsandtechnology?
Complexity—everybodyismoaningabouttasksbecomingtoocomplexforpeopleto
do.ACongressmanwhovisitedoneofmyclassesrecentlysaid,“Wehavesuchlow-grade
soldiersintheU.S.thatwehavetotrainthemwithcomicbooks.”Andanarmycaptainin
myclassshotback:“What’swrongwithcomicbooks?Mypeoplefunction”[emphasisin
original].
Itisthetraditionalideathatsayscertainformsofcommunication,suchascomicbooks,
are“bad.”Butinthemoderncontextoffunctionalismtheymaynotbeallthatbad.
[Ed.Note:Doesn’ttheabovesoundalotliketheTexasStudyofAdultFunctionalCompetency,
theAdultPerformanceLevelStudy,andSecretaryofEducationT.H.Bell’sandWilliamSpady’s
initiationofdumbed-downcompetency-basededucation?
Onecan’thelpbutwonderifOettinger—andthosesocialengineerswithwhomheas-
sociateswhocalltheshotsinregardtoourchildren’sfutures—wouldbehappytohavetheir
ownchildrenandgrandchildrenofferedsuchalimitededucationthattheywon’tevenknow
whoCharlesDickensorBobCratchitwere?]
184
CHESTERFINNWROTE“PUBLICSERVICE,PUBLICSUPPORT,PUBLICACCOUNTABILITY”FORtheMarch
1982issueoftheNationalAssociationofSecondarySchoolPrincipals’Bulletin.Finnbecame
ahighproileigureineducationcircleswithhisappointmentasassistantsecretary,Oficeof
EducationalResearchandImprovement,bySecretaryofEducationWilliamBennett.Finn’s
articlewasquotedinBarbaraMorris’sbook,TuitionTaxCredits:AResponsibleAppraisal(The
BarbaraMorrisReport:Upland,Cal.,1983):
Shortofscatteringmoneyinthestreetsorhandingitouttoeveryonewhowantssome,the
fundingagencymustdeineeligiblerecipients....Thismeans,inaword,“regulation,”the
inevitableconcommitantofpublicinancialsupport.
Finnalsobelievedthegovernmentisobligatedtorecognizethattheprivateschoolsit
helpssupportaredifferentfrompublicschools—thatitisthis“differentness”thatmakesthem
supportable.Theothersideofthecoin,hesays,istheobligationofprivateschools
torecognizecertainlimitstotheirdifferentnessandcertainwaystheymustconformtothe
normsandexpectationsofasocietythatvaluesandsupportsthem....
Some,tobesure,liketothinktheycanhaveitbothways;i.e.,canobtainaidwithout
saddlingthemselveswithunacceptableformsofregulation.Butmostacknowledgethegeneral
applicabilityoftheoldadagethathewhopaysthepipercallsthetune,andaremoreorless
resignedtoamalgamatingorchoosingbetweenassistanceandautonomy.
ONMARCH29,1982,ATTHE“CLOSEDTOTHEPUBLIC”ANNUALMEETINGOFTHECOUNCILofChief
StateSchoolOficers,SecretaryofEducationT.H.Bell’stopassistant,ElamHerzler,toldthe
assemblediftystatesuperintendentsofeducation:
Oneoftheelementsofaneffectiveschoolistomonitor,assess,andfeedback....Aslittle
as5percentofaschoolbudgetK–12wouldbeneededoveraperiodof12yearstoenable
eachstudenttohavehisowncomputer,andthisiswithinourcostrange.
“CANCOMPUTERSTEACHVALUES?”BYJOSEPHA.BRAUN,JR.ANDKURTA.SLOBODZIAN,assistant
professorsintheDepartmentofCurriculumandInstructionoftheNorthernIllinoisUniversity
SchoolofEducationinDekalb,Illinois,waspublishedintheApril1982issueofEducational
Leadership.Thefollowingareexcerpts:
Inhelpingchildrenlearnhowtoinquireandexaminetheirownemergingvaluesystems,
mosteducatorsagreethatunintentionalnegativereactionsbyteachersaredeleteriousto
youngsters’self-concept.Couplethiswithpotentialridiculefromstudentpeers,andone
canreadilyseewhyvalueseducationhasbeenadelicateandcontroversialissue.However,
a student using CAI [computer-assisted instruction] in the examination, evaluation, and
acquisitionofvalueswouldbeabletodosowithmatureguidanceinanenvironmentfree
frompotentialrejectionorscorn.
Another pitfall for teachers of values education is the invasion of a child’s right to
privacy.Well-intentionedteachersoftenexpectself-disclosurebeyondastudent’slimitof
psychological safety (Lockwood, 1977) by demanding deeply personal revelations from
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1982 185
participantswhoarenotpreparedtodiscusstheirmoreprivatethoughts.Thecomputer,in
contrast,hasnomisguidedneedtogettoknow“therealyou.”
Thecomputer,then,isideallysuitedtotheroleoffacilitatorinvalueseducation.It
inherentlypossessestheRogerian[psychologistCarlRogers]qualitiesofgenuinenessand
congruence.Itcanevenbeprogrammedtopositivelyregardanyonewhousesit.Astudent
usingCAIgainsasenseofprotectionaswellasaconstantsourceofappropriatefeedback
whileexploringandintegratingfeelings,beliefs,andbehavior.
Computershavealsobeenprogrammedtopickoutkeywordsfromarespondent’s
statements.Thecomputerprogramthenformulatesopen-endedquestionsfromkeywords,
whichcausestherespondenttofocusandfurtherclarifyfeelings.Inotherwords,usinga
programcalled“Doctor,”Holden(1977)describesaconversationbetweenacomputerand
atroubledyoungwomanwhobeganwithacommoncomplaint:
Human:“Menareallalike.”
Computer:“Inwhatway?”
Human:“They’realwaysbuggingusaboutsomethingoranother.”
Computer:“Canyouthinkofaspeciicexample?”
Human:“Well,myboyfriendmademecomehere.”
Computer:“Yourboyfriendmadeyoucomehere?”
Human:“HesaysthatI’mdepressedmuchofthetime.”
Computer:“Iamsorrytohearthatyouaredepressed.”
Human:“It’strue,Iamunhappy.”
Computer:“Doyouthinkcomingherewillhelpyounotbeunhappy?”
Human:“Ineedsomehelp.Thatmuchseemscertain.”
Computer:“Whatwoulditmeanifyougotsomehelp?”
Human:“PerhapsIcouldlearntogetalongwithmymother.”
Computer:“Tellmemoreaboutyourfamily.”
THECOMPLETEWORKS OFFRANCISA.SCHAEFFER:ACHRISTIANWORLDVIEW,VOLUMEOne,a
ChristianViewofPhilosophyandCulture(CrosswayBooks:Westchester,Ill.,1982)waspub-
lished.Inatreatiseentitled“AChristianViewofPhilosophyandCulture:BacktoFreedom
and Dignity,” noted Christian scholar and theologian Dr. Francis Schaeffer warned of B.F.
Skinnerandhismethods:
Skinnersaysthatupuntilthepresenttimeallofhumanityhasconsideredmantobeinsome
senseautonomous—thatis,thatthereisineachindividualan“ego”ormindorcenterof
consciousnesswhichcanfreelychooseoneoranothercourseofaction.But,Skinnersays,
autonomousmandoesnotexist,anditisthetaskofbehavioralpsychologytoabolishthe
conception....Skinnerdeclaresthateverythingmanis,everythingmanmakes,everything
manthinksiscompletely,100percent,determinedbyhisenvironment.
AfterthepublicationofBeyondFreedomandDignity[1972],whenhe[Skinner]wasat
theCenterfortheStudyofDemocraticInstitutions,hespokeatWestmontCollegeinSanta
Barbara,California.Therehesaid,“Theindividualdoesnotinitiateanything.”Infact,he
saidthatanytimemanisfreedfromonekindofcontrol,hemerelycomesunderanother
kindofcontrol.Christiansconsiderthatmanisautonomousinthatheissigniicant,heaf-
fectstheenvironment.Inbehavioristicpsychology,thesituationisreversed.Allbehavioris
determinednotfromwithinbutfromwithout.“You”don’texist.Manisnotthere.Allthatis
thereisabundleofconditioning,acollectionofwhatyouhavebeeninthepast:yourgenetic
makeupandyourenvironment.ButSkinnergoesastepfurther,subordinatesthegenetic
186
factor,andsuggeststhatman’sbehaviorcanbealmosttotallycontrolledbycontrollingthe
environment....Somebehavioristswoulddifferwithhimonthislastpoint.Howisitthat
theenvironmentcontrolsbehavior?
HereSkinnerbringsuptheconceptof“operantconditioning.”Thisnotionisbasedon
hisworkwithpigeonsandrats.Thebasicideaisthat“whenabitofbehaviorisfollowed
byacertainconsequence,itismorelikelytooccuragain,andaconsequencehavingthis
effectiscalledareinforcer.”(p.27)Thatis,forexample,“anythingtheorganismdoesthat
isfollowedbythereceiptoffoodismorelikelytobedoneagainwhenevertheorganismis
hungry.”
Therearetwokindsofreinforcers:negativereinforcerswhichhaveadverseeffects,
and positive reinforcers whose effect is positive. Skinner contends that only the positive
reinforcersshouldbeused.Inotherwords,inordertoreinforceacertainkindofbehavior,
oneshouldnotpunish;heshouldreward.Ifapersonissurroundedbyanatmospherein
whichhegetsasuficientrewardfordoingwhatsocietywouldlikehimtodo,hewillauto-
maticallydothiswithouteverknowingwhyheisdoingit....WithintheSkinneriansystem
therearenoethicalcontrols.Thereisnoboundarylimittowhatcanbedonebytheelitein
whosehandscontrolresides.
Thereductionofman’svaluetozeroisoneoftheimportantfactorswhichtriggered
thestudentrebellionatBerkeleyandelsewhereinthe1960s.Thosestudentssensedthat
theywerebeingturnedintozerosandtheyrevolted.Christiansshouldhavesenseditlong
beforeandsaidandexhibitedthatwehaveanalternative....Weareonthevergeofthelarg-
estrevolutiontheworldhaseverseen—thecontrolandshapingofmenthroughtheabuse
ofgeneticknowledge,andchemicalandpsychologicalconditioning.
Willpeopleacceptit?Idon’tthinktheywouldacceptitif(1)theyhadnotalready
been taught to accept the presuppositions that lead to it, and (2) they were not in such
hopelessness.Manyofoursecularschoolshaveconsistentlytaughtthesepresuppositions,
andunhappilymanyofourChristianlowerschoolsandcollegeshavetaughtthecrucial
subjectsnodifferentlythanthesecularschools.
Schaeffer’s“Conclusion”follows:
Whatdoweandourchildrenface?Thebiologicalbomb,theabuseofgeneticknowledge,
chemicalengineering,thebehavioristicmanipulationofman.Allthesehavecometopopular
attentiononlyafewyearsago.Buttheyarenottwentyyearsaway.Theyarenotiveyears
away.Theyareherenowintechnologicalbreakthroughs.Thisiswherewelive,andastrue
Christianswemustbeready.ThisisnotimeforweaknessintheChurchofChrist.What
hashappenedtoman?Wemustseehimasonewhohastornhimselfawaybothfromthe
ininite-personalGodwhocreatedhimasinitebutinhisimageandfromGod’srevelation
tohim.MadeinGod’simage,hewasmadetobegreat,hewasmadetobebeautiful,and
hewasmadetobecreativeinlifeandart.Buthisrebellionhasledhimintomakinghimself
intonothingbutamachine.(pp.374–384)
ANARTICLEENTITLED“GRADUATESLACKTECHNICALTRAINING,STUDYWARNS—BY1990,2Million
MayNotHaveEssentialSkillsNeededforEmploymentin‘InformationSociety’”waspublished
intheMay12,1982issueofEducationWeek.Thisarticleclearlyplacedtheresponsibilityfor
thetransformationfromtraditionalacademiceducationtoworkforcetrainingatthefeetofthe
CarnegieCorporation-spawnedEducationCommissionoftheStates(ECS)andtheNational
AssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP).Thisarticleiredoneoftheirstshotsacrossthe
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1982 187
bowoftraditionalacademiceducation.Itclearlydeinedthenew“education”landscapewhen
itdescribedtheneedforBenjaminBloom’sTaxonomy(highlevelskillsofcriticalthinking;i.e.,
evaluation,analysis,synthesis,application,etc.)versus“lowlevelbasicskills,”emphasizing
theuseofthebrainforprocessing,notstorage(explainedbyThomasKellyintheJanuary
1994issueofTheEffectiveSchoolReport).Theterminologyinthisarticlewould,elevenyears
later,berelectedinthemajorGoals2000restructuringlegislation,theElementaryandSec-
ondaryReauthorizationActof1994(H.R.6)whichreferredtothelearningofbasicacademic
skillsandtheemphasisonrepetitivedrillandpracticeinelementaryschoolasa“disproven
theory.”Someexcerptsfromthisenlighteningarticlefollow:
“Unlessthedeclineofhigh-orderskillsamonghigh-schoolstudentsisreversed,”warns
anewreportfromtheEducationCommissionofthestates,“asmanyastwomillionstudents
maygraduate[in1990]withouttheessentialskillsrequiredforemploymentintomorrow’s
technically-orientedlaborforce.”
“InformationSociety:WillOurHighSchoolGraduatesBeReady?”waspreparedby
RoyForbes,directoroftheNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP)andLynn
GroverGisi,aresearchassistantandwriterwithNAEP.Itsintention,theauthorssay,isto
“stimulate research and communication among the groups concerned with technology’s
impactoneducation.”
The Forbes-Gisi report reviews labor-force projections, summarizes recent National
Assessmentindings,andoutlines“recentcorporate,educational,andlegislativeactions”
designedtoaddresstheproblem.
ArguingthatthecomputerchipwillreplaceoilintheU.S.economy,andwillformthe
basisforanewinformationsociety,theauthorssaythatthe“basics”masteredbythehigh-
schoolgaduatesofthefuturewillhavetoincludemorecomplexskillsthanminimalread-
ing,writing,andcomputing.Amongthehigher-levelskillstheinformationagewillrequire,
theyargue,willbe“evaluationandanalysis,criticalthinking;problem-solvingstrategies,
includingmathematicalproblem-solving,organizationandreferenceskills;synthesis;ap-
plication;creativity;decision-makinggivencompleteinformation;andcommunicationskills
throughavarietyofmodes.”…ThedatafromtheNationalAssessmentprovideconvincing
evidencethatbythetimestudentsreachtheageof17,manydonotpossess[theabove
listed]…higher-orderskills.The“elementsoftheproblem,”saysthereport,are:
• Foreigncompetition.Theageofhightechnologyisrapidlychangingtherolesof
productionandothercountriesareresponding—fasterthantheU.S.—byupgrading
theireducationalprogramsonanationallevel.TheU.S.educationalsystem,says
thereport,“posesuniqueproblemsbyitsinherentcommitmenttodiversityand
emphasisonlocalandstatecontrol.”…
• Students.Technologyusedforeducationalpurposeshasthepotentialtoreshapein-
structionaldeliverysystems,thereportsays,andthatmayresultinadecentralization
oflearningfromtraditionalschoolsintohomes,communitiesandindustries.…
• Responsibilitiesandrelevance.Educationmustbecomemorerelevanttotheworldof
work,thereportcontends,andthisrequires“informationalfeedbacksystemsonthe
successesofstudentswhohavecompletedtherequiredcurriculum.Qualitycontrol
hasfocusedontheinputsintoasystem—teachersandtextbooks,forexample—and
nottheoutcomes.Thustherehasbeennoattempttoincorporatelong-terminforma-
tionintothemanagementsystem’sprogramplanning.”Thereport’sauthorsagree
withareportoftheSouthernRegionalEducationBoardthatAmericanschooling
nolongerlacksthebasicsratherthe“complexitiesthatmakeformaturelearning,
maturecitizenship,oradultsuccess.”…
188
UnlesstheU.S.cankeeppace,thereportcontends,its“positionasaleaderoftech-
nologyandcompetitorforworldmarketswillbeseverelythreatened.”
CooperativeEfforts
Onlycooperativeeffortsinvolvingallsegmentsofsocietywillsolvetheproblem,the
reportstates.Inparticular,itcallsonAmericanindustryandlabortoplayagreaterrole….
…”Industriescannotaffordtopassuptheseopportunitiesandothersbecausetheir
futureexistencewilldependuponit….Clearlywearenotcultivatingtherawmaterials,our
futureworkers,whoarevitalnotonlyforeconomicprogress,butultimatelyforeconomic
survival.”
[Ed.Note:Therearemanyresponsesthiswritercouldmaketotheabovearticle,buttheirst
ofwhichisthatthestatement“Clearlywearenotcultivatingtherawmaterials,ourfuture
workers”—ourchildren!—isthemostoffensiveofall.Theuseofthosewordsalonewhen
referringtohumanbeingsshouldtellthereaderthatsomethingisvery,verywronginthe
UnitedStatesofAmerica.Onehasmorerespectfortheirpetanimalsthantorefertothemas
“rawmaterials.”
Secondly, the report’s agreement with the Southern Regional Education Board “that
Americanschoolingnolongerlacksthebasics”deieslogic!Fromaregionwhichconsistently
scoresatthebottomoftheheap,thisisparticularlyrepugnant.Theideathat“higherorder
skills”shouldbethefocusofoureducationaleffortscanonlybetheproductofthethinking
ofpersonswhoarenotconcernedwithwhetherornotstudentscanread,write,orcompute
unlessitistoperformaworkforcefunction.Withoutabasicabilitytoread,writeandcom-
puteonabroadbase,itisimpossibleforanyonetohavesubstanceaboutwhichto“think
critically”!Thinkingcritically—makingchoicesandcomparisons—requiresabaseknowledge
thatiseitheracquiredthroughstudy(asinthecasewithmostchildrenwhoarestudents)or
throughlifeexperience(whichadults,butnotchildren,canclaim).
Lastly, the use of technology to decentralize “learning” from traditional schools into
homes,communitiesandindustriesshouldraiseatall,redlagforsuccessfulhomeschoolers.
Thesefolksaretalkingaboutgovernmentcontrolofthisprocess.]
THEINTERNATIONALCONFERENCEFORPARENT/CITIZENINVOLVEMENTINSCHOOLSWASheldJuly
22–25,1982attheHiltonHotel,SaltLakeCity,Utah.AlettertoSecretaryBelldatedFebru-
ary25,1982requestingconferencefundingcontainedanimpressivelistofsupportersonits
letterhead,including:ScottMatheson,governorofUtah;Mrs.BarbaraBush,honorarychair-
person,NationalSchoolVolunteerProgram;T.H.Bell,U.S.secretaryofeducation;Dr.Don
Davies,InstituteforResponsiveEducation;Dr.CarlMarer,NationalCommitteeforCitizens
inEducation;Dr.M.DonaldThomas,superintendentofschools,SaltLakeCity,Utah,and
educationrepresentativesfromCanadaandAustralia.
Dr.DonaldThomas,originallyontheboardofdirectorsofTheEffectiveSchoolReport,and
executivedirectoroftheNetworkforEffectiveSchools,isawell-knownchangeagent.Thomas
hastraveledtoRussiaundertheauspicesofU.S.SecretaryofEducationLamarAlexander
andDaleMannofColumbiaUniversity,toworkwithRussiaonimplementinginternational
educationrestructuring.
Theabove-mentionedlettertoBellalsostated:
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1982 189
The“thinktank”sessionwillbebyinvitationonlytoleadersinthemovement.Itspurpose
willbetoassessthecurrentstatusofparent/citizeninvolvementintheschools;toidentify
trendsanddirectionsofthemovementforthe80s;andinallytoplanfurtherpositiveaction
tosupportthecontinuationofthemovement.
Oneoftheattachmentstothisconferencecorrespondenceincludedmanypagesrelated
toEffectiveSchoolResearchandalistingofthecomponentsnecessaryforeducationrestruc-
turing.Thelistincluded:
• masterylearning/directinstruction
• expectations
• climate
• motivation
• measurementdiagnosis
• assessment
• classmanagement
• discipline
• classroomorganization
• pupilconditions/rewards
• praise
• parentinvolvement,etc.
Thoseconnectedwithsuchresearcharelistedasfollows:MichaelRutter,England,Ef-
fectiveSchoolStudy;thelateHarvardProfessorRonEdmonds;professorsBenjaminBloom
andJohnGoodlad;LarryLezotte;DonaldThomas;andothers.
AsecondattachmentonNationalCoalitionforParentInvolvementinEducation(NCPIE—
Alexandria, Virginia) letterhead stated that NCPIE was facilitated by the National School
VolunteerProgramandfundedbyUnionCarbideCorporation.
AMEMOWASSENTTOSECRETARYOFEDUCATIONT.H.BELLFROMTHEASSISTANTSECREtary,Ofice
ofEducationalResearchandImprovement,regarding“upcomingeventsforJuly31–August
31”whichlisted:
AUGUST 5—President Reagan is scheduled to hold a press conference in which he will
announceaninitiativeinvolvingtheNationalDiffusionNetworkandtheNationalHealth
ScreeningCouncilforVolunteerOrganizations,Inc.Thiscollaboration,calledPARTNERSHIP,
linksschoolswiththemedia,localbusinesses,governmentandhospitalsinaschoolim-
provementeffort.
[Ed.Note:ThisactivitywascancelledduetopromptgrassrootsoppositionintheD.C.area
consistingofamemorandumtotheWhiteHouseinformingthePresidentofconcernnationwide
relatedtotheprocessknownas“communityeducation”andpublic-privatepartnerships.]
AU.S.DEPARTMENTOFEDUCATIONMEMORANDUMTOSECRETARYBELLDATEDOCTOBER5,1982
stated:
190
PresidentReaganisscheduledtovisitP.S.48,anelementaryschoolintheBronx,NewYork
City.DuringhisvisitthePresidentwillmeetDr.EthnaReid,DirectoroftheExemplaryCenter
forReadingInstruction,aprogramintheNationalDiffusionNetwork.Dr.ReidwillbeatP.S.
48totrainstaffmembersintheuseofECRI.9
[Ed.Note:WhetherthePresident,averybusyman,metwithDr.Reidornot,isinsigniicant.
WhatIShighlysigniicant,however,isWHYthisextraordinaryeffortwasmadetointroduce
thePresidentoftheUnitedStatestoDr.EthnaReidofUtah.Inretrospect,schedulingPresident
Reagantomeetwiththedeveloperofthe“chosen”teachingmethodwhichincorporatesSkin-
nerianmasterylearninganddirectinstructionmakessense.]
U.S.SECRETARY OFEDUCATIONT.H.BELL’SCOMMISSION ONEXCELLENCE PUBLISHEDANation
atRisk:TheImperativeforEducationalReformin1982.Thisreportlaidthegroundworkfor
thecontroversialrestructuringAmericansfacetoday.Initially,thecommissionengagedina
slick,expensivepropagandisticroadshow,intendedtomobilizeAmericanopinioninfavor
oftheumpteenthreformsincethefederalgovernmentseizedcontrolofeducationin1965,
causingsteepdeclinesinacademictestscores.Therecommendationswerecouchedinterms
Americanswouldaccept;i.e.,masteringbasicskills,morehomework,etc.Itshypewasbest
illustratedbythefollowingexcerpt:
IfanunfriendlyforeignpowerhadattemptedtoimposeonAmericathemediocreeducational
performancethatexiststoday,wemightwellhavevieweditasanactofwar....Wehave,in
effect,beencommittinganactofunthinking,unilateraleducationaldisarmament.
[Ed.Note:Therhetoricworked.Spendingincreased.Ideas,whichwouldneverhavebeen
acceptedhadacrisisnotbeendeliberatelycreated,wereembracedwithoutquestion.These
includeddoingawaywiththeonlyvalidcriterionformeasuringstudentacademicachieve-
ment—theCarnegieUnit—withitsrequiredfouryearsofmath,fouryearsofEnglish,four
yearsofhistory,etc.,inordertograduatefromhighschool.Ofinterestwasaninformalcom-
mentmadebySecretaryBellattheinitial(closedtothepublic)commissionmeetinginJuly
of1981.SecretaryBellcommentedthatonehadto“createconlictinordertoobtainone’s
objectives.”
Theconlictwasindeedcreatedbetweentheconservatives(falselyrepresentedbybig
businessinterests)andtheliberals(theleft-wingtax-exemptfoundationsandleadershipofthe
teacherunions,etc.),inordertobeabletocometoacompromise(arriveattheconsensusor
commonground)whichrepresentedwhattheUnitedNationsanditseducationalagencieshad
beenpromotingsince1945.TheU.N.agendaincludedsocialistlifelonglearningandtraining
fortheglobalworkforce.Thisconsensusrequired—andsucceededinobtaining—partnerships/
mergersbetweenindividualsandgroupsthathadformerlyhadnothingincommon—especially
thepartnershipbetweengovernmentschoolsandbusiness.Suchapartnershipisrequiredby
socialist/fascistformsofgovernment.]
THECENTERFOREDUCATIONALRESEARCHANDINNOVATION(CERI),10WHICHISATTACHEDtothe
OrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD)inParis,France,heldan
InternationalSchoolImprovementProject(ISIP)conferenceinPalmBeach,Floridain1982.
191
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1982
ManyofthekeycomponentsoftheUnitedStates’educationreformmovement(effectiveschools
movement)werediscussedbydelegatesfrommembercountries.Themaintopicappeared
tobeasubjectentitled“CBAM”aboutwhichabsolutelynothingwassaidintheinvitational
paperssenttodelegatesplanningtoattend.
Thewriterwasbewilderedbytheterm“CBAM”untilitappearedintheU.S.Department
of Education-funded project “Changing Teacher Practice, Final Report of an Experimental
Study—GaryA.Grifin,PrincipalInvestigator,SusanBarnes,SharonO’Neal,SaraE.Edwards,
Maria E. Deino, Hobart Hukill—Report No. 9052, Research and Development Center for
TeacherEducation,TheUniversityofTexas,Austin,Texas78712.”Withintheprojectreport
thereisdiscussionoftheapplicationof“behavioralscienceforsystemsimprovement.”The
“ChangingTeacherPractice”projectcontainedthe“Concerns-BasedAdoptionModel”(CBAM),
whichillustratedtheextentofpsychologicalmanipulationundergonebyteacherswhoresist
change.Thefollowingexcerptexplainsthepurposeof“Concerns-BasedAdoptionModel”as
asupporttooltoassistteachersthroughthepainfulprocessof“change”:
TheConcerns-BasedAdoptionModel(CBAM)providesastructureforstaffdevelopmentplan-
ningwhichfocusesontheprocessofchangeasapersonalexperience(Hall&Loucks,1978,
Note19).Theperceptions,feelings,motivations,frustrations,andsatisfactionsofteachers
aboutaninnovationareidentiiedandclassiiedaccordingtoadevelopmentalschemeof
stages.Theprocessofchangebywhichapersonmovesthroughthesestagesisattendedto
sothataninnovationcanbeimplemented.Concerns-basedstaffdevelopmentrecognizes
andacceptsaslegitimatetheconcernsofthepersoninvolvedinthechangeprocess.Change
isregardedaslongtermanddevelopmental,andindividualsareperceivedtoneedsupport
astheyexperiencechange.Inthismodelanyprocessorproductthattheteacherhasnot
previouslyencounteredisregardedasaninnovationforthatteacher.(p.37)
[Ed.Note:TheinformationregardingtheISIPconferenceinPalmBeachistakenfromaJuly
9,1982letterfromJ.R.GassoftheOrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment
oftheCenterforEducationalResearchandInnovationtoDonaldJ.Senese,assistantsecretary
fortheOficeofEducationalResearchandImprovement,U.S.DepartmentofEducation.Such
internationalmeetingsatwhichinternationaleducation/workforcetrainingagendaitemsare
discussedtakeplaceregularly.OERIandCERIarecloselyconnectedintheworktheycarry
outforOECD,UNESCOandtheUnitedNations.]
“BETWEENCLASSES—WHATCOST,ACCOUNTABILITY?”BYTERRYL.FORTHUM,TEACHERandeditor
ofthestatenewspaperoftheArizonaFederationofTeachers,waspublishedintheOctober
1982issueoftheTheArizonaForum.Excerptsfollowfromthisthought-provokingarticle:
Ifaccountabilitybecomestheultimategoalofeducationandallareasofeducation
arereducedto“components”measurablebystandardizedtesting,educationwillnolonger
bealearningprocessbutacloningprocessforboththeteacherandthestudent.Theprior-
ityquestionsforeducationinthefuturemaywellbe:Whycan’tJohnnythink?Whycan’t
Johnnyenjoy?Whycan’tJohnnyfeel?Whycan’tCarbonUnitJsmile?...
ThepaniccausedbyeducationalstudiesoftheWhyCan’tJohnnyReadvarietyhas
createdaneweducationalpriority—ACCOUNTABILITY.Initspurestform,accountability
aidstheprofessionandtheprofessionalinmaintainingstandardsofexcellence.Theresults
ofanyattemptto“monitor”theprofessionandthereforemakeitaccountablecanonlybe
192
asvalid,however,astheinstrumentorprocesswhichproducestheresults....
AccountabilityisthecentralelectionissueintheraceforSuperintendentofPublicIn-
struction[Mr.ForthumisreferringtoreformopponentAnnHerzer’sbidtounseatCarolyn
Warnerassuperintendentofpublicinstruction,ed.].Thepresentadministrationhasestab-
lishedpilotprogramsthroughoutArizonawhichcanmeasurestudentprogressasdeinedby
thetestinginstrument,thereforemakingtheschoolandinstructoraccountable.Theevaluative
program,developednationallyandpilotedinotherstatesbeforereachingArizona,canin
factestablishacriteriafortestingaccountability.Thatitworksisnottheissue.Theissue
ishowitworks.Theissueisnot“shouldeducationbeaccountable”butshouldeducation
makeB.F.Skinnermethodologythemodelforestablishingeducationalaccountability?
EDWARD CURRAN, DIRECTOR OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION, WAS DISMISSED by
Secretary T.H. Bell in 1982 due to Curran’s recommendation to President Reagan that the
NationalInstituteofEducation—theresearchanddevelopmentarmoftheU.S.Department
ofEducation—beabolished.PresidentReaganwasoutofthecountryatthetimeofCurran’s
dismissal.WhenPresidentReaganwaselectedDr.Curranlefthispositionasheadmasterof
theCathedralSchoolforGirlsinWashington,D.C.,irsttoworkontheeducationdepartment
transitionteamandlatertoassumethedirectorshipoftheNationalInstituteofEducation.
Curran’scourageousrecommendationwouldnothaverequiredCongressionalapproval,as
didtheproposaltoabolishtheU.S.DepartmentofEducation;anexecutiveorderbySecretary
Bellwasallthatwasrequired.AbolishingNIEcouldhaveremovedmuchofthecontroversial
federalgovernmentinluenceinourlocalschools.Inanarticleentitled“SuccessEludesOld
ResearchAgency,”EducationWeek(December9,1982)quotedDr.Curranasfollows:
NIEisbasedonthepremisethateducationisasciencewhoseprogressdependsonsystematic
“researchanddevelopment.”Asaprofessionaleducator,Iknowthatthispremiseisfalse.
1983
“ARELIGION FOR ANEWAGE” BYJOHNDUNPHY, WRITTEN FOR THEJANUARY/FEBRUARY1983
issueofTheHumanist,thejournaloftheAmericanHumanistAssociation,liftstheveilof
respectabilityfromhumanismandhumanisticethics.Excerptsfollow:
Iamconvincedthatthebattleforhumankind’sfuturemustbewagedandwoninthe
publicschoolclassroombyteacherswhocorrectlyperceivetheirroleastheproselytizersofa
newfaith:areligionofhumanitythatrecognizesandrespectsthesparkofwhattheologians
calldivinityineveryhumanbeing.
Theseteachersmustembodythesamesellessdedicationasthemostrabidfundamen-
talistpreachers,fortheywillbeministersofanothersort,utilizingaclassroominsteadofa
pulpittoconveyhumanistvaluesinwhateversubjectstheyteach,regardlessoftheeducation
level—preschooldaycareoralargeuniversity.
Theclassroommustandwillbecomeanarenaofconlictbetweentheoldandthe
new—therottingcorpseofChristianity,togetherwithallitsadjacentevilsandmisery,and
thenewfaithofHumanism,resplendentinitspremiseofaworldinwhichthenever-real-
izedChristianideaof“lovethyneighbor”willinallybeachieved.
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1983 193
EDUCATIONFORRESULTS:INRESPONSETOANATIONATRISK,VOL.1:GUARANTEEINGEffective
PerformancebyOurSchools(SAFELearningSystems,Inc.:Anaheim,Cal.,1983)byRobert
Corriganwaspublished.Inits500-pagehow-tomanual,Corrigan’sS.A.F.E.[SystematicAp-
proachforEffectiveness]modelwasdescribed.Corriganexplains:
The following successive phases were performed to test out the theoretical concepts of
increasedmasterylearningeffectiveness:Phase1.Todesignandtoextensivelyield-test
agroupinstructionallearning-centeredprogramapplyingthoseprogrammedinstructional
principlespostulatedbySkinnerandCrowdertobecombinedwiththetechniquesofSystem
Analysisforinstallingrequiredsystem-widemanaging-for-resultsprocessesincludingthe
accountableperformancebyteachers,principalsandsupportpersonnel.Thisprogramwould
be“packaged”forusebyteacherstodeliverpredictableachievementofdeinedmastery-
learningobjectives.(p.155)
[Ed.Note:Thisprogramwasendorsedby—amongothers—BillSpady(Mr.OBE),thedirectorof
thecontroversialFarWestLaboratoryOutcome-BasedEducationProject(theUtahGrant)and
ProfessorHomerCokeroftheUniversityofGeorgia,whodeveloped—withNationalInstituteof
Educationfunds—acontroversialstandardizedteacherevaluationinstrumentwith420teacher
characteristics(competencies/behaviors).Thisbook’sAppendixVIcontainsextensivequotes
fromthisimportanttrail-blazingproject.]
FROMTHEFIRSTNEWSLETTER,OUTCOMES,PUBLISHEDBYBILLSPADY’SNETWORKFOROutcome-
BasedSchoolsin1983,camethearticle“FourPhasesinCreatingandManaginganOutcome-
BasedProgram”byJohnChamplinoftheDepartmentofEducationalAdministrationofTexas
TechUniversityinLubbock,Texas.Thefactthatmasterylearningisoutcome-basededucation
ismadeclearinthefollowingexcerpts:
“Outcome-Based”wasconceivedduringdiscussionsin1979whenourattentioncentered
aroundhowMasteryLearningcouldbebettermanagedandmademorelikelytosurvive,
despitemanyill-conceiveddesignandimplementationattempts.Thoseparticipatingproposed
thatanadvocacynetworkbeestablished.Thisfoundinggroupofadozenorsoconcluded
thatmoresupportforMasteryLearningwouldbelikelyifthisnewnetworkfocusedequally
onoutcomesaswellasprocess.Theyarguedthatinstructionaldeliverysystemsneededto
besuficientlylexibleandresponsivetoproduceawidevarietyofoutcomes,notjustthe
existinglimitationsofbasicskillsprograms.Thisdecisionwasconsideredcriticalinviewof
limitedsuccessineffortstooperationalizecompetency-basedconceptsduringthe1970s....
OutofthesedialoguesemergedtheNetworkforOutcome-BasedSchools,alooseconigu-
ration of researchers, teachers, principals, school superintendents and college professors
whosegoalwastoadvocateandimplementMasteryLearningasavehicleforproducingthe
capabilitiesandresponsesnecessaryforstudentstoattainvariedoutcomes.TheNetwork
hasbeenavigorousproponentofalloftheidentiiedcomponentsofOutcome-Based(OB)
programmingsinceitsinception....
INITIATECOMMUNITYREEDUCATIONANDRENORMINGACTIVITIES—Anynewprogram
developmentabsolutelyrequiresprovisionstofostercommunityunderstanding.Manywell-
intendedchangeeffortshavefallenupontherocksbecausethecommunitydidn’tunderstand
it,challengedit,andbuiltupsomuchpressurethatitwaseasiestforstafftoreverttothesafe
harborofthestatusquo.Thiscommunityeffortshouldbedesignedbothtoreeducateandto
194
renormparentsandthegeneralpublic.Itisimportantthatyourcommunityknowwhatyou
intendtodo,whyitishappening,andexactlywhattheycanexpectasitprogresses.Ibelieve
adistrictwillwinsomedegreeoftoleranceandpatienceifitinvolvesthecommunityinthis
way.Toexpectresidentstopassivelyacceptanymodiicationafterthefactorbyedictisa
seriouserror.Thinkofrenormingthecommunitythesamewayyouconductsimilarefforts
intheschoolenvironment.Don’tchallengethecommunity,co-optthem.(pp.36–7)
THEU.S.DEPARTMENTOFEDUCATIONFUNDEDTWOIMPORTANTPROJECTSIN1983:1)“Framing
aFutureforEducation”forKansas;and2)“StrategicPlanningandFurtheringExcellencein
MillardPublicSchools”forNebraska,bothofwhichwereassignedtoDr.ShirleyMcCune
of the MidContinent Regional Educational Laboratory (McREL) as project director. These
twoprojects,basedontheworkoftheNewAgeNaisbittGroupfoundedbyJohnNaisbitt
whoauthoredMegatrends,servedasnationalpilotsforOBErestructuringofAmericafroma
“representativedemocracy”toa“participatorydemocracy—movingfromaleftversusright
politicstoapoliticsoftheradicalcenter,”inDr.McCune’swords.McCunebecamefamous
(orinfamous)duringtheNationalGovernors’AssociationconferenceinWichita,Kansasin
1989whenshesaid:
Whatwe’reintoisthetotalrestructuringofsociety.WhatishappeninginAmericatoday
andwhatishappeninginKansasandtheGreatPlainsisnotsimplyachancesituationin
theusualwindsofchange.Whatitamountstoisatotaltransformationofsociety....Our
totalsocietyisinacrisisofrestructuringandyoucan’tgetawayfromit.Youcan’tgointo
ruralareas,youcan’tgointothechurches,youcan’tgointogovernmentorintobusiness
andhidefromthefactthatwhatwearefacingisthetotalrestructuringofoursociety.
[Ed.Note:Inthe1996entryregardingMcCune’sbook,TheLightShallSetYouFree(Athena
Publishing,AlphaConnections:SantaFe,NewMexico,1996),McCuneexpressedherbelief
that“eachindividualisaco-creatorwiththeDivine.”]
“ACALL FOR ARADICALRE-EXAMINATION:EDUCATIONSHOULDREFLECT ANEWINTERNAtional
EconomicOrder”byMichelDebeauvaiswaspublishedintheMarch1983issueofTheEdu-
cationDigest.ThearticlewasacondensedversionoftheoriginalwhichappearedinProspects
(Vol.XII,No.2,pp.135–145).MichelDebeauvaisisco-founderandpresident,Francophone
AssociationofComparativeEducation,Sevres,France.Thefollowingexcerptsrelatetothe
transformationoftheworld’seducationsystemsfromtraditionalacademicemphasistowork-
forcetraining:
Thecurrentofthoughtthatseekstoabolishtheexistinginternationaleconomicorderand
replaceitwithanewordercallsforreexaminationoftherelationsbetweeneducationand
theeconomy....
Assuminggrowingimportanceeverywhere,however,istheinadequacyof[theresponse]
ofschoolsystemstosocialneedsandtotheneedsoftheeconomy.Theseshortcomings
liebehindtheeducationalreformsuponwhichnearlyallcountrieshaveembarked.The
chiefcriticismsare:primaryschoolingoftentendstodirectyoungpeopletowardsalaried
employmentinthemodernurbansector,whereasonlyaminorityamongthemcanhopeto
obtainsuchjobs;generalsecondaryeducationstillchannelspupils’aspirationstowardhigher
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1983 195
education;technicalandvocationaleducationsufferfromlackofprestigeandhighcosts,
andareoftenill-suitedtojobmarkettrends;highereducationisoftenperceivedasisolated
fromnationallife,fromthedemandsofculturalandinternaldevelopment....
Thereisgrowingrealizationoftheroleofeducationsystemsinthereproductionof
inequalities—thesocialselectionperformedbytheeducationsystemasitcontributestodistri-
butionofsocialrolesandjobsinahierarchizedsociety.Thehierarchyofschoolresultstends
tomatchthejobhierarchy;situationswhereexpansionoftheeducationsystemisnotmatched
bychangesinthejobstructureareperceivedasadysfunctionrequiringcorrection.
Thegoalsofequitylaiddownbyeducationalpolicycanbemadeeffectiveonlyifthey
areanintegralpartofdevelopmentpoliciespursuingthisaimthroughdiverseandmutually
coordinatedmeasures.Thishasledto…anintegrateddevelopmentpolicy,inwhichtheaim
ofeducationwouldbe…achievingthesocialandeconomicgoalsofdevelopment....
Nevertheless, we may advance the following proposition: A policy of endogenous
developmenttoaccordprioritytothestruggleagainstinequality,andtotheparticipationof
thepopulationindecisionsconcerningit,oughtalsotobeaccompaniedbyfairlyfar-reach-
ingeducationalreforms,redeiningtheroleandplaceoftrainingintheoverallsystemof
socioeconomicobjectives.
Another important aspect of the New International Economic Order (NIEO)… will
requiresubstantialalterationsininternationalrelationsand…publicopinionwillhaveto
bepreparedinordertounderstandandreconcileitselftothemeasurestobetaken….The
extentofthechangesinattitudemadenecessarybyanewworldorderbasedonthevalues
ofthesurvivalofhumanityandrespectforthedignityofallculturesconstitutesathemefor
relectionthataccordsacentralroletoeducationinthecontextofanNIEO.
Anewinternationalordercanbedevisedandimplementedonlybystageswhichcor-
respond…tothoseofamoredeep-seatedevolutioninpeople’sthinking.UnitedNations
bodiesplayarolethatisbynomeansnegligibleinshapingworldopinion.
...Itnowremainsforustoindoutwherethechildrennotattendingschoolareinor-
dertoprepareeducationalprogramscapableofreachingthemandansweringtheirneeds.
Inaddition,thepriorityaimofreducingdisparitiesbetweentownandcountryshouldlead
tothemeasurementofschooling(andnonformaleducation)inthecountryside,something
existingschoolstatisticsdonotpermit.
…Dataonthelevelofinstructionofworkerswouldpermitmoreaccurateevaluation
oftherelationsbetweeneducationandemployment.
FUNCTIONALLITERACY AND THEWORKPLACE:THEPROCEEDINGS OF THEMAY6,1983National
InvitationalConferencewaspublished(EducationServices,AmericanCouncilofLifeInsurance:
Washington,D.C.,1983).Excerptswhichhighlightnow-familiarideasfollow:
“DeiningFunctionalLiteracy”byPaulDelker,DirectoroftheDivisionofAdultEducation
intheU.S.DepartmentofEducationwhohasbeeninvolvedwiththeFederalAdultBasic
EducationProgramsinceitsbeginningsin1966…headedtheU.S.delegationtoaUNESCO
meetingthatdraftedRecommendationsonAdultEducationadoptedbythe[UN]General
Assemblyin1976....YoumaybefamiliarwiththeAdultPerformanceLevelStudy(widely
knownastheAPLStudy),fundedbythethenU.S.OficeofEducationandreportedin1975.
Itsobjectivesweretodescribeadultfunctionalliteracyinpragmatic,behavioral,termsand
todevelopdevicesfortheassessmentofliteracywhichwouldbeusefulonavarietyofop-
erationallevels.Todate,theAPLStudyrepresentsthemostsystematicandextensiveeffort
tomeasurefunctionalliteracy.…
“SomeResponsestotheLiteracyProblem”byWillardDaggett,DirectoroftheDivision
196
ofOccupationalEducationInstruction,NewYorkStateEducationDepartment....Education
existswithinthelargercontextofsocietyasawhole.Associetychanges,educationmustalso
change,ifitistofulillitsmissionofpreparingpeopletothrive[emphasisinoriginal]....We
havebegunevolvingintoatechnologicalsociety.Oureducationalsystemmustalsochange
toprovidethehighlytrainedpersonnelthattechnologyrequires.Fiveyearsago,recognizing
thatbasicchangeswereoccurring,theNewYorkStateEducationDepartmentreviewedits
systemofvocationalandpracticalartseducation,toensurethatthroughtheremainingyears
ofthiscenturywewouldbepreparingourstudentsforthesocietywhichwouldbe,notfor
thesocietywhichwas.Inthisreviewprocess,whichwecalled“Futuring,”wehaverelied
uponbothbusinessandindustrytodeterminewhatskillsandknowledgewillbeneededin
thenext15years,anduponeducatorsintheieldandsocialscientiststorecommendhow
theseshouldbetaught.
COMPUTERSINEDUCATION:REALIZINGTHEPOTENTIALWASPUBLISHEDBYTHEU.S.DEpartment
of Education in June, 1983. Under the subtitle “Expert and Novice Thinking” the authors
speculate:
Recentstudiesinscienceeducationhaverevealedthatstudentsapproachlearningwithmany
priorconceptionsbasedontheirlifeexperiences,whichcanbeobstaclestolearning.These
conceptionsareveryresistanttochange.Weneedtounderstandwhystudents’conceptions
perseveresostronglyandhowbesttheycanbemodiied.
“THEREHASBEENACONSPIRACYOFSILENCEABOUTTEACHING:B.F.SKINNERARGUESthatPedagogy
IsKeytoSchoolReforms”bySusanWaltonwaspublishedbyEducationWeekinitsAugust
31,1983issue.Excerptsfromthisextremelyenlighteningarticlefollow:
Improvingmethodsofteachingwoulddomoretohelppubliceducationthanwouldlength-
eningtheschooldayoranyoftheotherreformsproposedbytheNationalCommissionon
ExcellenceinEducationandothergroupsthathaverecentlyissuedreportsoneducation.So
arguesB.F.Skinner,theHarvardUniversitypsychologistwhosepioneeringtheoriesaboutand
studiesonthe“conditioning”ofbehaviorhavehadasubstantialimpactoneducation.Stilla
sourceofcontroversy40-oddyearsafterMr.Skinnerbeganhisresearch,thosetheorieshave
beeninstrumentalinthedevelopmentofmasterylearningandthe“teachingmachines”of
the1960s.Thebehavioralscientist’sworkhasalsobeenanintegralpartofthedebateover
individualizedinstruction....CentraltoMr.Skinner’sthinkingoneducationarethenotions
thatchildrenshouldbeallowedtolearnattheirownpaceandthatteachersshouldrelyon
“reinforcers”orrewards,tostrengthenpatternsofbehaviorthattheywanttoencourage.
Mr.Skinnerarguesthatcomputers,astheyaremostcommonlyused,areessentiallysophis-
ticatedversionsofthe“teachingmachines”ofthe1960s….Pointingtorecentarticlesand
reportsonhowtoimproveeducation,Mr.Skinnerarguesthatonecentralfallacyisthatitis
moreimportantforteacherstoknowtheirsubjectmatterthantoknowhowtoteachit.Mr.
Skinneralsoadvisesthateducatorsstopmakingallstudentsadvanceatessentiallythesame
rate....Noteachercanteachaclassof30or40studentsandalloweachtoprogressatan
optimalspeed.Trackingistoofeeblearemedy.WemustturntoINSTRUMENTS[emphasis
inoriginal]foralargepartoftheschoolcurriculum.Thepsychologistalsourgeseducators
to“program”subjectmatter.“Theheartoftheteachingmachine,callitwhatyouwill,is
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1983 197
theprogrammingofinstruction—anadvancenotmentionedinanyofthereportsIhave
cited,”hewrites.Heargues“thereinforcingconsequencesofbeingright”willeventually
promptstudentstodowhattheyaresupposedtodo,buttoelicitthebehaviortheirsttime,
theirbehaviormustbe“primed”and“prompted.”“Programmedinstruction,”Mr.Skinner
contends,makes“veryfewdemandsonteachers.”
[Ed.Note:Hadtheaboveinterviewoccurredayearlater,SkinnerwouldhaveknownthatA
NationatRisk’sultimaterecommendationswouldbetoimplementSkinnerianmasterylearn-
ing(OBE)“inalltheschoolsofthenation.”]
MAINEASSOCIATIONFORSUPERVISIONANDCURRICULUMDEVELOPMENTIN-SERVICETRAININGwas
attendedbythisauthorin1983.Dr.S.AlanCohenledthetraining.Cohentaughtresearch
andcurriculumdesignintheDepartmentofCurriculumandInstructionattheUniversityof
SanFrancisco,California,andwaspresidentofSACAssociates,aprivateconsultingirmin
systemsanalysis,evaluationandcurriculumdesign.Thefollowinginformationwascontained
inalyerhandedoutatthein-servicetraining:
His[Cohen’s]curriculumresearchgeneratedtheconceptofHighIntensityLearning,anap-
plicationofsystemstheorytoclassroommanagement.Today,thousandsofschoolsaround
theworldoperatehisHighIntensityLearningCentersinreadingandmath.Heco-authored
theRandomHouseseries,theirstcommerciallypublishedbasalprogramdevelopedonthe
MasteryLearningmodel.AsecondMasteryLearningprogram,publishedin1978,teaches
pupilshowtoscorehighonstandardizedtests.In1979Dr.Cohenauthored,designedand
publishedaseriesofgraduatetextbooksunderaSACsubsidiary,MasteryLearningSystems
(MLS).CohenwasoneofthearchitectsoftheJobCorpsCurriculumSystem.Hasbeencon-
sultanttotheRighttoReadOfice,U.S.OficeofEducationOficeofEconomicOpportunity....
HisworkasconsultantandauthortoRandomHouseandto20thCentury’sB.F.Skinner’s
ReadingProgramrelectsanunusualsynthesisofradicalbehaviorismandhumanisticap-
proachtocurriculumdesign.…
...[W]ithHarryPassowandAbeTannebaumofTeachersCollege,ColumbiaUniversity,
Dr.CohenformedtheeducationtaskforceintheirstWaronPoverty,MobilizationforYouth.
Sincethattime,histraininginlearningpsychologyhasbeenappliedtoresearch,materials
andsystemsdevelopment,writingandteachinginthreemajorareas:systemsapplications
tocurriculum,teachingthedisadvantagedandlearningdisabilities.
Duringthein-servicetraining,thiswriterrecordedverbatimCohen’sfollowingpoints:
In1976BlockandBurnspublishedintheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociationre-
search,aroundtheworldonmasterylearning.UnitedNationsEducational,Scientiicand
CulturalOrganization(UNESCO)iscommittedtoMasteryLearningallovertheworld.We
haveevaluateddataworldwide....LoyolaUniversityistheinformationcenterforMastery
Learning.Amazingamountofdatafromallovertheworldthattellstheobvious....Youcan
accountfor97outof100thingsyougiveinatest....Teachingkidstodiscriminatebetween
longandshort“a”isbad...mundane....Designassessmentstoitwhatteachersaredoing....
Avoidmisalignmentofconditionsofinstructionandconditionsofassessment....
[ReferringtotheIowaandCaliforniatests]Startteachingtothemorstopusingthem.
Findoutwhattheytrulymeasure....Sameissueasdeiningwhatyouareteaching....How
doyougetteacherstomeasurepreciselywhattheyteach?YoumusthaveanAandthatbet-
198
terbedifferentthanB,C.andFbecausenoteveryonecangettoHarvard.Theycan’tbuy
thefactthateverykidcangetanA....Wayweguaranteenodiscriminationistoteachand
test....Between1969and1971Omaha,Nebraskaimplementedmasterylearningcurriculum
citywide.HasbestcurriculummanagementI’veseenanywhere....Newkindofreportcard...
listed competencies describing what kids can do and described standardized test scores
vs.norm-referenced....Keycomponentsofmasterylearningare:a)carefulcontrolofcues
(stimuli),whatyoubringtostudent;b)carefulcontrolofreinforcers;c)kidsontask;and
d)recycling(correctives).
THECOMINGREVOLUTIONINEDUCATION:BASICEDUCATIONANDTHENEWTHEORYOFSCHOOLING
(UniversityPressofAmerica,Inc.:BatonRouge,1983)bythelateEugeneMaxwellBoyce,for-
merprofessorofeducationaladministration,BureauofEducationalStudiesandFieldServices,
CollegeofEducationattheUniversityofGeorgia,waspublished.Anexcerptfollows:
Inthecommunistideologythefunctionofuniversaleducationisclear,andeasilyunder-
stood.Universaleducationitsneatlyintotheauthoritarianstate.Educationistieddirectly
tojobs—controlofthejobbeingthecriticalcontrolpointinanauthoritarianstate.Levelof
education,andconsequentlythelevelofemployment,isdeterminedirstbylevelofachieve-
mentinschool.Theydonoteducatepeopleforjobsthatdonotexist....Nosuchcontrolled
relationshipbetweeneducationandjobsexistsindemocraticcountries.(p.4)
THEMAINEFACILITATORREPORTONCURRENTNATIONALDIFFUSIONNETWORKACTIVITIESreported
in1983that“ECRI[ExemplaryCenterforReadingInstruction]ConsortiumWindsDown.”
Excerptfollows:
Afteriveyearsofoperation,theMaineMasteryLearningConsortiumwillconcludeformal
operationonAugust1.TheConsortium,whichattimeshadamembershipofasmanyas
thirtyschooldistricts,wasformedin1978toprovidetheservicesofanECRItrainertoMaine
teachersusingthatmasterylearningprogram.PrimarysupportfortheConsortiumcame
fromTitleIV–C,in1978–1980.From1980–1982itoperatedwithfederalTitleII(BasicSkills)
funds,andinthepastyearwithlocalschooldistrictfunds.TheConsortiumisendingata
timewhenmanyschoolsarejustbeginningtoexploretheimplicationsofrecentteacher
effectivenessresearch.Thecriticalteacherbehaviorsfoundtocorrelatedirectlywithhigh
levelsofachievement—specifyinglearningobjectives,settinghighstandardsformastery,
modeling, practicing, eliciting responses from all students, reinforcing correct responses,
andtimeontask—areallkeycomponentsoftheECRIprogramthatarenowbeingusedin
aroutinewaybyhundredsofMaineteachersbecauseoftheConsortium’sservices.
NORTHWESTREGIONALEDUCATIONALLABORATORY(NWREL)PUBLISHEDEFFECTIVESCHOOLing
Practices:AResearchSynthesis—Goal-BasedEducationPrograminthemid-1980s.[Goal-based
education=outcomes-basededucation]NWRELisafederallyfundedlaboratorywhoserole
hasalwaysbeentodevelopgoalsforAmericaneducation.AnexcerptfromEffectiveSchooling
Practicesfollows:
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1983 199
IncentivesandRewardsforStudentsAreUsedtoPromoteExcellence:
1.Systemsaresetupintheclassroomforfrequentandconsistentrewardstostudentsfor
academicachievementandexcellentbehavior;theyareappropriatetothedevelopmental
levelofstudents;excellenceisdeinedbyobjectivestandards,notbypeercomparison.
2.Allstudentsknowabouttherewardsandwhattheyneedtodotogetthem.Rewardsare
chosenbecausetheyappealtostudents.
3. Rewards are related to speciic achievements; some may be presented publicly; some
shouldbeimmediatelypresented,whileothersdelayedtoteachpersistence.
4.Parentsaretoldaboutstudentsuccessesandrequestedtohelpstudentskeepworking
towardexcellence.Brophy(1980);Brophy(1981);Emmer(1981);Evertson(1981);Hunter
(1977);Rosswork(1977);Rutter(1979);Walker(1976).
[Ed. Note: An example of the pervasiveness of Skinnerian operant conditioning, with its
rewards/reinforcementsystem,isfoundintheEffectiveSchoolResearchon“schoolclimate.”
Thedeinitionof“positive/effectiveschoolclimate”hasvaried;onedeinitionbeing“psycho-
logicallyfacilitativeenvironment”—Skinnertothecore.TheCharlesF.KetteringFoundation
Ltd.(Dayton,Ohio)SchoolClimateProile,basedonEugeneHoward’sColoradoModel,con-
tainsamark-offsheetwithblocksinwhichdataarearrangedby“AlmostNever,Occasion-
ally,Frequently,andAlmostAlways”toscorebehavior.Under“ProgramDeterminants”from
“DeinitionsofClimateTerms”inHoward’sColoradoModel,weindthiswording:
2.INDIVIDUALIZEDPERFORMANCEEXPECTATIONANDVARIEDREWARDSYSTEMS:
Practicesareidentiiedwherebystaffmembersrecognizeindividualdifferencesamongpupils.
Everyoneisnotexpectedtolearnthesamethingsinthesamewayorinthesamelength
oftime.Rewardsaresuficientlyavailablesothatallpupils,witheffort,mayexpecttobe
positivelyandfrequentlyrecognizedbytheschool.
RESEARCHERANDWRITERK.M.HEATON,INHERREVISEDEDITIONOFANARTICLEENTITLED“Pre-
conditioningforAcceptanceofChange”explainedveryclearlyin1983howradicalchangein
ourrepublicanformofgovernmenthasbeenbroughtaboutatthelocallevelthroughtheuse
ofpsychopolitics.11ThefollowingareexcerptsfromMrs.Heaton’sarticle:
Variantsofthesecontrolstrategieshavebeen,andarebeing,usedoneveryfrontinthis
war.Acaseinpoint:Intheearlyseventies,atextbookwasdevelopedbyathinktankin
Berkeley,withtheauthorityoftheGovernor’s[RonaldReagan]ofice,andcoordinatedby
theCouncilonIntergovernmentalRelations,whichprovidedanelementarycourseintheuse
ofpsychopolitics“toprovidetheoperantmechanismtochangeeventsinlocalgovernment”
(adirectquote).Namedastheessentialelementsforplannedchangewere:
•developmentofaclimateforchange;
•acrisisofmajorimportance;
•acatastrophehavingaphysicaleffectoncommunity;
•mountingcostofgovernment,and/ormajorservices;
•and/orcollapseofgovernment’sabilitytodealwiththese.
200
The Politics of Change (TPOC) then proceeded to suggest how to create these elements.
TPOCoffersprimafacieevidenceofadeliberate,calculatedschemetodisinform,mislead,
manageandcontrolthedestinyoflocalgovernmentinCaliforniaanditscitizens,without
regardforlegal,moralorethicalconsiderations.
1984
DURINGJANUARYANDFEBRUARYOF1984,THISWRITER—WITHTHEHELPOFGRASSROOTSactivists
andseveraloficialsintheU.S.DepartmentofEducation—organizedwitnessesandtestimony
tobepresentedattheU.S.DepartmentofEducation“HatchAmendment”hearingsheldin
sevencities:Seattle,Washington;Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania;KansasCity,Missouri;Phoenix,
Arizona;Concord,NewHampshire;Orlando,Florida;andWashington,D.C.Thesehearings
wereheld“pursuanttothenoticeofproposedrulemakingtoimplementSec.439oftheGeneral
EducationProvisionsAct(TheProtectionofPupilRightsAmendment).”
ThisAmendmentisusuallyreferredtoasthe“Hatch[Sen.Orrin]Amendment,”although
thesenatorwhooriginateditandwasmostinvolvedintheinitialimportantwordingwasthe
lateSenatorEdwardZorinsky(D.-Neb).AstheamendmentwentthroughtheCongressional
committeeprocess,Zorinsky’smostimportantwordingwasweakenedordeleted.
Theweakenedwordingwhichattemptedtoaddresslong-standingproblemsexperienced
byparentsandgoodeducatorsfollows:
ProtectionofPupilRights,20U.S.CodeSec.1232h,Inspectionbyparentsorguardiansof
instructionalmaterial....
(a) All instructional material, including teachers’ manuals, ilms, tapes, or other supple-
mentaryinstructionalmaterialswhichwillbeusedinconnectionwithanyresearchorexperi-
mentationprogramorprojectshallbeavailableforinspectionbytheparentsorguardiansof
thechildrenengagedinsuchprogramorproject.Forthepurposeofthissection“researchor
experimentationprogramorproject”meansanyprogramorprojectinanyapplicableprogram
designedtoexploreor...developneworunproventeachingmethodsortechniques.…
Psychiatricorpsychologicalexamination,testingortreatment:…
(b)Nostudentshallberequired,aspartofanyapplicableprogram,tosubmittopsychiatric
examination, testing or treatment, or psychological examination, testing or treatment, in
whichtheprimarypurposeistorevealinformationconcerningpoliticalafiliations;mental
andpsychologicalproblemspotentiallyembarrassingtothestudentorhisfamily;sexual
behaviorandattitudes;illegal,anti-social,self-incriminatinganddemeaningbehavior;critical
appraisalsofotherindividualswithwhomrespondentshaveclosefamilyrelationships;legally
recognizedprivilegedandanalogousrelationships,suchasthoseoflawyers,physicians,and
ministers;orincome(otherthanthatrequiredbylawtodetermineeligibilityforparticipation
inaprogramorforreceivinginancialassistanceundersuchprogram);withouttheprior
consentofthestudent(ifthestudentisanadultoremancipatedminor),orinthecaseof
anunemancipatedminor,withoutthepriorwrittenconsentoftheparent.
201
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1984
ATTHEANNUALMEETINGOFTHEAMERICANEDUCATIONALRESEARCHASSOCIATIONHELDinNew
Orleans,LouisianainAprilof1984,BrianRowan,Ph.D.insociology,presentedapaperentitled
“ShamanisticRitualsinEffectiveSchools.”Theworkonthis“curious”paperwassupported
bytheNationalInstituteofEducation,U.S.DepartmentofEducation(Contract#400–83–003).
Rowanshouldbenotedasoneoftheprincipalinvestigatorsinvolvedintheinfamous1984
granttoUtah(Seelater1984entryforUtahgrant)toimplementWilliamSpady’sOutcome-
BasedEducationprogram,thepurposeofwhichwasto“putOBEintoalltheschoolsofthe
nation.”
The“curious”natureofthispaperisderivedfromDr.Rowan’simpliedcriticismofthevery
EffectiveSchoolsResearchwithwhichheissocloselyassociated.TheimportanceofRowan’s
paperliesinRowan’sprofessionalcredentialsandwillingnesstobringtothedebatetablea
discussionofthelegitimacyofclaimsof“effectiveness”madebythoseassociatedwiththe
EffectiveSchoolsmovement(WilliamSpady,etal.),includingpromotingoutcome-basededu-
cation,masterylearninganddirectinstruction—allofwhicharerequiredbyEffectiveSchools
Research.Thispresentationhelpsonetobetterunderstandthedismalacademicresultstobe
foundinschoolsusingEffectiveSchoolsResearch;i.e.,mostoftenurbanschoolsattendedby
underprivilegedandminoritychildren.
Thefollowingquotesaretakenfrom“ShamanisticRitualsinEffectiveSchools”which
canbefoundinitsentiretyinAppendixXXVIofthisbook:
Webeginwithoneofthemostcommonshamanisticritualsintheeffectiveschools
movement,theglowingliteraturereview....
…Lackingasystematicunderstandingofthescientiicprosandconsofeffectiveschools
research, naïve individuals are left only with the powerful and appealing rhetoric of the
reviewers....Theexperiencedshamanknowstoavoidthescrutinyofscholars,forthiscan
raiseobjectionstothe“scientiic”basisofritualclaimsanddivertattentionawayfromthe
appealingrhetoric.Instead,theshamancultivatesthepractitionerwhoneedsasimpleand
appealingformula.
Thus,anyexperiencedshamancanind“effective”schools.…
Theritualisparticularlysuitedtoapplicationinurbanorlowperformingschoolsys-
tems where successful instructional outcomes among disadvantaged students are highly
uncertainbutwheremobilizedpublicsdemandimmediatedemonstrationsofsuccess.The
uncertaintiesfacedbypractitionersinthissituationcaneasilybealleviatedbywhatscholars
havebeguntocallcurriculumalignment[teachtothetest].…
Thus,theartofmeasurementcanbeusedasanaidtoshamanism,especiallyinurban
schoolsplaguedbytheuncertaintiesofstudentperformance.Studentvariabilityinperfor-
mancecanbereduced,andrelativeperformanceincreased,notbychanginginstructional
objectivesorpractices,butsimplybychangingtestsandtestingprocedures.
THEOFFICE OFEDUCATIONALRESEARCH ANDIMPROVEMENT OF THEU.S.DEPARTMENT OFEdu-
cationin1984approvedagrantfromtheSecretary’sDiscretionaryFundintheamountof
$134,459(GrantNo.122BH40196)toVanderbiltUniversitytoimplementVanderbilt’sproposal
entitled“NationalNetworkforEducationalExcellence.”Thisprojectcoveredaperiodfrom
October1984–October1985touseacomputer-basednetworkofiftysuperintendentstocol-
lectandexchangeinformationabout“effective”practicesandtoencouragenationaldialogue
aboutincreasingschool“effectiveness,”soastopromoteeducationalexcellence.(Quotation
202
markshavebeenaddedaroundthewords“effective”and“effectiveness”toalertthereader
tothefactthatthisgrantwasanotherefforttoimplement“EffectiveSchoolsResearch”based
onSkinnerianpsychology.Rowan’sremarksintheentrypriortothisonecastaninteresting
lightonthisinformation.)Atthetimethisgrantwasmade,ChesterFinnwasprofessorof
educationandpublicpolicyatVanderbiltUniversity.Finnwouldshortlythereafterbenamed
assistantsecretarytotheOficeofEducationalResearchandImprovementunderSecretary
ofEducationWilliamBennettwho,in1985,providedover$4milliontoimplementEffective
SchoolResearchnationwide.
A LETTER TO PRESIDENT RONALD REAGAN WAS WRITTEN BY WILLARD W. GARVEY, EXECUtive
directoroftheNationalCenterforPrivatization,datedApril6,1984.12Anexcerptfollows:
Privatizationisnowanideawhosetimehascome....Theknowledge,communicationand
computerindustrycanmakepoliticalrepresentativesobsolete.Privatizationmightwellbe
thethemeforthe200thanniversaryoftheConstitution.Privatizationisessentialfornational
salvation.
Thefollowingnotationwasprintedontheletterheadoftheabove-mentionedletter:
TheNationalCenterforPrivatizationissupportedbythefollowinggroupsandindividuals:
HeritageandReasonFoundations;PaciicandManhattanInstitutes;VOLUNTEER;National
CenterforCitizenInvolvement;InternationalExecutiveServiceCorps;UnitedWaywithits
ServicesIdentiicationSystem;NationalLegalCenterforthePublic;churches;laborunions,
PeterDruckerandMiltonFriedman.
THESPRING1984ISSUE(VOL.7,NO.4)OFEDUCATIONUPDATEFROMTHEASSOCIATIONFORSu-
pervisionandCurriculumDevelopmentcarriedthefollowingstatements:
Onecomprehensivestudyconcludesthatcounselingcanhavemarkeddeleteriouseffects
onproblemstudents.JoanMcCord,aDrexelUniversitysociologist,undertooka30-yearfol-
lowupstudyofaclassic,highlyrespectedstudyonjuveniledelinquency—”TheCambridge
SomervilleYouthStudy.”Intheoriginalstudy(irstreportin1948)anexperimentalgroupof
253high-riskproblemboysweregivenextensivecounseling.Acontrolgroupmatchedasto
behavior,history,andfamilybackgroundreceivednocounseling.In1975ProfessorMcCord
contactedtheoriginalparticipantsandcomparedthecircumstancesoftheexperimentaland
controlsubjects.Theexperimentalsubjectswere,amongotherthings,foundmorelikelyto
commitcriminalacts,bealcoholics,sufferfrommentalillness,dieyounger,andhaveless
prestigiousjobsthanthecontrolgroup.
[Ed.Note:TheresultsofthisstudymatchthenegativeresultsdiscussedintheMay1977is-
sueofTheSchoolCounselor,AmericanPersonnelandGuidanceAssociation’sSpecialIssue
onDeath,whichsaid,“Deatheducationwillplayasimportantapartinchangingattitudes
towarddeathassexeducationplayedinchangingattitudestowardsexinformationandwider
acceptanceofvarioussexualpractices.”Inotherwords,counseling,sexedanddeathedhave
negativeeffects,if,asonewouldhopeandexpect,thepurposeofsuchprogramsistohelp
youngpeoplelivehappyandstablelives.Thisisparticularlydisturbinginlightofincreased
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1984 203
studentviolencewhichhastakenplaceinthenationrecently.]
STEPHENBROADYOFTARKIO,MISSOURIPRESENTEDTESTIMONYIN1984ATTHEU.S.DEpartment
ofEducation’sRegionVIIhearingon“NoticeofProposedRulemakingtofurtherimplement
Section439oftheGeneralEducationProvisionsAct,34CFR,Parts75,76,and98,20U.S.C.A.
Section 2132(h) 20 U.S.C. 1231e–3(a)(1), 1232h (Hatch Amendment).” Broady’s statement
exposesthecontroversialnatureofthetwoleadingmasterylearningprograms—Exemplary
CenterforReadingInstruction(ECRI)andProjectINSTRUCT—bothofwhichuseSkinnerian
operantconditioningandbothofwhichsubmittedclaimsofeffectivenesswhichhavebeen
questionedbypersonsinvolvedinimplementingandevaluatingtheprograms.Thethirdpro-
gram,DISTAR(DirectInstructionforSystematicTeachingandRemediation),whichissimilar
toECRI,isthehighlyrecommended“scientiic,research-based”phonicsprogramsopopular
withconservativesinthelate1990s.ThefollowingaresomeexcerptsfromStephenBroady’s
testimony:
Iamafarmercurrentlyengagedintheoperationofoveronethousandacresofprimefarm
ground.IbecameinterestedineducationaftermywifeandIobservedemotionalchange
inourdaughterwhileshewasattendingaruralpublicschoolusingan“approved”federal
educationalproject…“ProjectINSTRUCT”…approvedforfundingintheamountof$710,000
andfornationwideusebytheJointDisseminationReviewPanelonMay14,1975(JDRP
#75–37).
AlthoughProjectINSTRUCTisonlyoneofover300“approved”educationalprojects,
ProjectINSTRUCTandtheeducationalprojectuponwhichitisbased,theExemplaryCen-
terforReadingInstruction(ECRI),arethemostwidelyusedmasterylearningeducational
projectsintheUnitedStates.
...Thesemasterylearningsystemsuseatypeofpsychologicalmanipulationbasedon
theSkinnerianideologyofrewardsandpunishments,andindividualfeelingsareirrelevant....
Morecommonlyreferredtoas“behaviormodiication,”theSkinnerianideologywhichis
usedintheteachingtechniquesofthesemasterylearningsystems,breaksdowntheprocess
oflearningintosmallbitsofinformationandactuallycodesatypeofbehaviorthatisdesired
intothelearningprocessitself.
Therealobjectiveofthesemasterylearningsystemswiththeirbehaviormodiication,
isadeliberateattempttomakechildrenconformtoanartiicialenvironmentwhichismore
suitedtothethinkingoftheschoolthantotheneedsofthechildren.
Thesefederallyfundedmasterylearningsystemsrequiretheuseonyoungchildrenof
ahighlystructuredcurriculum,testandre-testwiththeuseofcriteriontests,stopwatches,
direct eye contact, physical contact, and psychological manipulation until the so-called
“mastery”ofthesubjectisachieved.Theseideasandpracticesformacomplexphilosophy
inwhichthe“authoritarian”conceptpredominates.
Intheearlypartof1983,IobtainedtheevaluationreportofProjectINSTRUCTfrom
thesuperintendent’soficeoftheLincolnPublicSchools.AtthattimeIwasunawarethe
so-calledbehaviormodiicationbasedonSkinner’srewardsandpunishmentswasusedon
mydaughter.
Theevaluationresultsclearlyreferredtobehavioralobjectiveswhichwere…established
for:(a)students;(b)parents;(c)administrators;(d)mediaspecialists;(e)projectstaff;(f)
teachers;(g)paraprofessionalsandvolunteers,and(h)prospectiveteachers.
ThewholesaleuseofbehaviormodiicationispartofSkinnerianpsychology.Asitwas
outlinedintheevaluation,ProjectINSTRUCTincludesrewardsandpunishments,notonly
204
forschoolchildren,butforanyonewhocomesincontactwiththeschoolsystemitself.
The Evaluation of Project INSTRUCT, Executive Summary, written by Carl Spencer,
projectdirectorforLincolnPublicSchools,alsoexplainsthat:
ProjectINSTRUCTgrewfrombeliefsthattoreducereadingfailurereadingprograms
must(1)bediagnosticandprescriptivesothatfailuredoesnotbegintooccur,(2)beim-
plementedbyregularteachersinregularclassrooms,(3)providedirectratherthanindirect
teaching,(4)correlateinstructioninalllanguageskills,particularlyreading,spellingand
handwriting.…
Theintentandemphasisin1970wasonbehavioralindicesandconcretewaysofshowing
accountability;andthedatawouldsuggestthatthereadingofthestudentsthemselvesmay
nothaveincreased,buttheimpactofProjectINSTRUCTintheLincoln,NebraskaPublish
Schoolsseemstobeveryextensiveandinluential.
[Ed.Note:ProjectINSTRUCTaccomplisheditsmajorobjective—itdevelopedandinstalled
alessthansuccessfulreadingprograminLincoln,Nebraskausingamodelwhichcouldbe
transportedtootherdistricts.Italsohadconsiderableimpactuponthedistrictasawhole,
onschoolsoutsideofLincolnandevenontheNebraskaStateDepartmentofEducation.In
assessingthisimpactasawhole,Dr.RonaldBrandt,assistantsuperintendentforinstruction,
hassaidofthisproject,“ProjectINSTRUCTmadealastingcontributiontoinstructioninthe
LincolnSchoolsbyhelpingusimproveourplanningcapabilitiesandbyfurtheringtheconcepts
offocusedinstructionandmasterylearning.”
ItshouldbenotedthatDr.RonaldBrandtwentontobecometheexecutiveeditorofthe
AssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment’s(ASCD)publicationEducational
Leadership. ASCD could be considered the most inluential education organization in the
world,outsideofUNESCO.]
DAVID W. HORNBECK, CHAIRMAN OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE CARNEGIE FOUNDAtion
fortheAdvancementofTeachingandMaryland’sstateschoolsuperintendent,oversawthe
implementationofProjectBASICin1984.ProjectBASICwasbasedontheverycontroversial
ManagementbyObjectives(MBO/PPBS)thatisthoroughlydiscussedinthisbook.
OneofthemorecontroversialgraduationrequirementsinProjectBASICwas“theworthy
useofleisuretime,”whichwaslatergiventhemoreacceptableandpoliticallycorrectlabelof
“artsandrecreation”—anothersemanticdeceptionatwork.However,Hornbeck’spenultimate
controversialrecommendation—onewhichwouldreverberatefromcoasttocoast,resulting
inheateddebateatlocalschoolboardmeetings—washisrecommendationtotheMaryland
StateBoardofEducationthatcommunityservicebecomeamandatorygraduationrequirement.
Manyobjectionswereraisedonthegroundsthatthatrecommendationconstitutedinvoluntary
servitude,thusmakingitunconstitutional.
[Ed.Note:Inthiswriter’sopinion,DavidHornbeckisasoft-hearted,highlypaid“should-have-
been”Presbyterianministerdo-gooderwhoapproacheshisjobwithmissionaryfervorrooted
intheologianReinholdNiebuhr’sideathatagoodChristianmuststrivetocorrectanyunjust
statusquo.However,hismissionseemstobetohelpimplementasocialistworldgovernment,
increasinglyreferredtoas“TheNewWorldDisorder,”aswasthegoalofthedo-gooderFederal
CouncilofChurchesin1942,workingtowardallbeingequallypoor,miserableandilliterate.
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1984 205
Shouldtheelitistpowerbrokers,forwhateverreason,feeltheyneedtheexpertiseofthe
Hornbecksofthisworld,pleasesparethoseleastabletoprotectthemselves—theminorities
anddisadvantaged—fromthechangeagents’experimentation.]
ANARTICLEENTITLED“INDUSTRIALPOLICYURGEDFORGOP”WASPUBLISHEDINTHEWashington
PostonMay14,1984.Excerptsfollow:
SANFRANCISCO(UPI)—AconservativestudygroupfoundedbysupportersofPresident
ReaganisabouttoissueareportthatadvocatesRepublicansshedsomeoftheirdeep-rooted
antipathytoaplannedeconomy.
Anindustrialpolicyacceptedbybothpoliticalpartiesandbybusinessandlaboris
essential to revitalize America’s dwindling clout in the world economy, according to the
study’seditor,ProfessorChalmersJohnsonoftheUniversityofCalifornia.
“TheIndustrialPolicyDebate”istobeissuedtodaybytheInstituteforContemporary
Studies,athink-tankfoundedbypresidentialcounselorEdwinMeese,SecretaryofDefense
CasparWeinbergerandotherReagansupporters.
“Whatwearereallytryingtoposeisaseriousdebatethathasbecomestupidlypoliti-
cizedbybothparties,”Johnsonsaid.“Wearetryingtogetthequestionofanindustrialpolicy
fortheUnitedStatestobetakenseriouslybypeoplewhodon’treallybelieveinit—above
allRepublicans.
“AmericansmustcometogripswitheconomicpolicyorgothewayofEngland.We
haveprobablygotadecadebeforeitbecomesirreversible.”
IntheUnitedStates,hesaid,“Thewholetopicwearetryingtoaddressissocaught
upwithpoliticsandtheparticularpositionsofindustriesthatitisveryhardtodisentangle
whatwemeanbyeconomicpolicy.”
WhiletheDemocratsare“planningtothrowmoneyatthenorthernMidwest‘rust’
belt”togetvotes,JohnsonsaidmanyRepublicans“arepaintingthemselvesintoacornerby
attackingtheveryconceptofindustrialpolicy—arguingthatitviolatesthesacredprinciples
ofprivateenterpriseandfreetrade.”
Hecitedasavalidandsuccessfulnationaleconomicpolicy“thekindofgovernment-
businessrelationship”thathasmadeJapanaleadingeconomicforceintheworld.“Agov-
ernment-businessrelationshipisneededinacompetitivecapitalisteconomy,”hesaid.
“Reaganomicswithoutanaccompanyingindustrialpolicytoguideit,hasbeencostly,”
Johnsonsaid.
U.S.DEPARTMENTOFEDUCATIONPRESSRELEASEFORJUNE14,1984FOLLOWS:
SecretaryofEducationT.H.Belltodayannouncedplannedmissionsandgeographicregionsfor
anationwidenetworkofeducationalresearchlaboratoriesandcentersinpreparationforthe
largestdiscretionarygrantcompetitioneverconductedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducation.
Centerswillbeselectedtoconstructresearchonimproving:writing;learning;teacherquality
andeffectiveness;teachereducation;testing,evaluationandstandards;effectiveelementary
schools;effectivesecondaryschools;educationandemployment;postsecondaryeducation
managementandgovernance;postsecondaryteachingandlearning;andstateandlocalpolicy
developmentandleadershipineducation.Fortheirsttimeinalmosttwodecades,allparts
oftheUnitedStateswillreceivefullservicesfromtheresearchlaboratories.
206
[Ed.Note:Alloftheaboveincreaseinfederalcontrolcamefromanofice(NIE)intheU.S.De-
partmentofEducationwhichPresidentReaganhadpromisedtoabolish.Notetheemphasison
fundingforOBE/“effectiveschools,”whichuseSkinnerianoperantconditioningmethods.]
IN1984JACQUELINELAWRENCEGAVETESTIMONYBEFORETHESUBCOMMITTEEONEDUCAtion,Arts
andHumanitiesoftheSenateCommitteeonLaborandHumanResourceswhichheldhear-
ingsonSenateJointResolution138,abillestablishingacommissiononteachereducation.
ExcerptsfromMrs.Lawrence’stestimonyfollow:
MynameisJacquelineLawrence.IamaparentfromMontgomeryCounty,Maryland.…
Priortothe1960s,Americanpublicschoolsplacedmajoremphasisontheintellectual
developmentofourchildren,ontheirmasteryofbasicskillssuchasreading,writingand
mathematics.Competencyinphysics,biology,chemistry,andchronologicalfactualhistory
wasrequired.Cognitivelearningandscholarlyobjectivitywerestressedasthebasicapproach
toeducationatalllevels.Asaresult,ournationproducedalarge,well-educatedmiddle
class—ourgreateststrength.
[Ed.Note:Mrs.Lawrence’scommentsregardingthe“majoremphasisonintellectualdevel-
opmentpriortothe1960s”remindthewriterofascholarlyancienthistorytextbookusedin
ahighschoolhistorycourseattheRockland,MaineDistrictHighSchoolaslateastheearly
1970s.(Ittookawhileforthechangeagentstopenetrateaishingcommunityonthecoastof
Maine!)ThetextbookwrittenbyProfessorJamesBreasted,anEgyptologistandSemiticscholar,
isafascinatingandextremelywellwrittenhistoryofAncientGreece,Egypt,etc.,withfew
blackandwhitephotographs,quizzesattheendofeachchapter,andtextwrittenforcollege
levelstudents.Thatwasonly25yearsago!Itwouldbevirtuallyimpossibletoindatextbook
ofthatscholarlylevelinpublichighschoolsorinmostcollegestoday.Thiswriterhasnoth-
ingbutafeelingoftremendoussadnessponderingthevapideducationlandscapeAmericans
seemsowillingtoacceptfortheiroffspring.ItismyconstanthopethatAmericanapathyin
thisregardisduetotheirnotknowingwhathashappened,andthatoncetheyknow,they
will—allofthem—collectivelyandindividuallyattempttoreversethissituation.]
Mrs.Lawrencecontinued:
Itispublicknowledgethatsincethe1960sacademicstandardshavedeclined.Why?
Quitesimply,overthepast20yearsourschoolshavenotplacedemphasisonacademic
achievement.Therehasinsteadbeenashifttowardpsychologicaldevelopmentandsocial
adjustmentofstudentsintheaffectivedomain,thatis,theirfeelings,attitudes,andopin-
ions.
Theshiftbeganin1965withthepassageoftheElementaryandSecondaryEducation
Act(ESEA)….Since1965,billionsoffederaldollarshavebeenallocatedtoeducationalthe-
oristsandcurriculumdeveloperstoalterthecourseofpubliceducation.Theblueprintfor
theprocessofeducationalreformmaybefoundinaseriesofguidesknownasPacesetters
inInnovation….FromthishascomeanationwideinformationnetworkofERICclearing-
houses(EducationalResourceInformationCenters)andtheNationalDiffusionNetworkof
laboratoriesforthedisseminationoffederallyfundedclassroommaterialsandcurriculum.
Withthenewprogramscamearetrainingoftheteachers.Aprimeexample:in1969
theOficeofEducationbeganinancingmodelteachereducationprogramsknownastheBe-
havioralScienceTeacherEducationProgram(BSTEP–OE5803)tointroducetotheclassroom
207
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1984
methodsemployedbythebehavioralscientists,thesociometrist,andthepsychiatrist.
Suchmethodsarethemostcoerciveandmanipulativeknowntomantoday.Theywere
originallydevelopedandusedfortreatingmentallydisturbedinmentalinstitutionsandthe
criminallyinsaneinprisons.Thetechniquesarerole-playing,psychodrama,sociodrama,
simulation games, guided fantasy, diary-keeping, situation attitude scale tests, encounter
groups,magiccircle,andbehaviormodiicationsuchasisolation,time-outboxesandcof-
ins,aswellasoperantconditioning.Thesearetechniquestoinluencebyclinical,hospital
proceduresthethinkingprocessesofchildreninacompulsoryclassroomsetting.
Inadditiontotrainingteachers,aspecialcadreofsensitivemanipulators,knownas
changeagents,weretrainedtofacilitatetheprocessofchangeandtoidentifyforceswhich
resistedchange.
Thechangeagentservesasacatalystforteacherandcitizenawarenessandattempts
togainsupportforeducationalchange.
Dr.JohnGoodlad’sReporttothePresident’sCommissiononSchoolFinance,Issue#9,
“StrategiesforChange,”datedOctober1971,explainsthatthechangeagentisthedecision-
maker.Hedecideswhichchangesaschoolwillmake.Thereportstatesthativetoifteen
percentofthepeopleinagivencommunityareopentochange.TheyaretheEarlyMajority
andcanbecountedontobesupportive.Asecondgroup,60to90percent,aretheResist-
ers;theyneedspecialattentionandcarefulstrategies.AlsothereareLeaders,formaland
informal,andtheirsupportiscriticalforeffectingchange.
Inadiagramfromthereport…youwillnotethatthechangeagentcreatestheEarly
MajorityandinluencestheLeaders,andthengetsbothofthesegroupstoactinconcert
withhimtolevelatripleattackontheResisters.
Goodlad’sreporttothePresidentexpressedconcernaboutthewillingnessofthepeople
tochange:“Peoplecannotbeforcedtochangeuntiltheyarepsychologicallyready.”...
…Evenifweassumeforthesakeofargumentthatchangeagentsaregiftedwithin-
initeknowledgeandwisdom,theirmethodsareinconlictwiththepoliticalprinciplesof
democracy.Theirchangesincurriculumandmethodsandgoalsofeducationhavenotcome
asaresultofdemocraticdiscussionanddecision.
Inthisvein,itisinterestingtonotethattheMarylandStateTeachersAssociationhas
lobbiedagainstproposedstatelegislationforparentalaccesstoclassroommaterialsbecause
teachers“wouldbeineffectiveaschangeagents.”...
…Moreover,educationisnowtermedpsycho-social,psycho-medical,humanistic,af-
fectiveand/ordiagnosticandprescriptive.Educatorsdiagnosethechild’semotional,intel-
lectual,perceptualandconceptualdevelopmentlevels.Dr.BenjaminBloomexplainsthat
whateducatorsareclassifyingistheintendedbehaviorofstudents,orasheputsit,“the
waysinwhichindividualsaretoact,think,orfeelasaresultofparticipatinginsomeunit
ofinstruction.”
Inordertobringaboutdesiredattitudinalchangesinstudents,teachersmustirstknow
whereachildisinhisorherattitudesandopinions.Varioustacticsandtechniquesareused
inclassroomstomakeachildrevealhimselftohisteacherandpeers.TheexamplesIuse
belowarenationallyusedandhavereceivedfederalfunding:
• Magiccircle,talk-in,contactorgroupdiscussions:Theteachergathersthechildren
intoacirclewheretheyareencouragedtodiscusspersonalfeelingsaboutoneanother,
theirparents,andhomelife.Familysize,advantages,disadvantages,comparisonof
toys,vacations,andclothingmaybediscussed.Familyconlicts,worriesandfears
areoftenrevealed.
• Inside-Out:Anationally-usedelementarysocialstudiesprogramencouragesstudents
todiscusstheirfeelingsbefore,duringandaftertheirparents’divorce;theirpersonal
208
reactionstothedeathofafriend,petorrelative;whatyourfriendsthinkofyou;
whatadultsthinkofyouandwhatyouthinkofyourself.
• Logbooks: These are workbooks used in conjunction with many language arts
textbooks.Theyarevehiclesforchildrentorevealtheirreactionstoshortstories,
oftendealingwithemotionsandmoraldilemmas.Therearenorightanswers,only
personalresponses.Sometimesthelogbooksguidethechildintoaresponse.For
instance:
Evenifyourfamilyisahappyone,you’reboundtofeelsad...orevenlonely.
Whenmightapersonbelonelyevenifheispartofafamily?Lonelinessislisten-
ingtoyourparentsarguing.Lonelinessiswhenyoucomehomeandthere’sno
onethere.Lonelinessis....
Perhapsthemostfrequentlyusedstrategiesforself-revelationarethediaryandrole-playing.
These techniques were introduced into American public schools by an Estonian teacher,
HildaTaba,andaRomanianpsychiatrist,JacobMoreno.
[Ed.Note:In1957aCaliforniaStateSenateInvestigativeCommitteeexposedtheworkofHilda
Taba,JacobMorenoandothers.Inspiteofthisexposure,thesepeoplecontinuedtoreceivetax
dollarsandaccesstoschoolsnationwide.HildaTaba’sprogramhasremainedinusebykey
changeagentsfrom1960to1999.BruceJoyceandMarshaWeil’sModelsofTeachingmentions
herworkaswellasthatofmanyothersociologists,behavioralpsychologists,etc.Asaschool
boarddirectorin1976,thewriterfoundmaterialsrelatedtotheabove-describedprograms
andmanyothersdescribedbyMrs.Lawrenceinaboxgiventoherbyahomeeconomics
teacher.Needlesstosay,thewriterwasshockedtoindthatbehaviormodiicationwasbeing
introducedintothecurriculumundertheinnocent-sounding“homeeconomics”label.]
TheU.S.OficeofEducationgavegrantstoTabatodevelopanelementarysocialstudies
programtoimprovethesocialadjustmentandpersonalitydevelopmentofchildren.Shehad
workedinreformschoolsandmentalinstitutionswithMorenoandfoundthatrole-playing
anddiariesweresuccessfultoolstolearnwhereachildstoodinhisbeliefs,attitudes,and
socialinteractions.
ThediaryhasbeenusedforyearsinRussiaandChinaforself-revelation,self-eval-
uation,andself-criticism.MorerecentlythepersonaldiarywasfoundinGuyanathroughout
theJimJonescompound.
MontgomeryCounty,Maryland,requiresitsstudentstokeepadiaryfromkindergarten
throughgradenine.Diariesareanimportantpsychologicalinstrument.Theyprovideaprecise
recordandpersonalityproileofthechild,hisfamilymembers,neighborsandpeers—in-
formationneededbytheteacherortherapisttoalterastudent’sbehaviororattitude.Itis
importantthatthewritingbefree-styleandspontaneous,comingdirectlyfromtheemotional
feelingareaofthechild.Diariesarenotcorrectedforform,grammarorspelling....
Ateachermanualforvalueseducationsuggests15kindsofdiariesforuseintheclass-
room;someexamplesareabudgetdiary,religiondiary,hostilityandangerdiary,lowpoints
diary,affectionateandtenderfeelingsdiary,andatimediary....
Inthepsycho-socialapproachtoeducation,thechildistaughtconceptsthroughthe
useofpsychotherapy.Forexample,tobetterunderstandthesocialproblemofprejudiceand
toteachchildrenthroughexperientiallearning,blondchildreninaifthgrade(age10)were
askedtositinthebackoftheroomforoneweek,totallyisolated,notpermittedtoparticipate
intheclasswork.Foraone-and-a-halfhourperiodeachday,brown-hairedstudentswere
instructed to pick on, insult, make fun of or taunt the blonds. Needless to say, taunting
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1984 209
spilledoverontotheplaygroundwithsomeoftheblondsbeingtold,“Youcan’tplaywith
us.”Attheendoftheweek,blondsweregivencandybarsasarewardfortheirsuffering,
butthebrowns,whoinbullyingwereobeyingtheteacher’sinstructions,weregivennoth-
ing.Howdoesachildreacttobeingpunishedordeprivedforcarryingouthisassignment?
Howmuchlearningwentoninthatclassroomforivedays?Somechildrenenjoyedtaunting
andbullying.Wastheweekspentonsuch“experientiallearning”qualitytime?Whatabout
thesevenandone-halfhoursspentintaunting?Wouldthistimehavebeenbetterspenton
academiclearning?...
Educatorsusetheevenmorevolatilepsycho-dramaforattitudinalchange.Oneexample
istheconceptthatwemustpruneawaydefectivepersonsinordertoimprovethequality
of life for the remainder of the group. This drama involves murder. Many variations are
found.Iirstcameacrossthispsychodramathemeinafederallyfundedhomeeconomics
curriculumguide...containingtheexercise“WhomWillYouChoose?”Itgoesasfollows:
11peopleareinabombshelterwithprovisionssuficienttolast11personstwoweeksor
sixpersonsamonth.Thegroupistoldthativepersonsmustbekilled.Theyareinstructed
toacceptthesituationasfact,thatis,toconcernthemselveswithlife/deathchoices,not
withattackingthelogicorprobabilityofthesituation.Aproileisgivenofeachpersonin
theshelter.Problempeople,suchastheathletewhoeatstoomuch,thereligioustypewith
“hang-ups,”thepregnantorillaregenerallykilled.Survivorstendtobethosetrainedin
medicine,engineers,andpaciiers.
[Ed.Note:JacquelineandMalcolmLawrencehadjustreturnedfromtheirForeignService
assignmentinEuropeandwereappalledtoencounterwhathadhappenedtoAmericanedu-
cationintheirabsence.TheLawrencesorganized“ParentsWhoCare”andbegantoconfront
theschooldistrictwithwhattheyhaddiscovered.Duetothebroadpublicitygeneratedby
thegroup’sassertionsandactivities,EdwardHunter,formerintelligenceserviceoperativeand
authoroftwobooksonhiscoinedword“brainwashing”aspracticedpre-andpost-WorldWar
II13—BrainwashingandBrainwashinginRedChina:TheMenWhoDeiedIt—approachedthe
Lawrenceswitharequesttoexaminethecurriculummaterialsaboutwhichtheyhadbecome
concerned.Huntertookthematerialsforaperiodoftimeanduponreturningthem,informed
JackieandMalcolmthattheywereindeedexamplesofmethodsandtechniquesusedinRussian
andChinesebrainwashing.(TheMarylandStateSchoolBoardalsomadeastatementregarding
thefactthatMaryland’steacherswerenottrainedtouse“psychoanalyticaltechniquesinthe
classroom.”)Thepsycho-socialtechniqueforconfrontingprejudice(isolationoftheblonds)
shouldbeespeciallydisturbinginlightofincreasedconcernoverschoolyardtauntingand
increasedschoolviolenceatthecloseofthiscentury.]
“E.C.S.AT20:THECOMPACT’SPOTENTIALISSTILLTOBEREALIZED”BYTHOMASTOCHwasan
articlefromEducationWeek(October24,1984)whichcoveredtheearlyhistoryoftheEduca-
tionCommissionoftheStates.Theexcerptswarrantrepeating:
“Somedegreeoforderneedstobebroughtoutofthischaos,”wroteJamesB.Conant,
thePresidentofHarvardUniversity,in1964inreferencetoeducationpolicymakinginthis
nation. “We cannot have a national educational policy,” he added in his book Shaping
Educational Policy, “but we might be able to evolve a nationwide policy.” The solution,
Mr.Conantconcluded,wasa“newventureincooperativefederalism,”acompactamong
thestatestocreateanorganizationtofocusnationalattentiononthepressingeducation
issuesoftheday.Thefollowingspring,theCarnegieCorporationandtheFordFoundation
210
awardedagranttoTerrySanford,whohadrecentlyleftthegovernorshipofNorthCarolina,
totransformtheConantideaintoreality.JohnW.GardnerwasCarnegie’spresidentatthe
time.ApreliminarydraftofthecompactwascompletedbyJulyandendorsedbyrepresen-
tativesfromall50statesandtheterritoriesinSeptember.Withinivemonths,10stateshad
ratiiedtheagreement,givingitlegalstatus.OutofthecompactwasborntheEducation
CommissionoftheStates(ECS)....
“Weinventedalittledevicetogetthecompactapprovedquickly,”Mr.Sanford,now
thepresidentofDukeUniversity,saidrecently.“Wedidn’tneedmoneyfromthelegisla-
tures,wehadplentyoffoundationfunding,soweagreedthatthegovernorscouldratifyit
byexecutiveorder.”...
ButsincetheestablishmentunderGovernorJamesB.Hunt[alsoofNorthCarolina]of
theCommission’sTaskForceonEducationforEconomicGrowthtwoyearsago,ECS’srole
hasbeguntochange.Thetaskforce’sreportActionforExcellencejoinedANationatRisk
andtheCarnegieFoundationfortheAdvancementofTeaching’sHighSchoolasprincipal
voicesinthechorusofreform.ItgainedGov.Huntandseveralother“educationgovernors”
whowerelinkedtoECSwidenationalpublicity,and,inmakingaseriesofspeciicreform
recommendations,thrustECSintothepolicy-makingarena.
[Ed.Note:Themulti-milliondollarcontracttooperatetheNationalAssessmentofEducational
Progress,awardedtotheECSin1969,wastransferredtoEducationalTestingService(ETS)in
1983.ThismovewassigniicantduetoCarnegie’sdeepinvolvementinestablishing,funding,
anddirectingECS’sandETS’sactivities.Essentially,thismovegaveCarnegieCorporationand
CarnegieFoundationfortheAdvancementofTeachingextensivecontroloverthedirectionand
contentofAmericaneducationasawholeandindividualstatepolicymakinginpaticularwith
regardtoeducation.DennisCuddy,Ph.D.—rightly,itseems—referstotheU.S.Departmentof
Educationasthe“CarnegieDepartmentofEducation.”]
THEPRESIDENTIALLYAPPOINTEDNATIONALCOUNCILFOREDUCATIONALRESEARCH(NCER)issued
two“PoliciesonMissionsforEducationalResearchandDevelopmentCenters,”datedJune
14andOctober25,1984,shortlyafterregionalhearingshadbeenheldregardingtheneedfor
regulationstoimplementtheProtectionofPupilRightsAmendment(PPRA).Thefollowing
areexcerptsfromNCER’stwopolicystatements:
JUNE14,1984.Inthepasttwodecades,federallyfundedresearchandcurriculumprojects
havefrequentlyprovokedconsiderablecontroversy.Thisisprimarilyaresultofdeeplydi-
vergentphilosophicalviewsonthenatureandpurposeofpubliceducationinthiscountry.
Duringthisperiod,theviewsofthegeneralpublicwere,forthemostpart,excludedfrom
seriousconsiderationaseducationalresearchcametobeviewedastheobservationand
measurementoftheeducationprocessusingthelargelyquantitativetechniquesofmodern
socialscience[Skinnerianbehaviorism].
OCTOBER25,1984.Insofarasitrepresentsabroadspectrumofinterests,includingparents
who have a serious stake in the outcomes of federally funded educational research, the
Councilafirmsthatthefundamentalphilosophicalfoundationforsuchresearchshouldbe
theunambiguousrecognitionandrespectforthedignityandvalueofeachhumanperson.
ForthepastifteenyearstheU.S.DepartmentofEducationhasignoredthetestimony
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1984 211
takenattheregionalhearings,theviewsspelledoutintheabove-mentionedpolicies,aswell
astherequirementsofthePPRA.Thetwopolicystatementsrepresentastrongpositiontaken
bytheNationalCouncil,whichoversawtheresearchactivitiesoftheformerNationalInstitute
ofEducationpriortoitsbeingincorporatedintotheOficeofEducationalResearchandIm-
provement(OERI).TheCouncilhadquiteobviouslyreadtheimportanttestimonyregarding
Skinnerianmasterylearning/directinstructionwhichwasgivenattheregionalhearingsonthe
PPRA.TheCounciltookastandonthemostimportantquestionfacingustodayineducation:
Arewe,asfreeAmericans,goingtocontinuetoacceptthesuccinctlyexpresseddeinitionof
educationalresearchincludedinthelastsentenceoftheJune14policy,adeinitionwhich
is undeniably behaviorist and part of the behavioral psychologists’ vocabulary—“observa-
tionandmeasurementoftheeducationalprocessusingthelargelyquantitativetechniquesof
modernsocialscience”?OrdoweagreewiththeCouncilthatthefundamentalphilosophical
foundation for such research should be the “unambiguous recognition and respect for the
dignityandvalueofeachhumanperson”?
[Ed.Note:Asacompletecounterpointtothestrongpolicypositiontakenbythecouncil,the
followinginformationshouldbecarefullyconsidered.ProfessorRobertGlaser,professorof
psychologyandeducationandco-directoroftheLearningResearchandDevelopmentCenter
oftheUniversityofPittsburgh,wasforallintentsandpurposesputinchargeoftheCom-
missiononReadingin1983.ItwasGlaserwhoappointedmemberstotheCommissionon
Reading,therebywieldingconsiderableinluenceontherecommendationsresultingfromthat
Commission’sreport,BecomingaNationofReaders,forwhichGlaserwrotetheforewardand
whichwaspublishedundertheauspicesoftheNationalAcademyofEducation’sCommission
onEducationandPublicPolicywithsponsorshipfromtheNationalInstituteofEducation.That
reportwasprobablythemostimportantstudywhichsetthestagefortheReadingExcellence
Actof1998(REA),settinginmotionnumerousactivitieswhichresultedinadetermination
thatonlyproposalswhichwerebasedon“scientiicresearch”wouldbeacceptedforfunding
undertheREA.IntheforewardtoBecomingaNationofReaders,Glasersaid:
Inteaching,asinotherprofessions,well-researchedmethodsandtoolsareessential.This
reportmakesclearthekeyroleofteachers’professionalknowledge.Researchoninstructional
pacingandgroupingandonadaptationtochildren’saccomplishmentshascontributedto
newideasthatcanhelpallchildrenmasterthebasicsandthenattainlevelsofliteracyfar
beyondthebasiccompetencies.Thereadingteacher’srepertoiremustdrawuponthedeep-
eningknowledgeofchilddevelopment,ofthenatureoftheartandeleganceofchildren’s
literature,andofthepsychologyoflearning.…Thereportindicateswhychangesinteacher
training,internshipexperiences,continuing,andsabbaticalperiodsarenecessaryifteachers
aretolearnandreinetheirskillsfortheircomplextask.
ProfessorGlaser’scredentialsareuniquelyimportant,placinghiminapositionofpromi-
nenceregardingwhatmethodofinstructionwillbeusedinAmericanclassrooms—onebased
ontheworldviewthatmanisahumanbeing,createdintheimageofGod,withconscience,
soul,intellect,creativity,freewill,oronebasedonthenewpsychologyoflearning(“scientiic,”
evolutionist,“research-based”)—theworldviewthatmanisananimalwhosebehaviorcanbe
manipulatedbycreatingthenecessaryenvironmenttobringaboutpredictable,predetermined,
neurologicallyconditionedresponses.(ThereadershouldrefertoAppendixIII,“Excerptsfrom
ProgrammedLearning:EvolvingPrinciplesandIndustrialApplications,”whichisareportof
212
a1960seminarofbusinessmenandsocialscientiststodiscussprogrammedlearningandits
applicationtobusiness,atwhichprofessorsB.F.Skinner,ArthurA.LumsdaineandRobert
Glaserwerethespeakersanddiscussionleaders.RobertGlaserwasalsoaresearchadvisorto
theAmericanInstituteforResearchatthattime.Severalpagesofthisreportoftheseminar
aredevotedtoGlaser’s“PrinciplesofProgramming.”)
AccordingtothefollowingquotefromanoficialMission,Texas,schoolmemorandum
toconcernedparents,ExemplaryCenterforReadingInstruction(ECRI),thefraternaltwinof
DISTAR(DirectInstructionforSystematicTeachingandRemediation),ledthepackasfaras
RobertGlaser’sNationalCommissiononReadingwasconcerned:
In1986ECRIwasevaluatedasplayingaprimaryroleintheUnitedStatesbecominganation
ofreaders.TheRegionalLaboratoryforEducationalImprovement(sponsoredbytheU.S.
OficeofEducationalandImprovement)publishedImplementingtheRecommendationsof
BecomingaNationofReaders.Thisdocumentmakesaline-by-linecomparisonof31reading
programs,includingECRI.ECRIreceivedthehighestscoreofall31programsinmeetingthe
speciicrecommendationsoftheNationalCommissiononReading.
SiegfriedEngelmann’sDISTAR(ReadingMastery)andECRIarebothbasedonthevery
sickphilosophicalworldviewthatconsidersmannothingbutananimal—an“organism”(in
Skinner’swords)—responsivetothemanipulationofstimulus-response-stimulusimmediate
reinforcementorrewardstobringaboutpredetermined,predictablebehaviors.Skinner’squote
aboutmakinga“pigeonahighachieverbyreinforcingitonaproperschedule”isrepeated
ofteninthisbooktoimpressonthereaderthehorrifyingaspectofanimaltrainingmasquer-
adingaseducationintheseprograms.
TheNationalResearchCouncil’sPreventingReadingDificultiesinYoungChildren,com-
piledbyCatherineE.Snow,M.SusanBurns,andPegGrifin,Eds.(NationalAcademyPress:
Washington,D.C.,1998)acknowledgedG.ReidLyon,Ph.D.,chiefoftheLearningDisabilities,
Cognitive,andSocialDevelopmentBranchoftheNationalInstituteofChildHealthandHu-
manDevelopmentoftheNationalInstitutesofHealth(U.S.DepartmentofHealthandHuman
Services)whosupportsbehavioristreadingprogramslikeECRIandDISTAR(ReadingMastery)
aswellasinstructionbasedonso-called“medicalandscientiicresearch.”Otherindividuals
mentionedinPreventingReadingDificultieswhowereinvolvedinthepromotionofDISTAR
includeEdwardKame’enui,DepartmentofSpecialEducationoftheUniversityofOregonand
MarilynJagerAdams.ThesetwoindividualsalsoservedontheCommitteeonthePrevention
ofReadingDificultiesinYoungChildren,andAdamsismentionedinBecomingaNationof
Readers.(See1998HerzercritiqueofPreventingReadingDificultiesinYoungChildren.)
Whatdoesallofthistellthereader?Perhapsthesamethingthatissuggestedtothis
writer:thattheReadingExcellenceActwillprovidethefundingandtechnicalassistanceto
implementacrossthenationnotjustreadingprograms,butallcurricula—includingworkforce
training—inthemodeofDISTARandECRI,whicharebasedon“scientiic,medicalresearch.”
Itisdificulttocometoanyotherconclusion.
Inlightofthisinformation,theReadingExcellenceActof1998shouldberepealed.Itis
anunconstitutionalcurriculummandateinviolationoftheGeneralEducationProvisionsAct
oftheElementaryandSecondaryEducationActof1965.Callyourcongressmenandsenators
andaskthattheysupportlegislationtorepealthisAct.]
213
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1984
IN1984SCHOOLING ANDTECHNOLOGY,VOL.3,PLANNING FOR THEFUTURE:ACOLLABORAtive
Model, An Interpretive Report on Creative Partnerships in Technology—An Open Forum by
DustinH.Heuston,WorldInstituteforComputer-AssistedTeaching(WICAT)waspublished
(SoutheasternRegionalCouncilforEducationalImprovement:ResearchTrianglePark,North
Carolina,1984)underagrantfromtheU.S.OficeofEducation,HEW,NationalInstituteof
Education.Anexcerptfrom“Discussion:DevelopingthePotentialofanAmazingTool”in
SchoolingandTechnologyfollows:
We’vebeenabsolutelystaggeredbyrealizingthatthecomputerhasthecapabilitytoactas
ifitweretenofthetoppsychologistsworkingwithonestudent....You’veseenthetipof
theiceberg.Won’titbewonderfulwhenthechildinthesmallestcountyinthemostdistant
areaorinthemostconfusedurbansettingcanhavetheequivalentoftheinestschoolin
theworldonthatterminalandnoonecangetbetweenthatchildandthecurriculum?We
havegreatmomentscominginthehistoryofeducation.
[Ed.Note:Thecommentregardingthecomputer’sroleasa“toppsychologist”isasdisturbing
asistheideaof“noonegettingbetweenthechildandthecurriculum.”Theseideaslayto
restthepubliclystatedpurposeofthewords“parent-schoolpartnerships”whichrepresenta
superbexampleofsemanticdeception.]
HOWTOMEASUREATTITUDESBYMARLENEE.HENDERSON,LYNNLYONSMORRISANDCarolTaylor
Fitz-Gibbon,CenterfortheStudyofEvaluationoftheUniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles
(SagePublications:ThousandOaks,Cal.,1984)waspublished.FundedbytheNationalInsti-
tuteofEducation,thetableofcontentsfollows:
• AnIntroductiontotheMeasurementofAttitudesandAttitudeChange
• SelectingfromamongAlternativeApproachestoCollectingAttitudeInformation
• SelfReportandReportsofOthers
• Interviews,SurveysandPolls
• Logs,Journals,DiariesandReports
• Observation Procedures, Sociometric Procedures, Various Names for the Attitude
YouWanttoMeasure
• ReferenceBooksthatList,Describe,orEvaluateExistingMeasures
• ValidityandReliabilityofAttitudeInstruments
• Validity: Is the Instrument an Appropriate One to Measure? What You Want to
Know
• NamesandAddressesofPublishersofAttitudeMeasures
TEACHING AS A MORAL CRAFT BYALANTOM WAS PUBLISHED(LONGMAN,INC.:WHITEPlains,
N.Y.,1984).ProfessorTom’sbookprovidesanextremelyvaluablecontributiontoliterature
on behavioral professional development for teachers and research on “effective teaching.”
Excerptsfollow:
A.S.Barr...himself,asalreadynoted,increasinglycametobelievethathisoriginalcom-
214
mitmenttothebehavioralbasisofgoodteachingwasnaïve.Whileheretainedtothevery
endhislifelonginterestinstudyingeffectiveteaching,hegraduallyacceptedtheviewthat
effectiveteachingcouldnotbereducedtospeciicbehaviorsorbehavioralpatterns.Inone
ofBarr’slastpapers,hemadeclearhisbeliefthatteachingsuccessdidnothaveasolely
behavioralbasis:“Actsarenotgoodorbad,effectiveorineffective,appropriateorinappro-
priateingeneralbutinrelationtotheneeds,purposesandconditionsthatgiverisetothem”
(Barr,1958,p.696).Inanunpublishedmemo,writtentoidentifyaresearchagendaforhis
retirementyears,Barr(1960)admonishedhimselftostrikeoutinanewdirection:“Canbe-
haviorsbeconsideredinisolationoroutofcontext?Ithinknot.Thetabulationofbehaviors
outofcontextmaybemisleading.Ibelievethisisimportant.Studythiscarefully.”...
Performance-BasedTeacherEducation
Afundamentalironyinthehistoryofresearchoneffectiveteachingisthatitshalfcentury
ofbarrenresultswasrewardedinthe1970sbymakingthisresearchakeycomponentofthe
reformmovementknownasperformance-basedteachereducation(PBTE)....Unfortunately,
weknowlittlemorethanBarrdidiftyyearsagoaboutwhichteachingbehaviorsconsistently
producestudentlearning.Medley,thoughsympathetictoPBTE,isquitecandidonthistopic:
“Theproportionofthecontentoftheteachereducationcurriculumthathasbeenempirically
showntorelatetoteachereffectivenessissosmallthatifallofwhatistaughttostudentsin
preserviceprogramswaseliminatedexceptwhatresearchhasbeenvalidatedtherewould
benothingleftbutafewunitsinmethodsofteaching....Afteracarefulreviewofrelevant
research,HeathandNielsonconcludethattheconception,design,andmethodologyofthese
studiesprecludetheiruseasanempiricalbasisforPBTE(1974).Theauthorsgoonestep
furtherandsummarizeotherreviewsoftheconnectionbetweenteachercharacteristicsand
studentlearning;theyindthatthereviewersofthisresearchgenerallyconcludethat“an
educationallysigniicantrelationshipsimplyhasnotbeendemonstrated.”
ForWhatWereTheySearching?
Theproblemsassociatedwiththefourteachereffectivenessstrategiesaresoseverethatthe
lastpartofthechapteraddressesthequestionofwhethertheteachereffectivenesstradition
canbesaved,aquestionwhoseanswerisunclear.
IsThereAOneBestWay?
Unlikeearliercriticswhocamelargelyfromoutsidetheteachereffectivenesstraditionand
whoarguedthatthistraditionwasanoverlynarrowapproachtothestudyofteaching,many
ofthecurrentdoubtersarewell-knownmembersoftheempiricalresearchestablishment.
McKeachie,forexample,notesthathenolongerbelievesintheeducationalrelevanceof
theprinciplesoflearningaboutwhichheusedtolectureteachers.Henowbelievesthat
theseprinciplesapplymostclearlytothelearningofanimalsinhighlycontrolledartiicial
situations,andthatmeaningfuleducationallearningisboth“morerobustandmorecomplex”
thanthesituationstowhichtheclassicprinciplesapply.…
Themainbodyofthischapterexaminesfourstrategiesforapproachingthestudyof
teachereffectiveness:discoveringtheso-calledlawsoflearning;identifyingeffectiveteach-
ingbehaviors;uncoveringaptitude-treatmentinteractions,andspecifyingmodelsofeffective
instructionsuchasdirectinstruction.Carefulattentionisgiventothespeciicdificulties
experiencedbythepractitionersofeachresearchstrategy.Theresultsfromthesefourbe-
haviorally oriented research strategies are at best inconclusive.... The last section of the
chapterexaminesthequestionofwhethertheteachingeffectivenessmodelcanbesaved.
HereIsuggestthatthevariousresearchstrategiesinvolvetrade-offsandthatthesetrade-offs
makeitdificulttohaveaninstructionaltheorythatisbothaccurateandapplicabletoa
widevarietyofsituations.Inaddition,thoseinstructionalmodelsthatattempttotranscend
215
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1984
thetrade-offsbetweenaccuracyand[applicability]generallyhavetendedtobecomposed
oflow-levelgeneralizationsthatlackconceptualsophistication,suchasdirectinstruction,
academiclearningtime,andmasterylearning.(p.30–45)
GRANTAPPLICATIONFROMFARWESTLABORATORYFOREDUCATIONALRESEARCHANDDEVELopment
totheU.S.DepartmentofEducationfor“ExcellenceinInstructionalDeliverySystems:Research
andDisseminationofExemplaryOutcome-BasedPrograms”wasapprovedbyT.H.Bellin1984.
WilliamSpady,directoroftheFarWestLaboratory,carriedoutthisproject—whichcameto
beknownastheinfamous“UtahGrant.”ThefollowingcoverletterfromUtahSuperintendent
ofPublicInstructionLelandBurninghamtoSecretaryofEducationT.H.Bell,datedJuly27,
1984,isreproducedinitsentirety:
DearSecretaryBell:
IamforwardingthislettertoaccompanytheproposalwhichyourecommendedBill
SpadyandIprepareinconnectionwithOutcome-BasedEducation.
Thisproposalcentersaroundthedetailedprocessbywhichwewillworktogetherto
implementOutcome-BasedEducationusingresearchveriiedprograms.Thiswillmakeit
possibletoputoutcome-basededucationinplace,notonlyinUtahbutinallschoolsofthe
nation.Forthosewhodesire,wewillstandreadyforregionalandnationaldisseminationof
theOutcome-BasedEducationprogram.
Wearebeginningtoseepositive,preliminaryresultsfromsomeoftheisolatedschools
inUtahwhichhaveimplementedOutcome-BasedEducation.Thesepositiveindicatorsare
reallyexciting!
Wesincerelyurgeyoursupportforfundingtheproposalaspresented.
Warmestregards,
G.LelandBurningham
StateSuperintendentof
PublicInstruction
AttachedtothegrantapplicationwasSpady’s“SummaryofProfessionalExperience”
whichincluded“SeniorResearchConsultanttotheWashington,D.C.schools”during1977–
1978—thesametimetheD.C.schoolsimplementedmasterylearning.
InaWashingtonPostarticledatedAugust1,1977,entitled“CompetencyTestsSetin26
Schools,”ThomasSticht—whowaslaternamedtoU.S.SecretaryofLaborElizabethDole’s
Secretary’sCommissiononAchievingNecessarySkills(SCANS)—wasalsomentionedasan
associatedirectorattheNationalInstituteofEducation(NIE)atthetimemasterylearning
wasimplementedintheD.C.schools.ThePostarticlequotedStichtextensively,verifyingthat
heandSpadywerebothdeeplyinvolvedintheimplementationofthenewmasterylearning
curriculum.Later,in1987,TheWashingtonPostagainparaphrasedStichtasfollows:
Manycompanieshavemovedoperationstoplaceswithcheap,relativelypoorlyeducated
labor.Whatmaybecrucial,theysay,isthedependabilityofalaborforceandhowwellit
canbemanagedandtrained,notitsgeneraleducationallevel,althoughasmallcadreof
highlyeducatedcreativepeopleisessentialtoinnovationandgrowth.Endingdiscrimina-
216
tionandchangingvaluesareprobablymoreimportantthanreadinginmovinglowincome
familiesintothemiddleclass.
[Ed.Note:Whatanextraordinarycommentfromsomeonesupposedlyinvolvedinhelping
innercitystudentslearnthebasicskills!Nineyearslater,inanarticleintheMarch5,1996
issueoftheWashingtonTimes,theextentofacademicdamagecausedbytheMasteryLearn-
ingprogramsinitiatedbySpadyandStichtin1977wasrevealed:
Intheverbalportionofthe1995ScholasticAchievementTest(SAT)D.C.publicschoolstu-
dentsscored342outofapossible800—86pointsbelowthenationalaverage.Onthemath
portionoftheSAT,Districtpublicschoolstudentsscored375outofapossible800—107
pointsbelowthenationalaverage.
In1999theWashington,D.C.schoolsareusingthesamemasterylearning/directinstruc-
tionmethodwhichcausedtheproblemtosolvetheproblem!Inaddition,thesameWashington
TimesarticlestatedthatpresentSecretaryofEducationRichardRiley’shomestateofSouth
Carolina,whichprobablyhasbeenmoredeeplyinvolvedinEffectiveSchoolsResearchthan
anyotherstatewiththenotableexceptionofMississippi,hadthenextlowestscores.]
Important:The“ExcellenceinInstructionalDeliverySystems”grant(the“UtahGrant”)
evaluationreport,entitledModelsofInstructionalOrganization:ACasebookonMasteryLearn-
ingandOutcomes-BasedEducationandcompiledbyprojectdirectorRobertBurns(FarWest
LaboratoryforEducationalResearchandDevelopment:SanFrancisco,April1987),statedin
its“Conclusion”that:
Thefourmodelsofinstructionalorganizationoutlinedinthiscasebookaredificultprograms
toimplement.Thepracticesofthetenschoolsdescribedinthecasestudiesareindeedcom-
mendable.Yetwedonotofferthesetencasestudiesas“exemplaryschools”deservingof
emulation.Rather,theydescribeeducatorswhohaveattemptedtogobeyondcurrentcur-
ricular,instructionalororganizationalarrangementsfoundinthemajorityofschoolstoday.
Theyhaveacceptedthechallengeoftranslatingadificultsetofideasintoactualpractice.
Andwhiletheymaynothavealwaysbeencompletelysuccessful,theirexperienceshave
provideduswithideasabouthowtobeginmovingclosertotheidealofsuccessfullearning
forallstudents.
[Ed.Note:TheabovewordingissimilartowordingintheevaluationofProjectINSTRUCT,
anothermodelmasterylearningprogram(1975).Neithermasterylearningprojecthadpositive
“academic”results.Onecanonlyconcludethatacademicachievementwasnottheintent.
Thedocumentedresultswerechangesin“curricular,instructionalandorganizationalarrange-
ments”intheschoolsinvolvedsothattheycouldbecomeperformance-based,necessaryfor
school-to-worktraining.
Lack of positive results indicated in the evaluation of the mastery learning/outcome-
basededucationexperimentsinschools—includingthemuch-toutedJohnsonCity,NewYork’s
Outcomes-DrivenDevelopmentalModel—didnotdetertheeducators/sociologistsfromimple-
mentingoutcome-basededucation/masterylearningin“allschoolsofthenation.”
Inassemblingthisresearchonmasterylearning/outcome-basededucation/directinstruc-
tionprogramsandtheirevaluations,itappearsthatacademicachievementhasnotbeenthe
desiredobjectortheresultoftheuseofthese“WhatWorks”methodsandcurricularthrusts.
217
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1984
Therearenolongitudinalstudiesorlong-termresultsindicatingthatthenewlytrumpeted“sci-
entiic,research-based”criteriaforprogramdevelopmentisvalidcriteria.Thelackofevidence
shouldserveasaclearwarningtoparentsandgoodeducatorstosteerclearofanyprograms
orprogramdevelopmentbasedonanyoftheabove-mentionedmodels,orontheSkinnerian
methodcalledforbyEffectiveSchoolsResearch.(SeeAppendixXXVI.)]
DAVIDHORNBECK, SUPERINTENDENT OFMARYLAND’S PUBLIC SCHOOLS, IN TESTIMONY BEforethe
Maryland State Board of Education in 1984 attempted to “mandate community service at
state-approvedplaces.”DuringHornbeck’stestimonyhequotedthelateErnestBoyer,then-
presidentoftheCarnegieFoundationfortheAdvancementofTeaching,assaying,“Intheend
thegoalofserviceintheschoolsistoteachvalues—tohelpallstudentsunderstandthatto
befullyhumanonemustserve.”
THEJULY1984EDITIONOFTHEEFFECTIVESCHOOLREPORTCARRIEDANARTICLEENTITLED“Effective
SchoolsforResults”byDr.RobertE.CorriganandDr.GeorgeW.Bailey.Excerptsfollow:
Overthepastthirtyyearstherehavebeenthreeprimaryprogramsrelatedtothede-
signandimplementationofeffectiveschoolsandsuccessfullearningresults.Eachofthese
researcheffortsfocusedondifferentaspectsorvariablesinthefollowingareas:behavioral
changeandtheapplicationoflearningtheorytoproducesuccessfullearningresults;the
identiicationofsociologicalfactorsoperatingineffectiveschools;teachingstrategiestoeffect
learning,andthecombinationofthesevariablesandpracticesinasystematicapproachto
achievelearningandmanagementresults....Thefollowingprofessionalsandgroupshave
initiatedsuccessfuleducationalprogramswhichcanworktogetherasacommonsystemto
deliverpredictablesuccessforeverylearner—theultimatecriterionofaneffectiveschool
program:WilburBrookoverandRonEdmondsoftheEffectiveSchoolsResearchMovement;
B.F.Skinner,NormanCrowder,RobertandBettyO.Corrigan,1950–1984,MasteryLearning
Practices;MadelineHunter,1962–1984,MasteryTeachingPractices;R.E.Corringan,B.O.
Corrigan,WardCorriganandRogerA.Kaufman,1960–1984,ASystematicApproachforEf-
fectiveness(SAFE)fordistrict-wideinstallationofEffectiveSchools....
Skinnerproposedthatitisfeasibletodeliverpredictablelearningmasteryresultswhen
teachersperformedthefollowingprogrammedactionstodesignandimplementlessonplans
orcurricula.Thesedesignandteachingstepsdescribethegeneralprocessstepsoflearner-
centeredmasterylearninginstruction.
[Ed.Note:Includedinstep3oftheabove-mentionedlearner-centeredmasterylearningin-
structionis:“Provideimmediatefeedbackastothecorrectnessoflearnerresponses,provide
forimmediatecorrectionoferrors,andcontroltheprogressoflearningasstudentsproceedin
smallstepsalongthetestedlearningpathtomasterthelearningobjectivesandcriteriawith
predictablesuccess.”]
Thearticlecontinues:
Theultimatebeneitstobederivedthroughtheinstallationofthismasteryofskillsdelivery
systemwillbethepredictablesuccessofallfuturegraduatestomasterrelevantskillstoenter
andsucceedinsociety.Graduationskillstandardswouldbecontinuallyevaluatedand,where
necessary,willberevisedbasedonnewskillrequirementsestablishedbyindustrial,civic,
218
andacademicleaderseither(a)togetandholdjobs,(b)toadvancetohighereducation,
and/or(c)tobeself-suficientfollowinggraduation.
[Ed.Note:HowmuchclearercouldtheCorrigansbeindescribingtheneedforSkinnerianmas-
terylearning/directinstructioninordertoimplementschool-to-work?(SeeAppendixVI.)]
DR.THEODORESIZER’SCOALITION OFESSENTIALSCHOOLS(CES) WAS FOUNDED IN1984.Major
Coalitionprinciplesare:
• Focusonhelpingadolescentstolearntousetheirmindswell....
• Lessismore:Eachstudentshouldmasteralimitednumberofessentialskillsareas
ofknowledge....
• Schoolgoalsshouldapplytoallstudents....
• Teachingandlearningshouldbepersonalized;eachteachershouldhavenomore
than80students....
• Scrapthetime-honoredfeatureoftheAmericaneducationsystem:graduationre-
quirementsbasedontheso-calledCarnegieUnits,orthe“seattime”studentsspend
invarioussubjectareas....
• Studentsshouldbeactiveworkers[student-as-workerphilosophy]….
• Studentsshouldbeabletodemonstratemasteryofskillsandknowledge.
The Coalition of Essential Schools (CES) was established at Brown University. From
twelve“charter”schoolsinfourstates,CESby1993grewtoincludemorethan130member
schoolsinnearlythirtystates.AlongwiththeEducationCommissionoftheStates,theCES
sponsorsRe:Learning,apartnershipwithparticipatingstatestobuildsupportforessential
schoolchangeatthestateanddistrictlevels.
Tenyearslaterevaluationstudieshavefoundthatgainsweren’tmeasurable.Evenso,
philanthropistWalterH.Annenbergpledgedtodonate$50milliontotheAnnenbergInstitute
forSchoolReform,runbySizerandbasedatBrownUniversity.
Itisimportanttomentionthatthemajority,ifnotall,ofthemajoreducationreform
projectshavefailedtoimprovestudents’sacademictestscores.Notableexamplesare:Johnson
City,NewYork—theOutcomes-DrivenDevelopmentModel(ODDM)byJohnChamplin;Wil-
liamSpady’sFarWestLaboratoryUtahGrant,“ExcellenceinInstructionalDeliverySystems:
Research and Dissemination of Exemplary Outcomes-Based Programs”; and Marc Tucker’s
National Center on Education and the Economy (NCEE), which moved from Washington,
D.C.toRochester,NewYorkin1988to“help”thatcity’smuch-heraldedreformmovement.
TheRochesterDemocratandChronicleofMarch14,1993inanarticleentitled“ACity’sDream
Unfulilled”—afteriveyearsofTucker’s“help”—reportedthefollowing:
SinceRochester’sschoolsstartedreform,fewergraduateshavereceivedthemorestringent
Regentsdiploma.In1986–87,23.1%ofgraduateshadRegentsdiplomas,and17.5%grad-
uatedwiththemlastyear[1993].
JOHNI.GOODLADCLEARLYSTATEDTHATHOWASTUDENTFEELSABOUTSCHOOLISMOREimportant
219
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1984
thantestscoresinanarticleentitled“ACooperativeEffortIsNeeded:CanOurSchoolsGet
Better?”(originallypublishedinPhiDeltaKappan,January,1979whenDr.Goodladwasdean
oftheGraduateSchoolofEducationattheUniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,andre-pub-
lishedinEducationDigestonNovember1,1984.)Excerptsfollow:
Itseemstomyassociatesandmethathowastudentspendstimeinschoolandhowhe
feels about what goes on there is of much greater signiicance than how he scores on a
standardizedachievementtest.ButIamnotsuretheAmericanpeoplearereadytoputa
criterionsuchasthisaheadofmarksandscores.Andsoitwillbedificultforschoolstoget
betterandmoredificultforthemtoappearso....
Adherencetonorm-referenced[competitive]standardizedtestscoresasthestandard
forjudgingstudent,teacher,andschoolperformancehasledtoastultifyingapproachto
accountability.
INAPERSONALLETTERTOCHARLOTTEISERBYTFROMSTEVENM.HERSEY,EXECUTIVEDIrectorofthe
MaineAssociationofChristianSchoolsdatedNovember17,1984,14Herseyenclosedportions
ofatestimonybyKevinRyan,professoratBostonUniversity,regardingBostonUniversity,the
countryofPortugalandtheWorldBank.ProfessorRyanwascalledtotestifyfortheMaine
StateDepartmentofEducationinalegalhearingagainsttheMaineAssociationofChristian
Schools.ThefollowingexcerptsfromRyan’stestimonyareimportantduetothedisclosureby
Ryanofhisroleinthedevelopmentofateacher-trainingfacultysystem—modeledafterthat
oftheUnitedStates—forPortugalimmediatelyafterthecommunisttakeoverofthatcountry.
OnemightaskwhyacommunistcountrylikePortugalshouldchoosetheAmericanteacher
educationcurriculumtoaccomplishitspoliticalandphilosophicalgoals.PortionsofRyan’s
testimonyfollow:
A.I[Ryan]amaprofessorofEducation[atBostonUniversity]andIteachgraduate
coursesandsupervisedissertations.ButI’mthereprimarilynowtoworkonaproj-
ecttohelpaPortugueseMinisterofEducationdevelopateacher-trainingfaculty
system....
Q.…Couldyoudescribewhatitisyou’redoing?
A.Well,thePortuguesenationhadasocialrevolution[communisttakeover]in1974,
andatthattimetheydecidedthattheireducationalsystemwasveryinadequate,that
itwasnotdemocratic,thatthemandatorycompulsoryageofeducationwasonly
tothefourthgrade,andtheymandatedasystemofeducationnotunliketheUnited
Statesintermsofcompulsoryeducationuptograde12andanelementarythrough
highschooldivision.Thecountrywasveryinterestedinthis.Theyalsowantedto
bepartoftheEuropeanEconomicCommunity.But,unfortunately,Portugalwasa
poorcountry,andtheWorldBanksaidtothem,youwillnotbeadmittedintothe
European Economic Community until you get in place a modern school system.
Andthey[theWorldBank]havecomethroughwithagooddealofinancialsup-
portforthat.
Animportantpartofthatisthedevelopmentofateachertraininginfrastructure.
Now,whatthatmeansisthatPortugal,whichhas,asofrightnow,averysmalland
verysortofcasualteachereducationmethod,isestablishing12regionalteacher
educationinstitutionsattheuniversitylevelpositions;andtheylookedtotherest
oftheworldforhelponthis,andtheyputoutarequestforproposals....Boston
220
University...waschosen...totrainthefacultiesofthese12newinstitutions....
Q.Nowwhentheproposalwasirstmade...wasitcontemplatedthatBostonUniversity
mightdoallthetrainingofPortugueseteachersthemselves?
A.Yes,Idid.Myfeelingisthatinthisparticularprojectthestakesareenormously
high.The120peoplewhoarecurrentlyrightnowbeingselectedfortheserolesin
these12institutionsaregoingtobetherefor20or30years;sothatthecoursethey
haveonteachingorsupervisionisgoingtosetanintellectualandtrainingagenda
forthemforanumberofyears.Theyaregoingtogoonandtrainalltheseteachers
withwhattheylearned.
Q.Anddoyouhaveanyresponsibilitywithrespecttothecurriculumthatwillbeused
intheprogramtodevelopateachertraininginstruction?
A.Well,thePortuguesedidalotofstudyontheirown,andtheylookedatvarious
curriculaforteachereducation....IthinkoneofthereasonstheyselectedBoston
Universitywasbecausethecurriculumthattheywantedtaughtseemstobeonelike
anAmericanteachereducationcurriculum.Andwehavetheirindicationofwhat
courses they want, and the sequence. And we—and this happened before I was
there—wewentwithourcourseoutlinesand,inasense,negotiatedwiththemtoa
mutualsatisfactionaboutwhatthecontentofwhatthevariouscourseswouldbe.
Q.Doyoubelongtoanyprofessionalassociations?
A.IamamemberoftheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociation;Iamamember
ofPhiDeltaKappa;IamamemberoftheNetworkofEducationalExcellence;Iwas
amemberoftheMasterofArtsinTeachingAssociation—infact,Iwaspresident,
beforeit—before—Ithinkit’sdefunctnow.
[Ed.Note:OfinterestisthefactthatPauloFreire,thewell-knownradicalBrazilianeducator
whowrotePedagogyoftheOppressed,wasalsoaconsultanttothegovernmentofPortugal
atthetimeofitsrevolution.(SeeAugust19,1986entryforNewYorkTimesarticle.)Asof
1992ProfessorKevinRyanisreportedtobeinvolvedinandthedirectoroftheCenterforthe
AdvancementofEthicsandCharacteratBostonUniversity.]
AN ARTICLE ENTITLED “OBSERVING THE BIRTH OF THE HATCH AMENDMENT REGULATIONS” by
BertI.GreeneandMarvinPaschwaspublishedintheDecember1984issueofEducational
Leadership,monthlyjournaloftheAssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment.
Excerptsfromthearticlefollow:
However,fromthedaytheHatchAmendmentwaspassed,thewrittenconsentrequirement
laydormant,thatis,until1984.AsCharlotteIserbyt,aneducationactivistandformerDe-
partmentofEducationemployee,[stated]inamemorandumtoherconservativealliesdated
10January1984:
Theonlytoolavailabletoustoprotectourchildreninthegovernmentschoolsisafederal
law,theHatchProtectionofPupilRightsAmendment,passedunanimouslybytheU.S.
Senatein1978,forwhichtheOficeofEducationpromisedregulationsinearly1979....I
knowthatmanyofyou,forgoodreason,feelthattheHatchAmendmenthasbeenuse-
less.Ofcourseithasbeenuseless.Anystatutewhichhasnomechanismforenforcement
isnothingmorethanascrapofpaper....
Iserbyt then turned her attention to the reason why regulations have not been promul-
gated:
221
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1985
Althoughexcellentregulationsweredraftedin1982byconservativesintheOficeofthe
GeneralCounsel(whohavebeensubsequentlyiredbySecretaryBell),theyhavenotseen
thelightofdaysinceBelldoesn’tlikethemandhealsodoesnotwanttooffendhiseduca-
tionistfriendsbysigningoffonregulationsthatwilldisturbtheirmodusoperandi—their
persistenteffortstochangethevalues,attitudesandbeliefsofstudentstoconformwith
thosenecessarytobringaboutasocialist/humanistoneworldgovernment.
AsIserbytclearlysaw,itisthroughregulationsthatresponsibilitiesbecomeclariied,
proceduresforgrievanceandredressestablished,andpenaltiesfornon-compliancestated.
Therefore,theimportanceofregulationscannotbeoverstated....Interestingly,Iserbythad
notiicationoftheproposedregulationspriorto10JanuaryasevidencedbyanUrgentAlert
shesenttoher“EducationGroupLeaderActivists.”Herguidance...includedsuggestions
relatedtothescopeofthesoon-to-bepublishedregulations.Sheargued:
ItwastheintentofCongresstocoverallthemindbendingtechniquesandmaterialsused
inourchildren’sclassrooms,inspecialeducationandguidance,notjustthenarrowand
dificulttodeineareasofpsychologicalandpsychiatrictestingortreatment.
Sheprovidedasetofquotablecommentariesforhercontactsastheypreparedoralor
writtentestimony....
Somepeoplewhotestiiedarguedthatthetechniquesbeingusedinourschoolscan
belikenedtothoseusedinRussia,RedChina,andNaziGermany....
Apotentiallymajoreducationalchangehasoccurred,andtheeducationprofession
failedtoblockit.
[Ed.Note:AnyonefollowingorinvolvedwiththeAnitaHoge/Pennsylvaniacasewilltellyou
thattheU.S.DepartmentofEducation—underSecretariesofEducationWilliamBennettand
LamarAlexander—pulledoutallthestops,ateverylevel,tothwartHoge’seffortsandthose
ofotherparentswhotriedtousethislaw.Suchanassaultonthosewhopaidthebills—and
providedthechildren(“resources”)uponwhomtheyexperimenteventoday—was,andis,
criminal.]
1985
ONMARCH6,1985EDUCATIONWEEKPUBLISHEDANARTICLEENTITLED“HALFOFCHIcagoStudents
DropOut,StudyFinds:ProblemCalledEnormousHumanTragedy.”(Returnto1968Learning
andInstructionentryfordetailsoftheChicagoMasteryLearningdebacle.)
EFFECTIVESCHOOLSDEVELOPMENTINEDUCATIONACTWASINTRODUCEDINTOCONGRESSonMarch
8,1985.AnexcerptfromtheExtensionofRemarksintheHouseofRepresentativesbyHon.
AugustusF.HawkinsofCaliforniafollows:
Mr.Hawkins:Mr.Speaker,therearepublicschoolsinthisNationwhichevidencecontinuous
improvementandgrowthintheacademicachievementlevelsoftheirstudents,foreachday
thatthesestudentsareintheschool....Wherearethesepublicschools?TheyareinJackson,
MS;Spencerport,NY;LosAngeles,CA;NewYorkCity;Glendale,AZ;Richmond,VA;Pitts-
burgh,PA;Hartford,CT;Portland,OR;andmanyothercitiesthroughouttheNation.
Whattheyhaveincommonisadeterminationtoimprovepupilperformance,pupil
222
behavior,andtheeffectivenessofteachingandlearningintheirschools.Theyareadherents
andadvocatesofthelateProfessorRonEdmonds’s—ofMichiganStateUniversityandHar-
vardUniversity—effectiveschoolprinciples,whichemphasizethebeliefthatwhilepublic
schoolsrealisticallycan’tcontrolwhathappensintheirsurroundingcommunities,public
schoolscancontrolwhathappenswithintheir“fourwalls.”
[Ed. Note: This particular legislation, which originally called for a whopping $230 million
overathree-yearperiod,didnotpass.However,similareffectiveschoolslegislation,H.R.747,
passedandprovided$4.5millionoverathree-yearperiodduringWilliamBennett’stenureas
U.S.SecretaryofEducation.
The above schools—especially Jackson, Mississippi, the home of the Effective School
Reportandoneoftheirstinnercityschoolsusedasaneffectiveschools(ML/DI)research
experiment—whichhavebeenusingmasterylearningforalongperiodoftimewouldprovide
anexcellentlistforCongresstouseinaninvestigationofinnercities’norm-referencedtest
scores!]
THEDALLASMORNINGNEWSOFMARCH23,1985RANANARTICLEENTITLED“TEACHERS’Group
toDevelopNewCurriculum”byKarelHollowayofBoston.Anexcerptfollows:
TheNationalEducationAssociationisbeginningan18-monthprogramtodevelopanew
schoolcurriculumdesignedtoassurethatstudentsmasterbasicskills,NEAPresidentMary
FutrellannouncedFriday.“Theassociationirstwillsurveyscholarstodeterminewhatthey
believeconstitutes‘mastery’inreading,writing,mathematicsandsocialstudies.Usingcri-
teriafromthescholarsandtheindingsofcurrenteducationresearchstudies,theassociation
willdevelopexperimentalstrategiestoteachthemasteryskillsativeschoolsthatwillbe
selectedfromthroughoutthenation.Theresultsoftheprogramstriedattheiveschools
willdeterminetheshapeofthenewcurriculum,”Mrs.FutrellsaidinaspeechtotheEdu-
cationWritersAssociation.Thatcurriculumthenwillbetestedforthreeyearsat24schools
nationwide....TheMasteryInLearningProjectwillbefundedby$600,000fromtheNEA
anddonationsfromotherfoundations.Nineeducationresearchinstituteswillparticipate
intheproject.
SummitChristianAcademyofDallas,Texasincludedtheabovearticleinapromotional
lyer on which it typed the following additional information regarding the use of mastery
learning:
Thepurposeinsendingyouthisarticleistoevidencethattrulywedidcreate“TOMORROW’S
EDUCATIONTODAY”iveyearsagoatacostofoverfourmilliondollars.Weemployedover
250dedicatedChristianwritersandeditorstocreatetheLIFEPACcurriculum.Eachhadan
averageofiveyearsclassroomteachingexperience,andover75%heldMastersdegreesor
higher,and40heldDoctoratedegrees.Truly,thereisnoinercurriculuminthemarketplace
today.Forcomparisonbetweenourcurriculum,A.C.E.,A-Beka,BobJonesandothers,please
writeto:SummitChristianAcademy,13789NoelRoad,Suite100,Dallas,Texas75240.
[Ed.Note:ThisarticleprovestheextensiveusebyChristianeducatorsofthesameSkinnerian
masterylearningusedandrecommendedbytheNationalEducationAssociation.Howcan
Christianeducators,opposedtotheteachingofevolution,supportateachingmethodbasedon
Darwin’stheoryofevolution?Dr.FrancisSchaefferwasrightontargetwhenhesaid:“Manyof
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1985 223
oursecularschoolshaveconsistentlytaughtthesepresuppositions(evolutionarytheory)and
unhappilymanyofourChristianlowerschoolsandcollegeshavetaughtthecrucialsubjects
nodifferentlythanthesecularschools.”]
EDUCATIONDAILYOFAPRIL5,1985PUBLISHEDANITEMENTITLED“TEACHERSINFLUENCEStudents’
ValuesthroughWritingAssignments”whichstatedinpart:
ResearchersattendingtheannualmeetingoftheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociation
heresaidwritingcanbeusedtoclarifystudents’valuesandevenaltertheirviewsoncon-
troversialsubjects.
Butteacherscanalsousewritingtomanipulateastudent’sviewpointandattitudeon
controversialissues,saidaresearcherwhohasstudiedhowwritingchangesattitudes.“You
cangenerateattitudechangebywriting,”saidJohnDalyoftheUniversityofTexas.Daly
saidhisresearchshowedthatwritinganessayaboutanissuehelpsstudentsclarifytheir
ownviews.Butwhenaskedtowriteanessayarguingapositionopposingtheirvalues,the
studentsareleadtochangetheirminds....
…Andthegreatertheeffortastudentputsintoawritingassignment,thegreaterthe
changeinattitude,Dalyconcluded.
Daly’sindingdisturbedsomeeducators,whosaidtheywereconcernedthatteachers
havethepowertoalterstudents’values.“Itcanbedangerouswhenweknowthateduca-
torshavethepowertoinluencekids’minds,”saidBarbaraMitchelloftheUniversityof
Pennsylvania.
THEMAY1985EDUCATIONUPDATEFROMTHEASSOCIATIONFORSUPERVISIONANDCURriculum
Development contained a revealing article “Promising Theories Die Young” about the late
MadelineHunter,UniversityofCaliforniaatLosAngeleseducationprofessorandthenation’s
bestknownMasteryTeachingteachertrainer.Dr.Hunterwasapsychologistwhoservedmore
thantwentyyearsasprincipaloftheExperimentalLaboratoryElementarySchoolatUCLA.
(JohnGoodladalsoservedatUCLA’slabschool.)Hunter’sviewsonInstructionalTheoryInto
Practice(ITIP)andondialecticalthinkingfollow:
MadelineHunter,UCLAeducationprofessorandresearchinterpreter,toldahuge,doting
audiencethateducationaltheoristsandpractitioners“badlyneedeachother”andthatitis
hightimetotapeachother’sstrengthsratherthanzapeachother’sperceivedlaws.Hunter
saidthatsheisparticularlyconsciousofthisschismbecause“I’mpartofbothbutnotre-
allyoneortheother.”Hunterhasbeenaschoolpsychologist,principal,researcher,and,in
ASCDimmediatePastPresidentPhilRobinson’swords,“oneofthemostable...teachersof
teachers.”Hunterdeliveredthreemandatesforthenextdecade:1.Uniteeducationaltheory
andpractice;2.Recognize,integrate,anduseallthreekindsofknowledge;and3.Move
towarddialecticalthinking.
Underthearticle’ssubtitle,“ThreeKindsofKnowledge,”Hunter’spresentationtothe
audiencewascoveredasfollows:
Whenshewasaschoolpsychologist,Huntersaid,shehadanexchangewithateacherwho
hadrebukedastudentformakingasillyremark:
224
Hunter:Whatdidthesmart-aleckwant?
Teacher:Attention.
Hunter:HaveyoueverheardofPavlov?
Teacher(amazed):Whatdoslobberingdogshavetodowithit?
In the same Education Update article, under subtitle “Toward Dialectical Thinking,”
Hunter’spresentationreported:
Hunteradvisededucatorstomovetowarddialecticalthinking,whichmeans,shesaid,that
withempathy,you“embracethemostconvincingargument...againstyourownconclusion.
Dialecticalthinkingwillmoveusfromrightandwrongtobetterinthissetofcircumstances.”
Movingintothis“thoughtfuluncertainty,”Huntersaid,doesnotmeanobligatoryabandon-
mentofone’sownposition,butshesaid,theadvantageisthat“wherewetakeanopposing
pointofviewandholditintensionwithourownpointofview,eachbuildscorrectioninto
theother.”Hunternudgededucatorstocomeoutof“armedcamps...wherewe’renotcol-
laborating”sothat“Iunderstandwhyyouthinkit’srightforyourstudentstolineupwhile
Ithinkit’sbetterforthemtocomeincasually.”Andsheconcluded,“Torespectfullyaddress
anotherperson’spointofviewisamaster,masterstep.Untilweaccomplishitinourown
profession...Iseeverylittlehopeforitinourcommunity,inourcities,inournation,and
intheworld.”
ThevalidityofHunter’sclaimsofsuccessforherITIPmasteryteachingprogramwas
questionedbyRobertSlavinofJohnsHopkinsUniversityinhispaperentitled“TheNapaEval-
uationofMadelineHunter’sITIP:LessonsLearned,”publishedinElementarySchoolJournal
(Vol.87,No.2:UniversityofChicago,1986).Slavinsaysinpart,“Althoughteachersinthe
programchangedtheirbehaviorandstudents’engagedratesimproved,programeffectson
studentachievementwereminimal.”
RobertSlavinfolloweduponhiscritiqueofHunter’sclaimsofsuccessforhermastery
teachingprogramwithhisreportfundedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducationentitledMas-
teryLearningReconsidered,publishedbytheCenterforResearchonElementaryandMiddle
Schools,JohnsHopkinsUniversity(ReportNo.7,January1987).Anexcerptfromtheabstract
ofthereportfollows:
Severalrecentreviewsandmeta-analyseshaveclaimedextraordinarilypositiveeffectsof
mastery learning on student achievement, and Bloom (1984a, b) has hypothesized that
mastery-based treatments will soon be able to produce “two-sigma” (i.e., two standard
deviation) increases in achievement. This article examines the literature on achievement
effectsofpracticalapplicationsofgroup-basedmasterylearninginelementaryandsecond-
aryschoolsoverperiodsofatleastfourweeks,usingareviewtechnique,“bestevidence
synthesis,”whichcombinesfeaturesofmeta-analyticandtraditionalnarrativereviews.The
reviewfoundessentiallynoevidencetosupporttheeffectivenessofgroup-basedmastery
learningonstandardizedachievementmeasures.Onexperimenter-mademeasures,effects
weregenerallypositivebutmoderateinmagnitude,withlittleevidencethateffectsmain-
tainedovertime.Theseresultsarediscussedinlightofthecoveragevs.Masterydilemma
posedbygroup-basedmasterylearning.
[Ed. Note: Slavin’s critiques echo the negative results of mastery learning discussed else-
whereinthisbook.Unfortunately,tenyearslaterSlavinreceivedhismasterylearning/direct
instructioncrownin1999whenSlavin’sprogram“SuccessforAll,”whichalsousesmastery
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1985 225
learning/directinstruction,wasacceptedasoneofthenationallyrecognizedprogramsfor
useinrestructuring.]
THEEFFECTIVESCHOOLREPORT’SMAY1985ISSUECONTAINEDANARTICLEENTITLED“Principal’s
ExpectationsasaMotivatingFactorinEffectiveSchools.”Anexcerptfollows:
Theprincipalexpectsspeciicbehaviorfromparticularteacherswhichshouldthentranslate
intoachievementbythestudentsoftheseteachers;becauseofthesevariedexpectations,
theprincipalbehavesdifferentlytowarddifferentteachers;i.e.,bodylanguage,verbalinter-
actionsandresourceallocations.Thistreatmentalsoinluencestheattitudesoftheteacher
towardtheprincipalandtheirperceptionofthefutureutilityofanyincreasedefforttoward
studentachievement.Ifthistreatmentisconsistentovertime,andiftheteachersdonot
resistchange,itwillshapetheirbehaviorandthroughittheachievementoftheirstudents….
Withtimeteachers’behavior,self-conceptsofability,perceptionsoffutureutility,attitude
towardtheprincipalandstudents’achievementwillconformmoreandmorecloselytothe
behaviororiginallyexpectedofthem.
EDUCATIONDAILYOFJUNE12,1985PUBLISHED“SWEEPINGOVERHAULOFMINNESOTAEducation
SystemProposed.”Excerptsfollow:
TheMinnesotaBusinessPartnership,anorganizationof60corporations,commissionedan
educationconsultingirmtostudythestateeducationsystemandplanimprovements.The
resultistheMinnesotaPlan,thebusinesscommunity’sproposalstoradicallyrestructurethe
state’seducationsystem.TheplanwasoutlinedMondayataNationalInstituteofEducation
seminarinWashington,D.C.byPaulBerman,PresidentofBWAssociates,whichconducted
thestudy.Theproposalwouldmakekindergartenthroughsixthgradetheelementarylevel,
setupgradesseventhrough10asthecommonhighschools,andcreatespecializedprograms
forgrades11and12.Studentswouldhavetomasteracoreprogramofcommunication,
socialstudies,scienceandmathuntilthe11thgrade,andpassstatecompetencyexamsat
theendofthesixthand10thgrades.Moreover,theplanwouldeliminatestate-mandated
coursesandallowdistrictsandschoolstodeterminecourserequirements.Undertheplan,
11thand12thgradestudentscouldtakecoursesatpostsecondaryinstitutions,technicalor
vocationalschoolsorevenprivatecorporations....
Despitetheworriesofbusinessleadersinthepartnership…mostlegislatorsdon’tfeel
amajorrestructuringisnecessary.“Mostofusfeelthesystemischangingandresponding
toneeds.Butitisnotinneedofdrasticchange.”ButBermancountersthatsince“thebest
teachersareleavingatage30now,”teacherimprovementplanswouldhelpoverburdened
staff and increase student-teacher contact. Teaching teams composed of a lead teacher,
teachingassistantsandadjunctteacherswouldworkwith120students.Thiswouldallow
forindividualstudentlearningprogramsandremovalofstudentcounselors....“It’snota
fantasynomatterhowradicalitis,”Bermancontends,addingthatthepublicdoesnotreal-
izethat“reformswestarttodayarenotgoingtobeineffectfor20years.Ittakestimeto
modernize.”(p.6)
[Ed.Note:Inretrospectitseems,tothiswriteratleast,thatMinnesotawasclearlyoutfront
initsearlyadoptionofperformance-basedschool-to-workagendas.(SeeAppendixX.)]
226
NORTH CAROLINA’S COMPENTENCY-BASED CURRICULUM, “BASIC EDUCATION PROGRAM,” was
introducedin1985.Afewofitsmoreunusual“basic”competencies,involvedstudentsen-
tertainingallegiancetoaworldconstitutionandaworldgovernmentratherthantotheU.S.
Constitution.Excerptsfollow:
FIFTH GRADE: Develop a lag, seal, symbol, pledge and/or national anthem for a new
country....Designapostagestamptobeusedworldwide.Thestampshoulddenotewhat
theworldwouldneedtomakeitabetterplace....
SIXTHGRADE:Drawnationalsymbolsforanimaginarynation....
SEVENTHGRADE:Understandtheneedforinterdependence....
NINTHGRADE:Writeaconstitutionforaperfectsociety.
ANATIONALEDUCATIONASSOCIATION(NEA)PRESSRELEASEFORJUNE28–JULY3,1985described
inconsiderabledetailthepurposeofitsMasteryInLearningproject.15Itwasexplainedthat
MasteryLearningis
aconceptirstproposedagenerationagobyHarvardpsychologistJeromeBruner....Agrowing
bodyofresearchandeducationalreformproposalscamefromsuchrespectededucational
analystsasMortimerAdler[developerofthePaideiaProposalandlong-timeadvocateofa
one-worldgovernment,ed.],JohnGoodlad,TheodoreSizer,andErnestBoyerwhohaveall
soughttotranslateBruner’sworkintoclassroomreality.
AlsorevealedinanNEAbookletonmasterylearningisthefactthat
MasteryLearningisoneofmanyinstructionalmodels.OthersincludeActiveTeaching,Direct
Instruction,StudentTeamLearning,Socraticquestioning,coaching,creativeproblemsolving,
Bruner’sConceptAttainmentStrategy,andMadelineHunter’sTargetTeachingApproach.
Thesemodelsincorporateresearchoneffectiveteaching,andallmaybeexploredbythe
schoolsassociatedwiththeproject.
[Ed.Note:JeromeBrunerandB.F.Skinnerwerethedevelopersofthehighlycontroversial,
federallyfundedcurriculumM:ACOS(Man:ACourseofStudy).]
EDUCATIONWEEKOFAUGUST28,1985CARRIEDTHEARTICLE“PROPONENTSOFMASTERYLearning
DefendMethodafterItsRejectionbyChicago”whichquotedBenjaminBloom,oftencitedas
“thefatherofMasteryLearning,”assayingthatsome50millionchildrenaroundtheglobe
aretaughtwithamasterylearningapproach.Inaddition,UniversityofCaliforniaProfessor
JamesH.Blockisquotedassayinghe“doesn’tknowofanymajorurbanschoolsysteminthe
UnitedStatesthathasnotadoptedsomekindofmasterylearningprogram.”
[Ed.Note:JamesBlock’sstatementunderscorestheneedforaCongressionalinvestigation
requiringtheU.S.DepartmentofEducationtoprovidelongitudinal/norm-referencedtestscores
forall“majorurbanschoolsystems”thathaveusedmasterylearning/directinstructionover
thepastthirtyyears.(SeeAppendixXXVI.)]
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1985 227
“TOTALPRESENTATIONSET FOREDUCATORS” WAS THE HEADLINE OF AN ARTICLE IN THETyler
[Texas]MorningTelegraphofOctober31,1985(Sec.3,p.3).Excerptsfollow:
TexasObjectivesforTotalAcademicLearning[TOTAL]willberevealedtoTexaseducatorson
Nov.7inHoustonwhenfourstaffmembersofRegionVIIEducationServiceCenterofKilgore,
makeapresentationtotheTexasAssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment,
(afiliateofthenationalorganizationASCD)....ThefoursomewilldescribeTOTAL,share
samplesofproductivityandgiveinformationonhowtoobtainthematerialsthroughtheir
regionalservicecenters....ProjectTOTALwasborninKilgoreinJanuary1984andmatured
duringthereform-wroughtsummerafterpassageofHouseBill246anditsimplementation
ofChapter75bytheLegislature....
Some1500teachersand100administratorsin75districtsofRegionVII’sNortheast
Texasareawereinvolved[inproducing]the5,000pagesofmaterialstoaidschooldistricts
incomplyingwiththelaw....
TOTALprovidesfoundationcurriculumdocumentswrittenin“teachertalk”encom-
passingessentialelements.Itaddressesall13subjectareasofessentialelementsfromkin-
dergartenthrough12thgrade:English,languagearts,mathematics,science,health,physical
education,TexasandU.S.history,andcomputerliteracy.Theseelementsaredevelopedinto
actualplanswhichteachersmayuseinhelpingstudentsmastertheessentialelements....
Objectives,activitiesandresourcesaresuggestedforeach,andalsosuggestedaremeans
ofevaluationtoseehowwellstudentshavemasteredeachobjective....
“ThebigweaknessIseeisintheresourcelistings,”shesaid.“Wearetryingtowiden
teachers’horizonswheretheyhaven’tusedmuchexcepttextbooksandtogivethemadded
softwarethatcanbebroughttotheirattentionandshouldbeavailablebyfall1986.”
[Ed.Note:Theabovearticlewasselectedtoexplaintheprocessemployedbythestatesto
implementmasterylearning/directinstructionintheearly1980sasaresponsetoANationat
Risk.ThewriterofthisbookwroteRossPerot,whospearheadedtheTexaseducationreform
movementintheearly1980s,warninghimoftheintentbehindreformandprovidinghim
withvaluabledocumentationfromtheU.S.DepartmentofEducation.Thewriterreceiveda
returnreceiptforthematerials,butnoresponse.]
MAINE’SSTATEDEPARTMENTOFEDUCATION1985ASSESSMENTOFEDUCATIONALPROGRESS[MAEP]
testitembank,basedinpartonNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP)test
items,includedthefollowingcorrectanswerastowhytheSovietsoccupiedEasternEurope
afterWorldWarII:
[Correctanswer]
SovietoccupationwasprimarilyaresultoftheSovietUnion’sdesireforsecurityalongits
borders.
[Ed.Note:Onecannothelpbutwonderhowtheinternationalcommunitywouldhaveresponded
totheUnitedStates’occupationofCanada,Mexico,Cuba,theWestIndies,Greenland,and
Icelandinorderto“secureitsborders.”]
MAINEFACILITATORCENTER FLYER REGARDING A TEACHER TRAINING SEMINAR FOR“MODelsof
Teaching”byBruceJoyceetal.wasdistributedin1985.Undertheheading“InformationPro-
228
cessing,OneofFourGroups”wasincluded:DirectInstruction:JamesBlock,BenjaminBloom,
thelateMadelineHunter,andEthnaReid—allprominentindevelopment,implementationand
promotionofSkinnerianmasterylearning.AnexcerptfromtheMaineCenter’slyerregarding
DirectInstructionfollows:
Thismodelisadeductiveapproachtolearningthatpresentstheobjective,modelstheskill
and provides guides and independent practices. Direct Instruction requires multisensory
lessons,constantmonitoringbytheteachertoinsureunderstanding,andawiderangeof
revieworpractices.
[Ed.Note:HowfascinatingthatBruceJoyceusedthelabel“DirectInstruction”insteadofmas-
terylearning,whichprovesthatthetwolabelsarerightfullyappliedtothesamemethod.]
IN1985THEU.S.DEPARTMENTOFEDUCATION,THROUGHTHESECRETARY’SDISCRETIONaryFund
underSecretaryWilliamBennett,approvedthepromotionofandfundingfordevelopmentof
acharactereducationprogrambytheThomasJeffersonResearchCenter(TJRC)ofPasadena,
California.Thegrantwasfora“teachertrainingprojectdemonstratingtheviabilityofadis-
trict-wideeducationalprograminvolving...theTJRC.”Throughthegrant,theTJRC,founded
in1963,wouldapplyitscharactereducationcurriculum“acrossallsegmentsofthe[Pasadena]
district’sgradelevels...expandingtheefforttoparentsandcommunity,and...tootherschool
districts,andtoshare...methodsandapproacheswithothereducatorsandinstitutionsna-
tionally.”Communityserviceprojectsforelementary,middle,andhighschoolstudents“are
seenasextensionsofclassroomactivityandessentialelementsin...therangeofvaluesbeing
stressed.”TheTJRC’sfederallyfundeddemonstration“charactereducation”programincluded
“PersonalResponsibilitySkillsandEthicalDecision-Making.”
Nationaldisseminationwasexpectedtobeeffectedthroughregionalandnationalwork-
shops,educationconferences,computerconferences,andthroughTELE,“anelectroniclearn-
ingexchange...acomputerizednetworkofeducators...involvedwithexemplaryprograms
andcomputerassistedinstructionprogramswithinCaliforniaand...acrossthenation.”The
promotionalliteraturefortheTJRC’smiddleandhighschoolAchievementSkillsprograms
andthetextoftheteacher’smanualforitsmiddleschoolAchievementSkillsprogram(1984)
explicitlystatedthat“thebasisfortheprogramsliesinthemotivationaltheoriesof[Abraham]
Maslow.”
InReligion,Values,andPeakExperiences(OhioStateUniversityPress:Columbus,Ohio,
1964)Maslowstatedthat“eachpersonhashisownprivatereligion...whichmaybeofthe
profoundestmeaningtohimpersonallyandyet...ofnomeaningtoanyoneelse...eachperson
discovers,develops,andretainshisownreligion.”AnexaminationoftheTJRC’smiddleschool
AchievementSkillsrevealsnotonlytheprogram’sbaseinMaslow’spsychologicaltheories,but
alsotheprogram’stiestoconsciousness-alteringmethods.Earlyinthesemester-longprogram,
studentsaretoldthat“wearegoingtostudysomepsychology.Wearegoingtostudyourselves
orourminds[emphasisinoriginal].Eachofyouisgoingtogetachancetolookatyourself
asifyouwereapsychologist.”Repeatedlythroughouttheprogram,studentsareexposedto
self-hypnosis,guidedimagery,visualizationtechniques,andrelaxationtherapy—toolsused
inpsychosynthesis(deinedbyRobertoAssagioliastheformationorreconstructionofanew
personality).InhisbookPsychosynthesis16asmentionedearlierinthisbookAssagiolinotes
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1985 229
thepossibledangersoftheexplorationoftheunconscious.Theirstandforemostisthe
releaseofdrivesandemotionswhichwerelockedintheunconsciousandwhichcanlood
theconsciousegobeforeitisreadyandpreparedandcompetenttocontain,controland
utilizethem.Itisthesituationofthe“apprenticesorcerer.”
...Wethinkthatcasesofsuicideorofthedevelopmentofpsychoticstatescanbedue
totheprematureanduncontrolledreleaseofexplosivedrivesandemotionsfromtheun-
conscious.
ThemiddleschoolAchievementSkillsprogramalsoutilizeswhatarepsychotherapeutic
values clariication techniques: role playing, open-ended questions, and moral dilemmas.
ThesesamevaluesclariicationmethodologiesformthebasisoftheK–6“charactereducation”
componentfundedbythegrant.Psychologistshavewarnededucatorsaboutthedangersof
unbridleduseofrole-playingtechniquesbyuntrainedpeople,fortheveryreasonsAssagioli
citesaswellasothers.
TheK–6materialsweredevelopedbytheAmericanInstituteforCharacterEducation
(AICE)ofSanAntonio,Texas,andaremarketednationally.TheTeacher’sHandbook(1983)from
AICEindicatesthattheprogramisanother“howtolearninsteadofwhattolearn”program
andadmitstotheuseofvaluesclariication,thepromotionofself-disclosureandthecreation
ofaclassroomclimatewhere“therearenorightanswerstoanyoneproblem.”
U.S. PRESIDENT REAGAN AND SOVIET PRESIDENT GORBACHEV SIGNED AN AGREEMENT IN 1985
callingfor
cooperationintheieldofscienceandtechnologyandadditionalagreementsinotherspeciic
ields,includingthehumanitiesandsocialsciences;thefacilitationoftheexchangebyap-
propriateorganizationsofeducationalandteachingmaterials,includingtextbooks,syllabi
andcurricula,materialsonmethodology,samplesofteachinginstrumentsandaudiovisual
aids,andtheexchangeofprimaryandsecondaryschooltextbooksandotherteachingmate-
rials....Theconductingofjointstudiesontextbooksbetweenappropriateorganizationsin
theUnitedStatesandtheMinistryofEducationoftheU.S.S.R.
Atthesametime,theCarnegieCorporationsignedagreementswiththeSovietAcademyof
Scienceswhichresultedin“jointresearchontheapplicationofcomputersinearlyelementary
education,focusingespeciallyontheteachingofhigherlevelskillsandcomplexsubjectsto
youngerchildren.”
TheU.S.-Sovieteducationagreementswerediscussedinanarticleentitled“U.S.andSo-
vietstoShareInsightsonComputers”byFredM.Hechinger,educationeditor,intheDecember
10,1985issueoftheNewYorkTimes.Thearticlestatesinpart:
AmeetingofAmericanandSovieteducationalcomputerexpertshasproducedanagreementto
exchangespecialistsinvolvedintheimprovementofelementaryandsecondaryeducation.
TheinitialAmerican-Sovietexchangeisintendedasairststeptowardcooperation
amongeducationreformersfromanumberofcountries,includingBritainandJapan.One
goalistoreducethepresentemphasisontrainingcomputerprogrammers,andstressinstead
thecomputer’spotentialtorestructuretheeducationofyoungchildren,beginninginthird
gradeorearlier.
Severalissuesarelistedforjointinvestigation.Theyincludecomputer-basedmethods
todevelopcreativeabilitiesofprimaryschoolpupils,creationandtestingofsoftwarefor
230
useinprimaryschool,andproposalsfortherestructuringofthecurriculumandofteaching
methodsthroughtheuseofcomputersintheearlygrades.
Additionalissuesincludeevaluationofthetrainingofteachersintheuseofcomput-
ersandeliminationofteachers’fearofcomputers,andcreationofSoviet-Americanpilot
projectsforjointexperiments.
[Ed. Note: On December 20, 1985, during a “Contact America” radio interview with U.S.
SecretaryofEducationWilliamBennett,co-hostMalcolmLawrenceaskedBennettifhewas
involvedintheUnitedStates-Sovieteducationexchanges.Bennettresponded,“No.I’mnot
inthatloop.”Praytell,what“loop”washeinduringhistenureasthetopoficialdealing
withAmericaneducation?ThewriterwasinformedbytheU.S.DepartmentofStatethatboth
agreementswerestillineffectaftertheso-calledbreak-upoftheSovietUnion.(SeeAppendix
XXIII.)]
1986
THEFACTFINDEROFPHOENIX,ARIZONAONJANUARY1,1986(VOL.46,NO.4)CARRIEDanar-
ticleentitled“ShockingU.S.AgreementstoLetSovietandRedChineseEducatorsIndoctrinate
America’sChildren.”(SeeAppendixXXIII.)Excerptsfollow:
WenowhaveproofthatagreementshavebeenmadewiththeSovietsfornearly30years
tohavetheireducatorsworkwithoursinplanningcurriculaforAmerica’sschoolchildren.
Thisisashockingadditiontowhatwehavealreadylearnedaboutthemanywaysthatthe
Sovietsarecarryingouttheirsecretwarforworlddomination.
EarlyinOctober,welearnedthattwoCommunisteducatorsarealreadyhereinPhoe-
nix,teachingandconferringwitheducatorsatCentralHighSchool.BorisBayevisa41-year
oldprincipalofaSovietsecondaryschoolatUlyanovsk,USSR.AteacherfromRedChina
isalsoatCentralHigh.
EDWINFEULNER,PRESIDENTOFTHEHERITAGEFOUNDATION(CONSIDEREDBYSOMETOBEthefore-
most“conservative”thinktankinthenation),chairedtheUnitedStatesInformationAgency’s
(USIA)CommissiononPublicDiplomacyin1986.Theannualreportcarriedacoverletterfrom
Feulneraschairmanencouragingtheacceptanceofitsrecommendations.Under“Educational
andCulturalPrograms,ExchangesandInternationalVisitors”thereportstatesinpart:
TheCommissionurgesUSIA,theDepartmentofState,andtherelevantprivatesectororga-
nizationstomovequicklytodevelopspeciicprogramsforU.S.-Sovietexchangespursuantto
theGeneralExchangesaccord,otherexchangeinitiativesundertakenattheGenevaSummit,
andtheagreementbyPresidentReaganandGeneralSecretaryGorbachevtoreviewthese
programsattheirnextmeeting.
[Ed.Note:TheHeritageFoundationlaterestablishedanoficeinMoscow,ostensiblytooversee
Russia’s“hoped-for”evolutionfromcommunismtofreemarketeconomics.]
231
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1986
NATIONALACADEMYOFEDUCATIONATTHEHARVARDGRADUATESCHOOLOFEDUCATION(Cam-
bridge,Massachussetts),sentoutaninformationalletterin1986entitled“ACLS[American
CouncilofLearnedSocieties]-USSRMinistryofEducationCommissiononEducation”describing
jointU.S.-Sovieteducationactivities.Anexcerptwhichdetailsanextraordinaryagendafor
cooperationwith“TheEvilEmpire”follows:
ScholarsfromtheAmericanCouncilofLearnedSocietiesandtheMinistryofEducationof
theSovietUnionmetintheUnitedStatesin1986andagreedtoestablishaCommissionon
Educationthatwillberesponsibleforjointscholarlyrelationsinpedagogyandrelatedields
betweentheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion.SomemajorjointU.S.-Sovietprojectthemes
are:MethodsofTeachingandLearningSchoolScienceandMathSubjectsUsingComputers;
TheoryofTeachingandLearning;PsychologicalandPedagogicalProblemsofTeachingin
theDevelopmentofPre-SchoolandSchool-AgeChildren;andProblemsofTeachingChildren
withSpecialNeeds.
THEFEBRUARY1986ISSUEOFTHEEFFECTIVESCHOOLREPORTCARRIEDTHEFIRSTOFAtwelve-part
seriesentitled“ImplementingEffectiveSchools:Commitment—TheFirstStep.”Anaccurate
descriptionofthePavlovian/SkinnerianmethodsrequiredbyEffectiveSchoolsResearchis
foundinthisarticle.Excerptsfollow:
Effectiveschoolsresearchisconclusivebeyondanydoubtthatallchildrencanlearn.Prac-
ticenowrevealsthatanyschoolcanbeled,throughasystematicprocessoftrainingfor
behavioralchange,toeffectiveness.Neitherresearchnorpracticesuggeststhattheprocess
ofbecomingeffectiveiseasy....
Thetaskofleadingaschoolfromineffectivenesstoeffectivenessismonumental;how-
ever,itcanbedone.Andtheresearchprovesthatitcanbedonewithoutwholesalechanges
ofpersonnel.RonEdmondssaidthatwemustassumethattheteacherandstaffareatleast
aseducableasthechildrentheyteach....
Changeinaneffectiveschoolmustbedramaticiftheschoolistobecomeeffective.
Themind-setofmanyifnotmostemployeeswithinthebuildingmustchange.Effective
schoolbehaviorsmustbedemonstratedbyall.Thesebehaviorsareobservable,measurable,
andtransferable;therefore,theycanbelearned.In-depthandhighlystructuredtrainingwill
precedeimprovedoutcomes.
Thetraumaexperiencedbyaschoolthatsetsacourseofeffectivenesswillbesub-
stantial,andwillrequiretheimplementationofarigid,highlystructured,andsequenced
programwithallresearch-basedelementsinplace.
THENATIONALFORUMFOREDUCATIONALAWARENESSHELDASPECIALCEREMONYANDreceptionin
theRussellSenateCaucusBuilding,Washington,D.C.onFebruary21,1986tohonorNorman
Dodd,researchdirectorfortheReeceCommitteeduring1953–1954.BarbaraCueter,Charlotte
IserbytandElisabethRussinoffplannedtheawardsceremonyatwhichSenatorJesseHelms
madethepresentationofthe“AmericanismAward”toMr.Dodd.Mrs.RosalindKressHaley,
acloseandlong-timefriendofNormanDodd’s,wasresponsibleforthereceptionfollowing
theawardsceremony.AdmirersofNormanDoddfromacrossthecountryarrangedforthe
ceremonytobevideotaped.SomeexcerptsofSenatorHelms’videotapedcommentsfollow:
232
I’velearnedalittlebitaboutthisveryinegentlemanwhoisheretodayandthemoreI
havelearnedthemoreIamconvincedthattherecan’tbeanyotherAmericanwhohasdone
moretobringtheattentionoftheAmericanpeopletotherealstoryoftheonslaughtagainst
AmericancivilizationthanthatdistinguishedAmerican,Mr.NormanDodd.
Ithinkitwasabout32yearsago…1954whenMr.Doddservedastheabledirectorof
researchfortheReeceCommissiontoinvestigatethetax-exemptfoundations,andohsir!how
theyneededtobeinvestigated.CongressmanReecewassoshockedbytheanti-American
activitiesofthemajorfoundationsandtheiracademicalliesthathefeltobligedtoestablish
aspecialcommitteeofCongresstoinvestigate[these]activities…
Mr.NormanDodd,asresearchdirectoroftheReeceCommittee,providedagreatser-
vicetoournationbyexposingtherealdesignsofthetax-exemptfoundations,suchas,who
elsebuttheRockefellerFoundation,andthebottomlineoftheiractivitieswas,anditstill
is,fundamentallytoalterourculturallifesothatsocialisminsteadoffreedombecomesthe
Americanwayoflife.That’swhatthey’reabout.Oh,theyhaveotherpretexts,justasdosuch
organizationstodayastheCouncilonForeignRelationsandtheTrilateralCommission.
Wearesoundingacalltoarmstoyouagain,sir,togetyoutohelpuscombatthese
people.…[F]romwhatIhavelearnedofMr.Dodd’slife,hehassteadfastlyadheredtothe
idealsofourFoundingFathers,assofewdo.
Ihopethatconservativesoftoday,particularlytheyoungerones,willgobacktothe
hearingrecordsoftheReeceCommitteeandcarefullyreviewthemassiveamountoftestimony
andindings—over1,000pages.IthinkitistimetopickupwhereCongressmanReeceand
NormanDoddleftoff32yearsagoandbeginagainwithinvestigationofactivitiesofthe
foundations.Withoutadoubtwearegoingtoindthesamepatterns,thesamedesigns,the
samegoalsthatwereuncoveredthreedecadesago,andthosethatwereuncoveredthenwere
unsavory.Thosewhichcanbeuncoveredtodaywillbethesame.
Inanycase,Iamsodelightedtobehere—it’sanhonortobehere…onbehalfofthe
NationalForumforEducationalAwareness,andMr.Dodd,reallyandtrulyonbehalfofthe
American people…. [I present this] beautiful plaque…. I am proud of you, sir, and God
blessyou!
[Ed.Note:Thereisnooneinamoreinluentialposition,nationallyorinternationally,than
SenatorJesseHelms,chairmanoftheU.S.SenateForeignRelationsCommittee,to“pickup
whereCongressmanReeceandNormanDoddleftoff32(now45)yearsagoandbeginagain
theinvestigationofactivitiesofthefoundations.”Thereaderisurgedtocontacthiselected
oficialstorequestaresumptionofthisinvestigation.]
CAROL BARBER, OUTCOME-BASED EDUCATION/MASTERY LEARNING CONSULTANT FROM HOUSton,
Texaswrote“Outcome-BasedEducation/MasteryLearning:WhatIsIt?WhyDoIt?HowDo
YouDoIt?”whichappearedintheSpring(Vol.5,No.3)1986issueofOutcomes,thequarterly
journaloftheNetworkforOutcome-BasedSchools.Thefollowingareexcerpts:
OBE/ML:WHATISIT?
Asdiscussedbyothersinthisissue,thereisconsiderableoverlapinmanyoftheschoolreform
movementssweepingthecountrytoday.Frequently,outcome-basededucationandmastery
learningareusedinterchangeablyorassynonymousphrases.Whiletherearecertainlymany
commonalitiesinthetwomovements,theyalsoareverydifferent.
OnewaytodifferentiateOBEfromMLfromothereffectiveschoolpracticesistovi-
sualizeanumbrellaanditsvariousparts.Theumbrellaincludes:1)acanopy;2)acenter
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1986 233
poletosupportthecanopy;and3)asetofhingedribsradiatingfromthecenterpole.The
umbrellagivesusaperfectanalogyforcomparingmanyoftheschoolreformmovements.
Outcome-based education is represented by the canopy of the umbrella. The OBE ideas
representpossiblereformofthetotalschoolsystem....WhenadistrictmovesintoOBE,itis
readytoexaminebeliefsystemsofstaff,students,parents;placementofstudents;grading
andreportingpolicies;curriculumissues;certiicationprocesses;instructionalmethods;etc.,
etc.,etc.Inotherwords,OBEmeansanapproachtoreformwithinthetotal[emphasisin
theoriginal]schoolsystem;i.e.,theumbrellaunderwhichallpracticesofschooloperation
willoccur.
Thecenterpolesupportingtheumbrellarepresentsthemasterylearningideas.Mastery
learningsupportstheOBEmovementinthatitisthemainvehicleuponwhichtobeginthe
changeprocessinthebeliefsystem,curriculumorganizationandinstructionalstrategies.
MasterylearningprovidesuswiththesupportandprocessesneededtobeginthetotalOBE
reforminourschools.
The set of hinged ribs radiating from the center pole can be viewed as any of the
manyeffectiveschoolmovements[emphasisinoriginal]and/orstrategiesavailabletous.
StrategiessuchasDr.Hunter’sMasteryTeaching,Hopkins’StudentTeamLearning,Johnson
and Johnson’s Cooperative Learning, Joyce’s Teaching Models, Good’s TESA, and many
others,representeffectivepracticeswhicharetotallycompatibleandwillcertainlyenhance
anOBE/MLprogram.
...Realistically,onecouldimplementanyoneoftheabove-mentionedstrategieswithout
havingMLinoperation;indeedonecanimplementMLwithouthavingOBE.However,when
OBEisimplemented,MLmustbeapplied.
“REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF EDUCATION WILLIAM BENNETT, APRIL, 1986. TRANSFORMing
AmericanEducation:ReducingtheRisktotheNation”wasissuedbytheNationalTaskForce
onEducationalTechnology.ThememowasdistributedatanOhioStateSchoolBoardcaucus.
Anexcerptfollows:
For 1990–2000: The improvement and transformation of education to Mastery Learning
willdemandcontinuingsupport.Thenationneedstorecognizethattheeducationofits
citizensprovidesthebasisfortheeconomic,socialandculturalhealthofAmericansociety.
Enlightenednationalself-interestshouldjustifythesupportofthewell-plannededucational
transformationthattheTaskForceproposes.
ONMAY5,1986THEST.LOUISGLOBE-DEMOCRATRANANARTICLEENTITLED“SCHOOLOficials
UpsetbyNewStatePlan”whichreportedthatlocaleducatorsobjectedvociferouslytoanew
stateplanthatrequiredthemtogivestandardizedtestsinsevencoresubjectstostudentsin
thethird,sixth,eighth,andtenthgrades.Excerptsfromthisarticlefollow:
Localeducatorsaresteppinguptheircriticismofwhattheyclaimisstateinterferencein
thewaylocalschoolsteachchildren....ThetestsarerequiredbytheExcellenceinEducation
Actof1985,areformbillthateducatorshavelargelysupported.Butschooloficialsclaim
thetestingcomponentwillforcethemtochangetheircurriculumsostudentslearnmaterial
inthesameorderthetestsaregiven[teachtothetest].Theyclaim70to80percentofthe
curriculuminlocalschoolscouldbedeterminedbythenewtests....
234
“Wearenotopposedtotheconceptofteachingchildrenthefundamentalfactsthat
theyoughttoknow.Theissueiswhocontrolsthecurriculum,”saidKirkwoodSchoolDistrict
SuperintendentThomasKeating.Keatingandothersuperintendentsairedtheircomplaints
atajointmeetinglastweekoftheCooperatingSchoolDistrictsoftheSt.LouisSuburban
AreaandtheMissouriSchoolBoardsAssociation....
…OneoftheharshestcriticsofthetestplanisFerguson-FlorissantSuperintendentDaniel
B.Keck,whosaidthedistrictsmayjustaswellreplacetheirschoolnameswith“Department
ofElementaryandSecondaryEducation,StateofMissouri,LocalAnnex.”...
Keck,however,saidthestatehasbypassedelectedschoolboardmembersandestab-
lishedadirect“pipeline”tolocalschools.Hesaidadministratorsareaccountabletowhoever
setsthecurriculum....“TowhomamIasthechiefexecutiveoficerofaschooldistrictre-
sponsible:toyou,orDESE?”Kecksaid.“Inthisparticularsystem,therearenochecksand
balances.Thatisbadgovernance.”Hesaidthemediawillcreatepublicpressuretoexcel
onthenewtests.
Kecksaidthelegislaturehas“inadvertently”transferredaccountabilityforeducational
qualitytoitself.Hepredictedthatifthetestscoresaren’tsatisfactory,thestatewilllower
thestandards“untilthelegislaturelooksgood.”...
…“And the same number of kids will walk out the door functionally illiterate,” he
said.
Oneofthetestitems(objectives)foundinMissouri’sEducationalObjectives,Grade12,
resultingfrompassageofMissouri’sExcellenceinEducationActof1985,follows:
Givenadescriptionofanindividualwithadebasedcharacter,suchasachildmurdereror
apersonwhohassetiretoaninhabitedbuilding,studentsshouldrejectsuggestionsfor
punishmentwhichwoulddetractfromthedignityoftheprisoner.
INTHEMAY15,1986ISSUEOFEDUCATIONDAILYANARTICLERELATEDTOSTUDENTASsessment
reported that “Secretary Bennett names study group to evaluate student assessment” and
lists“ChairmanLamarAlexander,GovernorofTennesseeandChairman,NationalGovernors
Association,andHillaryRodhamClinton,FirstLadyofArkansasandpartnerintheRoselaw
irm”amongstmembersofthestudygroup.
ANARTICLEENTITLED“CARNEGIETEACHINGPANELCHARTS‘NEWFRAMEWORK’—GRANTSTotal-
ing$900,000MadetoPressReforms”writtenbyLynnOlsonappearedintheMay21,1986
issueofEducationWeek.Theannounced“NewFramework”—amongstotherthings—carved
instonethemethodologywhichteacherswouldberequiredtouseinordertoobtainboard
certiication.Excerptsfollowfromthisextremelyimportantarticle:
TheCarnegieCorporationofNewYorkannouncedherelastweekthatithasawardedtwo
majorgrants,totalingnearly$900,000,toforwardtherecommendationsoftheCarnegieTask
ForceonTeachingasaProfession.
Lastyear,thecorporationcreatedtheCarnegieForumonEducationandtheEconomy,
amulti-milliondollarinitiativedesignedtohelpchartU.S.educationpolicyduringthenext
10years.Theforumassembledthe14-membertaskforceonteachingasoneofitsirstini-
tiatives.Thefoundationawarded$817,000toStanfordUniversityfora15-monthresearch
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1986 235
projecttodevelopprototypesofthekindsofassessmentsthetaskforce’sproposedNational
BoardforProfessionalTeachingStandardsmightusetocertifyteachers....
…According to David A. Hamburg, president of the corporation [psychiatrist and
negotiator of the Carnegie-Soviet Education Agreements], the grants illustrate Carnegie’s
commitmenttothetaskforce’swork....
The15-monthStanfordstudyisthe“openinggambitinalongandcomplexcampaign
todevelopassessmentsforusebythenationalboard,”saidLeeS.Shulman[deeplyinvolved
withtheChicagoMasteryLearningdebacle,ed.],principalinvestigatorforthestudyanda
professorofeducationatStanford.…
“Twomajor‘products’willcomeoutoftheStanfordstudy,”saidMr.Shulman.First,it
willcreate,ieldtest,andcritiqueseveral“prototype”assessments—mostlikelyintheareas
ofelementary-schoolmathematicsandsecondary-schoolhistory.
Second,itwilldevelopaprotocolforhowtodevelopsuchassessmentsinthefuture....
Aspartofitswork,theStanfordprojectwilldothefollowing:
• Commissionabout20expertstowritepaperssummarizingtheknowledgeandskills
thattheprototypeassessmentsshouldmeasure.
• Conduct“wisdomofpractice”studiesofoutstandingteacherstodeterminethrough
interviewsandobservationswhatitisthattheyknowandcando.…
• Bringtogetherpeoplefromaroundthecountrywhoaredoingstate-of-the-artas-
sessmentsinotherields,suchasthoseforairplanepilotsandforeign-servicejobs,
todeterminewhatassessmenttechniquesareapplicabletoteaching.
• Bringtogetherexpertsintheieldstobetested—suchaselementary-schoolmath
teachers,teachereducators,andmathematicians—togettheiradviceonwhatthe
assessmentsshouldmeasureandhow.
Inaddition,theprojectwillhaveasteeringcommitteerepresentingkeystakeholders
inthecreationofsuchassessmentsaswellasexpertsintestingandinthesubjectareasto
betested.
MembersoftheTaskForceincluded:LewisM.Branscomb,Chairman,VicePresident
andChiefScientistoftheInternationalBusinessMachinesCorporation;AlanK.Campbell,
ExecutiveVicePresidentandViceChairmanofA.R.A.Services,Inc.ofPhiladelphia;Mary
HatwoodFutrell,PresidentoftheNationalEducationAssociation;JohnW.Gardner,former
Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare and founder of Independent Sector; Fred M.
Hechinger,PresidentoftheNewYorkTimesCompanyFoundation,Inc.;BillHonig,Cali-
forniaStateSuperintendentofPublicInstruction;JamesB.Hunt,formerGovernorofNorth
Carolina,formerChairmanoftheEducationCommissionoftheStatesandalawyerwith
theirmofPoynerandSpruill;VeraKatz,SpeakeroftheOregonHouseofRepresentatives;
GovernorThomasH.KeanofNewJersey;JudithLanier,DeanoftheCollegeofEducationat
MichiganStateUniversity;ArturoMadrid,PresidentoftheTomasRiveraCenterofClaremont
(California)GraduateSchool;ShirleyM.Malcolm,programhead,OficeofOpportunities
inScience,AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience;RuthRandall,Commis-
sionerofEducationinMinnesota;AlbertShanker,PresidentoftheAmericanFederationof
Teachers.
ANARTICLEINTHEMAY21,1986ISSUEOFEDUCATIONWEEKENTITLED“RESEARCHERSLeeryof
FederalPlansforCollaboration—Fear‘Cooperative’LinkaPathto‘Intervention’”byJames
Hertlingdiscussedpossiblefederalcontrolofeducationresearch.Someexcerptsfollow:
236
TheEducationDepartment’sdecisiontoformacollaborativerelationshipwithitsnewresearch
anddevelopmentcenteronreadinghasrevivedthedebateoverwhatcontrolthegovernment
shouldhaveovertheworkofeducationalresearchersreceivingfederalmoney....
…ButthecooperativeagreementoutlinedintheApril22FederalRegisterannouncing
thecompetitionforthenewcenteronreadingresearchandeducationmandatesgovernment
involvementinallstagesofthecenter’swork:“developingtheagenda,specifyinganticipated
outcomes,settingresearchpriorities,alteringresearchobjectivesonthebasisofpreliminary
inding,andreceivinginalresults.”
“There’snothingwehaveheardthatmakesacooperativeagreementacceptable,”said
LaurieGarduque,directorofgovernmentalandprofessionalliaisonattheAmericanEduca-
tionalResearchAssociation.
[Ed.Note:TheaboveexcerptsareimportantduetotheiridentiicationofSecretaryWilliam
Bennett’sU.S.DepartmentofEducationasthesourceoftheSkinnerian“scientiicresearch-
based”readinginstructionultimatelyusedasthecriterianecessaryforfundingofproposals
undertheReadingExcellenceActof1998.]
“CARNEGIEREPORTONEDUCATION:‘RADICALBLUEPRINTFORCHANGE’”BYNANCYGARlandwas
publishedintheBangor[Maine]DailyNews,June28–29,1986.Thearticlestatedinpart:
Theleaderofthe600,000-memberAmericanFederationofTeachers,[Al]Shankersaidmany
AsianandEuropeancountriesarechangingthewaytheyeducatetheirchildrentomeetthe
rapidlychangingneedsofindustry.Americanindustrieswilllosegroundifschoolscannot
produceemployeeswithskillsusefulinthoseindustries.
PAULOFREIRE’SINFLUENCEONWORLDEDUCATION,INCLUDINGEDUCATIONINTHEUNITEDStates,
isrevealedinaninterestingarticleentitled“RadicalTheoristTakesHisMessagetotheWorld”
publishedinTheNewYorkTimesAugust19,1986.Someexcerptsfollow:
WithindaysofthetriumphoftheSandinistaRevolutioninJuly1979,Nicaragua’snew
leadershadtrackeddowntheBrazilianeducatorPauloFreireattheuniversitywherehewas
lecturingintheUnitedStatesandhadissuedhimaninvitationtocometoManaguatohelp
reorganizethecountry’seducationsystemanddesignitsnewliteracyprogram.
WhenPortugalunderwentitsrevolutionin1974itsnewGovernmentmadeasimilar
offertoMr.Freire,asdidChile’sInstituteforAgrarianReformduringtheperiodjustbefore
theelectionofSalvadorAllendeGossensthere.”17
Newly independent nations in Africa, ranging from Angola to Tanzania, have also
soughttheadviceofthemanregardedasperhapstheforemostliteracyexpertandradical
educatorintheworld.
“It’ssomethingthatpleasesme,”Mr.FreiresaidrecentlyashepassedthroughNew
YorkCity,onhiswaytoaseriesofworkshopsandseminarsatAmericanuniversities.“At
times,Ihavebeencriticizedbysomephilosophersofeducation,whoplacemeinpostures
thattheyclassifypejorativelyasrevolutionary....”
Mr.Friere(pronouncedFRAYree)irstbecamewidelyknowninthiscountrywiththe
publicationPedagogyoftheOppressedmorethan15yearsago.Hehasarguedthatitisnot
educationwhichshapesasociety,butrathersocietywhichmoldseducationtoittheends
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1986 237
andinterestsofthoseincontrol.Inhisview,education,particularlytheprocessoflearning
toreadandwrite,“canbecomeaninstrumentofsocialtransformationbymakingthoseat
thebottomofsocietyawareoftheirplightandthereasonsforit.”
Inpractice,reinedthroughliteracycampaignsamongpeasantsintheBrazilianNortheast
beginninginthelate1950sandlateronfourcontinents,Mr.Freireandhismanydisciples
havereliedonwordslike“hunger”or“land,”chosenfortheirrelevancetothepupil’sown
politicalandsocialsituation,toteachpeasantsandworkerstoreadandwrite.Theobjective
istodevelopamongthemwhatMr.Frierecalls“acriticalcomprehensionofreality.”
...ButMr.Freirealsoarguesthathisdistincteducationhasconsiderablerelevancein
theindustrializednationsofthecapitalistworld.Mr.Freire’smethodshavebeenadaptedin
theUnitedStatesbyfeminist,Hispanicandblackgroupsthatoperateadultliteracyprograms
ortrainteachers.Evensomecorporations,suchasConsolidatedEdisoninNewYork,have
atvarioustimesusedhistechniquesineducationprogramsfornewworkerswithlowlevels
offormaleducation.
“Iamnotatechnicianofliteracy,asmanypeopleapparentlysawmeinthebeginning,”
hesaid.“Iamaneducatorwhothinksglobally.”...
Tosomeofhiscritics,includingtheReaganAdministration,Mr.Freire’semphasison
thepracticalhasbeentakentoanabsurdextremeinNicaragua,wheresecondgraderscount
notapplesororangesbuthandgrenadesandrilestolearnarithmetic.
[Ed.Note:Seethe1993entryfortheMichiganHighSchoolProiciencyCommunicationsArts
Frameworkwhichdealswiththeconstructivistphilosophybehindwholelanguageandcarries
outFriere’sphilosophyofsocialtransformationthrough“criticalthinking.”]
THENEWYORKTIMESOFAUGUST31,1986CARRIEDANARTICLEENTITLED“STUDYSAYS33%of
YoungAdultsAreIlliterate.”Excerptfollows:
ResultsfromCollegeGraduates:ThemostrecentFederalstudywasconductedbytwopri-
vategroups,theEducationalTestingServiceandtheNationalAssessmentofEducational
Progress,atacostof$1.8million.Intestingbasicskillsatvariouslevels,thestudyfound
thatoneinthreeyoungadultswithacollegedegreefromatwo-orfour-yearschoolfailed
toanswerthisquestioncorrectly:Ifonepurchasedasandwichfor$1.90,abowlofsoup
for60cents,andgavethecashier$3,howmuchchangeshouldhereceive?Theansweris
50cents.(p.28)
GEORGEROCHE,PRESIDENTOFHILLSDALECOLLEGE,HILLSDALE,MICHIGAN,ANDCHAIRmanofthe
NationalCouncilonEducationalResearch,apresidentiallyappointedcounciloverseeingthe
activitiesoftheNationalInstituteofEducation,requestedaninvestigationintothecontroversial
NorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory’s(NWREL)Tri-CountyK–12CourseGoalsProject
whichwasinitiatedin1971.JoanGubbins,aformerIndianastatesenatorandchairmanof
thecouncil’sImprovementandPracticeCommittee,researchedtheGoalsProject,prepared,
andsubmittedherreportentitled“GoalsandObjectives:TowardsaNationalCurriculum?”to
theCouncilonSeptember26,1986.
AlthoughSenatorGubbins’simportantreportcouldhavebeenusedasabriefdocumenting
theillegalityofNWREL’sroleindevelopmentoftheCourseGoals,itevidentlyfellondeafears.
Hadthepremiseofthisreport—thatthegoalswerebasedonhumanisticnoright/nowrong
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1987 239
PositiveInterdependence
Studentsmustfeelthattheyneedeachotherinordertocompletethegroup’stask,thatthey
“sinkorswim”together.Somewaystocreatethisfeelingarethroughestablishingmutual
goals(studentsmustlearnthematerialandmakecertaingroupmemberslearnthematerial),
jointrewards(ifallgroupmembersachieveaboveacertainpercentageonthetest,eachwill
receivebonuspoints),sharedmaterialsandinformation(onepaperforeachgrouporeach
memberreceivesonlypartoftheinformationneededtodotheassignment),andassigned
roles(summarizer,encouragerorparticipator,elaborator).
1987
CHARLOTTESVILLE,VIRGINIA’STHEDAILYPROGRESS CARRIEDNORMANDODD’S OBITUARYinits
January30,1987edition.Thetributereadinpart:
Mr.Dodd’searliersuspicionsofapoliticalandeconomicconspiracywereconirmed.During
hisresearchforthiscommittee[theReeceCommittee],thepresidentoftheFordFoundation,
H.RowanGaither,Jr.toldhimthatsomeofthegiantfoundations,includingFord,werework-
ingunderdirectivesfromtheWhiteHousetosoalterlifeinAmericaastomakepossiblea
comfortablemergerwiththeSovietUnion.
NORTHCENTRALASSOCIATIONOFCOLLEGESANDSCHOOLS(NCA):MICHIGANCOMMITTEE’SOut-
comesAccreditationwaspublishedin1987.Thebrochuredemonstratesclearlytheshiftfrom
academiceducationtoperformance/outcome-basedaffectiveeducationfocusingonchanges
inthebehavioroftheindividualstudentovertime.Excerptsfromthisimportantpublication
follow:
TheNCA’sOutcomesAccreditationmodelhasgeneratedconsiderableinterestamongMich-
iganeducators.Itisaprocessthatfollowsmanyoftheprinciplesofthe“EffectiveSchools
Research”andresultsinschoolsfocusingtheiractivitiesonimprovingstudentsuccess....
OutcomesAccreditation[OA]isaschool-basedaccreditationandevaluationmodelthat
helpsschoolsdocumenttheeffectivenessoftheirprograms.Schoolsarerequiredtotarget
theirevaluationeffortsbymeasuringchangesinstudentbehavior;i.e.,outcomes.OAserves
asanalternativetotheNCA’straditionalevaluationformats.OAwasadoptedforuseby
NCAmemberschoolsinApril1987.Ratherthanfocusingon“inputs”orwhattheschool
contributestotheeducationalprocess,OAexamines“studentoutcomes”ortheinluence
theschoolhasonthestudentsitserves....
Schoolsidentifynomorethaniveareasinwhichtheywanttofocustheirimprovement
activities.Targetgoalsarewrittenforeacharea.Threeofthesetargetgoalsfocusoncognitive
orbasicskillareas,andtwogoalsaddressaffectiveconcernsorhowstudentsbehaveorfeel
aboutthemselves.Thegoalsarewritteninsuchawaythatchangescanbemeasuredover
time.Studentoutcomesaremeasuredbycomparingdesiredlevelsofstudentperformance
withpresentperformance....
Examplesofspeciicdatasourcesinclude:criterion-andnorm-referencedtestresults,
anecdotalrecords,attitudeinventories,teacher-madetests,studentparticipationrates,writ-
ingsamples,andattendanceandenrollmentigures....Next,facultycommitteesestablish
thedesiredlevelsofstudentperformance.Althoughexternalsourcessuchasstate-mandated
240
goals, national averages or goals developed by textbook publishers might be helpful in
formulatingperformanceexpectations,educatorsneedtobasedesiredperformancelevels
ontheirknowledgeofeachchild.Thediscrepancythatexistsbetweencurrentanddesired
studentperformancethenservesasthefocusoftheschoolimprovementplan.
AT THESECONDANNUALNATIONALOUTCOME-BASEDEDUCATIONCONFERENCE, HELDFEBRUary
12–14,1987inTempe,Arizona,anotebookwasdistributedwhichcontainedalowchart
describinghowmasterylearningworks.Thenotebookcontainedmaterialsgeneratedbythe
followingpresenters:PartI,WilliamSpady;PartII,LawrenceA.Rowe;PartIII,KathleenA.
Fitzpatrick;andPartIV,JanetN.Barry.Thiswriterhasconvertedthelowchartwhichwas
inthenotebooktowrittentextinordertoprovideagraphic(ratmaze)descriptionofthe
behavior modiication method behind mastery learning and direct instruction. The chart’s
descriptionfollows:
MASTERYLEARNINGBREAKSTHEFAILURECYCLE
Atthetopofacircleistheword“TASK,”whichhasanarrowpointingtowardsLACKOF
UNDERSTANDING,whichhastwoparts:1)changepresentationand2)usealternativema-
terial.2)hastwoarrows:onetowardsTASKCOMPLETIONSUCCESSandtheothertowards
DIFFICULTY.DIFFICULTYhastwoparts:1)peertutoringand2)shortenassignments.2)
hastwoarrows:onetowardsTASKCOMPLETIONSUCCESSandtheothertowardsFAILURE.
FAILUREhastwoparts:1)changeenvironmentand2)changecurriculum.2)hastwoarrows:
onetowardsTASKCOMPLETION/POSITIVEFEEDBACK,andtheothertowardsNEGATIVE
FEEDBACK.NEGATIVEFEEDBACKhastwoarrows:1)useself-pacing,self-checking,and2)
groupdiscussionofgoals.2)hastwoarrows:onetowardsATTAINABLEGOAL/POSITIVE
FEEDBACK,theothertowardsPOORSELFCONCEPT.POORSELFCONCEPThastwoar-
rows:1)providesuccessesand2)positivefeedback.2)hastwoarrows:onetowardRAISED
SELFESTEEMandtheotherLOWMOTIVATION.LOWMOTIVATIONhasthreearrows:1)
providechoices,2)chooserelevantmaterials,and3)utilizeinterests.3)hastwoarrows:
onetowardsHIGHERMOTIVATION/WILLINGNESSTOTRYandtheothertowardBEHAVIOR
PROBLEMS(TaskAvoidance).BEHAVIORPROBLEMShasthreearrows:1)providechoices,
2)contracting,and3)groupgoalsetting.3)hastwoarrows:onetowardRECHANNELLED
BEHAVIOR DIRECTED TOWARD SKILL ATTAINMENT and INADEQUATE SKILLS. INAD-
EQUATESKILLShastwoarrows:1)prescriptivecurriculumand2)modiiedenvironment.
2)hastwoarrows:onetowardsSKILLSATTAINED/NEWTASKATTEMPTED,andtheother
backtostart,“TASK.”
EDUCATIONDAILYOFMAY21,1987COVEREDTHECARNEGIEFOUNDATIONFORTHEADvancement
ofTeaching’sawardof$817,000toLeeShulmanofStanfordUniversity,formerlyinvolvedin
Chicago’sMasteryLearningfailure,forhisforthcomingworkonassessmentsfornewteach-
ers.
KATHYL.COLLINS,LEGALCOUNSELFORTHEIOWADEPARTMENTOFEDUCATION,WROTEANarticle
entitled “Children Are Not Chattel” for the American Humanist Association’s journal Free
241
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1987
InquiryintheFallof1987(Vol.7,No.4,p.11)andstatedthat
Christianparentswhowantthefreedomtoindoctrinatetheirchildrenwithreligiousedu-
cationdonotunderstandthatthelawthatpreventsthemfromlegallyteachingtheirkids
preventssomeoneelsefromabusingthem....
Certiiedteachersarestate-mandatedchild-abusereporters.Whenchildrenareallowed
tobekeptathome,theremaybenooutsidecontact,nohelpfortheabusedchild.
[Ed. Note: This portentous article was published just as the homeschooling movement in
Americabeganmushrooming.Parentsrespondedtothefailuresofthelatestfadsintheclass-
roomsbypullingtheirchildrenoutofpublicschoolstoinstructthemathome.Manyeducators
viewed the rise of home educationwith alarm. Parental rights and constitutionalreligious
freedomsposedadirectthreattothe“ittakesavillagetoraiseachild”philosophywhichwas
tobecomeembeddedineverystate’seducationreformplanduringthe1990s.]
ONNOVEMBER2,1987, A FEW SHORT YEARS BEFORE THEBERLINWALL CAME DOWN, ANDonly
twoyearsafterthesigningoftheU.S.-Sovieteducationagreements,MikhailGorbachevwas
reportedbyNovostiPressAgencyPublishingHouseinMoscowtohavesaidinhisspeechto
theSovietCentralCommittee,“Wearemovingtowardanewworld:theworldofcommunism.
Weshallneverturnoffthatroad.”Evenso,aftertheBerlinWallcamedown(1989)Gorbachev
wasakeynotespeakeratamajorRepublicanPartyfundraiser.
DAVIDW.HORNBECK OF THECARNEGIEFOUNDATION FOR THEADVANCEMENT OFTEACHINGand
Maryland’sstatesuperintendentofinstruction,whosecredentialslieintheologyratherthan
ineducation,presentedhisproposalforanewpubliceducationsystemforthenationinthe
November17,1987issueofTheMontgomeryCounty[Maryland]Journal.TheJournalcar-
riedanarticleentitled“StateEducationChiefPushesRevolutionaryPlanfortheNation”that,
amongstotherthings,“wouldletstudentsenrollinschoolsoftheirchoiceandevensuethe
stateoverlow-qualityeducation.”Excerptsfollow:
“Themodelstatelawwouldcreateasituationinwhichit’stheschool’sfaultandnotthe
kid’siftheschoolisunsuccessful.Ifit’snotasuccessfulschool,youcanleaveit.”Thesystem
wouldletastudentcrossdistrictlinesinsearchofbetterpubliceducation....
Hornbeck’s presentation Saturday at an Asheville, North Carolina meeting aroused
justafewcriticisms,whichweremainlyconcernedwiththeproposal’swording,saidJayP.
Goldman,spokesmanfortheschoolchief’scouncil.“Thisfollowsyearsofmassagingand
reworkingit,”hesaid....
…Thenewrightsproposalsaredirectedtowardallchildren,butspecialmeasurestarget
thoseconsidered“atriskofeducationalfailure.”Intheearlyyears,low-incomechildren
wouldbeidentiiedasatrisk;inlateryears,achievementwouldprovidethedeinition....
“We’retryingtotakeastepawayfromkid-bashing,”Hornbecksaid.“Societyandtheschools
failthekids.”...
…Hornbeck,whosaidheiswaitingforthecouncilvotebeforediscussingtheissue
withGov.WilliamDonaldSchaeferandMarylandlegislativeoficials,saidheexpectslocal
schooloficialsacrossthecountrytoresisttheproposals.
“Ifthecounciladoptsthis,youwillhavethesuperintendentsoftheUnitedStatessay-
ingwewanttocreatenewrightsandroutesthatmaywellleadtothecourts,”Hornbeck
242
said....
…Oneoftheplan’sgoalsistoeliminatespendingdifferentialsfromdistricttodistrict,
rangingabout$2,000perpupilfromhighesttolowestinMaryland.“Thatmeans$50,000
morebehindoneclassroomof25kidsthananother,”Hornbecksaid.
[Ed.Note:DidweunderstandMr.Goldmancorrectly?“Thisfollowsyearsofmassagingand
reworking”?Whydoesoneneed“yearsofmassagingandreworkingaproposal”whichsup-
posedlyisinthebestinterestsofthetraditionalAmericanteacherandthechildrenheorshe
teaches?Obviously,thisproposalbyHornbeckwasaradicalonewhichwouldfocusnoton
traditionaleducation,butonproducingormoldinga“product,”yourchild—whoisnowbeing
referredtoas“humancapital”byHornbeck—yourchild,whoseworkforceskillsandpolitically
correctattitudes,valuesandbeliefswouldentitlehimtoaCertiicateinMasteryinorderto
behiredbyandabletoincreasetheproitsofacorporation.
Referencesto“specialmeasurestargetthoseconsidered‘atriskofeducationalfailure’”
areunsettling.Ifourchildrenrejectthe“education”towhichtheyaresubjected,theywill
immediatelybelabeled“atrisk,”thussubjectingthemtothebehaviormodiicationprograms
andoperantconditioningtechniquesnormallyusedforspecialeducation.
When Hornbeck says, “Society and the schools fail the kids,” are we to believe “It’s
theenvironment,stupid”?Everythingthatgoeswronginourgreatnationisnowblamedon
the“environment”;frompeople’schoicestosmokeornottosmoke,drinkornottodrink,
murderornottomurder,studyornottostudy.AccordingtoSkinnerianbehavioristthink-
ing,sincehumansaretobethoughtofasanimals,nothavingfreewilland,therefore,not
beingresponsiblefortheiractions,theywouldbeincapableofmakingcomplexdecisions,of
deciding“yes”or“no.”Weareonaslipperyslopewhenweacceptthis“theenvironmentis
responsible”lineofthinking.
Hornbeck’sproposalparallelsthe1999passageof“choice”legislationinFlorida,under
GovernorJebBush’sdirection.Deliveryoffailinggradestoschoolswillbethetriggerforfund-
ingformovingstudentstoschoolsoftheir“choice”—includingprivateorreligiousschools.]
1988
ONFEBRUARY22,1988CLARENCETHOMAS,CHAIRMANOFTHEEQUALEMPLOYMENTOPportunity
Commission(EEOC),whowouldshortlythereafterbeappointedbyPresidentGeorgeBush
totheU.S.SupremeCourt,signedoffonanEEOCPolicyNoticeregardingprotectionfrom
mandatoryNewAgetrainingintheworkplace.ThePolicyNoticeexplained:
1. SUBJECT: Policy statement on “new age” training programs which conlict with
employees’religiousbeliefs.
2.PURPOSE:Thispolicystatementisintendedtoprovideguidanceinthehandlingof
caseswhereanemployeeobjectstoparticipatinginthetrainingprogrambecause
itutilizestechniquesorexerciseswhichconlictwiththeemployee’sreligiousbe-
liefs.
3.EFFECTIVEDATE:UponReceipt.
4.EXPIRATIONDATE:
5.ORIGINATOR:TitleVII/EPADivision,OficeofLegalCounsel.
6.INSTRUCTIONS:Thisnoticesupplementstheinstructionsin#628ofVol.IIofthe
Compliance Manual, Religious Accommodation, and should be inserted after p.
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1988 243
628–630.
[Ed.Note:ThisPolicyNoticeextendstoallgovernmentemployeeswhoresistmanipulative
NewAgetrainingwhichisbasedonthebehavioraltechniquesandbehaviormodiicationde-
scribedinthisbook.Heldcaptiveintheclassroomduetoattendancelaws,whyhaven’tour
childrenbeenprovidedthesameprotectionfromthemind-bendingcurriculaandmethods
usedongovernmentemployeesintheworkplace?WhyarenotAmericanteachersprovided
thisprotectionfromthemind-bending,brain-numbing,in-servicesessionswhichviolatetheir
constitutionalrights?TheProtectionofPupilRightsAmendmentwhichpassedtheU.S.Senate
unanimouslyin1978,forwhichregulationsweredraftedandapprovedin1984,hasproven
to be useless since the educational bureaucracy refuses to enforce it and has consistently
stonewalledwhenparentshaveattemptedtoasserttheirrightsunderthelaw.]
THEEFFECTIVESCHOOLREPORT’SMARCH,1988ISSUEPUBLISHED“INTERNATIONALCONgressfor
EffectiveSchoolsDrawsParticipantsfrom13NationstoLondon”whichheraldedEffective
SchoolResearchasrepresenting“the”chosenorganizationalandpedagogicalvehicleforthe
operationoftheworld’sschools.Excerptsfollow:
RepresentativesfromthirteencountriescametoLondoninJanuaryfortheinaugural
meetingoftheInternationalCongressforEffectiveSchools.IntheUnitedStates,theEffective
Schools Movement was begun to improve public schools for children from low income
families.ThirtyAmericanstateshaveusedeffectiveschoolspreceptsaspartoftheirreform
efforts.
EffectiveschoolsactivitieswerereportedfromAustralia,Canada,England,andWales,
Germany,Hungary,Ireland,Israel,theNetherlands,Norway,Scotland,Sweden,SouthAfrica,
andtheUnitedStates.DaleMann,aprofessoratTeachersCollege,ColumbiaUniversity,and
thefoundingchairmanoftheInternationalCongress,saidthatthe130registrantswereusing
effectiveschoolsideasinschoolimprovementworkthatranthegamutfromearlychildhood
educationtohighschoolreform.
TheCongresswillmeetnextinJanuary,1989inRotterdam.Aspecialsectionofthepro-
gramwillofferlegislatorsanopportunitytosharetheirperspectivesonschoolimprovement.
TheRotterdammeetingswillbeorganizedbyateamledbyD.A.A.Peters(Projectleider,
Project Onderwijs en Social Milieu, Burg, Van Walmsumeg 892, 3011 MZ Rotterdam, the
Netherlands010–4113266).18
[Ed.Note:BythistimethereaderisalltoofamiliarwithTheEffectiveSchoolReportandEf-
fectiveSchoolResearch,aswellasitsroleinthedumbingdownofpublicschoolchildren,
particularlythosefromlowincomefamilies.Theinternationalchangeagents“used”these
children(experimentedonthem—startingwithchildreninJackson,MississippiwhereThe
Effective School Report was originally located) prior to recommending that all children be
subjectedtotheSkinneriandumbdownmethods(OBE/ML/DI).
FromthistimeonthereaderwillencounterentriesinthisbookdealingwithEffective
SchoolsResearchexchangeswithRussiaandChina,therebyclosingthecircleontheimple-
mentationofEffectiveSchoolsResearchonaglobalbasis.Alsoofimportanceisthereference
totheinclusionofEnglandandWales,notonlyintheoriginalNationalAssessmentofEdu-
cationalProgress(NAEP)1981paperbyArchieLapointeandWillardWirtz,butinthe1994
NationalIssuesinEducation:Goals2000andSchool-to-Workentrywhichrevealsthat:
244
In1991LamarAlexander,workingwithChesterFinnandotherswhowerefamiliarwiththe
workofBritishPrimeMinisterMargaretThatcherinenactinganationalcurriculuminEngland
andWales,convincedBushtoendorsetheideaofnationalstandardsforeducation.
OfinteresthereisthattheNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP)hadbeen
workingonassessmentformanyyears,datingbackto1980,withClareBurstallofWales,
U.K.Also,onemightaskwhytheUnitedStateswouldwanttocopytheEnglisheducation
systeminlightofthepoorperformanceofitsstudentsonbasicskillstests.TheDecember9,
1988issueofTheWallStreetJournalcarriedaneditorialentitled“AndYouThoughtAmerican
SchoolsWereBad!”inwhichTheodoreDalrymple,thepennameofBritishphysicianAnthony
Daniels,saidthat:
IneightyearsinmedicalpracticeinanEnglishslum(inwhichlives,incidentally,aifthof
thepopulationoftheindustrialEnglishcitywhereIwork)Ihavemetonlyoneteenagerof
hundredsIhaveaskedwhoknewwhenWorldWarIIwasfought.Theothersthoughtittook
placeintheearly1900sorthe1970s,andlastedupto30years.
Anotherrecurrenttheme,whichwillbecomeevidentthroughouttherestofthisbook,will
bethegrowingemphasisonwhatUtah’sSuperintendentBurninghamreferredtoas“research-
veriiedprograms.”ThistermwillchangesubtlyasEffectiveSchoolsprogramsarereferred
toas“scientiic,research-based,”implyingthattheyare“acceptableanddesirable”—oras
SecretaryofEducationWilliamBennettexplained,”WhatWorks.”]
DR.SUEE.BERRYMAN,DIRECTOROFTHEINSTITUTEONEDUCATIONANDTHEECONOMYATTeach-
ersCollege,ColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,presentedapaperentitled“Educationandthe
Economy:ADiagnosticReviewandImplicationsfortheFederalRole”ataseminaronthe
federalroleineducationheldattheAspenInstitute,Aspen,ColoradoonJuly31–August10,
1988.Underacknowledgmentsonereads:
ThisSeminarwassponsoredbyTheCarnegieCorporation,TheFordFoundation,The
HewlittFoundation,ThePrimericaFoundation,andtheRockefellerBrothersFoundation.
Thispaperisbasedheavilyon,andcouldnothavebeenwrittenwithout,researchconducted
undertheauspicesofTheNationalCenteronEducationandEmployment,fundedbythe
OficeofResearch,OficeofEducationalResearchandImprovementoftheU.S.Department
ofEducation.ThepaperalsoreliesonresearchfundedbytheNationalAssessmentofVo-
cationalEducation.
AnexcerptfromDr.Berryman’sresumé,whichwasattachedtoherpaper,follows:
1973–1985BehavioralScientist,BehavioralSciencesDepartment,TheRANDCorporation,
SantaMonica,California,andWashington,D.C.
Analyzedindividuals’educationalandemploymentchoicesandthenatureandconse-
quencesofmilitary,corporate,andfederalhumanresourcepolicies.
ThetableofcontentsofDr.Berryman’sreportisreproducedhere:
I.AFRAMEOFREFERENCE
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1988 245
II.THETRANSFORMATIONOFTHEAMERICANECONOMY
HOWDOWEKNOWWHATISHAPPENING?
SKILLTRENDSINEMPLOYMENTBYOCCUPATION
INDUSTRYCASESTUDIES:CHANGESINTHENATURE
ANDSTRUCTUREOFWORK
RECONCILINGOCCUPATIONALCOUNTSANDINDUSTRY
CASESTUDYRESULTS
III.ELEMENTARYANDSECONDARYEDUCATION:APICTUREOF
DISCONNECTIONS
WHATDOWENEEDTOTEACH?TOWHOM?WHEN?HOW?
WhatDoStudentsNeedtoLearn?
WhoShouldLearn?
WhenShouldTheyLearn?
HowShouldTheseSkillsBeTaught?
VocabularyandAccountability
EMPLOYERSANDEDUCATORS:ARETHEYLOOKING
THROUGHTHESAMEGLASSES?
THESIGNALLINGSYSTEMBETWEENSCHOOLSANDLABOR
MARKETS
THESTRUCTUREOFINDUSTRIESANDTHERESTRUCTURINGOF
AMERICANCOMPANIES:ANYLESSONSFORRESTRUCTURINGSCHOOLS?
TheStructureofIndustries
TheRestructuringofAmericanCompanies
IV.ECONOMICCHANGESTHATAFFECTPOST-SECONDARY
EDUCATIONANDTRAINING
COLLISIONBETWEENHUMANCAPITALDEMANDANDSUPPLY
EMPLOYERS’TRAININGINVESTMENTPATTERNSAND
THEIRCONSEQUENCES
AREEMPLOYERTRAININGINVESTMENTPATTERNSCHANGING?
V.EDUCATIONANDTHEECONOMY:WHATISTHEFEDERALROLE?
REFERENCES
Excerptsfromthebodyofthepaperfollow:
WHATDOWENEEDTOTEACH?TOWHOM?WHEN?HOW?
AstheeducationalimplicationsoftherestructuringAmericaneconomybecomeclearer,the
incomplete—sometimesperverse—natureofcurrenteducationreformsemerges.
Those reforms targeted at improving students’ academic skills are clearly appro-
priate—uptoapoint,academicandwork-relatedcurriculashouldbethesame.However,
documentedchangesinthenatureandstructureofworkandadvancesincognitivescience
argueforasecondwaveofreformthatinvolvesfundamentalchangesinwhatweteach,to
whomweteachit,whenweteachit,andhowweteachit.InothercontextsIhavetalked
aboutthissecondwaveofreformas“shadowsinthewings”forthesimplereasonthat—to
shiftmetaphors—thisairplaneisnotyetreadytoly.Theissuesraisedhereposeformidable
research,development,andevaluationchallengesinareassuchascurriculum(andassoci-
atedtextbookorsoftwarematerials),pedagogy,thepreparationofteachers,conceptsand
measuresofaccountability,andschoolstructure.
Whatdoindustrystudiesimplyaboutthecoreskillsthatstudentsneedtolearn?Eco-
246
nomicchangescertainlyimplytheneedforgoodacademicskills.Perhapsthemostprofound
educationalimplicationofcomputersintheworkplaceisthattheyforceareplacementof
observationallearningwithlearningacquiredprimarilythroughsymbols,whetherverbalor
mathematical(e.g.,ScribnerandCole,1973;Bailey,1988).…
Asthelaborforcebecomesincreasinglymulticulturalandjobcontentchangesrapidly
andinconfusingways,communicationproblemsalsoincreasebetweenworkers,generating
theneedforinterpersonalcommunicationandconlictresolutionskills....
WHOSHOULDLEARN?
Theskillsjustdescribedaregenericinthat,ingeneral,theycutacrossindustriesandoc-
cupations.Thus,everyoneneedstolearnthem,notjustsomepeople.Thisdoesnotmean
thateveryoneneedstolearntheminthesameway.Itdoesmeanthatfortheseskills,our
educationalobjectivesforeveryoneneedtoberoughlythesame.
Theideahasbeenmostproblematicforhigherordercognitivethinking.Likeother
industrialized nations, the United States has harbored two quite distinct educational tra-
ditions—one concerned with elite education, the other with mass education. As Resnick
[Lauren] (1987a) points out, these traditions conceived of schooling differently, had dif-
ferentclienteles,andhelddifferentgoalsfortheirstudents.Thus,although“...itisnotnew
toincludethinking,problemsolving,andreasoninginsomeone’scurriculum,itisnewto
includeitineveryone’scurriculum.”...
WHENSHOULDTHEYLEARN?
Early.Weusuallythinkaboutpreparingstudentsforthelabormarketduringhighschool.
However,wearetalkinggenericwork-relatedskillshere,notoccupationallyspeciicones;
for these high school is too late. It is implausible to think that high school sophomores
educatedinapassivelearningregimefortheirstnineyearsoftheirschoolingcanlearn
toself-regulatetheirlearninginthetenthyear.Wecanmakeanalogousargumentsabout
learninghowtolearn,aboutlearninghowtofunctioneffectivelyinteams,oraboutlearning
howtoresolveconlicts.
Forexample,asResnick(1987a)notes,themostimportantsinglemessageofmodern
researchonthenatureofthinkingisthatthekindsofactivitiestraditionallyassociatedwith
thinkingarenotlimitedtoadvancedlevelsofdevelopment.
Theseactivitiesareanintimatepartofevenelementarylearning....Infact,theterm“higher
order”skillsisprobablyitselffundamentallymisleading,foritsuggeststhatanothersetof
skills,presumablycalled“lowerorder,”needstocomeirst.Thisassumption...implicitly...
justiieslongyearsofdrillonthe“basics”beforethinkingandproblemsolvingarede-
manded....Researchsuggeststhatfailuretocultivateaspectsof(higherordercognitive)
thinkingmaybethesourceofmajorlearningdificultieseveninelementaryschool.
Thissectionreliesheavilyonpioneeringworkincognitivepsychology,cognitivesci-
ence,andcognitiveanthropologyonnon-schoollearninganditsimplicationsforhowwe
structureformallearning.Attheheartofthisresearchisthepresumptionthatintelligence
andexpertisearebuiltoutofinteractionwiththeenvironment,notinisolationfromit.This
workimplicitlychallengesourtraditionaldistinctionsbetween“head”and“hand,”between
“academic”and“vocational”education,between“education”and“training,”andbetween
school-basedandwork-basedlearning.
Comingoutofthisstreamofresearchisamuchclearersenseofhowschool-based
learning and non-school-based learning differ from each other. In a bravura synthesis of
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1988 247
theworkinthisield,LaurenResnick(1987b)delineatesfourbroadcontrastsbetweenin-
schoolandout-of-schoolmentalactivitythatraiseprofoundquestionsabouttheutilityand
effectivenessofschoolingforallnon-schoolactivity,includingworkofalltypesandforall
learners,whetherat-risk,ornot-at-risk.Theystimulateustorethink—radicallyrethink—how
weteachinschool.
Theirstcontrastisbetweenindividualcognitioninschoolversussharedcognition
outside.Althoughgroupactivitiesoccurinschool,studentsareultimatelyjudgedonwhat
theycandobythemselves.Muchofthecoreactivityoftheschool—homeworkorinclass
exercises—isdesignedasindividualwork.Forthemostpart,studentsfailorsucceedata
taskindependentlyofwhatotherstudentsdo(asidefromgradingonacurve).Bycontrast,a
greatdealofactivityoutsideofschoolissociallyshared:work,personallife,andrecreation
takeplaceinsocialsystemsinwhichwhatonepersonisabletododependsfundamentally
onwhatothersdoandinwhich“successful”functioningdependsuponthemeshofseveral
individuals’mentalandphysicalperformance.Thiscontrastarguesformuchmoreteam
andco-operativelearning,thestudentbeingaccountableforbothindividualandteamper-
formance.(p.21)
[Ed.Note:Theaboveemphasisongrouplearning,groupcooperation,etc.,remindsmeofa
commentmadebyaladyintheaudiencewhenIwasgivingaspeechoneducationrestructuring
withitsemphasisontheneedforcooperativelearningandhowcooperativelearningisused
incommunistcountries.Sherecountedanincidentwhichoccurredwhilevisitingrelativesin
theUkraine(partoftheformerSovietUnion).Airebrokeoutinthehouseoneeveningand,
insteadofherrelativesusingtheirindividualbrainsandingenuitytoputitout,(assuming
individualresponsibility),everyonesatonthecouchandfranticlystaredatoneanother,not
knowinghowtodealwiththesituation.]
THEEASTGIBSONCOUNTY(INDIANA)GROUP,KNOWNAS“JEANNIE’SGROUP,”OPPOSEDtheuseof
TacticsforThinking,developedbyRobertMarzanoin1988.19Afterlongandheateddiscussions
withtheschoolsystem,thesuperintendentsuddenlynotiiedthegroupthathehadarranged
foradebatetobeheldintwodays!Shortnotice,consideringthefactthathecarefullyne-
glectedtoinformthemuntilthedayofthedebatethattheywouldbedebatingoutsideexperts.
And,expertstheywere—nolessthanRonaldBrandtoftheAssociationforSupervisionand
CurriculumDevelopment(ASCD)andProfessorEdJenkinsofIndianaUniversity.Airsthand
accountofaportionofthedebatefollows:
[PatBurkhart,oneoftheEastGibsonCountyGroupdebaters]“Wewouldliketodosome
demonstrationsforyou....Theirstoneisyoga(demonstrated)....Thesecondexerciseisself
hypnosis....Theseinstructions...camefromanarticleinTheReaders’Digest(demonstrated)....
Thethirdexerciseisasemi-trance.Thisisthesemi-tranceintheNorman-LindsaybookHu-
manInformationProcessingreferencedbyMarzanoinTacticsforThinking,‘Unit1:Attention
Control’(demonstrated)....ThefourthexerciseistheInvoluntaryAttention-OrientingRelex.
ThesestepscomefromthebookTheWorkingBrainbyAlexandrLuria[ofRussia]which
isalsoreferencedintheTacticsforThinkingmanualbyMarzano(demonstrated).Thelast
exerciseisMarzano’sAttentionControlintheTacticsmanual.Asavolunteer,wehavean
8-year-oldchildwhounderstandsthedifferencebetweenactingandreality.Wethoughtthis
appropriate—touseachild—sinceMarzanodoes.Thedifferenceis,ourchildknowswhat
wearedoing,butMarzano’svictimsdon’t.
“Pleasetelluswhatisthedifference?Thethingthatisreallysillyisthatwearesup-
248
posed to believe that this is higher order learning—that it is learning to learn.... This is
learningtohaveyourconsciousmindsedatedandusingonlyyourunconsciousmindwhich
processeseverythingindiscriminately....Thereisn’tmuchgoingonherebesidesaformof
self-hypnosis.”
Inconclusion,theopponentsofTacticsforThinkingaskedJoanGubbins,formerIndiana
statesenatorandpresidentiallyappointedmemberoftheNationalCouncilforEducational
Research,toreadthefollowing:
IfweturntoMarzano’sconclusionsattheendofhisevaluation,hestates,andIquote:
“Theseindingscannotbeconsideredstable.”Doyouunderstandwhatallofthissays?
Marzanohimselfsayshisevaluationofthisexperimentalprogramisunreliable....Noth-
ingissaidaboutimprovementofperformanceonstandardizedachievementtestsbythe
studentsusedinthisieldtesting.However,inaprogramMarzanoreportedonin1984
[headmittedthat]“adecreaseinmathandreadingachievementwasindicatedonstan-
dardizedtests.”
THEAUGUST1988ISSUEOFEDUCATIONUPDATE,PUBLISHEDBYTHEASSOCIATIONFORSupervision
andCurriculumDevelopment(ASCD),carriedanarticleentitled“TacticsforThinkingAttacked
inWashington,Indiana”whichsaid,inpart:
TacticsforThinking,aframeworkforteachingthinkingdevelopedattheMidcontinentRe-
gionalEducationalLaboratory(McREL)andpublishedbyASCDin1986,hasrecentlybeen
thetargetofcriticswhoarguethatit“brainwashes”childrenandadvancesa“NewAge”
agendaofone-worldgovernment.TheproblemsirstoccurredinBattleGround,Washington,
andhavesurfacedinatleastoneotherWashingtoncommunityandintwoIndianatowns.
Tactics,accordingtoASCDExecutiveEditorRonBrandt,“givesteachersapractical
waytoteachtheirstudentstothinkwell.”Theprogramteaches22skillsdividedintothree
categories:Learning-to-LearnSkills,ContentSkills,andReasoningSkills....Forexample,a
unitoftheprogramon“attentioncontrol”describeshowadultlearnersareabletodisregard
distractionsandconcentrateonaparticularsubject,whichhelpstheirperformance.The
TacticsTrainer’sManualsuggestsanexerciseinwhichparticipantscanbevoluntarilycon-
trolled.Althoughthestrategymayseemordinary,criticsofTacticsinEastGibson,Indiana,
saidit“isthesametechniqueusedbyhypnotists,usedinmindcontrol,andinNewAge
meditation.”
...MarzanodeniedthatTacticsiscontroversialorcontainssensitivematerial,asking,
“Howcanteachingkidstocontroltheirattentioninclasssotheycanlearnmorebecon-
troversial?”
PaulDrotz,anassistantsuperintendentintheSouthKitsap,Washingtonschooldistrict
whereTacticswaschallenged,saidthat“thevocabularyusedintheprogramleftuspretty
opentoattacks.Icouldchange12wordsandlocalcriticswouldhaveadificulttimeattacking
it.”JudyOlson,aconsultanthiredbytheWashingtonASCDtotrainteachersinTactics,said
sheadvisedtraineestocalloneunit“payattention”ratherthan“attentioncontrol.”Because
ofthecontroversy,however,theWashingtonASCDwillnolongerprovideTacticstraining,
althoughitwillstillbuildawarenessofit,membersofthegroup’sgoverningboardsaid.
...MarzanosaidthatdevelopmentandieldtestingofTacticswas“typical,”andthatthe
screeningprocess,whichincludedreviewbyeightnationallyrecognizedexpertsincritical
thinking,wasmorethoroughthannormal....ASCDhassoldmorethan17,000teacher’s
manuals,3,600trainer’sguidesand550videotapessinceitbeganpublishingtheprogram.
Marzanoestimatesthat20,000teachershavebeentrainedintheprogram.
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1988 249
Brandtsuggestedthatschooldistrictsinvolveboardmembers,teachers,andthecom-
munityearlyonindecidingwhetherandhowTacticsmightbeusedinthesystem.ASCD
willcontinuetocloselymonitoranyinstanceinwhichtheprogramischallenged.Anyone
knowingofsuchincidentsshouldwriteBrandtatASCDheadquarters,1703BeauregardSt.,
Alexandria,VA22311–1714.
[Ed.Note:TheTacticsprogram,orasimilarcriticalthinkingprogramusinganothertitle,could
wellbepartofthecurriculumineachofthe16,000schooldistrictsinthenation,sinceittakes
onlyoneofthose20,000teachersineachdistricttotrainotherteachers.Itwas,however,not
adoptedinEastGibsonCounty,Indiana.]
THEAUGUST11,1988EDITIONOFEDUCATIONDAILYCOVEREDTHENATIONALCITIZENSAlliance
PressConferenceheldattheNationalPressClubinWashington,D.C.Excerptsfollow:
GROUP ASKS EDUCATION DEPARTMENT TO STOP FUNDING “MIND-CONTROL” CUR-
RICULA,ENDSOVIETEXCHANGES
AcitizensgroupheadedbyaformerEducationDepartmentoficialaskedEDtostoppro-
motingcurriculumthegroupsayscontrolsstudents’minds.
TheNationalCitizensAlliance(NCA),agroupofparentsandteachers,allegedata
Washington,D.C.newsconferenceyesterdaythatEDispromoting“mind-control”curricula
thatusehypnosis-liketechniquestofosterconcentration.
NCAwantsto“getthefederalgovernmenttostoppouringmillionsofdollars”intothe
“developmentofmind-controlprogramscurrentlysweepingthroughAmericanschools,”said
CharlotteIserbyt,whoservedasseniorpolicyadvisorinED’sOficeofEducationalResearch
andImprovementfrom1981to1982andisNCA’sEastCoastcoordinator.Iserbytcalledon
EducationSecretaryWilliamBennettandotherfederaloficialsto:
EndfederalfundingandpromotionofprogramssuchasTacticsforThinking,whichis
usedinIndianaschools.20NCAsaysthecurriculum“employshypnotic-likeprocessesand
alteredstatesofconsciousnesstechniquesonchildren”;
Canceltheeducationportionofthe1985exchangeagreementbetweentheUnitedStates
andtheSovietUnion,whichNCAsaysallowsdisseminationof“communistpropaganda”
through global teaching methods and the joint development of textbooks and computer
software;and
ForcePennsylvaniatoaskparentalconsentbeforeusingitsEducationalQualityAs-
sessmenttest,whichNCAsaysuses“psychologicalandpsychiatrictesting”inviolationof
thefederalProtectionofPupilRightsAmendment[AnitaHogecaseagainstthePennsylvania
DepartmentofEducation].
NCA also criticized ED’s National Assessment of Educational Progress for tracking
studentattitudesandbehavior,sayingthatobtainingsuchinformationviolatesprivacyrights
andcouldleadtobehaviormodiicationnationwide.
SecretaryBennett’sspokesmanLoyeMillersaidheisnotawareofthecomplaintsto
whichNCArefers.AnOERIspokesmandeclinedtocomment.—ChristopherGrasso
AMAJORREPORTENTITLEDTHEFORGOTTENHALF:PATHWAYSTOSUCCESSFORAMERICA’SYouth
and Young Families was published by the W.T. Grant Foundation’s Commission on Work,
FamilyandCitizenship.21TheNovember23,1988issueofEducationWeekcarriedanitemon
250
thereportwhichstatedthatserviceprojectsandcommunityservicewererecommendedasa
requirementforgraduation.Anexcerptfromthearticlefollows:
Thereportrecommendsthatschoolsandcommunities“establishattractiveserviceoppor-
tunities”foryoungpeopleandeitherincludeserviceprojectsaspartofthecurriculumor
requireaspeciiedamountofcommunityserviceasarequirementtowardgraduation.The
reportalsoencourages“partnershipsbetweenbusinessandstateandlocalgovernmentsthat
provideopportunitiesforjobtraining.”
ARECAPOFA1988INVITATIONALCONFERENCEINTHEU.S.S.R.ENTITLED“CHILDREN,Computers
andEducation,”writtenbyDavidPorteous,contractcoordinatorfortheSchoolofSocialWork,
UniversityofConnecticut,WestHartford,Connecticut,waspublishedinthe1988/1989issue
ofT.H.E.Journal(technologyjournal).22Excerptsfollow:
Recently,educatorsfromtheUnitedStates,Canada,WestGermanyandtheNetherlands
metwithcounterpartsfromtheSovietUnionandBulgariainanhistoricirst—aninvitational
conferenceintheU.S.S.R.titled“Children,Computers,andEducation.”
The word “informatics” is used in Russian to denote the principles underlying the
operationsofcomputerhardwareandsoftware.Informaticsseemstoencompasstheelec-
tronicandalgorithmicsystemsofcomputers.Dr.AlexeySemenovoftheSovietAcademyof
SciencessaidalgorithmicthinkingisembeddedintheSoviet’seducationalsystemandfun-
damentaltotheirunderstandingofcognition.ThisitswiththeSovietschools’highregard
formathematicsandphysics....
Semenov’s presentation on the history and present status of algorithmics in Soviet
schools started with the fact that their schools have used programmed instruction since
the1960s….Asmightbeexpected,LOGOisheldinhighesteemintheSovietUnionand
SeymourPapertworkswithsomeSovietschools....
Therewashopeamongtheleaderswithwhomwetalkedthatcomputerswillbecome
seen and used in more diverse ways throughout the curriculum. Certainly the goals of
Gorbachev’sPerestroikaincludetherestructuringofschools,alongwithotherinstitutions
andtheeconomy,andasubsequenttechnologicalboosttothecountry.Withthebroadcur-
riculumreformsandstructuralchangesoccurringinschoolstodayandinthenearfuture,
thecomputercouldexpeditethisprocess....
MODELSCHOOL
Mostschoolshaveoneormoresponsors,suchasfactories,institutes,universities,which
providematerials,professionalassistanceandaplaceforstudentsintheupperformsto
dopracticalworkforthreetofourhoursaweek,includingcomputerprogramming.School
#344hasclosetieswithauniversityandatechnicalinstitute,forinstance[sameasUSA
School-to-Workproposals,ed.].…
…Theinformaticscurriculum,withobjectivesbroaderthancomputeruse,istaught
evenwhenstudentsdonothaveaccesstoacomputer….
Weweretoldthatthisconference,fromLeningradtoMoscowtoZvenigorod,hadbegun
toopenmanymindsastowhatispossiblewithcomputersandchildrenbeyondtheformal
informaticscurriculum.Professionalrespectandrelationshipshavedevelopedamongpartici-
pants.Wecouldnothaveheardbetternewsforoureffortstoachieveamajorsteptowards
aproductiveglobaldiscussionofhowallchildrencanbeneitfromaninformeduseofCAI
[computer-assistedinstruction/programmedlearning]intheworld’sclassrooms.
251
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1989
1989
INANARTICLEINTHEJANUARY25,1989ISSUEOFEDUCATIONWEEKCHESTERE.FINN,JR.,former
headoftheU.S.DepartmentofEducation’sresearchbranch,toldbusinessleadersinWash-
ingtonthathefavoredthedevelopmentofa“nationalcurriculum.”
RUSHWORTHKIDDER,PRESIDENTOFTHEINSTITUTEFORGLOBALETHICSWITHOFFICESINCamden,
Maine,andLondon,England,wroteReinventingtheFuture:GlobalGoalsforthe21stCentury,
publishedbyTheChristianSciencePublishingSociety(MITPress,Cambridge,Mass,1989)
whichcoveredthedialoguebetween35notablesfrom12nationsgatheredat“Wingspread”
inRacine,WisconsininAprilof1989.TheChristianScienceMonitor,theJohnsonFoundation
andtheUniversityofMaryland-BaltimoreCountysponsoredtheevent.InhisbookKidder
statedthattheconferenceincluded“everythingthatsoundedlikeareasonablegoalforthe
year2000,”amongwhichwerethefollowing:“Educatechildreninthecontextofoneworld;
Developeducationalcurriculathatrelecttherealititesofglobalinterdependence;Promote
communityservice;Inculcateahealthyskepticismforauthority;ReducetheshareofGNP
(GrossNationalProduct)devotedtomilitaryspending;andStrengthentheroleoftheUnited
Nationsandothermultilateralforums.”
InaJuly5,1994letterfromMr.KiddertoMr.DavidZanotti,presidentoftheNortheast
OhioRoundtable,KidderdescribedtheworkofhisInstituteforGlobalEthicsasfollows:
TheInstituteforGlobalEthicsisanindependent,non-proiteducationalorganization
speciicallydedicatedtopromotingthediscussionofethicsinaglobalcontext.Takingajour-
nalisticratherthananacademicapproach,weseeourtaskasrespondingtotheever-growing
needforidentifyinganddescribingstandardsofethicalvaluesthroughouttheworld.We
don’tdictatewhatthosevaluesshouldbe.Instead,wetrytohelpdiscoverwhattheyactu-
allyare—andtopromotetheirdiscussionandapplicationinwaysthatarenon-threatening,
inclusive,andconlict-resolving.
TheInstitutehasanationalboardofdirectors,aninternationaladvisorycouncil,a
networkofnationwideandglobalconnections,andamembershipbaseofsome2,500indi-
vidualsintheUnitedStatesandaroundtheworld.Someofouractivities[fromwhichthe
writerhasselectedonlyafew]include:
• GlobalValuesSurvey.Wearecurrentlycarryingoutamulti-countrysurveyofvalues
andethicstohelpusunderstandthecorevaluesthatunitevariousculturesaswell
asthedifferentwayseachculturedeinesanethicaldecision.Thepilotsurvey,car-
riedoutamongsamplesofbusinessleadersinJapan,India,andtheUnitedStates,
was completed in June. We’re now laying plans to launch a full-scale survey of
individualsinbusiness,politics,medicine,journalism,andothersectorsofsociety
in12nations.[TheInstitutewasawardeda$450,000grantfromtheW.K.Kellogg
FoundationofBattleCreek,Michigantoaccomplishthissurvey,ed.]
• Education.TheInstituteworksactivelywithseveralschooldistrictsandeducational
organizations in the United States on character education, seeking ways to help
schoolsandcommunitiesindthecore,sharedvaluesamongtheirconstituencies
thatcanformabasisfordiscussionsofethicalissuesintheschools.We’veproduced
anaward-winninghalf-hourvideo,PersonalEthicsandtheFutureoftheWorld,de-
signedforuseinschoolsandwithaudiencesofallages.Andwe’vealsopublished
252
a booklet, Character Education: Lessons from the Past, Models for the Future, by
ProfessorJamesLemingofSouthernIllinoisUniversity.
• Seminars.Wearecurrentlyworkingwithseveralclients(includingtheJ.M.Smucker
Company,LancasterLaboratories,Inc.,andtheCouncilonFoundationsinWash-
ington,D.C.)toprovideethicstrainingprograms.Wehavetrainedmorethan1,000
executivesandmanagersinday-long,intensiveseminars,anddevelopedatrain-
the-trainers program as well. Our goal is to encourage what we call “ethical it-
ness”—which,likephysicalitness,needstobepracticed,developedandapplied.
• Radio.Ournewestventureisaone-hourPublicRadioprogramtitled“Let’sBeHon-
est—EthicalIssuesofthe‘90s.”Featuringathree-personpanelandamoderator,the
programfocusesonthemoralandethicalaspectsofaspeciictopicdrawnfromthe
week’snewsandencourageson-airtelephonecallsfromlisteners.Pilotversionsof
theprogram,airedonMainePublicRadio,havebeenverywellreceived,andplans
areafoottodevelopaversionoftheprogramforanationalaudience.
[Ed.Note:Kidder’sGlobalEthicsprogramisanotherexampleoftheproblemwithcharacter
educationasawhole:basingcharacter,valuesandethicsonconsensusdecisionsbyagroup
insteadofabsolute,enduringprinciples.]
KENTTEMPUSWROTE“EDUCATIONINTHEFUTURE:21STCENTURYSCHOOLSWILLOFFERLearning
forAllCitizens”forTheMuscatine[Iowa]Journal’sApril22,1989issue.Excerptsfollow:
Schoolsin21stCenturyIowawillbehubsoftheircommunit[ies],providingbroadlearning
opportunitiesforallcitizens,accordingtothedirectoroftheIowaDepartmentofEducation.
WilliamLepleysaysfutureschoolswillbecentersforfamilyandsocialservicesaswell.
“Societyintheyear2010hasrealizedthattheschoolisthesinglesocietalinstitutionthatcan
trulybeanadvocate,aresource,andacatalystforchildrenandfamilies,aswellaslearners
ofallages,”Lepleysaid....Students’evaluationwillimprove.Insteadofgrades,studentswill
beassessednotontheworktheycomplete,butontheskillstheymaster,heexplained.
Communityservicewillbeagraduationrequirement.Also,educationalopportunities
areavailableforallcitizensfrompreschooltoadults.Theschoolyearwon’tberestricted
to180daysof5–1/2hourseach,becauselexibleschedulesandteachercontractswillper-
mityear-roundlearning,hesaid.“Teachersinidealschoolsaremanagersofthelearning
environment,”Lepleysaid.“Theteacherhasbeengiventhetoolstobeabletodiagnose
learningneedsandtoprescribeappropriateactivities.”Schoolsthemselveswillchangetoo,
Lepleynoted.Theidealschoolhousessocialagenciessuchashealth,job,andhumanservice
agencies,childcareandservesasthecommunity’sseniorcitizenvolunteercenter,hesaid.
And adults come to ideal schools—open round the clock—for educational opportunities
rangingfromchildbirthandparentingclassestopre-retirementplanning,headded.Inthe
idealcommunity,Lepleysaid,thesuperintendentcoordinateschildrenandfamilyservices,
inadditiontoeducation.
[Ed.Note:Lepleyusedtheterm“hub”inthisarticleandinapamphletdistributedwidely
acrossIowatodescribetheschoolofthefuturewhichwillencompassnumeroussocialser-
viceagencies,healthcare,jobtraining,childcare,etc.ThisconceptmirroredtheCommunity
EducationplanspromotedbytheMottFoundationofMichiganandincorporatedintofederal
grantmakingundertheElementaryandSecondaryEducationActof1965.
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1989 253
Amultitudeofstatereformplansintheearly1990sincludediagramsofthissameplan,
exhibitingtheschoolasthecenter(or“hub”)ofthecommunity;signiicantly,somediagrams
showchurches,recreationandotherprivateaspectsoflifeencompassedwithinthe“hub”
concept. With the advent of school-to-work programs, the concept has been expanded to
include“one-stoptrainingcenters”forworkforcedevelopmentandplacement.Childrenwho
don’tpasstheproiciencyassessmentswillbesentthroughthese“centers”forservicesand
remediationwhichwillrelyonoperantconditioningmethodstoensure“success”.
Substitute“government”forschoolslikethis“hub”planandwhatpolitical/economicsys-
temdowehave?Whoexactlyaskedfor—votedfor?—thisalien“education”systemwhichplaces
ourcitizensandcommunitiesunderthecontroloftheunelectedschoolsuperintendent?]
BARRYBEAR,AMILDLYRETARDED11-YEAR-OLDINDIANBOYLIVINGONARESERVATIONANDbeing
taughtathomebyhismother,wasdeclareda“childinneedofassistance”(CINA)byaland-
markIowaSupremeCourtdecisiononMay17,1989.BarryBearwasremovedfromhishome
whenthecourtcited“hisparents’failuretoexerciseareasonabledegreeofcareinsupervising
him”becausehewasnotinschool.Hisparentshadbeenpreviouslyjailedforviolatingthe
state’scompulsoryattendance(truancy)law.ThisprecipitatedtheilingofaCINApetition,
leadingultimatelytothelegalchallengewhichresultedintheIowaSupremeCourtdecision.
Accordingto“TheTamaStory:EducationalTyrannyinIowa,”anarticlebySamuelBlumen-
feld,23thefollowingoccurred:
[TheStateofIowa]wantedtoestablishalegalprecedentwherebyhome-schooledchildren
couldberemovedfromparentsfoundguiltyofviolatingthecompulsoryattendancelaw.
Thejuvenilelawstatesthatachildinneedofassistanceisachild(1)whoseparents
physicallyabusedorneglectedthechild,(2)achildwho“hassufferedorisimminentlylikely
tosufferharmfuleffectsasaresultofthefailureoftheparent...toexerciseareasonable
degreeofcareinsupervisingthechild,”or(3)achildwhoisinneedoftreatmentforseri-
ousmentalillnessordisorder.
DeinitiontwoistheonetheStatedecidedcouldbeeffectivelyusedtoprosecuteBarry
Bear’sparents.Itisalsovagueenough,wideenoughtoincludefundamentalistChristian
homeschoolers.Afterall,theStatecanalwaysgethumanisticpsychiatrists,psychologists,
guidancecounselors,andother“experts”totestifythatkeepingachildoutofpublicschool
cancause“harmfuleffects”bydeprivingthechildofneededsocialization....
...Barrywastakenfromhisfamilyandplacedinfostercare.
[Ed.Note:ThisominousdecisionwassupposedtohavecreatedcourtcaseprecedentinIowa
andaroundthecountry.Ahandfulofheroichomeschoolersstoppedtheseefforts;atthesame
timefoilingatruancybillintheIowalegislaturethatwouldhaveallowed—evenmandated—a
homeschooledchildtoberemovedfromhisparentsandplacedintofostercare.TheBarry
Bearcaseprovidesasnapshotofthefuture,ofthe“penalties”thatwillbeimposedonparents
whofailtocomplywithvariousaspectsofcompulsoryattendanceandtestinglaws.Thefull
weightofthis“hammer”willbefeltwhenschool-to-workcertiicationrequirementsandnewly
proposed“performance-based”nationalstandardsandassessmentsfor“accountability”and
“quality”areimposedonallchildren,includingthehomeschooled.Itshouldbenotedthat
nonationalorganizationassistedinthegrassrootshomeschoolers’resistance,onbehalfofthe
Bearfamily,totheseaggressivestateactions.]
254
THENATIONALGOVERNORS’ASSOCIATION(NGA)EDUCATIONSUMMITWASCONVENEDIN1989by
PresidentGeorgeBushattheUniversityofVirginiainCharlottesville,Virginia.TheNGAun-
veiledAmerica2000—nowknownasGoals2000—anditssixnationaleducationgoals(which
havenowbeenincreasedtoeight).Thesegoalshaveservedtocarveintostonecontroversial
“education”practicesthoroughlyexposedinthisbook,andtolaythefoundationforactivating
school-to-workinitiatives.Thegoalsareasfollows:
GOAL1.Bytheyear2000,allchildrenwillstartschoolreadytolearn.
GOAL2.Bytheyear2000,thehighschoolgraduationratewillincreasetoatleast90
percent.
GOAL3.Bytheyear2000,allstudentswillleavegrades4,8,and12havingdemon-
stratedcompetencyoverchallengingsubjectmatterincludingEnglish,mathematics,
science,foreignlanguages,civicsandgovernment,economics,arts,history,andge-
ography,andeveryschoolinAmericawillensurethatallstudentslearntousetheir
mindswell,sotheymaybepreparedforresponsiblecitizenship,furtherlearning,
andproductiveemploymentinourNation’smoderneconomy.
GOAL4.Bytheyear2000,theNation’steachingforcewillhaveaccesstoprograms
forthecontinuedimprovementoftheirprofessionalskillsandtheopportunityto
acquiretheknowledgeandskillsneededtoinstructandprepareallAmericanstu-
dentsforthenextcentury.
GOAL5.Bytheyear2000,UnitedStatesstudentswillbefirstintheworldinmathe-
maticsandscienceachievement.
GOAL6.Bytheyear2000,everyadultAmericanwillbeliterateandwillpossessthe
knowledgeandskillsnecessarytocompeteinaglobaleconomyandexercisethe
rightsandresponsibilitiesofcitizenship.
—LaterAdditions—
GOAL 7. By the year 2000, every school in the United States will be free of drugs,
violenceandtheunauthorizedpresenceofirearmsandalcoholandwilloffera
disciplinedenvironmentconducivetolearning.
GOAL8.Bytheyear2000,everyschoolwillpromotepartnershipsthatwillincrease
parental involvement and participation in promoting the social, emotional, and
academicgrowthofchildren.
[Ed.Note:In1999,tenyearslater,theNationalEducationGoalsPanelrecommendedchang-
ingthenameGoals2000toAmerica’sGoalssincethegoalswouldnotbereachedbytheyear
2000—thankstointenseoppositiontoGoals2000fromteachersandparents,whoconsidered
itacorporate/federaltakeoverofthenation’sschools.]
THEJULY5,1989 ISSUE OFTHENEWYORKTIMES CARRIED AN ARTICLE BYEDWARDB.Fiske
entitled“Lessons—inthequietworldofschools,atimebombissetfor1993oncertifying
teachers.”Anexcerptfollows:
Thenewnationalsystemwillnotreplacethosenowinuse.Rather,itwillofferanewvol-
untarycredentialtoexperiencedteacherswillingtoundergoclassroomobservationsand
abatteryofsophisticatednewtestsoftheirpedagogicalexpertise.Thesystemismodeled
onprofessionalspecialtyboardsin,say,medicine,throughwhichdoctorswhoarealready
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1989 255
licensedtopracticeobtainanadditionalprestigiouscredential....Foreachofthesecredentials
thetaskistoigureout“whatteachersshouldknowandbeabletodo.”Thendesigners
must devise ways of measuring teachers using new techniques like video simulations of
classroomsituations.Allinall,it’saive-year,$50millionprojectforwhichtheNational
Board [National/Carnegie Board for Professional Teaching Standards] is seeking Federal,
corporationandfoundationsupport....TheNationalBoardhasthussignaledthatfouryears
fromnowitintendstostartissuingcredentialsbasedontheimageofateacherwhowould
haveahardtimefunctioninginmostpublicschoolstoday.Thechoicewouldseemtobe
eithertobackawayfromthisimageorputpressureonschoolstochange....DavidKearns,
ChairmanoftheXeroxCorporationandamemberoftheboard,believesschoolsshould
change.“Schoolsmustindwaysofdrivingdecision-makingdowntothepeoplewhoactu-
allydotheteaching,”hesaid.
THEBANGOR[MAINE]DAILYNEWS OFJULY18,1989 CARRIED ANASSOCIATEDPRESS ITEMen-
titled“Long-AwaitedNationalTeachingCertiicateDetailed”whichdescribedinanutshell
theso-called“voluntary”nationalteachercertiicationsystemirstcalledforin1986bythe
CarnegieForumonEducationandEconomyreport,ANationPrepared:Teachersforthe21st
Century.Excerptsfromthearticlefollow:
Teacherswillberigorouslytestedontheirspecialty,teachingtechniquesandknowledgeof
childdevelopmentunderavoluntarynationalcertiicationsystemoutlinedMondaybyan
independentpanel.
Withitsnewnationalcredential,tobeofferedin29ieldsstartingin1993,theNa-
tionalBoardforProfessionalTeachingStandardssaysithopestodispelthemyththat“any
modestlyeducatedpersonwithsomeinstinctfornurturinghastherequisitequaliications
toteach.”
The private group said it hopes that the system will also lead to improved teacher
trainingand,ultimately,tobetter-educatedchildren.
“TheprocesswillpushtherenewalofAmericaneducationabigstepclosertoreal-
ity,”formerNorthCarolinaGovernorJamesHunt,chairmanofthe63-memberboard,said
Mondayinreleasingtheguidelines.
Thenation’s2.3millionteacherswillneedabachelorofartsdegreeandatleastthree
yearsofexperiencetoapplyforcertiication,accordingtotheblueprint.
Board president, James A. Kelly, said professions such as medicine and law took
decadestosetstandardsforpractitioners.Hesaidtheteacherstandardsboard,formedin
1987,willcompresstheprocessintoiveyears“becausewewanttoinluencethequality
oftheenormousinluxofnewteachersneededduringthe1990s....Thenewcredentialis
expectedtohelpdrawmoreandbetterpeopleintoteachingandhelpteachersmoveinto
newrolesasmentors,curriculumspecialistsandotherpositionsrequiringexpertiseorextra
responsibility.”
Thenationalboardwasproposedthreeyearsago.Manywereskepticalthatitsmix
of teachers, government oficials, business leaders and higher education representatives
couldsucceedatwhattheysaidwasahighlycontroversialtaskwithuncertainpotentialto
improveeducation.
AlbertShanker,presidentoftheAmericanFederationofTeachersandalongtimebacker
ofnationalteachercertiication,saidthecriterialaidoutMondayprovetheskepticswrong.
“Theysaiditcouldn’tbedone,butwedidit,”Shankersaid.“Wecanbeproudthatwehave
comesofar.”
256
[Ed.Note:Ifthestatement“theNationalBoardforProfessionalTeachingStandards(NBPTS)
saysithopestodispelthemyththat‘anymodestlyeducatedpersonwithsomeinstinctfor
nurturinghastherequisitequaliicationstoteach’”istrue,thenahighpercentageofvery
successfulhomeschoolingmotherswillbeexpectedtocloseshop—eventhoughtheirchildren
areoutperformingpubliceducationstudents,receivingscholarships,andbeingacceptedinthe
nation’stopuniversitiesandcolleges!AsfortheNBPTSwantingto“inluencethequalityof
theenormousinluxofnewteachersneededduringthe1990s”thereadershouldrefertothe
1993entrywhichprovidestheU.S.DepartmentofEducation’snewdeinitionof“quality.”]
ANARTICLEENTITLED“THEDECADEOFTHENINETIES”BYDONALDTHOMAS,EXECUTIVEdirector,
NetworkforEffectiveSchools,waspublishedinTheEffectiveSchoolReportforAugust1989.
Underthesubtitle“EducationalImplications”Thomassays:
Operateschoolsonayear-roundbasis;traincitizensandstudentsinskillsandprocessesof
effectiveparticipationingovernment;developpublicpolicytowardprivateeducation....
Desirablefutureconditions:Theeconomywillbemoreofanequilibriumeconomywith
lessdependenceuponmoney,andmoredependenceupontheproductionandexchangeof
goodsandservices.Therewillbeanincreasedmovementtowardcooperationandresponsi-
bilityforthewell-beingofothers.Thecivilrightsofallindividualswillberespectedand
taughtinhomesandschools;avaluesystemwillemergethatwillgivebasichumanval-
ues—i.e.,liberalarts,caringforothers,etc.—theirproperplace.Therewillbefewersingle
familydwellings.Industrywilltakemoreresponsibilityforeducation,particularlyforjob
training....
…[D]evelopcurriculatoinvolvestudentsinanticipatingandplanninghowtowelcome
newcomers;usecommunityeducationtohelpcitizensanticipateandpreparefornewcomers;
designandimplementstatewideparenteducationandeducationforresponsibleparenthood;
institutewidespread,effectivepubliceducationprogramsonfamilylife;ensurethathuman
caringwillbecomethefocusofcurriculumatalllevels;developcoursesinfuturingwith
futurecentersinhighschools;involveschoolswithwatercommissions,airqualitycommis-
sions,citycouncils,countycommissions,legislaturesandgovernmentalagencies,focusing
oneconomics,ecology,environmentandcultureasanintegralpartofthelearning;teach
andpracticeawin-winphilosophyinschools[Deming’sTQM]intheplaceofthepresent
win-losephilosophy....
CITIZENSHIP
NecessaryQuality:Protectingeachotherfromdistractiveforces....Thesearequalitiesthat
canbestbelearnedthroughpracticeandexperience.Ourschoolsmust,therefore,giveyoung
peopletheopportunitiesforservicetoothers,practiceinpublicservice,andadherenceto
personalresponsibilities.Thebasicvaluesofagoodandfreenationcanbelearnedbyyoung
people when appropriate conditions exist as schools form partnerships with community
agenciesforpublicserviceprojectstobeapartofschooling;rewardsareprovidedforen-
couragingyoungpeopletoperformcommunityservice;communityserviceisrecognizedas
anecessarylearningoption....
Theyear2000isverynear.Thesoonerwebeginthetaskofimprovingstudentachieve-
ment and citizenship, the sooner we will achieve the national objective for adequately
preparing our young people to live in the 21st century; to be broadly literate in a world
community;tobehighlyskilledinanever-changingworkenvironment;tobehumanina
societyofindividualsstrivingforpersonalsatisfactionandsecurity.Toachievethisgoalwe
willneedtothinkdifferentlyaboutschools,aboutchildrenandabouteducation.We,asa
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1989 257
nation,mustseeeducationasalifelongprocess,asoccurringinthetotalcommunity,and
asbeingtheresponsibilityofeveryone....Ournationalsurvivaldependsonit;theworld
expectsit,andthechildrenoftheworldrequireit.
[Ed.Note:Leavingasidethefocusonpoliticalcorrectness,oneshouldbeconcernedoverthe
totallackofemphasison—orevenmentionof—academics.Itwouldbeagravemistaketodis-
missthisarticleasthetotalitarianravingsofalesser-knownchangeagentspokentohisclosest
change-agentassociates.Dr.Thomas,aclosefriendofthelateformerSecretaryofEducation
T.H.BellandpresentSecretaryRichardRiley,isoneofthemostimportantchangeagentsinthe
world.Hehasbeenresponsibleforcontroversialrestructuringinseveralstatesandhasbeen
involvedinexchangeswiththeformerSovietUnionandEasternEuropeannationswhichare
implementingEffectiveSchoolResearch.Again,itwashewhorecommendeda$50.00inefor
parentswhorefusedtovolunteerinschools—bothinSouthCarolinaandinUtah.]
“APPROPRIATEEDUCATION IN THEPRIMARYGRADES:APOSITIONSTATEMENT OF THENAtional
AssociationfortheEducationofYoungChildren”(NAEYC)waspublishedanddistributedin
1989.24Excerptsfollow:
INTEGRATEDCOMPONENTSOFAPPROPRIATEANDINAPPROPRIATEPRACTICEIN
THEPRIMARYGRADES
AppropriatePractice.Thecurriculumisintegratedsothatchildren’slearninginalltraditional
subjectareasoccursprimarilythroughprojectsandlearningcentersthatteachersplanand
thatrelectchildren’sinterestsandsuggestions.Teachersguidechildren’sinvolvementin
projectsandenrichthelearningexperiencebyextendingchildren’sideas,respondingtotheir
questions,engagingtheminconversationandchallengingtheirthinking.
InappropriatePractice.Curriculumisdividedintoseparatesubjectsandtimeiscarefully
allottedforeachwithprimaryemphasisgiveneachdaytoreadingandsecondarilytomath.
Othersubjectssuchassocialstudies,science,andhealtharecoverediftimepermits.Art,
music,andphysicaleducationaretaughtonlyonceaweekandonlybyteacherswhoare
specialistsinthoseareas.
AppropriatePractice.Thegoalofthemathprogramistoenablechidrentousemaththrough
exploration,discovery,andsolvingmeaningfulproblems.Mathactivitiesareintegratedwith
otherrelevantprojects,suchasscienceandsocialstudies....
InappropriatePractice.Mathistaughtasaseparatesubjectatascheduledtimeeachday.A
mathtextbookwithaccompanyingworkbooks,practicesheets,andboardworkisthefocus
ofthemathprogram.Teachersmovesequentiallythroughlessonsasoutlinedintheteacher’s
editionofthetext....Timedtestsonnumberfactsaregivenandgradeddaily.Competition
betweenchildrenorgroupsofchildren....isusedtomotivatechildrentolearnmathfacts.
RENEWAL OF U. S.-SOVIET EDUCATION/CULTURAL AGREEMENTS IN 1989 CALLED FOR PLACing
statuesofSovietculturaliguresonUnitedStatesterritory.
IN1989THEASSOCIATIONFORSUPERVISIONANDCURRICULUMDEVELOPMENT’S(ASCD)Elementary
258
GlobalEducationFrameworkentitled“ElementaryEducationforthe21stCentury:APlanning
FrameworkBasedonOutcomes”announcedonitstitlepagethefollowing:
Therealitiesofthegloballyinterconnectedandculturallydiverseworldofthe21stcentury
requireaneducationforallstudentsthatwillenablethemtoseethemselvesas—
HUMANBEINGS
whosehomeis
PLANETEARTH
whoarecitizensofa
MULTICULTURALDEMOCRATICSOCIETY
inanincreasingly
INTERCONNECTEDWORLD
andwho
LEARN,CARE,THINK,CHOOSE,andACT
tocelebratelifeonthisPlanet
and
tomeettheglobalchallengesconfrontingHumankind
Keyglobalchallengesattheoutsetofthe21stcenturyareintheareasofimprovingand
maintainingthequalityoftheENVIRONMENT,improvingandmaintainingHEALTHAND
WELL-BEING,assuringHUMANRIGHTS,andreducingVIOLENCEANDCONFLICT.
ThisASCDframeworkwasusedbytheEugene,OregonSchoolDistrict4Jasaguideforde-
velopmentoftheirEducation2000ElementaryIntegratedCurriculumK–5.25Excerptsfromthe
“Guide”tobeusedbyteachersinvolvedincurriculumimplementationfollow:
District4JMission
InvestinginStudents
CreatingtheFuture
Eugene’sElementaryProgram’sMission
ToInstillinEachchild
• asenseofselfworth
• arespectfortheearthandallpeoples
• andacommitmenttothepursuitoflife-longlearning....
OneoftheiveprioritiesestablishedintheDistrict’sfutureplanningreportin1988–1989
addressedtheneedtodesignanappropriateeducationforaninformationage....Someof
theskillsandknowledgethatstudentswillneedtoacquireinclude:
1.managinginformationandlearningtolearn(i.e.,problemsolving,criticalthinking,
applyingknowledge,makingdecisionsandjudgments);
2.understandingandparticipatinginthearts;
3.interpersonalandintrapersonalskills;
4.globalperspectives;and
5.usingappropriatetechnology....
Aftercarefulconsiderationoftheeducationalneedsofstudentspreparingforthe21st
century,thewritingcommitteedeineditstaskasdevelopingamoreconceptual-basedcur-
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1989 259
riculumwithessentialskillsatitscore.Aconceptual-basedcurriculumisstructuredaround
broad-basedthemesthatallowfortheintegrationofskillsandsubjectmatterratherthan
emphasizingdisjointed,small,unrelatedchunksofinformation.
CurriculumStrands
Howisthecontentofthecurriculumorganized?
Inplaceoftheeighttraditionaldisciplinesaroundwhichtheformercurriculumwasorga-
nized,theEducation2000Curriculumisorganizedaroundthreecurriculumstrands.…1)The
HumanFamily,2)OurPlanetaryHomeandItsPlaceintheUniverse,and3)Understanding
andFulillmentoftheIndividual.
CoreSkills
Whatskillsareincludedinthecurriculum?Coreessentialskillsincludephysical,social,and
thinkingskillsincorporatinglanguageartsandmathematics.
MajorThemesandConcepts
Whatmajorthemesandconceptsareincluded?TheEducation2000Curriculumincludessix
majorthemes:Communities,Change,Power,Interactions,FormandSystems.
CharacteristicsoftheCurriculum
Whataresomeofthecharacteristicsofthenewcurriculum?First,itexpandsthetraditional
understandingof“basicskills”toincludedimensionsofthinkingaswellaslanguagearts,
mathematics,physicalandsocialskilldevelopment.
Itshiftswhatisrequiredfrommanyindividualbitsofcontenttomajorthemesand
relatedconcepts....Withtheformercurriculum,elementarystudentswereexpectedtomas-
ter2,175separatebitsofinformationthatincludedskills,conceptsandcontentorganized
withineightdiscretedisciplines.ThenewK–5Education2000Curriculumrequiresmastery
ofonlysixmajorthemes,60conceptsand132coreskillsorganizedwithinthreecurriculum
strands.Thisrevisiongreatlyreducesthefragmentednatureoftheformercurriculumand
signiicantlydecreasesthenumberofspeciicrequirementstoapproximatelyone-tenthof
theoriginalnumber.
[Ed.Note:ASCD’sinvolvementinthislocalschooldistrict’scurriculumwasalogicalfollow
uptoitsinvolvementfromthebeginninginRobertMuller’sWorldCoreCurriculum,upon
whichDistrict4J’scurriculumwasbased.Accordingtoanarticleentitled“EducatorProposesa
GlobalCoreCurriculum”bySusanHooperwhichappearedintheNovember27,1985issueof
EducationWeek,GordonCawelti,executivedirectorofASCD,inanaddresstoeducatorsfrom
twelveWesternnationsandJapan,urgedthemtopressforthedevelopmentofaworldcore
curriculumbasedonknowledgethatwillensure“peacefulandcooperativeexistenceamong
thehumanspeciesonthisplanet.”EducationWeekexplained,“Cawelti’sworldcorecurriculum
wouldbebasedon...proposalsputforthbyRobertMuller,AssistantSecretaryGeneralofthe
UnitedNations,inhisrecentbookNewGenesis:ShapingaGlobalSpirituality.”
Of additional signiicance is the fact that Willard Daggett’s International Center for
LeadershipinEducationdiscussedtheEugeneDistrict4Jinanarticleentitled“CyberHigh
School”initsMarch1998issueofModelSchoolsNews.RegardingtheCenter’sselectionof
CyberHighSchool,Eugene4JSchoolDistrict,Eugene,Oregonasoneofitsmodelschools,
thearticlestates:
Fortheirsttimeinhumanhistory,teacher,learner,andlearningmaterialdonothaveto
260
beinthesameplaceatthesametime.Thisconcepthasthepotentialofrevolutionizing
education,consideringthefactthatwherestudentslivehasalwaysbeenthesinglegreatest
factorinluencingthequalityoftheireducation,albeitoneoftenoverlooked.Thetruthof
thematteristhatwhatstreettheylivedon,whattowntheylivedin,whatstateandcountry
determinedwhatclassestheycouldtake,thequalityofteacherstheycouldexpect,andwho
theirclassmateswouldbe.Butallthatisabouttochange....Coursesofferedalsoinclude
severalinventivemultidisciplinarysubjectssuchas“Baseball:ItsImpactonAmericanSo-
cietyandWorldHistorythroughFilm,”nottomentionthefactthatallofthecoursesoffer
aglobalclassroomandamulti-culturalperspective.]
THEAUTUMN1989 ISSUE OFTHE2020NEWSLETTER PUBLISHED BYIMTEC, ANORWEGIANedu-
cationassociation,26revealedthefactthatastheypushforwardwiththeirownInternational
LearningCooperative,EuropeanswereembracingtheAmericanTacticsforThinkingprogram
developedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducation’sMidContinentRegionalLaboratory(McREL).
OfinterestisthefactthatShirleyMcCune(referencedseveraltimesinthisbook)wassenior
directorofMcRELatthetimetheactivitiesdescribedinThe2020Newsletterweretakingplace.
Thisnewsletterillustratedclearlytheextentofinternationalizationofnotonlycurriculum,
butinstruction,assessmentandadministration.IMTECreported:
TheIMTECtrainingprogramforschool-baseddevelopmentconsultantsisgoingonatpres-
entintwocountries:Germany...theNetherlands.Wearealsoplanningarenewedprogram
inNorway.WearealsointheplanningstageofthisprogramintheU.K.
AsectionofIMTEC’snewsletterentitled“CooperationwithMcREL”madethefollowingstate-
ments:
TheSecond“School-Year2020”InternationalConferenceheldinColorado,October1988,
wasajointundertakingbyMcREL(theMidContinentRegionalEducationalLaboratory)and
IMTEC....
OurcooperationwithMcRELwillcontinue.ADevelopmentGrouprepresentedbypeople
fromMcRELandIMTECispresentlyworkingonnewprogramsbuildingonMcREL’sAchiev-
ingExcellenceProgram(A+)andIMTEC’sIDP,theInstitutionalDevelopmentProgram....
McREL’sA+isasite-orschool-basedmanagementsystem.Itorganizesandusesre-
search-basedknowledgetoincreaseeducationaleficiency,effectivenessandexcellence.…
TheA+managementsystemalsoprovidesuniqueassessmenttoolsformaintainingprogress
andredirectingenergy.PilotprogramsofA+willtakeplaceintheNetherlands,intheUK,
andmostlikelyNorwayduring1989/90....
THINKINGSKILLS
IMTECispresentlydevelopinganew“Thinkingskills”program,buildingupondevelopment
workinseveralcountries.Centraltoourinteresthasbeenthe“Tactics”programdeveloped
byMcREL.
[Ed.Note:TheaboverelatestoEffectiveSchoolResearch,OBE,ML,PPBS,etc.;whatisbeing
soldtoAmericansas“localcontrol”or“localism”isinfact“global.”Inaddition,the“Tactics”
programisthesameTacticsforThinkingdiscussedinthe1988“Jeannie’sGroup”entryin
thisbook.]
261
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1989
SOVIETS IN THE CLASSROOM: AMERICA’S LATEST EDUCATION FAD WRITTEN BY THIS WRITER in
1989(publishedfouryearsafterthefactbyAmerica’sFuture,Inc.),detailstheU.S.-Sovietand
Carnegie-Sovieteducationagreements.(Forfulltextofthispamphlet,seeAppendixXXIII.)
Twoexcerptsdealingwiththespeciicagreementsfollow:
Theagreementscallfor“Cooperationintheieldofscienceandtechnologyandadditional
agreementsinotherspeciicields,includingthehumanitiesandsocialsciences;thefacili-
tationoftheexchangebyappropriateorganizationsofeducationalandteachingmaterials,
includingtextbooks,syllabiandcurricula,materialsonmethodology,samplesofteaching
instrumentsandaudiovisualaids…exchangeofprimaryandsecondaryschooltextbooksand
otherteachingmaterials...theconductingofjointstudiesontextbooksbetweenappropriate
organizationsintheUnitedStatesandtheMinistryofEducationoftheU.S.S.R.”...
2.TheCarnegieCorporation’sexchangeagreementwiththeSovietAcademyofScienceshas
resultedin“jointresearchontheapplicationofcomputersinearlyelementaryeducation,
focusingespeciallyontheteachingofhigherlevelskillsandcomplexsubjectstoyounger
children.”(“Higherlevelskills”isoftenaeuphemismfor“criticalthinkingskills.”)Carnegie’s
1988one-year$250,000grantisfundingimplementationofthisprogram,coordinatedonthe
AmericansidebyMichaelCole,directoroftheLaboratoryofComparativeHumanCognition
attheUniversityofCalifornia,SanDiego.
ANARTICLEINTHESEPTEMBER9,1989ISSUEOFTHEWASHINGTONTIMESENTITLED“CHINASays
EducatorsSowedSeedsofUnrest”placedblameonteachersforthestudentdemocracyprotests
whichresultedintheTiananmenSquaremassacre.Excerptsfollow:
BEIJING(AGENCEFRANCE-PRESSE)—Inafront-pageeditorial,theintellectualGuangmingDaily
saidteachershadusedtheirclassroomstospread“bourgeoisliberalization,”thestandard
codewordforundesirableWesterninluences.…
...“Wemustclearlyunderstandthattheteachingrostrumisprovidedbythepeopleand
theCommunistPartyandthatitissacred,”thenewspapersaid.“Thepeople’steachershave
therighttospreadMarxisttheory,communistmoralityandknowledgeoftheFourModern-
izations,”itadded.“Teachershavenorighttospreadbourgeoisliberaltendencies.”
Yesterday’seditorialcameaseffortsbytheauthoritiestoputfreshemphasisonpolitical
educationhavebeenmovingintohighgearandjustdaysbeforethe40thanniversaryof
CommunistChinaonOctober1.
OnTuesday,40teachersatBeijingUniversity,whichhadbeenahotbedofstudent
unrest,wereforcedtotakeupshovelsandclearscrubfromacampusplayingieldaspart
ofthepushforpoliticalre-educationthroughmanuallabor.…
...Thepremieralsodefendedanewgovernmentplantosendgraduatingstudentsto
farmsandfactoriesforayear,sayingitwasmeantto“improvefeelingstowardlaboring
people.”
“Weholdthatyoungstudentsshould,irstofall,workin‘grassroots’unitstoobtain
practicalexperience,”Mr.Lisaid.
Manystudentshaveprivatelysaidtheydreadandscornthescheme.
ONSEPTEMBER10,1989THEWASHINGTONPOSTRANANARTICLEENTITLED“CHINAORdersManual
262
LaborforStudents:BeijingMovesAgaintoControlCitizenry”whichmirroredandelaborated
ontheabove-excerptedarticleofSeptember9.ThePostreported:
Themandatorylaborrequirementisthelatestinaseriesofmeasurestakenbythegovernment
topunish,restrictandreeducateChinesestudents,particularlythoseinthecapital,since
thedemocracymovementwascrushedbythearmyinearlyJune.
...ThenewlyannouncedmeasureisreminiscentoftheapproachtakenbytheChinese
governmentinthe1950s,whenstudentsworkedforseveralhoursaweekeitherinfactories
orinworkshopsestablishedonschoolpremises....Inanotherdevelopment,studentsattwo
leadingBeijinguniversitiesthisweekrevealedthatstudentswillberequiredtotakeatest
oftheirpoliticalreliabilitybeforebeingallowedtoformallyenroll.
KENTUCKYSUPREMECOURT RULED INROSE V.COUNCIL FORBETTEREDUCATION,INC. IN1989.
Theimportanceoftherulinginthiscasecannotbeoveremphasizedsinceitcalledforare-
distributionofwealth(equalization)planforKentucky.Thesameplanwasrecommendedby
DavidHornbeckforallthestatesinNovemberof1987.ItwasnotlongbeforeHornbeckand
hisfellowchangeagents,includingLuvernCunninghamofOhioStateUniversityand“site-
basedmanagement/lessenelectedschoolboardinluence”reputation,descendedonDaniel
Boone’scountry.ThefollowingexcerptdetailingtheKentuckystorywastakenfromACitizen’s
Handbook:TheKentuckyEducationReformAct—HistoricalBackground,Provisions,TimeLine,
QuestionsandAnswers,CourtCases,Overview(KentuckyLegislativeResearchCommission:
Frankfurt,Kentucky,September1996):
Thisdecisionappliestotheentiresweepofthesystem—allitspartsandparcels.Thisde-
cisionappliestoallthestatutescreating,implementingandinancingthesystemandtoall
regulations,etc.,pertainingthereto.Thisdecisioncoversthecreationoflocalschooldistricts,
schoolboards,andtheKentuckyDepartmentofEducationtotheFoundationProgramand
PowerEqualizationProgram.Itcoversschoolconstructionandmaintenance,teachercerti-
ication—thewholegamutofthecommonschoolsysteminKentucky....Sincewehave,by
thisdecision,declaredthesystemofcommonschoolsinKentuckytobeunconstitutional,
Section183placesanabsolutedutyontheGeneralAssemblytore-create,re-establishanew
systemofcommonschoolsintheCommonwealth.—Roseat215,216.
IN1989SHIRLEYMCCUNE, SENIOR DIRECTOR OF THEU.S.DEPARTMENT OFEDUCATION-funded
MidContinentRegionalEducationalLaboratory(McREL),toldtheteachersinSouthKitsap,
Washington:“Theschoolofthefuturemustbefardifferentthanthatoftodaytomeetthe
changingneedsofsociety.”Thefollowingexcerptsaretakenfromanarticleentitled“Schools
oftheFuture”whichwaspublishedintheBremerton[Washington]SunonOctober14th:
Whenyouwalkinthebuilding,there’sarowofofices.Inonearedrugcounselors.One
isforsocialsecurity.Another,familyandchildpsychologists.Yetanotherhasadoctorand
nursewhodowell-childexams.
Inthecafeteria,seniorcitizensminglewithstudentshavinglunch.Oldstersandyoung-
stersaresometimespairedforschoolprojects,likeoralhistory.
There’sachild-carecenter,andtiedintoitareclassesforteenagerswheretheylearn
The"Effective"Eighties:c.1989 263
theimportanceofchild-nurturingskills.
Inthegym,homemakersaretakingexerciseclasses.Afterwork,moremenandwomen
willshowupfortheiritnessworkout.
Theseare“communitylearningcenters,notjustschools.”“Schoolsarenolongerin
theschoolingbusiness”butratherin“humanresourcedevelopment,”shesaid.
Dr.McCunewasinSouthKitsaptotalkaboutsomethingeveryone’shearingalotabout
thesedays—”restructuring”schools.Herspeechkickedoffafulldayofteachertraining.
Acrossthestate,mostteachersweretakingpartinlocalorstate-sponsoredtraining.
InSouthKitsap,workshopchoicesrelectedthewaveofthefutureDr.McCunedescribed.
Theydealtwithtopicssuchascelebratingdifferencesinlearningstyles,usingwholelanguage
approach,usingcooperativelearning,andintegratingtechnologywithcurriculum.
Endnotes:
1Practitioner’sImplementationHandbook[series]:TheOutcome-BasedCurriculum,SecondEd.,byCharlotteDanielson(Out-
comesAssociates:Princeton,NJ,1992).
2SeeAppendixXXVIentitled“ShamanisticRitualsinEffectiveSchools”byBrianRowanwhosays,amongothereye-opening
comments,“Thus,anyexperiencedshamancanind‘effective’schools.”
3ModelsofInstructionalOrganization:ACasebookofMasteryLearningandOutcome-BasedEducation,RobertBurns,Ed.(Far
WestRegionalLaboratoryforEducationalResearchandDevelopment:SanFrancisco,April1987).
4HumanIntelligenceInternationalNewslettermailingaddressis:P.O.Box1163,Birmingham,MI48012.
5TheMottFoundationwasoneoftheearlyinitiatorsandheavyinancialsupportersofun-Americancommunityeducation
andtheunelectedadvisorycouncilconcept.Mottstillretainsitsroleasleaderofthismovement,whichisnowinternational
andborrowsmuchofitsorganizationalstructurefromcommunistChina.
6Atthetimehewrotethearticle,GlineswasassistanttothedirectoroftheOficeofInstructionalSupportandBilingualEdu-
cationoftheStateofCaliforniaDepartmentofEducation,Sacramento,California.Thisarticlewasadaptedwithpermission
fromanarticlepublishedinTheCaliforniaJournalonTeacherEducation(Spring,1980).
7CopiesoftheFebruaryissueoftheInnisbrookPaperscanbeorderedfrom:CorporateRelationsDepartment,NorthernTelecom
Limited,33CityCentreDrive,Mississauga,OntarioL5A2A2.
8ThereadershouldnotdismissthislastcommentbyOettingerasalippantremark.Formoreinformationon“thenewlower-
ingoforalcommunication”readComSpeak2050,HowTalkingComputersWillRecreateanOralCulturebyMid-21stCentury
byWilliamCrossman,404–524–7438,e-mail:WillCross@aol.com
9InformationtakenfromCharlotteT.Iserbyt’sBacktoBasicsReformOr…OBESkinnerianInternationalCurriculum(Charlotte
ThomsonIserbyt:Bath,Maine,1985).
10 CenterforEducationalResearchandInnovation:RueAndre-Pascal,75775,Paris,France.
11 K.M.Heaton’sarticlecanbeobtainedbywriting:HartPublications,1507LincolnStreet,Bellingham,WA98226.
12 Privatecollectionofthewriter.
13 Brainwashing (Capp Clark Publishing Co., Ltd.: Toronto, 1971) and Brainwashing in Red China: The Men Who Deied It
(VanguardPress,Inc.:NewYork,NY,1973).
14 Privatecollectionofthewriter.
15 Formoreinformationonthisproject,write:MasteryinLearningProject,NationalEducationAssociation,120116thStreet,
NW,Washington,DC20036.
16 RobertoAssagioli,Psychosynthesis:AManualofPrinciplesandTechniques(VikingPress:NewYork,1965).
17 LikePaoloFriere,KevinRyanofBostonUniversitywasinvitedbyandreceivedacontractfromthenewly-establishedPortu-
guesegovernment,afteritscommunistrevolutionin1974,totrainteacherssothatPortugalcouldmeettheEuropeanCom-
munityadmissionrequirements.ProfessorRyanisprominentinthecharacterandmoraleducationmovementintheU.S.in
the1990s.
18 FormoreinformationontheRotterdammeetingsand/ortheInternationalCongressforEffectiveSchools,write:A.A.Peters
orProfessorDaleMann,orProfessorTerryAstutoatTeachersCollege,ColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,NY10027,orcall
212–678–3726.
19 FormoreinformationregardingthenextfewentriesdealingwiththeTacticsforThinkingcurriculumorforinformationon
HigherOrderThinkingSkills(HOTS),contactJeannieGeorgeswhogavetestimonyatTheNationalCitizensAlliancepress
conferenceandwhohaswrittenextensivelyonthesubject.Heraddressis:Route1,Box215,Lynnville,Indiana47619,tel.
812–922–3247.
20 Ibid.
21 Singlecopiesofthereport,TheForgottenHalf:PathwaystoSuccessforAmerica’sYouthandYoungFamilies,maybeobtained
freefrom:WilliamT.GrantFoundationCommissiononWork,FamilyandCitizenship,100ConnecticutAvenue,NW,Suite
301,Washington,DC20036–5541.
22 ThisconferenceisanotherexampleofanactivityassociatedwiththeU.S.-Sovieteducationagreementssignedin1985.This
particularconferenceverylikelytookplaceasaconsequenceoftheCarnegieCorporation’sexchangeagreementwiththe
264
SovietAcademyofSciences,resultingin“jointresearchontheapplicationofcomputersinearlyelementaryeducation,focus-
ingespeciallyontheteachingofhigherlevelskillsandcomplexsubjectstoyoungerchildren.”
23 TheBlumenfeldEducationLetter,April1990(Vol.V.,No.4).
24 AcopyofthisNAEYCpublication(#578)isavailablebysending$.50to:NAEYC,150916thSt.,NW,Washington,DC20036,
orbycalling202–232–8777.
25 OregonSchoolDistrict4J,200N.Monroe,Eugene,OR97402.MargaretNicholswassuperintendentofschoolsforDistrict
4J.
26 IMTECislocatedat:Dynekilgata10,0569,Oslo5Norway.
8
THENOXIOUSNINETIES
Manyquotesinthisbookpointtowardimplementationofradicalrestructuringof
thenation’sschoolsin“TheNoxiousNineties.”Theoneentrythiswriterbelievesbestillustratesthis
planandhowitwouldbeimplementedthroughouttheremainderofthe20thcenturyandintothe
21stcenturyistakenfromConclusionsandRecommendationsfortheSocialStudies(CharlesScribner’s
Sons:N.Y.,1934).Thisstudywasfundedtothetuneof$340,000bytheCarnegieCorporationof
NewYork,quiteasumofmoneyin1934dollars!ProfessorHaroldLaski,thephilosopherofBritish
socialism,saidofthisreport:“Atbottom,andstrippedofitscarefullyneutralphrases,theReportisan
educationalprogramforaSocialistAmerica.”AnimportantandrevealingexcerptfromConclusions
andRecommendationsfollows:
TheCommissionwasalsodriventothisbroaderconceptionofitstaskbytheobviousfact
thatAmericancivilization,incommonwithWesterncivilization,ispassingthroughoneof
thegreatcriticalagesofhistory,ismodifyingitstraditionalfaithineconomicindividualism
[freeenterprise],andisembarkinguponvastexperimentsinsocialplanningandcontrol
whichcallforlarge-scalecooperationonthepartofthepeople....(pp.1–2)
...CumulativeevidencesupportstheconclusionthatintheUnitedStatesandinother
countriestheageof“laissezfaire”ineconomyandgovernmentisclosingandthatanew
ageofcollectivismisemerging.(p.16)
Thata“newageofcollectivism”hasemergedandisbeingimplementedrightnowunderour
verynosesin“TheNoxiousNineties,”withlittleornooutragefromthepublicorourelectedoficials,
canonlybeattributedtothe“deliberatedumbingdown”ofAmericans,whohaven’tbeentaughtthe
differencebetweenfreeenterpriseandplannedeconomies(socialism);between“groupthinking”and
individualfreedomandresponsibility.
265
266
ThelateNormanDoddin1986madeanextremelypertinentandimportantobservationregarding
Americans’growingpreferenceto“thinkandactcollectively”andtheresultingdangers.Mr.Dodd’s
commentsweremadeuponhisreceiptoftheNationalCitizens’AllianceAmericanismAwardpresented
bySenatorJesseHelms.ThisawardrecognizedDodd’scourageousworkasresearchdirectorforthe
1953Congressionalinvestigationofthetax-exemptfoundations.InDodd’swords:
WhatishappeningIcanbestexplainbydescribingtoyouwhereyouwouldendup
ifyoucouldsponsoraresumptionoftheinquiryintotheeffectoffoundation-typeorganiz-
ationsinthiscountry.Ifthatweretobedone,youwouldcomeintopossessionofproof…
exposingafundamentaltruthwhichhasneverbeenputintowords.
Ishalltrytorecitethattruthtoyouandyoucantakeithomeandactonitasapremise.
Thistruthisthatwheneverapeopleshowbytheiractionsthattheyprefertothinkandact
collectively,theirdynastybecomesareenactmentofthestoryoftheFall,astoldtousby
GodthroughMoses….Wearenowinapositionwherewecanseethatitisthatdynastic
effectwhichyouareexperiencingtoday.
Wehaveataskandthattaskistosponsoraninquirywhichwouldpulloutintothe
opentheproofswhichshowthatitisthatdynastythatisbeingworkedoutbyusasapeople,
unwittingly,incompleteignorance.…
IwishIcouldhelpyou…thinkaboutthattruthbecauseithasneverbeenputinto
circulation.Itnowdeservestobe,anditispersonslikeyourselves[dearreaders]whocan
contributetothecirculationofthatparticularindingwhichthefoundations,intheirzeal,
haveactuallymadeunderstandable.They[thefoundations]havemadeamistake.…The
mistaketheyhavemadeisnowrepresentedbytheirdeterminationtocooperatewiththe
SovietUnioneducationally.
1990
SECRETARY’SCOMMISSIONONACHIEVINGNECESSARYSKILLS(SCANS—U.S.DEPARTMENTofLa-
bor)wasestablishedin1990andconcludeditsworkinMayof1992.SCANSwasconceived
byRobertsT.Jones,assistantsecretaryoftheEmploymentandTrainingAdministration(ETA),
throughhisparentageoftheseminalstudyWorkforce2000.Heandthen-SecretaryofLabor
ElizabethDolecreatedtheCommissionandArnoldPackerservedasexecutivedirector.SCANS
wasestablishedbySecretaryDoletodeterminetheskillsthatyoungpeopleneedtosucceedin
theworldofwork.1TheSecretary’sCommissiononAchievingNecessarySkillspublishedfour
reports“intendedtodeinetheknow-howAmericanstudentsandworkersneedforworkplace
success…incommunitiesacrosstheUnitedStates.”Thereportsare:
1.LearningaLiving:ABlueprintforHighPerformance—”whychangeisneeded”
2.WhatWorkRequiresofSchools—“deinestheivecompetenciesandthree-partfoun-
dationthatconstitutetheSCANSknow-how”
3.SkillsandTasksforJobs—“atracingoftherelationshipbetweentheSCANScompe-
tenciesandskillsand50commonoccupations”
4. Teaching the SCANS Competencies—“unites six articles that give education and
trainingpractitionerspracticalsuggestionsforapplyingSCANSinclassroomand
workplace”
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1990 267
Learning a Living: A Blueprint for High Performance, the irst report from SCANS, asserts
that“TheCommission’sfundamentalpurposeistoencourageahighperformanceeconomy
characterizedbyhigh-skill,high-wageemployment.”Thefollowingcontroversialcomponent
ofSCANS,whichangeredparentsandignitediresofprotestacrossthenation,isfoundon
page65ofLearningaLiving:
HYPOTHETICALRESUMÉ
JaneSmith DateofReport:5/1/92
19MainStreet Soc.Sec.:599–46–1234
Anytown DateofBirth:3/7/73
HomePhone:817–777–3333 Age;19
SCANSPersonalQualities AverageRating No.ofRatings
Responsibility Excellent 10
Self-Esteem Excellent 10
Sociability Excellent 8
Self-Management Excellent 7
Integrity/Honesty Good 6
Sincewhendidthefederalgovernmentassignitselftheresponsibilityofgradingcitizens
on“personalqualities”?Sinceourgovernmentbegantoconsidercitizens“humancapital”or
“resources”?Arecitizensusefulforanythingbesidespotentialworkers?Theaboveresuméalso
includedthenumberofpointsJaneearnedtowardher“CertiicateofInitialMastery”aswell
asarecordofvolunteerandworkexperience.ThebureaucratattheU.S.LaborDepartment
whowrotethispartofthereportexplained:
Becausethisinformationwouldbeextremelyusefultoemployersinmakinghiringdecisions
andtocollegesinevaluatingapplications,studentswouldhaveastrongmotivationtolearn
theSCANSfoundationskillsandworkplacecompetencies,andemployersandcollegeswould
haveastrongincentivetorequirethem.
NineyearslaterthehypotheticalSCANSresuméwouldbecomerealityasexempliiedby
Ohio’sCareerPassportwhichisacollectionofstudentrecordsthatshowcasepastperformance.
ThePassportincludesaresumé,transcript,narrativeidentifyingcareergoalsandactivities,as
wellasanydiplomas,awards,certiications,licensesandcommunityinvolvement.
TheaforementionedinformationregardingthisCareerPassportistakenfromaMay25,
1999letterfromtheAkronRegionalDevelopmentBoardtoareaemployerswhichstatesthat
Ohio’scompaniescansignonasemployerswho“askfortheCareerPassport.”Thisletter
continuesasfollows:
Byjoiningthemorethan3000businessesnationallythatarerequestingrecords,you
helpdrivehomethemessagethataccountability,initiative,andmotivationaretraitsthat
companiesseekinjobcandidates.
TheAkronRegionalDevelopmentBoard,andTheGreaterClevelandGrowthAssociation,
ClevelandTomorrow,theOhioDepartmentofEducationCareerEducators,andRegions8and
9School-to-WorkhaveteamedupwiththeNationalAlianceofBusiness(NAB)toencour-
ageemployerstouseschoolrecordsaspartoftheirhiringprocess.Thenationalcampaign
268
called“MakingAcademicsCount,”willhelpstudents,parentsandeducatorsbecomemore
awareoftheimportanceofrequisiteworkplaceskills.
Helpsendthemessagetoareastudentsbycompletingtheenclosedreplyformand
returningitviafaxto330–379–3164.Wewillcountyouasanorganizationthatwantsyoung
peopletorealizetheimportanceofeducationandworkskills.…
Youcanlearnmoreaboutthisinitiativeonlineatwww.makeacademicscount.orgor
www.c-e-a.org/ohiocdm.htm.OnbehalfoftheAkronRegionalDevelopmentBoardandem-
ployersacrossourregion,weencourageyoutopromotehigherachievementbyendorsing
the“AskfortheCareerPassport”program.
Atthispointitisimportanttorecallthefactthatoneofthemembersappointedtothe
SCANSwhichoriginatedthistypeofcareerpassportwasThomasSticht,Ph.D.,infamousfor
thefollowingquotewhichparentsshouldponder,especiallyiftheyfeelthattechademicsare
theanswertotheirchildren’supwardmobility.Sticht’sstatementparaphrasedintheAugust
1,1987issueofTheWashingtonPostbearsrepeatinghere:
Endingdiscriminationandchangingvaluesareprobablymoreimportantthanreading
inmovinglowincomefamiliesintothemiddleclass….Whatmaybecrucial[companies
say]isthedependabilityofthelaborforceandhowwellitcanbemanagedandtrained—not
itsgeneraleducationlevel,althoughasmallcadreofhighlyeducated,creativepeopleis
essentialtoinnovationandgrowth.
IN1990ARKANSASGOVERNORWILLIAMJEFFERSONCLINTONPUSHEDTHROUGHAMAJORstatewide
reformmeasure,Act236,whichwasaforerunnerofGoals2000.AccordingtoNationalIssues
inEducation:Goals2000andSchool-to-WorkbyJohnF.Jennings,Ed.2(PhiDeltaKappanand
TheInstituteforEducationalLeadership:Washington,D.C.,1995):
IntheNationalGovernors’Associationhechampionedcomprehensivestatewidereformand
wasakeyleaderintheefforttodeveloptheNationalEducationGoals.Inannouncinghisplat-
formto“putpeopleirst”hemadeeducationacentralpartofthepresidentialcampaign.
THEWASHINGTONPOST PUBLISHED“TYINGPROFESSIONALPAY TOPRODUCTIVITY” BYELIZAbeth
SpaydinitsJanuary28,1990issueinwhichMs.Spaydcoveredtheuseofbehaviormodiication
intheworkplaceinordertoincreaseproductivity.Someexcerptsfollow:
“OneCEOIknowsaystoemployees,‘IfyoutellmeIcan’tmeasurewhatyou’redoing,
I’mnotsureIneedyouhere,’”recallsMichaelEmig,acompensationconsultantwithWyatt
Co.inWashington.“Thefactis,anyworkthatpeoplearepaidtodocanbemeasured.The
trickistogoinwithanopenmind.”...Tohelpensurethatproductivitygoalsaremet,the
paychecksoftopmanagersnowrelecttheirabilitytomeetdepartmentgoals,acompensation
planthateventuallywillspreadthroughoutthehospital.AccordingtoArthurAndersen&
Co.,whichconsultedPekinMemorialonitsplan,thekeystonetoimplementingproductivity
bonusesisputtingeverythinginmeasurableterms,consideringsuchfactorsasaccuracy,
speed,cost,quality—evencreativity....Oncethejobhasbeenquantiied,thenextstepisto
examinetheprocessesbywhichworkisdone,dividingthemintothosethataddvalueand
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1990 269
thosethatdon’t.Thosethatdon’tshouldbeeliminated.
Studiesshowwhite-collarworkersonaveragespend75percentoftheirtimedoing
non-value-added tasks, Skwarek said. But deining the waste and eliminating it are two
differentthings.Andforproductivitytoincrease,properemploymentofthecompensation
leveriscritical.
Abanktellermightberewardedforthenumberofcustomersprocessedinaweek,but
penalizedforeverycustomerwhocomplainsaboutservice.Injobswhereit’sdificultto
measuretheoutputofasingleworker[emphasisinoriginal],compensationmightbelinked
toagroup’sabilitytomeetcertaingoals,anincreasinglycommonapproach.
Whatevertheapproach,Wyatt’sEmigencouragescompaniestothinkbig—meaning
bonusesashighas25percentofsalary.
“ThebasicideaisborrowedfromB.F.Skinner,whotaughtusthatbehaviorwhich
ispositivelyreinforcedwillberepeated,”saysEmig.“Butitdoesn’tworkifpeopledon’t
considerthemoneyworthstrivingfor.”
[Ed.Note:IsitpoliticallyincorrecttoaskhowtheUnitedStatesbecamethemostproductive
nationintheworldwithoutusingtheabove-outlinedridiculousTotalQualityManagement
systembasedonSkinner’soperantconditioning?]
THENATIONALCENTER ONEDUCATION AND THEECONOMY(NCEE) ISSUED IN1990 A PROposal
totheNewAmericanSchoolsDevelopmentCorporation(NASDC)entitled“TheNationalAl-
lianceforRestructuringEducation:SchoolsandSystemsforthe21stCentury.”Thereportwas
stamped“CONFIDENTIAL.”OnthecoverpageNCEE’spartnersinthisventurearelistedas
follows:StatesofArkansas,Kentucky,NewYork,Vermont,andWashington;CitiesofPitts-
burgh,PA;Rochester,NY;SanDiego,CA;andWhitePlains,NY;AppleComputer,Inc.;Center
fortheStudyofSocialPolicy;CommissionontheSkillsoftheAmericanWorkforce;Harvard
ProjectonEffectiveServices;LearningResearchandDevelopmentCenterattheUniversityof
Pittsburgh;NationalAllianceofBusiness;NationalBoardforProfessionalTeachingStandards;
NewStandardsProject;PublicAgendaFoundation;andXeroxCorporation.
[Ed.Note:InAppendixXIIofthisbookNCEE’sproposalisheavilyexcerpted.Thelastfew
pagesofexcerptedmaterialswhichrelateto“staffdevelopment”couldhavebeenwrittenby
thelateMadelineHunter,masterteachertrainerwhohastranslated“theoryintopractice”in
her“InstructionalTheoryIntoPractice:ITIP.”3TheseexcerptedmaterialsprovethatNCEE’s
NationalAllianceforRestructuringEducation,inconjunctionwiththeUniversityofPittsburgh’s
LearningResearchandDevelopmentCenterandtheNationalBoardforProfessionalTeaching
Standards,hasselected“themethod”—Skinnerianoperantconditioning—totrainteachersso
that,asrobots,theywillallteachexactlythesameway.]
WORLDCONFERENCEONEDUCATIONFORALL,SPONSOREDBYTHEWORLDBANK,UNITEDNations
Educational, Scientiic, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and others, was held March
5–9,1990inJomtien,Thailand.“Outcomes”wereapprovedatthisconference,andtheEdu-
cationforAllForumSecretariatadvertisedthe“WorldDeclarationonEducationforAll”and
“FrameworkforActiontoMeetBasicLearningNeeds”astheagendafordiscussionatthe
WorldConference.4ImportantandsigniicantinstitutionalmembershipintheEducationfor
AllCoalitionincluded:AmericanAssociationofSchoolAdministrators(AASA);Association
270
forSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment;InternationalReadingAssociation[whichwas
theprimemoverbehindthedumb-downWholeLanguagereadinginstruction,ed.];andthe
NationalEducationAssociation.
Otherstatementsontheconferencepromotionallyerincluded:
The1990WorldConferenceonEducationforAllrepresentedanimportantmilestoneinedu-
cationdevelopment.ConvenedbytheexecutiveheadsoftheUnitedNationsDevelopment
Program(UNDP),theUnitedNationsChildren’sFund(UNICEF),theUnitedNationsEduca-
tional,ScientiicandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO)andtheWorldBank,theconference
calledonallnationstotakeeffectiveactiontomeetthebasiclearningneedsofchildren,
youthandadultsinallcountriesoftheworld....
TheWorldConferencedeinedbasiclearningneedsastheessentiallearningtools—such
asliteracy,oralexpression,numeracy,andproblem-solving—andbasiclearningcontent—re-
quiredbyallpeopletodeveloptheirfullcapacities,toliveandworkindignity,toparticipate
fullyindevelopment,toimprovethequalityoftheirlives,tomakeinformeddecisions,and
tocontinuelearning.
THEMARCH28,1990ISSUEOFEDUCATIONWEEKRE-PUBLISHED“AROADMAPFORREstructuring
Schools,” a one-page list of principles of restructuring and steps for policy makers to use.
DevelopedbytheEducationCommissionoftheStates(ECS)andtheNationalGovernors’As-
sociation(NGA)andsignedbyJaneArmstrong,directorofpolicystudiesforECS,this“Road
Map”wasaresultoftworegionalworkshopstodiscussstrategiesforredesigningstateedu-
cationsystemstomeetnationalperformancegoals.Excerptsfollow:
PRINCIPLES OF RESTRUCTURING... Restructuring requires risk-taking and experi-
mentation in order to transform schools into dynamic, self-renewing organiz-
ations....
STEPSFORPOLICYMAKERSTOTAKE...Developaspeciicanddemandingstatement
ofwhatbasicskills,thinkingskills,knowledge,attitudesandbehaviorsyouwant
allstudentstohavewhentheycompleteschool….
• Student outcomes should meet employability criteria suggested by business and
industry.
• Buildacoalitionofbusiness,community,educationandpoliticalleaders…tobring
externalpressureontheeducationsystemforproductivechange.
• Selltheagendatopolicymakersandthepublic.
• Identifyandtrainspokespersonstoadvocatesystemrestructuring.
• Getbusinessandpoliticalleaderstocarrytherestructuringbanner.
• Providelexibility,encourageexperimentationanddecentralizedecisionmaking.
• Useincentivestoencouragerisktakingandexperimentation.
• Decentralizeauthoritybyencouragingsite-basedmanagement.
• Redesignteacherandadministratoreducation.
• Redesignteachereducationtomodelinstructionforanactivelearningclassroom.
• Developprogramsthatfocusoncontentknowledgeandnewformsofpedagogy.
271
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1990
• Link schools with universities and other sources of information to help teachers
expandtheirknowledgeofteachingandlearning.
• Strengthentheclinicalexperiencebyplacingteachercandidatesinschoolsthatare
restructuring.
• Providetimeforteacherrenewal,collaborationandtheacquisitionofnewskills,
understandingsandattitudes.
• Provideincentivesforteacherstoreceivenationalboardcertiication.
• Developmultiplewaystomeasureprogresstoavoid“highstakes”testingandteach-
ingtoasingletest.
• Develop“outcomes-based”accreditationprocedures.
• Provide rewards for high-achieving schools and sanctions for low-achieving
schools.
• Createprogramsthatengagestudentsincommunityservice.
• Collaboratewithothersocialserviceagenciestofullyservetheneedsofallchil-
dren.
• Encourageparentalinvolvement.
• Createpublicschoolchoiceplans.
• Provideincentivestorewardaccomplishments.
• Alignandrevisestatepoliciestosupportrestructuring.
• Developbusiness/educationpartnerships.Usetechnologytoexplorenewwaysto
deliverinstruction…notasan“add-on”tothetraditionallecture,recite,testmethod
ofinstruction.
• Bepreparedtohandlepolicydecisionsonjurisdictionoverdistancelearning;i.e.,
teachercertiication,textbookandcurriculumapproval.
TheECS/NGARestructuringWorkshopsweresupportedbygrantsfromtheAmericanExpress
Foundation,ARCOFoundation,BellSouthFoundation,CarnegieCorporationofNewYork,
ControlDataCorporationandTheJohnD.andCatherineT.MacArthurFoundation.
IN1990MARCTUCKER’SNATIONALCENTERONEDUCATIONANDTHEECONOMY(NCEE)ofRoch-
ester,NewYorkpublishedAmerica’sChoice:HighSkillsorLowWages!whichasserted:
Onceyouthcentersareestablished,weproposethatthechildlaborlawsbeamendedto
makethegrantingofworkpermitstoyoungpeopleuptoage18contingentoneithertheir
possessionofacertiicateofinitialmastery[CIM]ortheirenrollmentinaprogramleadingto
thecertiicate.Atirstglance,thismayseemdraconian.Butinthelongrunthisrequirement
willbeneitouryouthandultimatelythenation.
[Ed. Note: The “Certiicate of Initial Mastery” (CIM) is a device which is copyrighted to
theprivatesectorNationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomytobeusedbythepublic
schools.]
THESTATEOFMAINETOOKALEADERSHIPPOSITIONINTHEIMPLEMENTATIONOFASCHOOL-to-work
systemin1990.ThefollowingexcerptsfromTheSchooltoWorkRevolutionbyLynnOlson
272
(PerseusBooks:NewYork,1997)relatetotheirststepstakentoimplementthisnewcorporate
fascistsystemofgovernance.OlsonrecalledMaine’sactivityasfollows:
JohnFitzsimmons,thePresidentoftheMaineTechnicalCollegeSystemandformerstate
laborcommissionerinMaineduringthe1980s,traveledtoGermanyandDenmarkinthe
early1990s,alongwiththethen-GovernorJohnR.McKernan,Jr.[husbandofU.S.Senator
fromMaineOlympiaSnowe],togetairst-handviewofEuropeanapprenticeships.Thegov-
ernorandFitzsimmonsweresoimpressedbywhattheysawthattheyplottedtheoutlines
foraMaineinitiativeonpapernapkinsonthetransatlanticlighthome.InFebruary1993
theMaineYouthApprenticeshipProgram—nowcalledMaineCareerAdvantage—accepted
itsirst12students.By1996theinitiativehadspreadto276students,108highschools,and
197businesses.Anadditional850studentswereinvolvedincareer-preparationactivities
suchasjobshadows,developingportfolios,andsummerinternships.
“Ireallybelieve,inmystate,thefutureliesinthequalityoftheskilledworkforce,”
Fitzsimmonstoldmein1994,astrongRhodeIslandaccentstilllingeringinhisvoice.“We
willnotcompetewithaNorthCarolinaResearchTriangleorwithMassachusetts’sHarvard
andM.I.T.andtheirabilitytobeinternationalresearchareas.Wewillbetheproducersof
goods.AndItakegreatprideinthatbecauseifwe’reabletoproducehigh-qualityproducts,
itwillmeanhigh-wagejobsforourpeople.”
POLYTECHNICALEDUCATION:ASTEPBYROBERTH.BECK,UNIVERSITYOFMINNESOTA,waspub-
lishedin1990.BeckwasundercontracttotheNationalCenterforResearchinVocational
Education,UniversityofCalifornia,BerkeleyandwassupportedbytheOficeofVocational
andAdultEducationthroughaU.S.DepartmentofEducationgrantfor$4million[CarlD.
PerkinsVocationalEducationAct,Grant#V051A80004–88A,September.5]Hadthisreportnot
cost$4millionintaxpayers’money,onecoulddismissitasjustanothereffortbythefederal
governmenttokeepitseducationresearchersoccupied.Whywouldthegovernmentspend
suchanenormousamountofmoneyonagovernmentprojectdescribingtheSovietpolytech
systemunlessthegovernmentwasconsideringputtingthesamepolytechsysteminplacein
theUnitedStates?
RecentworkforcetraininglegislationinCongressdoesindeedcallfortheimplementation
oftheSoviet/German/Danishpolytechsystem.
WILLIAMSPADYPRESENTED“ENSURINGTHESUCCESSOFALLSTUDENTSTODAYFORTomorrow’s
ChangingWorld”fortheU.S.DepartmentofDefense,MediterraneanRegionin1990.Excerpts
follow:
WhenaddressingtheissueofExitOutcomedevelopmentinoneofourIllinoishighschool
districtsduringtheSpring,Itoowasforcedtotakealookatthe“realities”thatseemto
surroundusandthathavethepotentialforshapingthecharacterofthefutureinwhichwe
andourchildrenwilllive.Atirstblush,tensomewhatinterrelatedtrendsseemedclearto
me,someofwhichparallel“Theobold’sEightDrivingForces,”andsomeofwhichresemble
trendsidentiiedbyJohnNaisbittandhisFutureTrendscolleagues.Othersaresimplymy
own.…[D]espitethehistoricaltrendtowardintellectualenlightenmentandculturalpluralism,
therehasbeenamajorriseinreligiousandpoliticalorthodoxy,intolerance,fundamentalism
andconservatismwithwhichyoungpeoplewillhavetobepreparedtodeal.
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1990 273
DAVIDW.HORNBECK,MEMBEROFTHEBOARDOFTRUSTEESOFTHECARNEGIECORPORAtionand
apartnerintheWashington,D.C.lawirmofHoganandHartson,deliveredapaperentitled
“TechnologyandStudentsatRiskofSchoolFailure”attheCouncilofChiefStateSchoolOf-
icers’(CCSSO)1990TechnologyConferenceinMinneapolis,MinnesotaApril29–May2.The
paperwascommissionedbytheCCSSOandwasdistributedbythefederallyfundedNorth
Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL) in Elmhurst, Illinois. Excerpts from this
paperfollow:
InMarch,theKentuckylegislatureenactedthemostaggressiveandfar-reachingeducation
legislationinmemory.Theyidentiiedsixgoalsfortheirschools(PresidentBush’sSixAmbi-
tiousGoalsadoptedbytheGovernorsFebruary25).Thegoalsincludenotonlymath,science,
socialstudiesandEnglishbut,moresigniicantly,theyemphasizesuchthingsasthinking,
problemsolving,mainideasandintegrationofknowledge.Kentucky,however,wentfurther.
Theyarebuildinganewsetofassessmentstrategiesthatareperformancebased;theyhave
adoptedasystemofrewardsandsanctionsthatwillimpactontheschools’staffsinpropor-
tiontotheschools’successinincreasingtheproportionofsuccessfulstudentsinaschool
orthefailuretodoso.ThePresident,theGovernorsandnowastatelegislaturehavemade
decisionsthatrelectthefuture.
ThefactisthatcorporateAmericaisbecomingincreasinglyinvolvedinthepolicyand
politicsofelementaryandsecondaryeducation.TheCommitteeforEconomicDevelopment
wastheirstmajorcorporateplayer.TheywerejoinedbytheNationalAllianceofBusiness.
Mostrecently,TheBusinessRoundtable,whichiscomposedofthenation’s201largestcor-
porations,hasrecognizedtheirvitalinterestinAmericanpubliceducation.Eachcorporation
has“adopted”astatewhereeachcorporationwillconcentratestrongeffort.Moreover,they
havedeclaredthattheeffortwillbeofatleasttenyears’duration….
…Therearenumerouswaystechnology,andIinitiallyrefertothecomputer,canassist....
Thecomputermotivates.Itisnon-judgmental.Itwillinformastudentofsuccessorfailure
withoutsayingbywordordeedthatthestudentisgoodorbad.Thecomputerindividualizes
learning,permittingmasteryatone’sownpace....Thecomputergivespromptfeedback....
Let’sturnthentomorespeciiccontributionscomputerscanmake.First,itisclearthat
thebasicskillsofstudentscanbeenhanced.InapresentationtotheU.S.SenateCommittee
onLaborandHumanResourcesin1987,RobertTagaart,relyingonworkdonebyhimself,
GordonBerlin,andAndrewGreen,identiiedtenelementsthatresearchprescribestoteach
basicskillseffectively.Theyinclude:
• individualized,self-pacedinstruction
• competency-based,openentry/openexitapproaches
• useofmultiplemediaandmethods,includingcomputers
• frequentfeedbackandpositivereinforcement
• accountabilityofteachersandlearners
• eficientmanagementtomaximizetimeontask
• individualattentionandone-on-oneinstruction
• supportiveservicesandlearningenvironments
• linkagestowork,training,andotheractivities
[Ed.Note:Kentucky’sexperiencewithitsnewsetofperformance-basedassessmentstrategies
wasadisaster.AnarticleintheJune26,1997LouisvilleCourier-JournaldatelinedFrankfurt,
Kentuckystated:
274
NearlyallelementaryandmiddleschoolsinKentuckyreceivedincorrectlylowtestscoreslast
fall,andixingtheerrorwillmeanthatteacherswillgetanestimated$2millioninadditional
rewardmoney....WhiletheerrorbyAdvancedSystemsinMeasurementandEvaluation,Inc.,
amountstoasmallchangeintheschools’actualscores—anaverageofabout1pointona
140–pointscale—therecouldbeseriousconsequencesforthestate’stest,whichhasalready
beenatthecenterofcontroversy.Criticsseizeduponthemistakeasevidencethatsigniicant
changesareneededinthetestingsystemcreatedbyKentucky’s1990schoolreformlaw.
TheMarch/April,1997issueofKentuckyCitizensDigestcarriedanarticleentitled“Are
BasicSkillsaCasualtyofKERA?—Arestatetestscausingteacherstounderemphasizebasic
skills?”whichrevealedthat:
Iftworecentreportsareanyindication,basicskillsamongstudentsmayverywellbeaca-
sualtyofeducationreforminKentucky.AreportfromRAND,aprominentnationalresearch
organization,foundthattestsnowbeingusedunderKERA(calledKIRIStests)arecausing
publicschoolteacherstode-emphasizebasicskillsinstructioninKentuckyschools.“The
subjectareasforwhichthemostteachersindicatedadecreasesinceKIRISbegan,”saidthe
report,“wereart,socialstudies,science,andreading.Eighty-ninepercentoftheteachers
indicatedthatthesechangeswereduelargelytoKIRIS.”]
LAMARALEXANDER, FORMER GOVERNOR OFTENNESSEE, SECRETARY OF EDUCATION INPRESIdent
GeorgeBush’sadministration,andRepublicanpresidentialcandidatein1999,wasquotedin
SouthernLiving(Vol.25,No.6,June1990)inaninterviewwhenhewasservingaspresident
oftheUniversityofTennesseeassaying:
Isuggestwecreateabrand-newAmericanschool,asdifferentfromtoday’sschoolhouse
asthetelegraphwasfromThePonyExpress.Suchaschoolwouldprobablystartwithbabies
andgothroughtheeighthgrade.Itwouldbeallyearlong.Itwouldbeopen6a.m.to6p.m.
Everychildwouldhavehisorherowncomputerandworkstation.Everychildwouldhave
ateamofteachersthatwouldstaywiththatchilduntilgraduation….
Wealreadyspendmoremoneythananycountryperpupiloneducation.Ijustdon’t
thinkwespenditwell.
THEBLUMENFELDEDUCATIONLETTERFORAUGUST1990INCLUDEDINITSCOLUMN“VITALQUOTE”6
thefollowingquotefromProfessorGeorgeReisman’sTheIntellectualActivist:
Ibelievethatthedeclineineducationisprobablyresponsibleforthewidespreaduse
ofdrugs.Toliveinthemidstofacivilizedsocietywithalevelofknowledgecloserperhaps
tothatofprimitivemanthantowhatacivilizedadultrequires(which,regrettably,isthe
intellectualstateofmanyoftoday’sstudentsandgraduates)mustbeaterrifyingexperience,
urgentlycallingforsomekindofrelief,anddrugsmayappeartomanytobethesolution....
This is no longer an educational system. Its character has been completely transformed
anditnowclearlyrevealsitselftobewhatformanydecadesithasbeenintheprocessof
becoming:namely,anagencyworkingforthebarbarizationofyouth.
GeorgeReisman,Prof.ofEconomics,PepperdineUniversity,TheIntellectualActivist,p.8.
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1990 275
[Ed.Note:Thedeclineineducationisnotonlyprobablyresponsibleforthewidespreaduse
ofdrugs,itisalsoprobablyresponsiblefortheincreaseinallsortsofirresponsibleandim-
moralbehavioramongyouthtoday,includingviolenceandsexualpromiscuity.Dr.Reisman’s
statementisparticularlypoignantinlightofincreasedincidentsofschoolviolenceinthelate
1990s.]
DR.M.DONALDTHOMAS,INANARTICLEINTHEEFFECTIVESCHOOLREPORT’SSEPTEMBER,1990
issueentitled“Education90:AFrameworkfortheFuture,”saidinpart:
From Washington to modern times, literacy has meant the ability to read and write, the
abilitytounderstandnumbers,andthecapacitytoappreciatefactualmaterial.Theworld,
however,haschangeddramaticallyinthelast30years.Theintroductionoftechnologyin
informationprocessing,thecompressionoftheworldintoasingleeconomicsystem,and
therevolutioninpoliticalorganizationsareinluencesneverimaginedtobepossibleinour
lifetime....Literacy,therefore,willbedifferentintheyear2000.Itwillmeanthatstudents
willneedthefollowing[thewriterhasselectedsomekeyrequirementsfromamuchlonger
list,ed.]:
• Appreciationofdifferentcultures,differencesinbeliefsystemsanddifferencesin
politicalstructures.
• Anunderstandingofcommunicationsandtheabilityofpeopletoliveinoneworld
asonecommunityofnations....
• Inacompressedworldwithoneeconomicsystem...itisespeciallyimportantthat
allourpeoplebemorehighlyeducatedandthatthedifferencesbetweenlowand
highsocio-economicstudentsbesigniicantlynarrowed....
• Educationbeginsatbirthandendsatdeath....
• Educationisaresponsibilitytobeassumedbythewholecommunity....
• Learninghowtolearnismoreimportantthanmemorizingfacts....
• Schoolsformpartnershipswithcommunityagenciesforpublicserviceprojectsto
beapartofschooling....
• Rewards are provided for encouraging young people to perform community ser-
vice.
“WORLDCLASSSCHOOLSANDTHESOCIALSTUDIES”BYCORDELLSVENGALISFROMSOCIALStudies
Horizons(IowaDepartmentofEducation:DesMoines,Iowa,Vol.3,No.1,Fall1990)was
published.Thefollowingexcerptsrevealasigniicantdeinitionof“WorldClasseducation,”
oneofthepopular“buzzwords”usedtodescribeandpromoteeducationreformduringthe
early1990s:
Aspartofanationwidetrend,theIowaDepartmentofEducationhasbecomeinvolvedin
themovementtodevelopaworld-classeducationalsystemfortheschoolsofourstate....
Fewwouldarguewiththeneedtogreatlyimprovetheeducationalsystemwenow
have,andtohelpstudentsacquiretheskillstheywillneedtobecomebetterintegratedinto
theglobalcommunity.Wehavenotonlybecomegloballyinterdependent,wehavecometo
recognizeourglobalinterconnectedness.Therefore,aWorldClasseducationprogramwould
276
haveasoneofitsmajorobjectivesthedevelopmentofskillsandunderstandingsgrounded
inanethical/moralcontext.Thisethical/moralcontextwouldbebasedontheideaofas-
sumingasenseofresponsibilitytowardourinterrelatedplanetaryfuture....
Perhapsthemostcompellingvisionofourtimeisthatofasustainablesociety[em-
phasisinoriginal].Ourglobalsociety,intermsoftheenvironmentaldegradation,explosive
populationgrowthintheThirdWorld,energyshortages,pollution,conlict,crime,drugs,
poverty,andjustsheercomplexity,isnotsustainableintothe21stcentury....Studentsneed
tounderstandthesethingsaspartoftheirWorldClasseducation.
ThisparticularissueofSocialStudiesHorizonsalsoreportedonthe1990ChicagoCon-
ferenceonHolisticEducation,whichissuedadocumentcalled“TheChicagoStatement”calling
foraradicalchangeineducation.Anexcerptassertsthat:
Thetimehascometotransformeducationsoastoaddressthehumanandenvironmental
changeswhichconfrontus.Webelievethateducationforthisneweramustbeholistic.The
holisticperspectiveistherecognitionthatalllifeonthisplanetisinterconnected....Holism
emphasizesthechallengeofcreatingasustainable,justandpeacefulsocietyinharmony
withtheEarthanditslife.
Dr.SvengalisoftheIowaDepartmentofEducationwasinvolvedintheproductionofa
CatalogueofGlobalEducationClassroomActivities,LessonPlans,andResources.Thecurriculum
cameunderirefromtheIowaFarmBureaubecauseofitsopenadvocacyofvegetarianism
andenvironmentalism,accordingtotheIowaFarmBureau’sSpokesman(September19,1992)
articleentitled“StateRoleinGlobalEducationResourceGuideunderReview.”Alsoincluded
intheglobaleducationcurriculumwerethemesofpaciism,populationcontrols,international
globalgovernment,andGaiaworship.Fourthandsixthgraderscouldbeassignedto“[t]alk
abouttheideasofa‘living’EarthusingLovelock’sGaiahypothesis.”Dr.JamesLovelockmade
theradical“scientiic”proposalthattheEarthwasbothanentityandadeity.
AccordingtoeducationreformresearchersMarlaQuenzerandSarahLeslie,environmental
“outcomes”weresupplantingtraditionalacademics.InanarticlepublishedintheMay1993
issueofFreeWorldResearchReportentitled“TheMythofaCompetitiveWorld-ClassEdu-
cation,”QuenzerandLeslierefutedtheideathat“world-class”educationiscompetitiveand
academicallychallenging.Underthenewreformstheyfoundanemphasisoncooperationand
sustainabilitybaseduponextremeenvironmentalismand“akindof‘NewAge’soupofpan-
theism,Hinduism,TaoismandBuddhism.”Theycitedanarticleentitled“GlobalFramework
forLocalEducation”fromHolisticEducationReview(Spring1991):
Thisauthor,JoelBeversluis,states“thateducationalobjectives[should]transcendthe
accumulationoffacts,thelearningofskills,andeventhepreparationforworkandlifeinthe
worldasitis.Rather,atitsbest,educationwillassist,likeamidwife,inthetransformation
ofthemindsets—theconsciousness—ofstudents....”Beversluisasks,“Isitnottimeforthe
communityofeducatorsandeducationalpublisherstorecognizethattherespectfulstudyof
diversecosmologies,valuesystems,andreligionshasalegitimateandevennecessaryplace
inthecurriculum?”Hethenproceedstolistthesenew“global”values....
Justwhatvaluesarebeingtalkedabout?Thisturnsouttobethepivotalquestion.
Beversluisspellsitoutforus.Helistsasnegativevalues:“individualism,nationalism,free
enterprise,unlimitedgrowthandprogress,andcompetitiveachievement.”Thevalueshe
listsaspositiveare“interdependence,diversity,cooperation,equilibrium,andlimits.”The
valuesthathelistsasnegativearefoundationaltowesterncivilizationandarebasedupona
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1990 277
richJudeo-Christianheritage.ThevalueshelistsaspositivecanbefoundinIowa’sproposal
for“World-ClassEducationunder‘ExamplesofCoreConcepts’”andareanintegralpartof
Iowa’sGlobalEducationgoals.Notsurprisingly,thesesamevaluescropupinallthenew
state“outcomes”listsaswell.
[Ed.Note:Formoreinformationontheconnectionbetweenextremeenvironmentalism,sus-
tainability,andthedeliberatedumbingdownofAmerica,seeAppendixXXVII.]
THE1990–91(WINTER)ISSUEOFOUTCOMES,ANEDUCATIONALJOURNALDEVOTEDTODIScussion
ofOutcome-BasedEducationandtheproblemsassociatedwithitsimplementation(teachers’,
administrators’andcommunityresistance)publishedaremarkablearticleentitled“Paradigm
Change:MoreMagicthanLogic”byJohnC.Hillary.Thereadershouldrememberthatthe
manipulationofclassroomteachersandadministratorsdiscussedinthisarticleisstandard
operatingprocedureinmostschoolsundergoing“restructuring.”ExcerptsfromHillary’sarticle
inOutcomesfollow:
Thedeeperchangesthatfrustrateleadersandthreatenfollowersareplannedsecond-order
changes....Thesechangesintentionallychallengewidelysharedassumptions,disintegratethe
contextof“organization”and,ingeneral,reframethesocialsystem.This,inturn,generates
widespreadambiguity,discontinuity,anxiety,frustration,confusion,paranoia,cynicismand
angeraswellastemporarydysfunction.Suchtraumaoftenbuildstothepointthatleaders
abandontheirefforts.
The most disruptive changes—second order changes—on the other hand, call into
questiontheentirecontextoforganization.Suchmultidimensionalchangesnotonlychal-
lengethecontentofeachdomainbutalsodisruptthealignmentamongthem.Paradigm
changeisthereforenotonlytraumaticinandofitself,butalsochallengesotherattributes
anddisintegratestherelationshipamongalldomains.Theeventualoutcomeofsuchchange
is“transformed”or“renewed”organization.
Thenewvisionforschoolingsuggestedbycontemporaryeducatorsrepresentsasig-
niicant“secondorder”challengetoschoolorganization.
Theleaderofplannedsecondorderchangewillberegardedasoutofcontextbythe
organization.Ifhethinksandbehavesinaccordwithavisionthatrequiressecondorder
changes,hehasnochoicebuttoviolateorchallengetheestablishedculture,mission/purpose,
andparadigmoftheorganization.Fromtheexistingframeofreference,suchbehaviorwillbe
seenasillogical.Powerfulandpervasivepsycho-socialforceswillbeardownontherenegade
inarelentlessorganizationalefforttobringhimbackintoalignment.Unlesstheleadersuc-
ceedsinprogressivelybendingthepervasiveframe,persistenceisincreasinglyrisky.
Duringsecondorderchange,theorganizationmustfaceandhopefullypassthrough
aperiodofwidespreadpsychologicalambiguity,socialdisconnectednessandgeneralcon-
fusion....Therequisitedisintegrationoftheexistingculture,mission/purpose,andparadigm
disruptstheorganization’sframeofreference.Duringthistime,thereislittleornoclearand
consistentcontexttoguidethethinkingandbehaviorofmembers.Insocialsystems,this
conditionproducesdysfunction,anxiety,frustration,disequilibrium,andsystemicchaos.
Theinstigatorofsecondorderchangemustconsistentlybehaveinwaysthatwillnot
makesensewhenframedbytheexistingcontext.Withtimeandleadership,theorganiza-
tionenvironmentmustmovefrominitiallyandnaturallyselectingagainsttheinnovationto
selectingfortheinnovation.Theextinctionoftheoldwayofdoingbusinessisthedesired
outcome.Henceandwithtime,theriskshouldgraduallyshiftawayfromtheinnovatorand
towardthosewhopersistinholdingonto“thewayit’salwaysbeen.”
278
[Ed.Note:Thewriter,overafairlylongperiodofyears,hascometotheconclusionthatmany
ofAmerica’sbestadministratorsandteachershavebeenwaginga“silent”waragainstthe
abovechangeagentactivities,andthathadtheynotbeensoengaged,thepubliceducation
systemwouldhavebeendestroyedlongago.]
1991
“AMERICA2000PLAN,”WRITTENIN1991ANDDESIGNEDTOIMPLEMENTTHECARNEGIECorporation’s
restructuringagenda,waspresentedtotheAmericanpeoplebyPresidentBush’sSecretary
ofEducationLamarAlexander.TheplanproposedtoradicallyrestructureAmericansociety
and was prepared by, amongst others, Chester Finn—former assistant secretary, Ofice of
EducationalResearchandImprovement,andassociatedwithEducationExcellenceNetwork
(HudsonInstitute).SecretaryAlexanderclaimed,“ThebrandnewAmericanschoolwouldbe
year-round,openfrom6to6,forchildren3monthsto18years.”Theslimbookletcontaining
America2000:AnEducationStrategy(Rev.)—MakingThisLandAllThatItShouldBewas
publishedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducationandportionsofthispublicationfollow:
MessagefromPresidentGeorgeBush
April18,1991
TothosewhowanttoseerealimprovementinAmericaneducation,Isay:Therewillbeno
renaissancewithoutrevolution.
We’vemadeagoodbeginningbysettingthenation’ssightsonsixambitiousNational
EducationGoals—andsettingforourtargettheyear2000....Fortoday’sstudents,wemust
makeexistingschoolsbetterandmoreaccountable.Fortomorrow’sstudents,thenextgen-
eration,wemustcreateaNewGenerationofAmericanSchools.Forallofus,fortheadults
whothinkourschooldaysareover,we’vegottobecomeaNationofStudents—recognize
learningisalifelongprocess.Finally,outsideourschoolswemustcultivatecommunities
wherelearningcanhappen….
EXECUTIVESUMMARY
Thestrategyanticipatesmajorchangeinour110,000publicandprivateschools,change
in every American community, change in every American home, change in our attitude
aboutlearning.Thestrategywillspurfar-reachingchangesinwearypractices,outmoded
assumptionsandlong-assumedconstraintsoneducation.Itwillrequireustomakesome
lifestylechanges,too.…
America2000isanationalstrategy,notafederalprogram.Ithonorslocalcontrol,relies
onlocalinitiative,afirmsstatesandlocalitiesastheseniorpartnersinpayingforeducation,
andrecognizestheprivatesectorasavitalpartner,too.
Thefederalgovernment’sroleinthisstrategyislimited—wisely—asitspartineducation
alwayshasbeen.Butthatrolewillbeplayedvigorously.Washingtoncanhelpbysetting
standards,highlightingexamples,contributingsomefunds,providinglexibilityinexchange
foraccountabilityandpushingandprodding—thenpushingandproddingsomemore.
The America 2000 strategy has four parts that will be pursued simultaneously. For
tomorrow’sstudents,wemustinventnewschoolstomeetthedemandsofanewcentury
withaNewGenerationofAmericanSchools,bringingatleast535ofthemintoexistenceby
1996andthousandsbydecade’send….19
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1991 279
THECHALLENGE:America’sSkillsandKnowledgeGap
Introduction:
Asanation,wenowinvestmoreineducationthanindefense.Noristherestoftheworld
sittingidlyby,waitingforAmericatocatchup.Seriouseffortsateducationimprovement
areunderwaybymostofourinternationalcompetitionandtradingpartners.
Whilemorethan4millionadultsaretakingbasiceducationcoursesoutsidetheschools,
thereisnosystematicmeansofmatchingtrainingtoneeds;nouniformstandardsmeasure
theskillsneededandtheskillslearned.
[Ed.Note:Carnegie’sMarcTuckertookcareofmatchingtrainingtoneedswhenhisHuman
ResourcesDevelopmentPlanfortheUnitedStates,developedbytheNationalCenterforEdu-
cationandtheEconomy,wasunveiledin1992.(SeeAppendixXVIII.)Asfaraskeepingtrack
oftheprogressofour“internationalcompetitionandtradingpartners”isconcerned,theNorth
AmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA),theGeneralAgreementsforTariffsandTrade(GATT),
andinternationalco-ordinationofISO9000and1400throughtheUnitedNationswillensure
thatwemaintain“computability.”]
WHO WOULD EVER HAVE IMAGINED THAT THE EDUCATIONAL AND CULTURAL EXCHANGESsigned
betweenPresidentReaganandPresidentGorbachev,andthosenegotiatedsince1985,would
resultinRussian“cops”fromtherecentlydisintegrated“EvilEmpire”lyingAmericanpolice
helicoptersasdescribedinthefollowingarticle“CopSwap:HisBeatIsLeningradbutHe’son
LoantoLAPD—HisLocalHostWillVisitU.S.S.R.”byBobPool,whichappearedintheApril
30,1991issueofTheLosAngelesTimes.Excerptsfollow:
Thatwasn’tGorkyParkthataburlyRussiancopwasswoopingoverMondayinapolice
helicopter.ThatwasGrifithPark.LeningradpolicemanAlbertVorontsovwentairborneto
getacquaintedwithLosAngelesandlaunchairst-everswapofSovietandlocalpoliceof-
icersthatisaimedatspreadinggoodwill—andtradinggoodideas.Vorontsovwillshadow
LosAngelesPoliceSergeantGregBraunfortwoweeks.ThenBraunwilltraveltotheSo-
vietUnioninJunetoworkwithVorontsov....“Wemaythinkwe’reonthecuttingedgeof
technologyinpolicework,butalotofotherpeoplearedoingveryinnovative,brightthings
all over the world,” said Bayan Lewis, an LAPD commander who helped Braun arrange
Vorontsov’svisit.
KernCountylawmenhaveadaptedasimpleSoviet“polevault”techniquethatcanlip
SWATteammembersintosecond-storywindows,hesaid.
AN ARTICLE ENTITLED“SENIORS’CHURCHATTENDANCE” WAS PUBLISHED IN THEJUNE12,1991
issueofEducationWeek.Thecentralpremiseofthearticlewassummedupinthefollowing
quote:
Highschoolseniorsin1990weremuchlessinterestedin,andinvolvedwith,organizedreli-
gionthanweretheircounterpartsinthe1970’s,accordingtodatacompiledbytheInstitute
forSocialResearch(ISR)attheUniversityofMichigan.
[Ed.Note:TheInstituteforSocialResearch(ISR)is,interestinglyenough,thesameinstitute
thatwasinvolvedinRonaldHavelock’sTheChangeAgents’GuidetoInnovationinEducation
280
whichinstructededucatorshowto“identifyresisters”andhowtosneakcontroversialsex,
druganddeatheducationintocurriculumdespiteparentalobjections.Thearticlerevealsthat
theschoolswerehighlysuccessfulintheireffortstoindoctrinatestudentsinnon-absolutist,
humanisticvalues.ItshouldcomeasnosurprisethattheaverageAmericanin1991,sub-
jectedtovaluesclariicationintheschoolsofthe1960s,1970s,and1980s,isnon-judgmental
regardingimmoralbehavior.Forexample:in1999PresidentClinton,accordingtothepolls,
retainedtheconidenceof60–75%oftheAmericanpeopleduringhisinvestigationandeven
afterhisimpeachmenttrialrevealedlagrantimmoralactivity.]
“WEEK IN THESUBWAY ASCULTURALEXCHANGE” BYJACQUESSTEINBERG WHICH APPEAREDin
theJune15,1991issueofTheNewYorkTimespointedoutsomeoftheinterestingactivities
resultingfromtheexchangessignedbetweenPresidentReaganandPresidentGorbachev.An
excerptfollows:
Ahaplessfare-beaterwasarrestedtodayintheChambersStreetsubwaystation,andhe
wassuddenlysurroundedbysixMoscowpoliceoficers.ThiswasnotasceneoutofaCold
War nightmare. The Soviets were not taking over the United States. This was a cultural
exchange.
THELATEMORTIMERADLER’SBOOKHAVESWITHOUTHAVE-NOTS:ESSAYSFORTHE21STCentury
onDemocracyandSocialism(MacmillanPublishingCompany:NewYork,1991)waspublished.
Thebook’sdedicationwasto“MikhailGorbachev—whoseperestroikaopenedthewindow
tothisvisionofthefutureintheUnitedStates,EasternEurope,andtheSovietUnion.”Haves
WithoutHave-Notstakesonadditionalimportancewiththeimminentapproachoftheyear
2000 and the tragic upheavals in former communist countries, some of which seem to be
revertingtocommunism.Excerptsfollow:
Inthealmostiftyyearsthathaveelapsedsince1943,IjoinedtheWorldFederalistsand
campaignedforworldgovernment;IwasappointedbyPresidentRobertM.Hutchinsofthe
UniversityofChicagotohisCommitteetoFrameaWorldConstitution,establishedbyhim
immediatelyafteratomicbombsweredroppedonHiroshimaandNagasaki;Iconducteda
seminarfortheFordFoundationonwarandpeace,worldpeace,andworldgovernmentin
1951;andIwrotetwobooks(TheCommonSenseofPolitics,1971,andAVisionoftheFuture,
1984),inwhichthesesubjectsaretreatedwithamaturityacquiredbyyearsofthinking
aboutthem....
Finally, in Section 5, I will close with a vision of the new world of the Twentieth
Century,inwhichtheconlictbetweenthetwogreatsuperpowers—theUSAanditsNATO
alliesvs.theUSSRanditsWarsawPactsatellites—willbereplacedbytheUSDR(aunionof
socialistdemocraticrepublics).Thiswillbeapenultimatestageofprogresstowardatruly
globalworldfederalunionthatwilleliminatetheremainingpotentiallythreateningconlict
betweenthehaveandthehave-notnations.(pp.250–251)
[Ed.Note:MortimerAdlercanalsoberememberedastheauthorofThePaideaProposal,an
educational“innovation”usedtointroducetheconceptofcharter-typeschoolsintomain-
streamschoolreformalongwithhumanisticemphasisonsubjectmatter.Adlerwasalsoone
ofthemostvisiblefacilitatorsfortheAspenInstituteforHumanisticStudies(establishedin
281
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1991
the1940s)whichhastrainedmostofourgovernmentleadersinthedialecticalprocessof
reachingconsensus.WhileAdlerdidnotlivetorespondtothebreakupoftheformerSoviet
Union,hisinterimvisionoftheformationofa“unionofsocialistdemocraticrepublics”bears
watching.]
GLOBALALLIANCEFORTRANSFORMINGEDUCATION(GATE)PUBLISHEDEDUCATION2000:AHolistic
PerspectiveinAugust,1991.7Thefollowingexcerptsaretakenfrom“TheVisionStatement”
andthe“GATEPartnershipsforTransformingEducation”sectionof“ThePlanforImplemen-
tation”:
PrincipleII.HonoringStudentsasIndividuals
We call for a thorough rethinking of grading, assessment, and standardized exami-
nations....Insuccessfulinnovativeschoolsaroundtheworld,gradesandstandardizedtests
havebeenreplacedbypersonalizedassessmentswhichenablestudentstobecomeinner
directed.Thenaturalresultofthispracticeisthedevelopmentofself-knowledge,self-disci-
pline,andgenuineenthusiasmforlearning.
Wecallforanexpandedapplicationofthetremendousknowledgewenowhaveabout
learningstyles,multipleintelligences,andthepsychologicalbasesoflearning....Thework
beingdoneonmultipleintelligencesdemonstratesthatanareaofstrengthsuchasbodily
kinesthetic,musical,orvisualspatialcanbetappedtostrengthenareasofweaknesssuch
aslinguisticorlogical-mathematical....
PrincipleIV.HolisticEducation
…Holisticeducationcelebratesandmakesconstructiveuseofevolving,alternateviews
ofrealityandmultiplewaysofknowing.Itisnotonlytheintellectualandvocationalaspects
ofhumandevelopmentthatneededguidanceandnurturance,butalsothephysical,social,
moral,aesthetic,creative,and—inanonsectariansense—spiritualaspects.Holisticeducation
takesintoaccountthenuminous[supernatural]mysteryoflifeandtheuniverseinaddition
totheexperientialreality.8
Holismisare-emergingparadigm,basedonarichheritagefrommanyscholarlyields.
Holismafirmstheinherentinterdependenceofevolvingtheory,research,andpractice.Holism
isrootedintheassumptionthattheuniverseisanintegratedwholeinwhicheverythingis
connected.Thisassumptionofwholenessandunityisindirectoppositiontotheparadigm
ofseparationandfragmentationthatprevailsinthecontemporaryworld.Holismcorrectsthe
imbalanceofreductionisticapproachesthroughitsemphasisonanexpandedconceptionof
scienceandhumanpossibility.Holismcarriessigniicantimplicationsforhumanandplanetary
ecologyandevolution.Theseimplicationsarediscussedthroughoutthisdocument....
PrincipleVI.FreedomofChoice
Weareforatrulydemocraticmodelofeducationtoempowerallcitizenstoparticipate
inmeaningfulwaysinthelifeofthecommunityandtheplanet.Thebuildingofatruly
democraticsocietymeansfarmorethanallowingpeopletovotefortheirleaders—itmeans
empowering individuals to take an active part in the affairs of their community. A truly
democratic society is more than “the rule of the majority”—it is a community in which
disparatevoicesareheardandgenuinehumanconcernsareaddressed.Itisasocietyopen
toconstructivechangewhensocialorculturalchangeisrequired....
PrincipleVIII.EducatingforGlobalCitizenship
Webelievethateachofus—whetherwerealizeitornot—isaglobalcitizen....Agoal
282
ofglobaleducationistoopenminds.Thisisaccomplishedthroughinterdisciplinarystud-
ies,experienceswhichfosterunderstanding,relectionandcriticalthinking,andcreative
response.…Theseprinciplesincludetheusefulnessofdiversity,thevalueofcooperation
andbalance,theneedsandrightsofparticipants,andtheneedforsustainabilitywithinthe
system.
Otherimportantcomponentsofglobaleducationincludeunderstandingcausesofcon-
lictandexperiencingthemethodsofconlictresolution.Atthesametime,exploringsocial
issuessuchashumanrights,justice,populationpressures,anddevelopmentisessentialto
anaccurateunderstandingofthecausesofwarandconditionsforpeace.
Sincetheworld’sreligionsandspiritualtraditionshavesuchenormousimpact,global
educationencouragesunderstandingandappreciationofthemandoftheuniversalvaluesthey
proclaim,includingthesearchformeaning,love,compassion,wisdom,truth,andharmony.
Thus,educationinaglobalageaddresseswhatismostfullyanduniversallyhuman....
CONCLUSION*
…Weineducationarebeginningtorecognizethatthestructure,purposes,andmethods
ofourprofessionweredesignedforanhistoricalperiodwhichisnowcomingtoaclose.
Thetimehascometotransformeducationsoastoaddressthehumanandenvironmental
challengeswhichconfrontus.9
*ThisconclusionisTheChicagoStatementonEducationadoptedbyeightyinternational
holisticeducatorsatChicago,Illinois,June,1990....
GATEPARTNERSHIPSFORTRANSFORMINGEDUCATION
[Thevisualgraphiconthefrontofthissectionincludedplanetsrotatingaroundacentral
orbentitled“GATE.”The“planets”werelabeledwiththefollowingtitles:]
• Youngpeople
• Teachers
• EducationAssociations
• UnitedNationsOrganizations
• LocalCommunities
• Government&Local/NationalEducationLeaders
• Families
• TeacherEducators&Academies
• Business
• Media
• ModelHolisticSchools
• CitizenGroupsforSocialChange….
Business
GATEunderstandsthataworkingpartnershipneedstobebuiltwithbusiness.Busi-
nessleadersrecognizethatthestructureandformoftoday’seducationarenotmeetingthe
ever-expandingneedsofaglobalsociety.…
Example:W.E.DemingisthecreatorofTotalQualityManagement[TQM]—aholisticper-
spectivethatistransformingthehierarchicalnatureofthebusinessworld.Heclaimsthat“a
long-termcommitmenttonewunderstandingandnewphilosophyisrequiredofanyman-
agementthatseekstransformation.”10ThereisacommonthreadbetweenDeming’sTQM
modelandholisticeducation.Atthe1991conferenceinColorado,agroupdiscussingGATE’s
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1991 283
interfacewithbusinessdrewtheideaofTotalQualityEducation[emphasisinoriginal]into
theirdialogue.ThisdiscussionhasledtothebeginningsofanationalTQEmovementin
whichbusiness,government,andeducationleaderswillbeaddressingholismineducation.
ItisanopportunityforGATE’svisiontogetwidedistribution.
In a separate section of the GATE material entitled “United Nations Organizations” one
reads:
Example#1.SeveralmembersoftheGATESteeringCommitteeserveontheSeedAdvisory
CommitteefortheGlobalEducationProgramforPeaceandUniversalResponsibilityatthe
UnitedNations’UniversityforPeaceinCostaRica.
Example#2.GATEhasbeennetworkingwithvariousbranchesofUNESCOtodevelopa
seriesofWorldConferencesonEducation....Theconferenceswouldmodelthenon-hierar-
chicalprocessofnewleadershipandwouldbeorganizedaccordingtothefollowingtracks:
Criticalissuesineducation;Globalcitizenshipandecologicaleducation;Educationforall;
Innovative strategies and techniques; Spiritual education; Peace and education; and The
mediaandeducation.11
ThereferencetotheUnitedNations’UniversityforPeaceinCostaRicabringsformer
UnitedNationsUnderSecretaryRobertMullerintothepicture.MullerwrotehisownWorld
CoreCurriculumwhichhecreditstoademonspiritguide,DjhwanKhul,whogainednotoriety
intheearly1900sasthespiritguideofTheosophistAliceBaileywhowroteEducationinthe
NewAge(LucisPublishingCompany:NewYork,1954).12Mulleralsoauthoredanovelin1988
entitledFirstLadyoftheWorld(WorldHappinessandCooperation:Anacortes,Wash.,1991)
inwhichhisictitiousworldleaderenumeratesaseriesofproposalsnecessaryforthesmooth
runningofaglobalsociety.Afewofthoseproposalsfollow:
7.AWorldCoreCurriculumandaPlanetaryManagementCurriculumareadoptedbyUNESCO
ascommonguidesforproperGlobalEducationinallschoolsanduniversitiesofEarth.1996
isproclaimedInternationalYearofGlobalEducation....
11.Moreandmorecountriesdisarm,demilitarizeandhavetheirbordersprotectedbyUN
observersunderregionalandinternationalguarantees.Thesavingsaredevotedtodevel-
opment,theenvironment,educationandsocialservices....
15.Ahostofnewworldconferencesareconvenedatanacceleratedpace:onsoilerosion,on
mountainareas,reforestation,theworld’scoldzones,consumerprotection,standardization,
worldcommunity,aworldtaxsystem,etc.(pp.70–71)
Theimplementationofthisglobalmanagementsystemhasbeenaccuratelydescribedin
twonovels—B.F.Skinner’sWaldenTwo,whichdescribes“themethod”(behaviormodiication),
andRobertMuller’sFirstLadyoftheWorld,whichdescribes“themechanics”(blueprint).
SpeakingoftheeffectofWaldenTwo,whichisrequiredreadingincollegeclassroomsacross
thecountry,thepromotionalblurbonthejacketofthebooksays:
Thisictionaloutlineofamodernutopiahasbeenacenterofragingcontroversyeversince
itspublicationin1948.SetintheUnitedStates,itprovocativelypicturesasocietyinwhich
humanproblemsaresolvedbyascientiictechnologyofhumanconduct—andinwhich
284
manyofourcontemporaryvaluesareobsolete.
[Ed.Note:Pleaserefertothe1993entryregardingtheFallissueofOutcomescontainingan
interviewwithKenHazelipandJamesBlockconnectingSkinnerianoperantconditioningand
masterylearningtoTotalQualityManagementaswellasexposingthefactthatmasterylearn-
inghasbeena“hardsell”withAmericanteachers.(Alsosee1998WillardDaggett’sModel
SchoolNewsrelatedtoDistrict4JinOregonasa“modelschooldistrict.”)]
A SAMPLE“21STCENTURYREPORTCARD” WAS A HANDOUT AT THEAUGUST,1991ASSOciation
forSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment(ASCD)NetworkconferenceinTraverseCity,
Michiganentitled“CreatingtheTwenty-FirstCentury.”Descriptiveexcerpts—whichoriginally
ledthiswritertobelievethissamplereportcardwasajokeuntilabletoverifyitsactualexis-
tence—follow:
DaVinciElementarySchool
Principal:R.B.Fuller
[AftereachofthefollowingcategoriesthereisamarkAthroughFasagrade,ed.]
SpatialRelationships;Intuition;Insight;GeneratesIdeasFreely;Daydreaming/Reverie;Gestalt
Perception;EstheticSensibility:color,form,music,poetry
Teacher’sComments:schoolpsychologistsuggestsremedialimagination
WorkHabits:Abletotranscendspace/timelimitations;Islexible;Listensattentively—with
thirdear;Followsdirectionsunlessbetterideaoccurs;Completesassignments—whenuseful;
Makesgooduseoftime:fantasizing,creating,meditating.
Citizenship:Acceptsresponsibility;Respectsauthority—ifthereisjustiicationforrespect;
Respectsrightsandpropertyofothers;Showsempathy/telepathy;
Teacher’ssignature:
Parent’ssignature:
BonnieNewhouse,aTraverseCity,Michiganwifeandmotheroffourchildrenwhohad
servedonthejuniorandseniorparentadvisorycommitteesaswellasthedistrictadvisory
council,wroteanarticlefortheTraverseCityRecord-Eagle’sMarch18,1992issuewhichin-
cludedthefollowinginformationrelatedtochangeagenttacticstoimplementrestructuring
promotedattheASCDmeetings:
InastudydonebytheU.S.SenateRepublicanPolicyCommitteeonIlliteracy,September
1989,theyconclude:“Forthepast50years,America’sclassroomshavebeenusedbypsy-
chologists, sociologists, educationists and politicians as a giant laboratory for unproven,
untriedtheoriesoflearning,resultinginanearcollapseofpubliceducation.”
This“collapse”wasalsoreferredtobyWilliamSpadyinhisaddresstotheASCDHigh
SchoolFuturesPlanningConsortiumIIIAugust1991meetinginTraverseCity.Hespokeof
prominenteducatorstalkingofWHENthepubliceducationsystemcollapses,notIF[emphasis
inoriginal].Healsosharedwiththeaudiencethathewasoneofthreegivenagrantbythe
DanforthFoundationwiththeassignmenttotransformAmerica’shighschools.
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1991 285
Whatdoesallthisreallymeanforourstudents?Fromtheinformationgatheredand
rhetoricoffered,perhapsthemostsigniicantwasfoundinyetanotherASCDNetworkcon-
ferenceheldthepreviousweek,“Creatingthe21stCentury”;anexampleofa21stCentury
ReportCard[waspresented].…
Weareseeingamajorshiftawayfromacademicstowardattitudesandvalues.The
questionis,whowilldeterminewhichoutcomesyourchildmusthavetograduate?Ifall
thisseemsfarfetched,onehasonlytoreadsomeoftheinformationpresentedattheASCD
workshops:“Learners’behaviormustshow...Learners’attitudesmustdemonstrate...Learn-
erswilladvocateforcollaborativechange.”
Mostenlighteningwasasessiontitled,“Howtodevelopthe‘desiredstate’foryourhigh
school.”Amoreaccuratetitlemayhavebeen“Howtomanipulateteachers,parentsandthe
schoolboardtoaccomplishyouragenda.”Amongthesuggestions:useteachersinthesepilots
thatarethekids’favorites;introductionofspecialeducationintheclassroomswillhelpin
overcomingthebarrierofthecloseddoor;howdoyoudealwithpeoplewhosabotageyour
plan?Dolittlethingstoincludethem,givethempower,letthembeco-chairs.
THE GEORGIA PUBLIC POLICY FOUNDATION, A STATE AFFILIATE OF THE HERITAGE FOUNDAtion,
publishedReachfortheStars:AProposalforEducationReforminGeorgiabyMatthewJ.Glavin
inOctoberof1991.13Excerptsfollow:
[Preface]TheGeorgiaPublicPolicyFoundationwishestothanktheHudsonInstitutefor
sharingmuchoftheiroriginalresearchthatconstitutesthebasisforthisplan....
[Foreword]ReachfortheStarsproposesstep-by-stephowwecantaketheeducationbullby
thehornsandsteerittowardsuccess.Forparents,itmeansanendtoexcessiveschooltaxes
andthebeginningofaccountabilityonthepartoftheschoolsystem....Iurgeyoutoreadthis
reportwithanopenmindandaneyetowardchange.IfGeorgiahopestocontinueanother
decadeofgrowth,itmustbeginpreparingnow.ReachfortheStarsoutlinesthenecessary
stepstoensureGeorgia’sfuture.Ascitizens,wecannotaffordtomissthisopportunity.
WilliamBennett
FormerSecretaryofEducation
October,1991
[Ed.Note:TheintroductiontoReachfortheStarsquotesthelateAlShanker,long-timepres-
identofthenation’ssecondlargestteacherunion—AmericanFederationofTeachers—asif
Shankerwouldberecommendinganychangesorrestructuringotherthanthatproposedby
theCarnegieCorporation.Thereadershouldrefertothe1986entrywhichquotedfroman
articleentitled“CarnegieReportonEducation:RadicalBlueprintforChange”whichappeared
intheJune28–29,1986issueofTheBangor[ME]DailyNews.ThisarticleidentiiedShanker
asawillingaccompliceofCarnegie’splan(theMarcTucker/NationalCenterforEducation
andtheEconomyplan)torestructureeducation.]
InthefollowingexcerptsfromReachfortheStarsthewriterhasrelatedthestatementsto
outcome-basededucation,educationrestructuring,school-to-work,site-basedmanagement,
etc.,allofwhichconcernedparentsandteachershavebeenledtobelieveareanathemato
conservatives:
286
Andweneedasystemofmeasuringachievementthatwilltellparentshowwelltheirsons
anddaughtersaredoingcomparedwithwhattheyneedtoknowtogetahead—notcompared
towhatakidinanothercountyoranotherstateknows[outcome-basededucationwhich
replacesnorm-referencedtestingwithcriterion-basedtesting].
It’stimetoshiftthepowerbacktotheteachersandprincipals[site-basedmanagement
whichabolishesthepowerofelectedschoolboards].
UndertheGeorgiaPublicPolicyPlan,“readyforlife”meanshavingtheknowledge
andskillstobesuccessfulinlifeasacitizen,employeeandperson.Earningabasichigh
schooldiplomashouldmeanoneisreadyforlife[UNESCO’slifelonglearningandelements
ofcompetency-based/outcomes-basededucation].
Second,createanewstatewideassessmentsystemwhich:(a)measurestheextentto
whichindividualstudentsaremeetingthestandards;(b)providesinformationonschool
performanceforparentselectionofschools;and(c)givesemployersanobjectiveandmean-
ingfulwaytoassessthecapabilitiesofjobapplicantsbyrequiringauniformexitassessment
toearnahighschooldiploma[thecontroversialNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress
whichmeasuresstudents’attitudesandbeliefs,andschool-to-work,SCANS].
Academicstandardsshouldincludeknowledge,concepts,andskillsthatallstudents,
college-boundandjob-bound,needtomaster[school-to-work,masterylearning].
ThesestandardsarecurrentlybeingdevelopedatthenationallevelbytheNational
EducationGoalsPanel(NEGP)[nolocalrepresentation].
The academic standards will: (a) identify the core competencies that all students
shouldmasteratkeytransitionpointsintheireducationcareers,and(b)identifytheskills
andknowledgethatstudentsmustmastertoearnahighschooldiploma....Theseacademic
standardswillalsoincludeknowledgeandskillsneededforresponsiblecitizenship;per-
sonalskillsrequiredtoget,keep,andprogressonajob;andsocialskillsneededtowork
withothersonajob[CertiicateofInitialMastery,lifelonglearning,SCANS,OBE,mastery
learning,andschool-to-work].
InconjunctionwiththeNationalEducationGoalsPanel,anewvoluntarynationwide
examinationsystemisbeingdevelopedbasedontheivecoresubjectsthataretiedtothenew
nationalacademicstandards.Georgiashouldadoptthisnewexaminationsystemassoonas
itisavailableforimplementation.[This“voluntarynationwideexaminationsystem,”which
circumventslocalcontrol,hasmetamorphosedintoamandatednationwideexaminationfor
whichlegislationhasbeenbeforeCongresssince1997.]
TheStateofGeorgiashouldtakethisopportunitytorequestthattheNAEPreauthor-iza-
tion…includeaprovisionallowinganystatethatwishestousetheNAEPtestsonaschool-
by-schoolbasistodoso[NAEPwasnotdesignedtobeaschool-by-schoolcomparison].
Therearethreeintegralandinseparableconceptsthatwill“freetheteachers”and“free
theparents”—Deregulation,SchoolAutonomyandParentalChoice.
[Ed.Note:Howcantherebe“freedom”forparentsandteacherswhenschoolsarerunbyun-
elected(unaccountable)councilswhichmustconformtheircurriculumtoGoals2000—national
standards,nationaltests,resultinginanationalized(socialist)educationsystem?]
OneoftheguidingphilosophiesofthisplanisthatgovernmentfundingforK–12edu-
cationshouldbetargetedtothechild—nottheschooldistrict.Eachandeveryschool-aged
childwillbeentitledtopublicsupportforhisorhereducation.Parentscanusethechild’s
publiclyfunded“scholarship”atanyschoolwherethechildmeetsadmissionrequirements.
Exceptionswouldbeschoolsthatfailtomeetstateperformancestandards,orprivateschools
thatchoosenottoparticipate.
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1991 287
[Ed.Note:Targetingfundingtothechildaccordingtothechild’sIndividualEducationPlan
(IEP)andmeetingthestaterequirementsitsinnicelywithschool-to-work.Won’tachild
whosecareerpathisthatofairemanreceivelessfundingthanachildwhosecareerpathis
thatofanengineer?]
UndertheGeorgiaPublicPolicyFoundationrecommendationsthelocaldistrictsmust
divestthemselvesofoperatingcontroloftheschools[site-basedmanagementandcharter
schools].
Eachautonomouspublicschoolorganizesasanon-proitcorporationwithaboard
selectedbytheteachersandothercertiiedstaffoftheschool.
[Ed.Note:Thisproposesacompletechangeofgovernment,resultinginlossofrepresentation
bypubliclyelectedrepresentatives.14ThisistheCarnegieCorporation’splanspelledoutinA
NationPrepared:Teachersforthe21stCentury15whichproposedthetotalrestructuringofthe
teachingprofessionandLuvernCunningham’sdisastrousKentuckymodel.]
“CompanySchools,”schoolsthataresponsoredattheworksiteforstudentswhocometo
workwithaparentbutwhicharealsoopentolocalstudents[school-to-work].
ThecurriculuminmostAmericanschoolsisgearedtowardthelowerroteskillsand
isfarlesschallengingthancurriculainmanyothercountries.[Thereferenceto“lowerrote
skills”isareferencetobasicskills—reading,writing,andarithmetic—andtherotelearningof
thoseskills.In1994H.R.6,thecontroversiallegislationthathadparentsupinarms,referred
to“lowerroteskills”inthissamederogatorymanner.ThefundinginH.R.6wasdeinitely
gearedtowardOBE/masterylearning/directinstructionandmulti-culturalprograms,ed.]
[Ed.Note:ThisreportcouldhavebeenwrittenbyUNESCOandtheU.S.DepartmentofEdu-
cationwithassistancefromtheCarnegieCorporationandtheteachers’unions—American
FederationofTeachers(AFT)andNationalEducationAssociation(NEA).Itincorporatesmost
oftheessentialelementsofOBE,America2000,Goals2000,theNewAmericanSchoolDevel-
opmentCorporation’scharterschools,andSCANS.]
HUMANCAPITALANDAMERICA’SFUTURE:ANECONOMICSTRATEGYFORTHENINETIES(Hopkins
Press:Baltimore,Md.,1991)editedbyDavidW.HornbeckandLesterM.Salamon,waspub-
lished.Thefollowingquotesconirmtheworstfearsofparentsrelatedtoeducationreform
anddumbeddownoutcomeswhicharereferencedbythechangeagentsas“worldclass.”
HumanCapitalexplainsthat:
[E]mployerbeliefsaboutthesuperiorcapabilitiesofeducatedpeopleturnedoutNOTtobe
conirmedinpractice[emphasisinoriginal];educatedemployeeshavehigherturn-overrates,
lowerjobsatisfaction,andpoorerpromotionrecordsthanlesseducatedemployees.(p.7)
EducationresearcherJudithMcLemoreofAlabamaexcerptedandcommenteduponDavid
Hornbeck’sstatementsin“NewParadigmsforAction,”chapter13ofHumanCapital:
Programsproposedto“copewithhumancapitalproblems”include“Initiativestoalleviate
poverty” (p. 360) which include “income transfers.”... The gap between “the haves and
thehave-notsisgrowing.”Economicprosperityofthenationis“heavilydependent”upon
stability.(p.362)
288
Fastestgrowing“segmentoftheworkforce”is“women,blacksandhispanics,whom
wehavehistoricallyservedpoorly,”andnot“whitemales”whomwehavehistoricallyserved
relativelywell....Atpresent,“schoolsandotherhumancapitalrelatedinstitutionscontribute
tothegrowinggapbetweentherichandthepoor.”(p.363)
Thealterationofourhumancapitaldevelopmentinstitutionsmustbeasfundamen-
tal as the changes in our economic institutions and other parts of our social fabric.... It
isimperativeto“improvetheschoolsuccessofyoungpeoplewithwhomwehavefailed
historically.”(p.364)
“Whatarethebasictoolswehaveavailabletoinitiateandsustainrealchange?”...1.
Demonstrationprojects...2.Charismaticleaders...3.Money(p.365)...4.Lawsuits(p.366)...
5.Laborcontracts...6.Legislation.(p.367)
“Itisnotpossibletoachievethekindofoutcomesweenvisionwithoutbeingspeciic
astowhatthoseoutcomesare.Moreover,itisnecessarytodeinethequalityandscopeof
thedesiredoutcomes.UsingtheJobTrainingPartnershipActasanexample...oneofthe
frequentcriticismsofitsoutcomedeinitionisthatitencourages‘creaming.’If,however,the
outcomesoughtandrewardedwasnotjustjobplacement,butjobplacementforthemost
dificulttoserveandjobplacementsofacertainqualityintermsofpayandfutureprospects,
onewouldquicklyeliminatethatcharge....Craftingoutcomescanbeaverytrickyprocess
...toachievethehighgraduationratesrelectinghigherachievementlevelswillrequiresuc-
cesswiththesameyoungpeoplewithwhomwehavefailedevenwithlowerstandards.”
(pp.369–370)
“WhatweteachshouldbasicallybethesameforALLstudents.”(p.375)[allemphases
inoriginal]
“NewParadigmsforAction”makesitclearthatinthefuturethe“system”(notthe
student)willberesponsibleforstudentsuccess…andthestudentswillbefollowed(data
collectionsystemfrombirthuntildeath?).The“system”willberewardedorpenalizedfor
thesuccess/failureofthose“dificulttoserve”includingwhetherornottheygethighpay-
ingjobsafterschoolingends.
Inordertodrivehomeherpointthatourchildren,ashumancapital,arenothingbut
pawnsinthehandsofthestate/businesscommunity,McLemorereferstotheforewordto
Alexander Frazier’s book Adventuring, Mastering, Associating: New Strategies for Teaching
Children(AssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment:Washington,D.C.,1976),
writtenbyDelmoDella-Dora,presidentofASCD(1975–1976),whichsaid,“Thisworkrepre-
sentsAlexanderFrazier’sattempttodescribewhathecallsanequalrightscurriculumforall
children.”Onpage83Fraziersaid,“Ourgoalistheremovalofinequalityamongchildrenwho
havebeenundertaught,overtaught,mistaught,ornottaughtsomethingsatall.”Onpage15
hesaid,“Jeffersonsawthepublicschoolasanagencyforindingtalenttoservethestate.In
thesameway,theschoolcouldrecruitforthebusinessandindustrialestablishment.”
VIRGINIABIRTBAKER’SPAPER,WRITTENIN1991,”EDUCATIONALCHOICE—THEEDUCATIONVoucher,
TaxCredits,andtheNonpublicSchools”explainsveryclearlythateducational“choice”isa
TrojanHorsecarryinggovernmentcontrolofallschoolsandschooling.Excerptsfollow:
“Educationisanemotionalissue,”hesaid.“We’restayingawayfromtheword‘voucher’
because‘educationalchoice’soundsalittlemorepalatabletoparents.Educationalchoiceis
givingstudentsandtheirparentsavoucher...andwewanttomobilizeasigniicantnumber
ofpeople...togetthecamel’snoseunderthetent....We’vegottoprepareforthelongterm…
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1991 289
sowecanstrengthenourpositionandthatofourfriends.”
Soreportedaleaderofacovert“newright”DallasthinktankatarecentWhiteHouse
ConferenceonEducation.Thepro-choiceactivistsarevociferousproponentsoftuitiontax
creditsandtheeducationvoucher,andwewonderwhytheywantto“improvetheschools’
andparents’attitudes”byconfoundingourintellectualinquirieswithanemotionalandil-
lusorywordchange.
TheAssociatedPresshasreportedthat...PresidentGeorgeBushsaid,“Choicewillbe
acriticalelementineducationreformforyearstocome.”Thisrecentupsurgeinsupportof
“choice”andthevoucherprogramisnothingnewanddeservescloserscrutinybyparents
andespeciallybyprivateandhomeschoolpatrons....
ThePrivateSchoolTrap—
Toparentswhohavebeenpayingtaxestosupportgovernmentschools,itsoundswonderful
tobeabletochoosethebetterschoolnotnecessarilyintheirneighborhood.Toparentswho
havebeenpayingtaxestogovernmentschoolsandpayingthetuitioncoststosendtheir
childrentoprivateschools,ataxbreakoragovernment-paidincentivewouldbeawelcome
relieffrominancialstrain,seeminglyencouragingasortoffree-marketapproachtoedu-
cation.Butstopandthink:Thestatehasitsfangsintoprivateandhomeschoolsnow;what
willitbelikewhenschoolsarerecipientsof“choice”money?
Thetruthofthematteris,onceprivateeducationacceptstuitiontaxcredits/vouchers
itcannolongerremain“private,”becausethroughgovernmentregulations,itwillbeforced
tobecomeoneandthesamewithitspubliccounterpart.
THEUNITEDSTATESCOALITIONFOREDUCATIONFORALL(USCEFA)—ANOUTGROWTHOFWorld
ConferenceonEducationforAll,Jomtien,Thailand—metOctober30–November1,1991in
Alexandria,Virginia.PresidentBush’swife,Barbara,wasnamedhonorarychairperson.Oneof
thekeynotespeakersattheeventwasDeputyMinisterofEducationElenaLenskaya,Republic
ofRussia.16Thepurposeofthisconferencewasto“involvetheUnitedStatesinreformof
education/communityrenewalworldwide.”ThesameUnitedNationsoutcomesasthoserec-
ommendedattheJomtienconferencewereadopted.Accordingto“TheMissionStatement”:
USCEFAiscomprisedofadiversegroupofinternational,domestic,governmentalandnon-
governmentalgroups,associations,andindividualeducation,business,mediaandhealth
leaders.TheCoalitionwascreatedasanoutgrowthoftheWorldConferenceonEducation
forAll,whereoficialdelegationsfrom156countriesachievedaworldwideconsensusto
launcharenewedworldwideinitiativetomeetthebasiclearningneedsofallchildren,youth
andadults.17
TheCoalitionistakingthisworldwideconsensusandbridgingbetweentheinitiatives
forreforminothercountriesandthegoalsforeducationreformintheUnitedStates.[This
statementliesinthefaceofchangeagentassurancesatthelocalandstatelevelthatgoals
arelocallydeveloped,ed.]
Itstronglybelievesthattheimprovementofeducationisessentialforimprovingthe
qualityoflifefortheworld’speopleandforsustainableeconomicdevelopment;andforthese
reasons,thisorganizationiscommittedtoimprovingthestateofbasiceducationintheUnited
Statesanddevelopingcountriesbycreatingnewpartnershipsforeducationalreform.…
Throughseminars,publications,mediaevents,conferences,networkingandthedis-
seminationofinformation,theU.S.CoalitionforEducationforAllisworkingtomeetthe
goalssetbytheWorldConferenceonEducationforAll.MembersoftheBoardofDirectors
290
include:
President:JanetWhitla,EducationDevelopmentCenter,Inc.18
VicePresident:StephenF.Moseley,AcademyforEducationalDevelopment,Inc.
Secretary:RichardLong,InternationalReadingAssociation
Treasurer:JohnComings,WorldEducation,Inc.
CliffordBlock,FarWestRegionalLaboratoryforEducationalResearchandImprove-
ment
DavidDorn,AmericanFederationofTeachers
AlanHill,AppleComputer,Inc.
GaryMarx,AmericanAssociationofSchoolAdministrators
ThomasShannon,NationalSchoolBoardsAssociation
DanielWagner,NationalCenteronAdultLiteracy,UniversityofPennsylvania
NEW AMERICAN SCHOOLS DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION (NASDC) WAS ESTABLISHED IN 1991.
PresidentGeorgeBushrequestedthatthebusinesscommunityraisefundstosupportdevel-
opmentof“radical,break-the-mold”schools(oneineachCongressionaldistrict)whichwould
inthefuturebeknownas“charterschools”(publicschool“choice”schools).19TheRequest
forProposalsfromNASDCrequiredthat:
Designteamsshoulddeinethescopeandfocusoftheirownwork.Studentage-grouping
maybeunconventional,anddesignsmayservestudentsyoungerthaniveyearsofageand
olderthaneighteen;studentsneednotallbeassembledinasinglebuildingorataparticular
timeofday;theschooldayandschoolyearmayberedeined.Thedutiesofadministrators,
teachers,volunteers,parents,andallotheradultsmaybechanged....Thedesignmayentail
majorchangesincommunitygovernance,communitystructuresandthefunctionsofother
institutionssuchaspublichealthagenciesandwelfaredepartments.Alternatively,designs
mayadoptconventionalarrangementsforanyofabove.
THEEFFECTIVESCHOOLREPORT’SNOVEMBER1991ISSUECARRIEDANARTICLEENTITLED“ALetter
fromRussia.”Thefollowingexcerptsillustratetheextentofdamageresultingfromthe1985
U.S.-SovietandCarnegieeducationagreementsandotherexchangeagreements:
Editor’snote:DonThomas,executivedirectoroftheNetworkforEffectiveSchools,journeyed
toRussiainSeptemberaspartofacontingentofAmericaneducatorstravelingunderthe
auspicesoftheU.S.DepartmentofEducation(SecretaryLamarAlexander).DaleMannof
ColumbiaUniversitywasapartofthedelegation.AfterinitialmeetingsinMoscow,Thomas
traveledtotheCityofSochitomeetwithRussianeducators.OneofhiscontactswasProfessor
VictorNouja,aschooladministratorfromRostov-on-Don.Thefollowingletterisafollow-up
communicationfromNouja,whoiseagertoestablishcontactswithAmericaneducatorsfor
theexchangeofinformationandteachingonschoolmanagementpractices:
DearMr.Thomas:
Howareyouandyourfamily?NowthatwehavereturnedfromtheirstEast-West
InternationalWorkshopinSochi(Russia)toournativecity,Rostov-on-Don,myfriendsand
Iwanttothankyoufortheopportunityyougaveustolearnabouttheexperiencesofschool
291
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1991
reformandeducationalmanagementinthestateofSouthCarolinaandtheevaluationof
schoolsinSouthCarolina.Iamsureyourexperiencewillbeveryhelpfulforus....There
aremanyteachersandschoolprincipalswhoareveryinterestedintakingpartindifferent
projects.But,wewouldliketohaveourownproject—”Rostov-SouthCarolina-Utah.”Me
andmybosshadaverylongandpromisingtalkwithourcityauthoritiesaboutourpossible
contacts.Andtheypromisetoundertakesponsorshipoftheinternationalteachertraining
andschoolmanagementprogram.
Nowsomewordsaboutgoalsoftheproject.Theirstis—toexchangeourexperience
inschoolmanagementandespeciallyinevaluationofschoolactivity.Thesecondis—to
transferyourexperienceofusingcomputersystemsinbothteachingandschoolmanage-
ment.Thethirdgoal—exchangeofteachingexperience.Nowwebegintoworkwithgroups
ofteacherswhoarereadyforactionsinthisproject.
Mr.Thomas,I’llbeveryhappyifyousendaletterandtellmeyourvisiononpointsI
havedescribed.Ifthereisnoobjectionanddificultiestostartthisprojectthenweneedto
indtimeandplacewecouldmeetanddiscussdetails.ItmightbeeitheryourtowninSouth
CarolinaorournativecityRostov-on-Don.Atthatmeetingwe’llbeabletoworkoutapro-
gramorprojectandsignsomethinglikeanagreementonformandthematteroftheproject.
Ourcity’sauthoritiesarereadytotakepartinthisbusiness.Ihopewecouldorganizethis
meetingthiswinterorearlyinspringtime.Mr.Thomas,Ihaveabigfavortoaskofyou...
papersandsometestsforaccreditationofschools.
SignedVictorNouja,344103StzSodzujestvaNeF,ap170,Rostov-on-Don,USSR,Russia
BRITISHCOLUMBIATEACHERS’FEDERATION20IN1991PUBLISHED“WHATISTHEMARKETModel?”
ExcerptsfromthisinterestinglyermadeavailabletoCanadianteachersfollows:
AIMS:TheMarketModelaimstoreducelearningtoaninstrumentservingsocialpower.More
speciicallypubliceducationisenlistedintheMarketModeltoservetheneedsofcorporate
capitalinaninformationageofglobalproduction.
FEATURES:
1. In Canada the market model started in higher education, and is now moving to
secondaryschooling.
2. Cuts in government funding, with corporate funding targeted to particular proj-
ects.
3.Purposeofeducation—tocompeteeconomicallyintheinternationalmarketplace.
4.Demandsthatpubliceducationberedesignedtoserveasaknowledgeproducerfor
privatecorporationsinthenationaleconomiccompetition.
5.Textbookproductionanddistributionundercontrolofprivatecorporations.
6. Academic teachers are conceived as “business persons” who provide goods and
servicesunderFreeTradeAgreementandNAFTA.
RHETORIC:
“NewReality”
Competition,MarketDiscipline
“TheCampusasCorporation”(Strangeway,1984)
CurriculumProducts
ResourceUnitsorResourcePackages
292
UniformStandardsSkills
MAINSOURCE:McMurtry,John,JournalofPhilosophyofEducation,Vol.25,No.2,1991.
PD95–0016
[Ed.Note:ManyofMcMurtry’stongue-in-cheekideasaretobefoundinso-called“conser-
vative”thinktanks’papersoneducationrestructuring.Number6under“Features”isparticu-
larlyoffensiveinthattheideaofteachersbecoming“privatecontractors”insteadofschool
systememployeesisbeingdiscussedandproposedaroundmanyapolicymaker’stablein
thiscountry.Whatapeculiarthing.Ifteachersarebeingtrainednottoconcentrateonsubject
matteror“lowerlevelskilldevelopment,”whatwouldtheyhavetomarket?Theabilityto
“train”studentstoperformcertaintasksinacertainwayinacertainperiodoftime?Market
ModelManiacs?]
1992
THE EFFECTIVE SCHOOL REPORT’S FEBRUARY 1992 ISSUE CARRIED AN ARTICLE ENTITLED “Free
EducationinaFreeSociety”byNickZienauofEngland’sEducationalConsultancy.Itreads
inpart:
ThisarticledescribesaprojectwhichbeganataconferenceorganizedinSeptember1991
todiscusspossibilitiesforprojectsbetweenEastandWestwhichmightassisttheprocessof
educationalreforminRussiaandtheotherrepublicsformerlyoftheUSSR....Animportant
partofbecomingconvincedthatthiswasworthwhilewastodiscoverthattherewasacom-
monsetofvaluesandideasaboutthechangesfacingeducationsystemswhetherinRussia,
theU.S.orEurope.…Akeythemeforuswas,therefore,thatthoseideaswhichhithertohave
beenseenasprogressivealternativesandoftendangerouslyradicalineducationaltheoryand
practicewillincreasinglybecomepartofmainstreameducationpracticeandthinking.
A second key principle was the idea that increasingly education will cease to be a
statemonopolyandmusthavearelationshipwiththefreemarket.Thisseemsrelatedto
theideaofindividualenterpriseandchoice.Ourbeliefisthatitishelpfultoeducational
reformandthereforetothisprojecttoformcollaborativerelationshipsbetweenthestate
andorganizationsactinginthefreemarket.Thiswillhelptoallowindividualautonomy,
enterprise,etc.,tolourishandallowrelationshipsbetweenthoseinvolvedinreformnot
tobebasedonixedbudgetsandsupplysideeconomics.Itwillrequireustohaveclear
contractsbetweenparticipants.Ifwehaveideasabouthowtogoabouttrainingteachers,
wewilllearnthesebestfromeachotherbydoingittogetherandthatonlyinthiswaycan
theprojectbeeffectiveasaneducationalinterventionbetweennations,betweeninnovators
orbetweenindividuals.
…Webelieveinanexchangeoflearningandintheideathatthereislikelytobeas
muchthattheWestcanlearnfromeasternpartnersastheotherwayaround.Webelieve
thatakeytowhatthislearningmightbeaboutisthattheWest’sknowledgeofhowtodo
thingsineducation,howtomakechangesforinstanceinthetechnology,ismatchedby
pedagogicsystemsandtheorieswhichhavebeenhighlydevelopedinRussia.Webelieve
thatthesetheoriesandpracticescanformthebasisofradicalcurriculuminnovationand
organizationalreform.
Finally,webelieveinaprojectthathasanorganicstructure.Itwillhavetwonodes,
oneintheeastandoneinthewest,anditwillspanthreecontinents.Itwillhaveacore
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1992 293
structurewhichmusthaveasmallinancialbaseanditwillhaveparticipatingorganiza-
tionsandindividuals.However,theformoftheorganizationmustbeoneinwhichprojects
canbedevelopedfromthecentercoreandnotcontrolledbyit.Participantsshouldbefree
tocreatethesewithoutrelyingoncentralfundingorpermissionaslongastheycanitinto
thissetofagreedvalueswhichtheprojectwilldevelop.
Firstamongtheseisthethemeofteachereducation(bothpre-andin-service).Wesee
thisasthekeywayofchangingandinluencingeducation.…
Thirdly, we hope to gain the active involvement of industry and commerce. It will
betheconcernoftheprojecttoencouragesuchcollaborationonbothsides,bothinthe
EasternconsortiumandintheWesternconsortium.Weunderstanditasanimportantway
ofensuringthateducationisrelevanttosociety,understoodandcaredabout,andseenas
connectedtosourcesofwealthcreationinsociety.CertainlyintheEastandalso,wewould
venture,increasinglyintheWest,activeinvolvementofindustryandcommerceisessential
inordertoobtainthefundsandcommitmentnecessaryforeducationalreformtosucceed.
Thismeansthatinpracticewewilltakeeveryavailableopportunitytoinvolveactivelyavant-
gardeleadersofindustryandcommercebothinfunding,supportingandimplementingthe
project.Theimportantcriteriaforcollaborationmustbethatthereissuficientcongruence
ofethicsandvaluesaboutthegoalsandmethodsoftheproject.
Fourthly,inorderto“practicewhatwepreach,”webelievethatourmeetingsandproj-
ectseventsdoactivelydemonstrateandworkwiththepedagogicsystems,thatthelearning
shouldbemanagedinaconsciousway.Wethereforewillmakeitafeatureoftheproject
thatwefocusontheskillsandstrategiesofmanaginglearninginaninternationalcontext
whetheritbeintheseminars,conferences,exchangetripsorconsultations.Fifth,itwillbe
importanttoformulatestructuresandmodelsoforganizationthatencourageindependence
andautonomythroughsmallgroups....Theeducationreformprocesswillbebuiltonthe
work of many small groups making their own decisions. We will need to build into our
projectstructureofcontractmaking,interdependencewithautonomyandholditwithin
aregulatedandboundariedieldofaction.Thesekindsofstructuresandmodelsarenew
formsoforganizationforbothEastandWestandrepresentamoveawayfromhierarchy
androle-dominatedcultures.
TheConsortiumactivityhastheoficialsupportoftheMinisterofEducationforthe
RussianRepublic,Dr.EdouardDneprov,andacloseliaisonhasbeenestablishedwiththe
Ministry. On the Western side, the consortium at present includes consultants, trainers,
andresearchersfromtheUK,NetherlandsandtheUSAwhoaimintheirstplacetoact
asabridgeintothevariouseducationalnetworksintheWest.Thesewillincludehigher
educationinitiatives,networksofalternativeschools,organizationsinvolvedininnovative
teachertraining,consultingorganizations,industrialandcommercialorganizationsconcerned
withpedagogicalinnovation.Theyarealsocurrentlyworkingtoobtainfundingandsupport
amongpossibleprivateandpublicsectorsponsors.
SignedNickZienau
[Ed.Note:ConsiderablespacehasbeendevotedtoquotesfromTheEffectiveSchoolReportdue
totheirobviouscloserelationshiptoactivitiesinAmericaneducationrestructuring;i.e.,choice,
charterschools,school-businesspartnerships,school-to-worklegislation,TheNewAmerican
SchoolsDevelopmentCorporation,site-basedmanagement,mergerofpublicandprivatesec-
tors,andtheSkinnerianworkforcetrainingmethodology.Thisimportantarticlejustiiesthe
validityofconcernsexpressedbyAmericansopposedtotheU.S.-SovietandCarnegie-Soviet
educationagreementssignedin1985byPresidentReagan,MikhailGorbachev,CarnegieCor-
porationandthethen-SovietAcademyofSciences,respectively.]
294
“BEIJINGJOURNAL:PERSONALFILEANDWORKERYOKEDFORLIFE”BYNICHOLASD.KRISTOFwas
publishedinTheNewYorkTimesonMarch16,1992.ThisarticledescribedtheChinesedangan
aspartofawebofsocialcontrolsthatensuresorderinChina.Excerptsfollow:
BEIJING—AspartofChina’scomplexsystemofsocialcontrolandsurveillance,theauthorities
keepadangan,orile,onvirtuallyeveryoneexceptpeasants.Indeed,mostChinesehavetwo
dangans:oneattheirworkplaceandanotherintheirlocalpolicestation....“Schoolrecords
andgradetranscripts,”shebegan,offeringaforeignerararelookintothedangansystem,
“EntryintotheCommunistYouthLeagueandtheCommunistParty.Familymembersand
photo.Promotionsandlevelofwork.Performanceevaluations.Thatkindofthing.About
10times.”
Aileisopenedoneachurbancitizenwhenheorsheenterselementaryschool,and
it shadows the person throughout life, moving on to high school, college and employer.
Particularlyforoficials,professorsandCommunistPartymembers,thedangancontains
politicalevaluationsthataffectcareerprospectsandpermissiontoleavethecountry....The
danganaffectspromotionsandjobopportunities,anditisdificulttoescapefrombecause
anyprospectiveemployerissupposedtoexamineanapplicant’sdanganbeforemakinga
hiringdecision.
[Ed. Note: Sounds like the U.S. Secretary of Labor’s Commission on Achieving Necessary
Skillsresuméfor“JaneSmith”whichgradesJaneona1–10basisonhonesty,etc.,andwhich
includeshercommunityserviceactivities.Oregon’slegislationstatingthatemployerscould
not hire potential employees unless they had a Certiicate of Initial Mastery did not pass.
However,theveryideathatitwasproposedmeansthatthatisexactlywhatisintended.The
abovearticleisimportantbecauseofU.S.educators’oficialvisitstoChinaandthefactthat
theU.S.DepartmentofEducation’scontractfortheSPEEDEExpress(anelectronicdataex-
changesystemtobeusedfortransferofstudentrecords,etc.)isthebeginningofthetransfer
ofpersonaldataonstudentstovariousagencies,prospectiveemployers,etc.]
FILLINGTHEGAPS:ANOVERVIEWOFDATAONEDUCATIONINGRADESKTHROUGH12WASpub-
lishedbytheNationalCenterforEducationalStatistics(U.S.DepartmentofEducation,Of-
iceofEducationalResearchandImprovement:Washington,D.C.[NCES92–132],1992).On
page5oneindsamostextraordinaryandrevolutionarydeinitionofteacher“quality”which
transferstheresponsibilityforlearningfromthestudenttotheteacher.ExcerptsfromFilling
theGapsfollow:
TEACHERS
Beginning in the 1980s, NCES collected detailed information on the characteristics and
qualiicationsofteachers.…
Buttheterm“qualiications”isnotsynonymouswith“quality.”Thecharacteristicsthat
contributetogoodteachingaremany,andnosingleconigurationoftraits,qualiications,
orbehaviorsunvaryinglyproducesoptimalstudentoutcomesinallsituations.NCESteacher
surveyshaveconcentratedoncollectingdataon“qualiications,”ratherthantryingtodeine
“quality.” In order to deine and measure “quality,” characteristics and qualiications of
teachersmustberelatedtogrowthinstudentachievement.
[Ed.Note:Ifthebottomlineregarding“qualityteaching”is“growthinstudentachievement”
onemustassumethatextraordinarymeasureswillbenecessarytobringaboutsuch“growth
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1992 295
instudentachievement”andtheonlymeasuresthatexistarethoseassociatedwiththeSkin-
nerian operant conditioning method used in mastery learning/direct instruction/outcome-
/results-/performance-basededucation,allofwhicharesynonymouswiththenewdeinition
of“achievement.”TheSkinnerianmethodidentiieseachandeveryminutecomponentofthe
subjecttobelearnedandmeasureseachandeveryresponsebythestudentandteacher,leaving
muchreallearningoutofthepicture.Itisevidentthattheteacherwillalsobe“trained”inthe
samewaythestudentis“trained”inordertobecomea“qualityteacher”whoneverdeviates
fromthescriptandwhoseeveryaction,includingfacialexpressionsandbodygestures,can
bepreciselymeasured,accountedfor,andevaluated.
Asateacher,youWILLperform,oryouwillloseyourjob.
Asastudent,youWILLachieve,unlessyouareunwillingtobetrainedlikeananimal,
inwhichcaseyoumaybesenttosomeformof“bootcamp”for“re-education.”
Inordertoaccomplishtheabove,you,asateacher,WILLteachtothetest.]
Perhapsthemostimportantdatagapinunderstandinghowteachersaffecttheeducational
processisthelackofagooddeinitionof“teacherquality.”…TheNationalEducationSta-
tisticsAgendaCommittee…hasrecommendedthatOERIfundspecialstudiestoimprove
themeasurementof,amongotherthings,“importantschoolprocessesincluding…methods
oftrainingteachersandassessingtheircompetence.”
Anothergaprelatestotheassessmentofteacherquality….
ThequaliicationsmeasuresthatNCESdoesnotcollectcannotcurrentlyberelatedto
measuresofstudentachievement….Developmentofameasureof“teacherquality”wouldbe
hastenedbyobtainingstudentoutcomemeasuresthatcouldbelinkedtotherichnationally
representativedataonteacherqualiications….Thesedataarecollectedfrominformation
availableinschoolrecords….Thisstudentrecordsform,iffoundfeasible,couldprovidethe
datanecessarytoimproveourunderstandingandmeasurementof“teacherquality.”
[Ed.Note:Inadditiontodata-gatheringbasedonteach-to-the-testproducedstudentperfor-
mancemeasuresof“teacherquality,”FillingtheGapsalsooutlinesotherdatagatheringthat
isrelatedtothe“quality”measure—qualityoflife.AccordingtoFillingtheGaps:
Socio-economicstatus(SES)ofstudentsisimportantforunderstanding,amongotherthings,
studentoutcomesincludingachievementtestscoresandgraduationrates….[C]ompletion
in1993oftheprojecttomapdecennialcensusinformationtoschooldistrictboundaries
willenablemostelementary/secondarydatatobelinkedtoschooldistrictSESmeasures
foranalysis.
Theoriginal1981CensusMappingProject,ajointventurebetweentheNationalCenterfor
EducationStatisticsandtheU.S.CensusBureau,waskeptahighlyguardedsecretforalong
time.Onecanonlyspeculateastothereason—perhapsitisrelatedtothefactthatexchang-
inginformationofthistypebetweengovernmentagencieshasbeen,technically,illegal.(The
readermayrememberthecriesofprotestthatsurfacedinthemid-1980sovertheideaofthe
IRStrackingunpaidstudentcollegeloansbysharingdatafromtheU.S.DepartmentofEdu-
cation.Thejustiicationforcontinuingtoillegallyshareinteragencydatawaslostintheshufle
asthedustsettledoverthatdebate.Perhapsthe1981CensusMappingProjectwasusedas
justiicationfor“on-goingpracticeconstitutesacceptablepractice.”)However,itisimportant
tonotethefactthattheSESmeasuresprojectedforthe1993NCES-U.S.Censusprojectareto
bearrivedatbyanalyzingdatacollectedonthe“community”—orschooldistrict—level.
296
NCESmaintainsaseriesofEducationalRecordsSerieshandbookscontainingthecomputer
codingnumbers,categories,andspeciicpiecesofinformationgatheredandrecordedabout
anythingconnectedwithschools—includingHandbookVIII:TheCommunity.Thishandbook,
whilehavingitscontentsmergedintolaterversionsofothersintheseries,originallycon-
tainedthecodingforallcommunity“qualityoflife”information,includingfactorsproducing
socio-economicstatusdataandachapterentitled“Attitudes,ValuesandBeliefs.”Thishand-
bookprovidedthevehicleforproilinga“community”—deinedasa“schooldistrict”bythe
CensusMappingProject—forplanningofprogramsbyCommunityEducationpractitioners.
(CommunityEducation’sEffectonQualityofLifebyW.JamesGiddis,DianaPage,andGeorge
L.Mailberger[CenterforCommunityEducationattheUniversityofWestFlorida:Pensacola,
Fla.,1981],p.8.)
Proilingacommunityfor“Attitudes,ValuesandBeliefs”isusefulforthoseeducation
changeagentssteepedinthemethodstaughtinRonaldJ.Havelock’sTheChangeAgents’Guide
toInnovationinEducation,regularlytaughtattheNationalTrainingLaboratory’sprograms
andotherleadershiptrainingseminarsforteachers,administrators,boardmembers,elected
orappointedoficials,andother“irst-leveladopters”ofneweducationreform/restructuring
proposals.ThedatagatheredthroughtheCensusMappingProject,amongotherthings,assists
inidentifyingthoseinalocalcommunitydeinedas“resisters”tocontroversialprograms.
Effortstorequire“accountability”basedon“measurementsofteacherquality”havemuch
broaderconsequencesthanmostpolicymakershaveimagined.Deiningtermscanleadtoun-
derstandingthatsomerecentreformeffortsarebasedonfaultypremises,tosaytheleast.]
COMMUNITYLEARNINGINFORMATIONNETWORK,INC.(CLIN)WASINCORPORATEDIN1992.CLIN’s
22-pagepublicitypacketstatedinpart:
CLINwasincorporatedinAprilof1992,withabi-partisan“BlueRibbon”boardofdirectors
to implement a community-linked learning technology and information delivery system.
CLINhasattractedafollowinginasubstantialnumberofcommunitiesandinvolvesabroad
rangeofindustriesandinterests(includingeducators,smallandlargebusinesses,hospitals,
NationalGuardandReserves,variousgovernmentagencies,publichousing,andinnercity
organizationsandtelecommunicationproviders)inimplementingtheCLINconcept.CLIN
hasbeenrecognizedbytheWhiteHouseandseniormembersofCongressandcurrentlyhas
legislationmarkedfortestbedprojects.CLINhasalsodevelopedinternationalprojectsto
includeanapprovedprojectwiththePeople’sRepublicofChinasponsoredbythehighest
levelsoftheChinesegovernment.21
[Ed.Note:UnitedStatesgovernmentassistancetotheChineseCommunistgovernmentwill
ensureaneventightercontrolofthatgovernmentovereveryaspectofitscitizens’lives.The
transferofmedicalrecords,personalinformation,etc.overCLINnetworksshouldbeofgreat
concerntoAmericanswhovaluetheirrighttoprivacy.U.S.SenatorPhilGrammofTexas(R.)
hasbeenthechairmanoftheboardofdirectorsforCLIN—apublic-privateventure.]
TEXASRESEARCHERBILLYLYONWROTECONNECTIONSANDCONFLICTSOFINTEREST(OR,ThereOught
ToBeanInvestigation!)in1992.22Thisextraordinarypieceofresearch,whichdiscussesindetail
theprivate,for-proitdesignteamprojectsselectedbytheNewAmericanSchoolDevelopment
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1992 297
Corporation(NASDC)andtheconnectionsofthoseinvolved,alsopresentednewinformation
onvouchers(educational“choice”).Theprefaceispresentedbelowinitsentirety:
PREFACE
Thispaperbeganasarevisionandupdateoftheoriginalarticle,“$$$‘Choice’ForProit?
$$$,” about the Edison Project. Since writing that article, however, the eleven “Design
Teams”havebeenselectedbytheNewAmericanSchoolDevelopmentCorporationandthe
releasedembargoesreceived,givingmorefodderforgrist.Tobeperfectlyhonest,someof
theconnectionswerejusttooirresistibletoignore.Eachoneledtoanotherandthispaper
hasgrownlikeover-leaveneddough.The“DesignTeams,”newinformationfromAmerica
2000,proposedlegislation,andalittledigginginsomeoldiles,providedfurtherinsight
intothevoucherproposals.Thispaperisaboutvouchers(educational“choice”)asmuch
asanything,butfromadifferentperspective.TheDesignTeamsgiveyouanideaofwhat
kindof“privateschools”thevouchersmayeventuallybeusedfor.
Forthosewhoreceivedtheearlier“ChoiceforProit?”article,AppendixAcontains
additionalinformationonTime-Warner,BennoC.SchmidtandChesterFinn,Jr.Thematerial
onJamesS.ColemaninAppendixBisespeciallysigniicant.
Bynomeans,doesthispapercoverallconnections,orevenallthe“DesignTeams.”
We’resurethatthosewhoareleftoutwillnotbeoffended.Achartisenclosedwhich,hope-
fully,willhelpyouseesomeoftheseconnections.
As you read this paper, keep in mind that in the beginning of talks on education
reform/restructuring,allthatcitizensweredemandingwasareturntotraditionalbasics.
Theywantedtheirchildrentobeabletoread!
Thiswriterhas,withmuchdificulty,selectedonlyafewimportantquotesfromBilly
Lyon’sreport.“Withmuchdificulty”duetothereport’scontainingnothingbutvitalinfor-
mationanddocumentationonasubjectwhichhaseverythingtodowithourchildren’sfutures
andthatofournation—”choice.”Excerptsfromthisinereportfollow:
THEEDISONPROJECT,TIME-WARNER&WHITTLECOMMUNICATIONS:
ChrisWhittle’sEdisonProjectisaninitiativetobuildanational,private,for-proitschool
system.Time-WarnerhasbeennotonlyafullpartnerintheEdisonProject,butowned50%
of Whittle’s principal company, Whittle Communications LP. Other initial Edison Project
partnersandinancierswerePhillipsElectronicsandAssociatedNewspapersHoldings,which
agreedtospendupto$60millionforthethree-yearstudy.TeammembersofTheEdison
Projectinclude:YaleUniversityPresidentBennoC.Schmidt,Jr.;LeeEisenberg,formeredi-
tor-in-chiefofEsquire(Whittlewasonceco-owner);DominiqueBrowning,formerassistant
managingeditorofNewsweekMagazine;VanderbiltUniversityprofessorandformerassistant
secretaryofeducationintheReaganAdministrationChesterE.Finn,Jr.;andJohnChubbof
theliberalBrookingsInstitutionandCenterforEducationInnovation....
NASDCDESIGNTEAMS:
NASDCistheprivate,non-proitcorporationsetupbyAmericanbusinessleadersatthe
requestofPresidentBushtodevelopanewgenerationofAmericanschoolsbycontractingwith
andsupportingthemostpromising“breakthemold,”“startfromscratch,”curriculadesign
teams.EventhoughNASDCisnon-proit,theelevenwinningdesignteamsare“forproit.”
NASDCispartofAmerica2000,PresidentBush’seducationrestructuringstrategy....
ClintonAdministrationSecretaryofEducationRichardW.RileycallsNASDCandGoals
2000(EducateAmericaAct),apowerfulcombinationfor“changeandimprovement.”NASDC
298
ExecutiveManagementCouncilChairmanKearnssaysthetwoworkinginpartnership“will
providesystemicchangeineducation.”(“NASDCFACTS,”NewAmericanSchoolsDevel-
opmentCorp.,nodate,received9/13/93)....
InaWallStreetJournal(6/5/92)articleBennoSchmidt,presidentoftheEdisonProject,
discussingwhatiswrongwithpresentschoolsandhowprojectssuchastheEdisonProject
mightimprovethings,claimsthat“schoolshavewaveredfromliberaleducationalpurposes...
leav[ing]littleroomforthefreeplayofyoungpeople’scuriosity...andthecultivationofthe
imagination....”Heasked,“Whatmightresultifchildrencametoschoolastoddlersoreven
earlier,ratherthanasive-orsix-year-olds?Whatifparentsweresystematicallyinvolvedand
actuallyworkedregularlyinschools?Whatifstudentstaughtotherstudentsmuchmore?
Whatifschoolswereopen12hoursaday,12monthsayear?Whatif...aschoolsystem
acrossthenationwascompletelytiedtogethertechnologically,andcouldtakeadvantage
ofsystemwideexperimentation?...”[Whatifwejusttaughtstudentshowtoreadandwrite
wellandcompute2plus2withoutacalculator?B.Lyon]
CHESTERFINN:
Dr.DennisCuddy,inNowistheDawningoftheNewAgeNewWorldOrder,...said:
“InthebookWeMustTakeCharge,notonlydoesFinnadvocateanationalcurriculum,but
healsowrites:
Theschoolisthevitaldeliverysystem,thestateisthepolicysetter(andchiefpaymaster),
andnothinginbetweenisveryimportant.Thisformulationturnsonitsheadthetraditional
Americanassumptionthateverycity,town,andcountybearsthechiefresponsibilityfor
organizingandoperatingitsownschoolsasamunicipalfunction.Thatiswhatweonce
meantbylocalcontrol,butithasbecomeananachronismnolongerjustiiedbyresearch,
consistentwithsoundiscalpolicyororganizationaltheory,suitedtoourmobilitypat-
terns,orimportanttothepublic.
Everystudentmustmeetacorelearningstandardorbepenalized,accordingtoFinn,
whosaysperhapsthebestwaytoenforcethisstandardistoconfervaluablebeneitsand
privilegesonpeoplewhomeetit,andtowithholdthemfromthosewhodonot.Work
permits,goodjobs,andcollegeadmissionarethemostobvious,butthereisamplescope
hereforimaginationindevisingcarrotsandsticks.Drivers’licensescouldbedeferred.
Socouldeligibilityforprofessionalathleticteams.Theminimumwagepaidtothosewho
earntheircertiicatesmightbeadollaranhourhigher.
Cuddy refers to a U.S. Department of Education “White Paper” (probably prepared
largelybyFinn)...withacoverlettersaying“Assessmentcanbeusedasbothacarrotand
stick”....UndertheWhitePaper’ssection“InterveninginAcademicBankruptcy”itindicates
thatsomeschooldistrictsmaybeunwillingtomeettheireducationalresponsibilities,andin
thosecases,stateinterventionmaymean“replacingdistrictsuperintendentsandlocalschool
boardswithstate-appointedoficials.”Thisisthesame“statetakeover”oflocalschoolsnot
meetingcertainstatestandardsthatCarnegiepersuadedtheNationalGovernors’Association
torecommendwhenLamarAlexanderwasitschairmanin1986.
Dr. Cuddy then reminds us that “Leading conservatives around the country were
warnedabouttheAlexander/Finneducationalphilosophy,butmostrefusedtoopposethe
nominationofLamarAlexanderasSecretaryofEducation.”
JOHNCHUBB:
Team member John E. Chubb, senior fellow with the Brookings Institution, was a
participantatthe1989WhiteHouseWorkshoponChoiceinEducationatwhichhealso
introducedspeakerGovernorRudyPerpichofMinnesota.ChubbisontheExecutiveCom-
mitteeoftheCenterforEducationalInnovation,“anindependentprojectoftheManhat-
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1992 299
tanInstituteforPolicyResearch...[whosegoal]...istoimprovetheeducationalsystemin
America by challenging conventional methods and encouraging new approaches... seeks
to accomplish this through... research, discussion and dissemination directed at a broad
publicaudience.TheCenter’sworkismadepossiblebygrantsandgiftsfromthefollowing:
KarenandTuckerAnderson,TheChaseManhattanBank,ExxonEducationFoundation,The
LauderFoundation,TheRockefellerFoundationandothers.”(From“EducationPolicyPaper,
Number1,ModelforChoice:AReportonManhattan’sDistrict4,ManhattanInstitutefor
PolicyResearch”includedinthenotebookentitledChoosingBetterSchools,RegionalStrategy
MeetingsonChoiceinEducationwhichcamefromtheU.S.DepartmentofEducation,Ofice
ofIntergovernmentalandInteragencyAffairs,JackKlenk,specialadvisor.)
JohnChubbisoneofa14-membertaskforcewhoissuedastudythat“proposedasetof
bold,innovativesolutionsdesignedtobringabout...improvementsinTexaspublicschools,”
entitledChoiceinEducation:OpportunitiesforTexas(March,1990).InadditiontoChubb,
“MembersoftheTaskForceproducingthisstudyincluded...Dr.JohnGoodman,president
oftheNationalCenterforPolicyAnalysis,Dallas;AllanParker,associateprofessoroflaw,
St.Mary’sUniversity,SanAntonio;Dr.LinusWright,formerundersecretaryofeducation;
Dr.KathyHayes,associateprofessorofeconomics;andFritzSteiger,president,TexasPublic
PolicyFoundation.”(TexasPublicPolicyFoundationREPORT,Summer,1990,Vol.11,Issue
11,pages3–4.)DallasEagleForumalsoreportedlyco-sponsoredtheJohnChubb-TerryMoe
conferencesinMarch,1990....
VOUCHERS(“CHOICE”),EDISONPROJECTANDNASDCDESIGNTEAMS:
Sincevouchers(educational“choice”)areimportanttothesuccessofthisschemeto
“privatize”and“decentralize”educationthrough“DesignTeams,”theEdisonProjectand
otherprivateprograms,withtheassistanceofwaiversand“lexibility,”vouchersneedto
beexaminedinthenewcontext....Mainstreamnewssourceshavepointedoutthatvouch-
erswillbeneitChrisWhittle’sEdisonProject,aswellasany“privatized”schoolprojects.
Examplesare:
NEWSWEEK(6/8/92)—”There’snoquestionthatWhittleschoolscouldbeextremelyre-
warding...ifCongressapprovesavouchersystem....”
TIME(6/8/92)—[ownedbyTime-Warner]—”...theBushAdministrationstronglysupports
theconceptsthatunderlietheEdisonProject....ManyobserversbelieveWhittle’slong-
termplananticipatestheuseofthese(voucher)funds.Ifadopted,thereform(vouchers)
couldfunnelbillionsofpublicdollarsintoprivateschools....”
CHUBB&CONSERVATIVES:
MostconservativeshavebeenconspicuouslysilentonJohnChubb’spartnershipinThe
EdisonProject,andthebeneitstobeaccruedfromgovernmentvoucherassistance.Manycall
this“privatization”ofeducation,leavingtheimpressionthatitis“freemarketenterprise,”
whichisabsolutelyridiculoussincetheventureistaxpayerfundedand,consequently,gov-
ernmentcontrolled!Chubb’srolemaynowbeanembarrassmenttothose,whowithgreat
fanfareandpublicity,sponsoredhistouraroundthecountryextollingthevirtues,butnot
theconsequences,ofeducation“choice.”NorwerepeopleinformedofChubb’sliberalcon-
nections.And,onlylaterdidpeoplelearnoftheother“designs”on“choice”moneywhich
cametolightwiththeintroductionofAmerica2000,TheEdisonProject,andtheotherfor-
proitprograms.TheDesignTeamsprojectswereprobablypartofaveiledplanthatdrove
thepromotionofvoucherstobeginwith—fromtopdown.Beforelettingthecatoutofthe
bag,however,itwasnecessarytogarnersupportforthestrategy,especiallyfromChristian
conservatives.“Choice”hadtobesoldtothemasbeneicial.And,soitwas.Manyfellfor
300
it,followingcertainleaders.JohnChubbwasatthetopofthesalesteam....[JohnChubbis
alsoasupporteroftheSkinnerianDISTAR/ReadingMasteryprogramdevelopedbySiegfried
Engelmannandthoroughlydiscussedinthisbook,ed.]
LAYINGTHEGROUNDWORK:
Regionalstrategymeetingsonchoiceineducationwereheldinthefallof1989,fol-
lowing the White House Workshop on Choice in January, where John Chubb, Dennis P.
Doyle,JoeNathan,GovernorRudyPerpichofMinnesota,GovernorTommyThompsonof
Wisconsin,andthen-GovernorofTennesseeLamarAlexanderwerespeakers.Atthestrategy
meetings,researchpapers,positionstatements,andpolicyanalyseswerepresentedandthe
informationcompiledinalargenotebookentitled,ChoosingBetterSchools:RegionalStrategy
MeetingsonChoiceinEducation.Thenotebookcontainedtwo“EducationPolicyPapers,”
fromtheCenterforEducationalInnovation(CEI),aprojectoftheManhattanInstitutefor
PolicyResearch.ThelistofCEIExecutiveCommitteemembersincludedJohnChubb,Senior
Fellow,BrookingsInstitution,andJoeNathan,SeniorFellow,HumphreyInstituteofPublic
Affairs.AmongtheCEIsupporterswere...TheChaseManhattanBank,ExxonEducation
Foundation...TheRockefellerFoundation....(THISISN’TGRASSROOTSCONSERVATISM,
FOLKS!)CEI’sEducationPolicyPaper#2,“TheRighttoChoose,”containedpresentations
byJohnChubb,JoeNathan,ChesterFinn,Jr.,andJamesS.Coleman.
JamesS.Colemanhasbeenbusy,too.Hisworkpenetratestheentireeducationalen-
vironment,includingrestructuring.He’sbeenquotedineducationalmaterialsforatleast
25years.Recently,apaperbyColeman,entitled“ParentalInvolvementinEducation,”was
includedwiththeAmerica2000issuespaper,“WhatOtherCommunitiesAreDoing,National
EducationalGoal#1,”distributedafterthethirdAmerica2000satellitetownhallmeeting
(7/28/92)....Colemangivesyetanotherreasonforapproving“choice,”onelesspublicized.
Hesaidthatthe“choicesystem”wouldgivetheschoolmoreauthority,makingitpossible
torequiremoreofparentsandchildrenbyhavingthemacceptandobeyasetofrulesasa
conditionofenteringandcontinuingintheschool....
PRIVATEVOUCHERS:
Doestheinformationjustpresentedtellussomethingabouttheevolutionofarguments
forvouchers;fromoneofassistingthoseinprivateschoolstothatofaidingthepoorwhocan’t
affordaprivateschool?Doesitexplainwhyallvoucherlegislation/amendmentsaredirectly
orindirectlyconnectedtoTitleI,ChapterIofESEA,whichaddressesthe“Disadvantaged”?
Doesitsuggestthatthepurposeofthewholeschemeis“homogenization”throughmore
integration,economicallyandsocially...fortotalequalitythroughredistributionofwealth
andchildren,viavouchers?…
G.I.BILLFORCHILDREN,ORINTEGRATIONBYVOUCHER?
Recallthesestatements:
AlbertShanker,AmericanFederationofTeachers—”Itmaybethatwecan’tgetthebig
changesweneedwithoutchoice.”
PresidentGeorgeBush—”Choiceistheonereformthatdrivesallothers.”
FormerU.S.SecretaryofEducationLauroCavazos—”PresidentBushandIaredeter-
minedtousethepowerofchoicetohelprestructureAmericaneducation.”
AMESSAGEFROMPRESIDENTGEORGEBUSHWASDELIVEREDREGARDINGTHENATIONALYouthAp-
prenticeshipAct(HouseDoc.#102–320,TheCongressionalRecord)onMay3,1992.Excerpts
follow:
301
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1992
IampleasedtotransmitherewithforyourimmediateconsiderationTheNationalYouth
ApprenticeshipActof1992....Thislegislationwouldestablishanationalframeworkforim-
plementingcomprehensiveyouthapprenticeshipprograms....Theseprogramswouldbea
high-qualitylearningalternativeforpreparingyoungpeopletobevaluableandproductive
membersofthe21stcenturyworkforce....Thereiswidespreadagreementthatthetimehas
cometostrengthentheconnectionbetweentheacademicsubjectstaughtinourschoolsand
thedemandsofthemodern,hightechnologyworkplace....Undermyproposal,astudent
couldenterayouthapprenticeshipprograminthe11thor12thgrade.Beforereachingthese
grades,studentswouldreceivecareerandacademicguidancetopreparethemforentryinto
youthapprenticeshipprograms....Ayouthapprenticewouldreceiveacademicinstruction,
jobtrainingandworkexperience....Standardsofacademicachievement,consistentwith
voluntarynationalstandards,willapplytoallacademicinstruction,includingtherequired
instructioninthecoresubjectsofEnglish,mathematics,science,history,andgeography.
Studentswouldbeexpectedtodemonstratemasteryofjobskills....
MyproposalprovidesforinvolvementattheFederal,Stateandlocallevelstoensure
thesuccessoftheprogram.Enactmentofmyproposalwillresultinnationalstandardsap-
plicabletoallyouthapprenticeshipprograms.Thus,uponthecompletionoftheprogram,
theyouthwillhaveaportablecredentialthatwillberecognizedwherevertheindividual
maygotoseekemploymentorpursuefurthereducationandtraining....
Ibelievethatthetimehascomeforanational,comprehensiveapproachtowork-based
learning.ThebillIamproposingwouldestablishaformalprocessinwhichbusiness,labor,
andeducationwouldformpartnershipstomotivatetheNation’syoungpeopletostayin
schoolandbecomeproductivecitizens....IurgetheCongresstogiveswiftandfavorable
considerationtotheNationalYouthApprenticeshipActof1992.
ANARTICLEBYLAURAROGERSENTITLED“INLOCOPARENTIS,PARTII—THE‘PARENTSASTeach-
ers’ProgramLivesOn”waspublishedintheSeptember1992issueofChronicles.23Ms.Rogers
renderedallAmericansagreatservicebyprovidingaseminalworkonthistotalitarianprogram.
Excerptsfromherexcellentarticlefollow:
Fortheuninitiated,thePAT[ParentsasTeachers]programwasbeguninMissouriin1981,
ostensiblyforthepurposeofcurbingthehighdropoutrateandwinningbackparentalsupport
forthepublicschoolsystem.In1985thestatelegislaturemandatedthatthePATprogram
beofferedtoallschoolsandchildreninMissouriandsincethenthePATprogramhasbeen
proposedinatleastfortyotherstates.Simplyput,theprogrampivotsonassigningtoall
parentsandchildrena“certiiedparenteducator.”Thisstateemployeeevaluatesthechild
(undertheguiseofeducationalscreening),assignsthechildacomputercodeclassiication,
andinitiatesacomputerilethatthestatewillusetotrackthechildfortherestofhisorher
life.Allofthecomputercodedesignationslabelthechildtosomedegree“atrisk,”andthere
isnoclassiicationfor“normal.”Thestateagentconductsperiodichomeandschoolvisits
tocheckonthechildandthefamily,dispensinggratissuchthingsasnutritionalcounsel-
ing,mentalhealthservices,andevenfood.SchoolsunderthePATprogramprovidefreeday
andovernightcare.The“certiiedparent”mightforbidthebiologicalparentstospanktheir
child,andmightprescribe,ifthechildisdeemed“unhappy,”psychologicalcounselingora
drugsuchasRitalin.Iftheparentsrefusetherecommendedservicesordrugs,thestatemay
removethechildfromthehome,placehiminaresidentialtreatmentcenter,andforcethe
parentstoenrollinfamilycounselingforanindeiniteperiod.
302
ONNOVEMBER11,1992,SEVERALDAYSAFTERTHE1992PRESIDENTIALELECTION,MARCTucker,
directoroftheNationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomyinRochester,NewYork,wrote
a letter to Hillary Clinton on NCEE letterhead in which he outlined a lifelong, (socialist)
workforce agenda, most of which—interestingly enough—had no problem being approved
byaRepublican-controlledCongresswithinthreeyears.24(SeeAppendixXVandXVIII.)The
letter’sintroductoryparagraphstated:
Istillcannotbelieveyouwon!Bututterdelightthatyoudidpervadesallthecirclesinwhich
Imove.ImetlastWednesdayinDavidRockefeller’s[Jr.]oficewithhim,JohnSculley[Apple
Computerexecutive]etal.Itwasagreatcelebration.BothJohnandDavidR.weremore
expansivethanIhaveeverseenthem—literallyradiatinghappiness.Myownviewandtheir’s
isthatthiscountryhasseizeditslastchance....
…Wepropose,irst,thatthePresidentappointanationalcouncilonhumanresource
development....Itwouldbeestablishedinsuchawaytoassurecontinuityofmembership
acrossadministrations,sothattheconsensusitforgeswilloutlastanyoneadministration....
Second,weproposethatanewagencybecreated,theNationalInstituteforLearning,Work
andService.
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS AFFILIATE, THE PHILADELPHIA FEDERATION OF TEACHers,
stateditsoppositiontoOutcome-BasedEducation(OBE)inaNovember20,1992letterto
Pennsylvaniastatesenatorsasfollows:
OBEshouldbeapilotprojectatbest,andtestedinseveralschoolsasawelcomeaddition
totheexistingCarnegieUnits.Itshouldnotbeimplementedstatewidebecauseitcouldbea
costlydisaster.OBEhasnogradedesignations.OBEhasminimal“benchmark”designations.
Therearenotimedesignations.Forexample,astudentcompletesallEnglishrequirementsin
oneandone-halfyears.ThisstudentisnotrequiredtofurtherdevelopEnglishskillsinthe
remainingtwoandone-halfyearsofhis/herhighschoolcareer.ThereareNOsafetynetsfor
students.OBEisreallynon-gradedschoolsandnon-gradedclassrooms.Itisaverydishonest
approachtoslippingthiswholestructureintoplace.Parents,teachers,andstudentshave
arighttohonestlydiscusstheseveryimportanteducationalplans.Wewouldappreciate
yoursupportintheclosingdaysofthislegislativesessiontoblockanyimplementationof
Outcomes-BasedEducationhereintheCommonwealthofPennsylvania.
SCHOOL’SOUT:ARADICALNEWFORMULAFORTHEREVITALIZATIONOFAMERICA’SEDUCAtional
SystembyLewisJ.Perelmanwaspublished(AvonBooks:NewYork,1992).Thebook’scover
statedthat:
Dr.PerelmanearnedhisdoctorateinsocialpolicyattheHarvardGraduateSchoolofEdu-
cation.ASeniorFellowoftheDiscoveryInstitute,hewasformerlyDirectorofProjectLearning
2000—astudyofrestructuringeducationandtrainingsponsoredbynineU.S.corporations
andfoundations.
GeorgeGilder,authorofWealthandPoverty,alsorecommendedthebookbyPerelman
asfollows:“Acompulsivelyreadablerushtoavitalnewparadigmfortechnologyandlearn-
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1992 303
ing.Youwillneverthinkofschoolsinthesamewayagain”IntheprefaceofSchool’sOut,
Perelmanrevealsthat:
Unlikeotherswhochanneledtheirdisaffectionintocallsfor“reform,”by1970Iwascon-
vincedthattheeducationsystemcouldnotbeamendedbutneededtobeentirelyreplaced
byanewmechanismmoreattunedtothetechnologyandsocialfabricofthemodernworld.
Thisconclusionwasnurturedbymanysources,butespeciallyinluentialweretheworks
ofB.F.Skinner,GeorgeLeonardandJayForrester.TheworkofSkinnerandhisdisciples
showedthattheprocessesoflearningcouldbeanalyzed,understood,andorganizedtoserve
theindividuallearner’sneeds....Inspiredbysuchideas,IreturnedtoHarvardin1970and
spentthenextthreeyearsinanintenseandlargelyindependentstudyofmostofthekey
questionsthatunderliethisbook:Whatislearningandhowdoesitwork?Whattechnolo-
giescanfacilitatelearning,andhowdotheywork?Howdoeslearningitinwiththeoverall
processesofhumaneconomyandecology?Andmostimportant,howdoyoutransformor
replaceestablishedhumaninstitutions?...
OftheseveralHarvardandMITfacultywhocontributedtomyexplorationofthese
questions, I particularly beneited from the aid and encouragement of Wassilly Leontief,
HarveyLiebenstein,JayForrester,IthieldeSolaPool,B.F.Skinner,andPaulYivisaker....After
leavingHarvard,Icontinuedmyresearchforanotheryearwithsupportfromagrantfrom
theRockefellerBrothersFundandpresentedtheresultsofthewholeiveyearsofstudyin
myirstbook,TheGlobalMind,publishedin1976.(p.8)
[Ed. Note: In 1994 Dr. Perelman served as education specialist for the Progress and Free-
domFoundation’sFirstAnnualMeetinginAtlanta,Georgia,“CyberspaceandtheAmerican
Dream.”25TheProgressandFreedomFoundationpublishedAlvinandHeidiTofler’sbook,
CreatingaNewCivilization:ThePoliticsoftheThirdWave,whichcarriedaforewordbyU.S.
Representativeandsoon-to-beSpeakeroftheHouseNewtGingrich(R.,GA).Onpage96of
theTofler’sbook,theProgressandFreedomFoundationissuedthisinvitation:
Ifyouhavereadandbeeninluencedbythisorbyanyoftheirworks,they—andwe—would
liketoknowaboutit.EspeciallyifyouhaveideasforhowtospeedthetransitiontoaThird
WaveAmerica,pleasesendthemtous.]
1993
THE1993ANNUALREPORTOFTHEHERITAGEFOUNDATIONOFWASHINGTON,D.C.,DEDIcatedto
theirtwentiethyearcelebration,revealedthefollowing:
TheideaoftheNorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA)originatedwithHeritage
FellowRichardAllenandhaslongbeenadvocatedbyHeritagepolicyanalysts....Theideaof
creatingaNorthAmericanfreetradezonefromtheYukontotheYucatanwasirstproposed
byHeritageDistinguishedFellowRichardAlleninthelate1970s,reinedbythenPresiden-
tialcandidateRonaldReagan,andfurtherdevelopedinamajor1986HeritageFoundation
study.(p.4)
[Ed.Note:TheFreeTradeAgreementgottheballrollingforthedevelopmentofskillsstan-
dardsbythenewlyformedNationalSkillsStandardsBoard,endorsedbytheU.S.LaborDe-
304
partmentSecretary’sCommissiononAchievingNecessarySkills(SCANS)studyoriginated
underLaborSecretaryElizabethDole,andeventuallyledtotheSchool-to-WorkOpportunities
ActandthedumbingdownofAmericaneducationcurriculumforworkforcetraining.With
allofthisemphasison“standards”itshouldbepointedoutthatNAFTAallowsexchangesof
allcategoriesofprofessionals,withthosecomingfromMexicoandCanadahavingmettheir
owncountries’standards,notnecessarilyequaltothoserequiredintheUnitedStates.Ifthis
processevolvesthewaymostoftheseexchangeprocesseshaveinthepast,thatdisparitywill
beaddressedinoneoftwoways—bychangingU.S.standardstomatchforeignstandards,or
byalteringbothNAFTAnations’standardstoalignwithinternationalstandardslikeISO9000
orISO1400monitoredbyUNESCO.Thisshouldbeofconcerntoprofessionalorganizations
intheUnitedStates.]
“SCHOOLROOMSHUFFLE:TRAILINGINEDUCATIONFORYEARS,KENTUCKYTRIESRADICALReforms—
Grades1through3BecomeOneClasswithNoTexts,DesksorReportCards—SomeParents,
PrincipalsBalk”bySuzanneAlexanderwaspublishedinTheWallStreetJournal(A–6)on
January5,1993.Someexcerptsfollow:
LEXINGTON,KENTUCKY—Teachersworkinteams,usingchildren’sliteraturetoteachspell-
ing,readingandwriting.Formathandscience,studentsaretaughttoanalyzeinsteadof
memorize.
“We’veturnededucationtopsy-turvy,”saysteacherBeverlyDean,gazingaroundher
classroomatchildrenstudyingonpillows,acouchandarockingchair.
Indeed,Kentuckyhasbecomeagiantlaboratoryforschoolreform.
“Wehaveredeinedthebasicsandchallengedeveryassumptionyouhaveaboutlearn-
ing,”saysFayeKing,principalofStantonElementarySchoolineasternKentucky.“It’sradical
anditscomprehensive.Butwecan’tdoanyworse,sowhynotgoforthebest.”...
Insomecases,publicschoolsthemselvesareresistingchange.LongfellowElementary
CenterinruralMayield,Ky.,haspostponedcombiningitskindergartenthroughthirdgrades
whileitpleadswithstateoficialsnottoforceittodosonextyear.“It’salmosthumanly
impossibletoteachwhenyouputsomanyage(andability)levelsinoneclassroom,”says
principalElsieJones.Sheaddsthatwithoutgrades,parentswon’tknowatwhatleveltheir
childrenareperforming,andshouldthestudentsmoveaway,theirnewschoolsmayhave
dificultyplacingthemintheappropriategrade....
Althoughitsfourthandifthgradesremaintraditional,changesinwhatwerethelower
grades(inPicadomeElementary)havetransformedtheatmosphereinthoseclassrooms.
“Thisismy19thyearofteaching,andthisismybestyear,”saysBarbaraEvans,tryingto
keeporderwithingroupsofnoisysixandseven-year-oldsracingtocompletemath,cursive
writingandartassignmentswithadinosaurtheme.
TOTALQUALITYFORSCHOOLS:ASUGGESTIONFORAMERICANEDUCATIONBYJOSEPHC.Fieldswas
published(ASQQualityPress:Milwaukee,Wis.,1993).Thisbookwasgiventoselectedlocal
schoolboardsindistrictsimplementingreform/restructuring.Excerptsfollow:
Educatorsmustconfrontthisage-oldquestionofwhomtoserveandresolvethisquestion
infavorofthecustomerandtheAmericanculture,politicalsystem,andeconomicsystem....
(p.19)
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1993 305
Schoolsmustthinkintermsoffutures,always10to20yearsaheadoftoday.Schools
thatareconstantintheirpurposesmustchangetomeetcustomerrequirements.Schoolsmust
dealwiththeproblemsoftodayaswellastheproblemsoftomorrowtoassureAmericans
thattheywillbeintheeducationbusinessofthefuture.Asthenumberofprivateschools
increases,asschoolvouchersandschoolsofchoicedevelop,andasschoolstakeonmore
andmoresocialresponsibilities,itisquestionablewhetherornotcertainschoolswillbein
businessinthefuture....
Businesseswillnotbuyfromuncertiiedvendors.Thisideamightcontainsomemerit
foreducators.ThestateofTennessee,initsoriginalCareerLadderProgramforeducators,
requiredaportfolioofspeciications,qualityassurances,workstandards,andprocesscontrol
inadditiontoseveralsitevisitsfromevaluatorswhowereunfamiliarwiththeevaluated
teacher.Considertoothe“parentasvendor”ofapreciousresource,thechild.Intheinter-
nalcustomerconcept,theparentisservingtheteacher.Teacherscouldidentifyreasonable
speciicationsforparentsrelativetothehomelearningenvironmentandcertifyparentswho
willcooperate.(p.48)
[Ed.Note:Theabovestatementisabsolutelyappalling!InthewordsofCynthiaWeatherlyin
herarticle“PrivatizationorSocialization?”:
Wearemisledwhenwebelievethateducationisacommodityorservicetobe“purchased”
by “consumers.” This tends to make the public believe that education is market-driven.
Compulsoryattendancelawsmakeeducationanythingbutmarket-driven!Moreimportantly,
theconceptofconsumer/purchaserdoesnotcorrelatetoourrelationshiptoourelectedof-
icialswhoarelegaloverseersoftheprocess.Havewelostsightofwhatourrelationship
togovernmentis?Educationisatrust,notacommodity.Theseareourchildren,andtheir
futures;parentsarenot“shopping”foreducation,butareferventlysearchingforsomeone
towhomtheyarewillingtoentrustthetaskofprovidinganacademiceducationfortheir
children.
Ascharterschoolsdevelop,thetemptationwillbeforprivateindustrytotakeamore
directroleinfundinganddevelopingprogramsfortheseschoolswhichwillproduceworkers
whocanillthecorporations’needs.Theseschools,then,havethepotentialofbecoming
“corporateacademies”withanarrowfocusandlimitedcurriculumbase.Thisisaccomplished
throughtheschool-businesspartnershipsgrowingintocorporatefundingtoaccomplishits
task.Asthispotentialrealitydevelops,thespecteroftruesocialism—thecombiningofthe
private and public sectors to produce goods and services—takes on discernible size and
shape….
B.F. Skinner once mused that the functions of government in the future would be
educational.Intheabovescenarioweseethatthereverseofthatpredictioncanbetrueas
well—inthefuturethefunctionsofeducationwillbegovernmental.Letusrememberthat
the true purpose of education is the intrinsic enhancement of the individual. Let us not
reduceeducationtolimitedlearningforlifelonglaborandourgreatcountry’sheritageof
freedomtoafootnoteinhistory.
Inaddition,attheSixthAnnualModelSchoolsConference—sponsoredbyWillardDaggett,
directoroftheInternationalCenterforLeadershipinEducation—inAtlanta,GeorgiainJuly
of1998,aparticipantwhoisanassistantprincipalatamiddleschoolinSouthernCalifornia
madethiscommenttoareporterregardingmechanismstoencourageparentalinvolvement
andsupportintheeducationofchildren:
Onewaytomakesurethatparentsattendconferencesatschoolandsupporttheeducational
306
processfortheirchildrenwouldbetodockacertainpartoftheirtaxdeductionfortheir
children.Therecouldbeascaleofactivitiesinwhichtheparentswouldberequiredtohave
documentation—perhaps a sign-off at the school—of participation before they would be
allowedtoclaimtheirtaxdeductionsfortheirchildren.IagreewithDaggettthatwemay
havetoemploysomemeasuresthatseemextreme.26
Returning to a inal quote from Total Quality for Schools: A Suggestion for American
Education:
Inallthisinterpretation,schoolsarenotfree.Theyrequireresponsiblecommitmentfrom
everyone.Citizenswouldnomorebeallowedtoputobstaclesinthewayofpubliceduca-
torsthantointerferewithpublicmedical,police,orireprotectionpersonnelwhoaredoing
theirduty.(p.53)]
IN1993THEU.S.DEPARTMENTOFEDUCATION’SNATIONALCENTERFOREDUCATIONALStatistics
(NCES)describedinahandoutajointprojectbetweenNCESandtheCouncilofChiefState
SchoolOficers(CCSSO)todevelopanelectronicdatalinkbetweeneducationandthe“world
ofwork”called“SPEEDEExpress.”Thislinkingprocesswouldfacilitatelocal“industrypart-
nerships”andwouldpreparefortheuseofan“internationalstandard”forexchangingstudent
records.27Anexcerptfromthehandoutfollows:
In1989,buildingonprojectscompletedinFloridaandTexas,28workbeganonthedevel-
opmentofanational(eventually,aninternational)standardforexchangingstudentrecords
moreeficiently.Thissystemwouldtapintothesophisticatedautomationofmanyeducation
agenciesandinstitutions.TheStandardizationofPostsecondaryEducationElectronicData
Exchange(SPEEDE)isintendedtoassistschooldistricts(gradespre-kindergartenthrough
12andpostsecondaryeducationalinstitutionsintheUnitedStatesandCanada)inthepro-
cessoftransmittingstudentacademicrecords(transcripts)fromoneeducationalinstitution,
agency,corporation,orotherrecipient.
M.DONALDTHOMAS’S“PLANFORACTION”ENTITLEDTHEEMPOWEREDEDUCATIONALSYStemfor
the21stCentury—EstablishingCompetitiveness,Productivity,AccountabilityandEquityinSouth
CarolinaEducationwaspresentedtotheSouthCarolinalegislaturein1993.Includedamong
otherradicalrecommendationsinThomas’splanwas:“Boardauthoritytorequireparents
(guardians)toprovideservicestoschoolswhichtheirchildrenattend.”
InavideotapeofThomasmakingtheseassertionsataschoolboardmeeting,aparent
askedthequestion,“Whatwouldthepenaltybeifparentsdidn’twishtoperformsuchser-
vices?”Thomasresponded,“Fiftydollars!”Hethenwentontoclaimthathehadinstituted
sucharequirementinaschoolsysteminUtahwithoutresistance.29
PETERSHAWWROTE“THECOMPETITIVENESSILLUSION:DOESOURCOUNTRYNEEDTOBELiterate
inOrdertoBeCompetitive?Ifnot,WhyRead?”fortheJanuary18,1993issueofTheNational
Review.Thefollowingquotesarefrompage41:
307
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1993
Thetechnologicalsocietydoesnotparticularlydependoneducation.Aglanceattherecord
showsusthattherapidgrowthoftheUnitedStatesintotheworld’sgreatestindustrialpower
coincidedwithasteadydropinreadinglevelsrunningfrom1930tothepresent.RegnaLee
Woodateacher,pointedoutinanarticleinNR(Sept.14th)thatthisfallingoffwasfollowed
byarelated,longdeclineinSATscoresbeginningin1941.Technologicalsocietyturnsout
toworkintheoppositewayfromthatusuallysupposed:namely,byactuallyrequiringless
ratherthanmoreeducationofitsworkers.Thisisbecausemodernindustrydependsonre-
ducinghumanerror,whichmeansreducingdependenceontheindividualworker’sexpertise
andjudgment.Inbuildingormaintainingelectronicdevices,workerswhoonceinstalledor
rewiredelectricalcircuitsnowpluginmodularcomponentsconsistingofmachine-printed
circuitboards....Thefutureroleofliteracyintheworkplacehasbeensuccinctlystatedby
PierreDogan,thepresidentofGraniteCommunications,acompanythatisnow“developing
softwareforhotelhousekeeping.”Itseemsthat“solongasmaidscanreadroomnumbers,
theywillbeabletocheckofftaskscompletedorordersuppliesbysimplytouchingpictures
onthescreen.”Doganpointsoutthat“youcancreateaworkprogramwithpromptingin-
cludingiconic[picture]messages.”Infact,helogicallyconcludes,“youcanuseanilliterate
workforce.”
[Ed.Note:Thisarticleprovidesanexcellentexplanationofwhylargemultinationalcorpo-
rationssuchasBMW’sowner,Mercedes-Benz,etc.,aresettlinginthosestateswhichhavefor
manyyearsbeenusedasnationalpilot/experimentallaboratorystatesforSkinnerianmastery
learning/traininginleisureandlife/workskills.AmongthosestatesareSouthernstateswhich
werepartoftheearlyGeneralEducationBoard’s“benevolenteffort”toreformtheSouthafter
theCivilWar,includingAlabama,MississippiandSouthCarolina(presentSecretaryofEdu-
cationRichardRiley’shomestatewhichhasproducedthesecondloweststandardizedtest
scoresinthenation).
ThesestatesarealsoapartoftheSouthernRegionalEducationBoard(SREB)consortium,
whichhasproducedanddispersedaneducationalapproachcalled“techademics”outlined
inaprogramandbookentitledHighSchoolsThatWork,writtenbyDr.GeneBottomsofthe
SREB.(BottomswasonceemployedbytheGeorgiaDepartmentofEducationwhenGeorgia
wasimplementingcompetency-basededucation,theforerunnerofoutcome-basededucation,
andlaterranforstatesuperintendent,unsuccessfully.)
In1994Dr.BottomsaddressedtheSecondModelSchoolsConferenceinAtlanta—spon-
soredbytheInternationalCenterforLeadershipinEducation,Inc.anddirectedbyDr.Willard
Daggett—explaining how the High Schools That Work model operated through integrating
academicandvocationalstudies.AsDr.Bottomsexplained,asurveybytheCommitteefor
EconomicDevelopmenthadrevealedthatstudentspreparingtogotoworkrightoutofhigh
schoolhadaninlatedopinionoftheirabilities.“Techademics”seekstointegrateacademic
subjectswithvocationalsubjectsbyeliminatingthetheoreticalaspectsofthesecourses(such
as English, math and science) which would be taught in college preparatory classes, and
usesinsteadDaggett’s“ApplicationModel”tolearnhowtoapplythisinformationdirectly
towork-relatedtasks.InDr.Bottoms’swords:“Tosigniicantlyimprovetheachievementof
vocationalcompleters,SREBanditspartnersbelievethatanymodelforintegratingacademic
andvocationalstudiesmustchangethehighschool’sfocusfromabilityasthekeytoacademic
successtoeffortasthekey”(directquotefrompage110oftheSecondModelSchoolsConfer-
enceProceedings).
SomeadditionalquotesfromDr.Bottoms’saddresstotheparticipantsattheModelSchools
Conferencebearrepeatinghereforthelighttheymayshedontheintegrationofeducational
308
reformassuchreformrelatestocharterschools/choiceand“techademics”:
Take language arts, math, science, and vocational teachers off for a three-day weekend
together.Taketheirbooksandmakethemindcommonmaterialstheyteach.Breakdown
barriersofignoranceandformateam….
…Teamswentintoindustriestoseewhatbusinessneeds….
…Decentralization and site-based management are the keys. These schools stretch
timeontask—standardsirmbuttimelexible.Needalongerday,week,andyearforextra
help….
…Basicprinciple:anungradedacademiccorewithacareeremphasis.TheNAEPis
usedinmeasuringachievement….
…EachstudenthasthesameEnglishteacherforfouryears….
Can’tcarryoutDeming’sprinciplesinpresentstructure—mustchangetoaccommodate
TQM.…Breakoutofstatecultures—crossstatelines!]
MIKHAILGORBACHEV,FORMERPRESIDENTOFTHESOVIETUNION,WASQUOTEDINANARticleinthe
January23,1993issueofTheCapeCod(Massachusetts)TimesasrecommendingthatPresident
BillClintonmakeAmericathecreatorofanewworldorderbasedonconsensus—therebyplac-
ingtheUnitedStatesundertheauthorityoftheUnitedNations.Gorbachevwaslaternamed
the“conveningchair”andhostofaworldforumonthe“irstglobalcivilization”heldinSan
FranciscofromSeptember27–October1in1995.ThearticlequotedGorbachevasfollows:
Thefutureneeds...internationalinstitutionsactingonbehalfofall.Ahigherinstitutionthat
operatesonaconsensus.Suchachoicewouldnarrowtheindependencemanybelievethe
UnitedStatesnowenjoys....PresidentClintonwillbeasuccessifheusesAmericaninluence
toaccomplishthetransformationofinternationalresponsibilityandincreasesigniicantly
theroleoftheUnitedNations....HewillbeagreatPresident—ifhecanmakeAmericathe
creatorofanewworldorderbasedonconsensus.
INTHEUNITEDSTATESCOALITIONFOREDUCATIONFORALL’S(USCEFA)PUBLICATIONEFAToday
January-March,1993issue,RussellBongoftheNationalTrainingLaboratory’sInstitutefor
AppliedBehavioralScience(NTL)wroteanarticleentitled“OvercomingResistanceandFacili-
tatingChange:TheNTLInstitute’sApproach.”30Anextraordinarilyblatant,andsomemight
considerfrightening,explanationofthepurposeoftheNationalTrainingLaboratorycanbe
foundinthefollowingexcerptedmaterial:
Founded in 1947, the NTL Institute was afiliated with the National Education As-
sociationduringitsirst20yearsofoperation.TheInstitutebecameindependentin1967
andtodayservesasanonproitprofessionalmembershiporganizationofappliedbehavioral
scienceexperts....Dedicatedtodevelopingandapplyingscientiicmethodstobehaviormod-
iication,theInstitutefacilitatesproductivechangeattheindividual,social,organizational,
andmacro-systemlevels....
Toelaborate,attitudesareprimarilyshapedbyvaluesandbeliefs,which,inturn,are
shapedbybothperceptionsandmisperceptions.NTL’sapproachseekstofundamentally
changepersonalattitudes,whichitdoesbyreshapingunderlyingbeliefsandbyeliminating
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1993 309
dysfunctionalmisperceptions....
Itallcomesdowntoabasictenet:Inordertofacilitatechangeonalargerlevel,indi-
vidualsmustirstworkforchangeonapersonallevel.Tobecomeatrueandeffectiveagent
ofchange,onemustfacilitatechangewithinoneself.
IN1993DR.BEAUFLYJONES,ASENIORDIRECTOROFTHENORTHCENTRALREGIONALEducational
Laboratory(NCREL)inOakBrook,IllinoisandastrongadvocateandpractitionerofSkin-
nerian mastery learning, wrote “The Unfolding of an International Partnership: A Story of
RussiaandtheU.S.”publishedinEFAToday(No.2,January–March,1993).Excerptsfollow
whichillustratetheextentofcontroversialexchangeactivitiesduetothe1985U.S.-Sovietand
Carnegie-Sovietagreementsineducation:
Well-designedexchangesofteninvolvestrongemotions,includingcaring,empathy,andthe
excitement of discovery, and individuals may return from such exchanges not only with
cognitiveparadigmshifts,butalsowithlife-changingvaluesandinterests.
ThishasbeenthecasewiththeNCRELinvolvementinRussia.
In January 1992, the Russian Ministry of Education assumed control of the former
SovietMinistry’sresponsibilities.Dr.EdwardDneprov,thenewminister,initiatedmassive
reformsfocusingondecentralization,democratization,andthedemilitarizationoftheRus-
sianschoolsystem.
NCREL’srelationshipwiththenewRussianMinistrybeganwithaninvitationtojoin
theMetropolisProject,acollaborationamongschoolsinChicago,Moscow,andAmsterdam.
TheobjectiveoftheProjectistoidentifyanddevelopsuccessfulmodelsofsystemicchange
inanurbancontext.Tothisend,theProjectinvolvesresearch,training,andexchangesof
schoolstaffinthethreecities.Themesthatguidetheseeffortsareauthenticlearning,global
educationandstrategicteaching....
…Metropolisschoolswerebeingselected,andoneofthehighlightsofthedelegation’s
FebruarytourwasthesigningofaLetterofCooperationbetweentheRussianMinistryand
theChicagoPublicSchools....
ExistingexchangesbetweentheU.S.andRussiatendtofocusonuniversitystudents
ortheteachingofforeignlanguages.Forthatreason,oneofthemajorproblemsinobtaining
fundingfortheMetropolisProjectwasthatitinvolvedanewlevelofexchange,thistime
betweenRussiaandU.S.teachersandadministrators,aswellasachangeinthenatureof
theexchange,whichwouldfocusonschoolreformandschool-basedtraining.
JAMESCOLLINSANDMARTINHABERMANECHOEDEUGENEBOYCEINTHEFEBRUARY1993issueof
TheJournalofAssociatingTeacherEducatorsinanarticleentitled“TheFutureoftheTeaching
Profession”whentheysaid:
Schoolingisnowseenasprimarilyjobtrainingand,forthisreason,quitecomparableto
schoolinginnon-democraticsocieties.Onceeducationisredeinedasapersonalgoodand
asemphasizingpreparationforthisworldofworkasitsirstpurpose,ourschoolscanap-
propriatelybecomparedwiththoseintheU.S.S.R.31
310
THEREADING[PENNSYLVANIA]EAGLE/TIMES OFMARCH2,1993 CARRIED AN ARTICLEentitled
“DemingLashesoutinLiveTeleconferenceonQuality”byDonSpatz.Excerptsfollow:
Itwasn’tsupposedtohappen.FeaturingthefamousDr.W.EdwardsDeming,lastweek’slive
videoconferenceamong900collegesanduniversities—includingKutztownUniversity—was
supposedtobeanagreeablesessiontoutingthebeneitsof“CreatingLearningOrganizations:
GrowththroughQuality.”InsteaditturnedintoarunningbattlebetweenDemingandthe
otherpanelists.TheydroppedDeming’snameforeverythingtheyespoused;Demingsaid
theywere“diggingasdeepapitforeducationastheyhaveforbusiness.”...
“Theyneedtounderstandwherethey(workers)itinthetotalprocess,”saidPeterSenge,
authoranddirectoroftheOrganizationalLearningCenterattheMassachusettsInstituteof
Technology’sSloanSchoolofManagement.“Theruleistofacilitatealearningenvironment
wherepeoplecangrowandchange.”
Buttheretheagreementseemedtoend.
Sengeandhispanelistsspokeatlengthofhowtheorganizationworksbecauseofthe
way“wethinkandinteract;ofhowcompaniesshouldnolongerhavebossandworkersbut
rathershouldhaveleadershipthroughouttheorganization;ofeveryoneconstantlyasking
questionsofeveryoneelse;ofnotexpectinganoutsidertocomeinandixthingsbutof
expectingworkersthemselvestosolveproblems.”
Andtheyspokeofeveryonebeinggiventheabilitytospeak—throughaseriesofdia-
logues—andtosharetheirownanswerstoproblemsatanyleveloftheorganization.
“There’sadeepdesirewithinustore-establishourabilitytoconversewitheachother,”
Sengesaid.
Demingagreedthebasisforanynegotiationisforeverybodytowin.“Buthavingev-
erybodytalkdoesnotproduceknowledge,”hesaid.“Thatonlycomesfromhardwork,and
usuallycomesfromoutsidetheorganization,”hesaid.“Youarediggingdeeperthispitwe
arein,”hesaid.“Havingeverybodyinvolvedisnotgoingtodoit.”
Sengenotedemployees’moralewillriseiftheyareinvolved.
“That’snotameasureofimprovement,”Demingretorted.“That(discussion)willnot
produceanythingnew.Itwilljustdigthepitdeeper.”...
Later,whenpanelistssaidtheywantedtoexpandtheconceptofeducation,theynoted
thesystemofgivingtestsandlettergradesisoutmoded.Deminginterrupted,notingtheir
philosophyis“justasdestructiveineducationasithasbeeninindustry.”
THEMARCH3,1993 ISSUE OFEDUCATIONWEEK RAN THE ARTICLE“CENTERLISTSSKILLSBoth
Disabled,Non-DisabledShouldHave.”Anexcerptfollows:
Afederallyfundedresearchcenterhasunveiledalistofacademicandlifeskillsitsays
allstudents—disabledaswellasnon-disabled—shouldhaveuponleavingschool.Thewide-
ranginglistcompiledbytheNationalCenterforEducationalOutcomesattheUniversityof
Minnesotaincludes25outcomesforwhatyoungpeopleshouldgainfromschooland77
indicatorsofwhetherthoseoutcomesarebeingachieved.“Weoughttobetryingtoachieve
thebestpossibleoutcomesforallkids,”saidJamesE.Ysseldyke,thedirectoroftheCenter.
“Weshouldn’thaveaseparatesystemofoutcomesandeducatorsfordisabledkids.”...The
lifeskillsidentiiedbytheCenterincludetheabilitytogetalongwithothers,toberesponsible
forone’sself,andtosuccessfullymanagedailylife.Uponleavingschool,theindicatorssay
studentsshouldbeabletomake“healthylifestylechoices,”tocopewithstresses,andto
volunteerintheircommunities,amongotheroutcomes.
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1993 311
[Ed. Note: The above makes sense in light of the fact that “scientiic research-based”
(behaviorist/operantconditioning)direct,systematicphonics(DISTARorReadingMastery)
isthephonicsreadingprogramdevelopedforspecialeducationstudents,whichwillbeused
forallstudentsundertheReadingExcellenceActof1998passedbyCongress.Thisalsofore-
shadowstheemphasisonfullfundingfortheIndividualswithDisabilitiesinEducationAct
(IDEA)inthe1999debatesoverthereauthorizationoftheElementaryandSecondaryEduca-
tionAct(ESEA).]
THEAPRIL14,1993DRAFTOFTHEMICHIGANHIGHSCHOOLPROFICIENCYCOMMUNICAtionsArts
Frameworkswaspublished.Excerptsfollow:
UseLiteraturetoBroadenExperiences
Toattainthisgoalliteratureisused:
• toexaminebeliefsandattitudes.
• toreshapestudents’thoughtsbyhavingtheminteractwithotherpeopleandcultures
whomayhavediverseperspectives.
• toconversewithothermindsaboutimportantandsigniicantissues.
• tolearnabouthumanconditionsthatoccuracrosstimeandspace.
• togaininsightsintoandrelectupontheirownandothers’lives.(p.37)
[Ed.Note:Theirsttwo“purposes”fortheuseofliteraturewereremovedinthe1994Final
AssessmentFrameworkfortheMichiganHighSchoolProiciencyTestinReadingduetocon-
troversy.Pleasecheckthe1994entryonMichigan’sCommunicationArtsFrameworkforan
excellentexplanationoftherealpurposeofwholelanguagereadinginstruction.]
“INTEREST INCHARACTEREDUCATIONSEENGROWING” WAS PUBLISHED IN THEMAY1993issue
oftheAssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment’s(ASCD)EducationUpdate.
Someexcerptsfollowregardingthemovetodevelopprogramswhichwillbeacceptabletothe
publicwhilehopefullynotresultinginlawsuitsiledundertheFirstAmendmenttotheU.S.
Constitutionoverseparationofchurchandstate.AccordingtoASCD:
Thesubjectofcontroversyandconfusioninthelastseveraldecades,charactereducation
ismakingaresurgenceinpublicschools.Thismovementisbuiltonagrowingconsensusin
favorofteachingasetoftraditionalor“core”ethicalvaluesinamoredirectway.
Expertstrackingthistrendsaythecharactereducationmovementisgrowinginresponse
topressureplacedonschoolsbothtoreducestudentantisocialbehavior—includingdrug
useandviolence—andtoproducemorerespectfulandresponsiblecitizens.
Thereawakeningisoccurring“becausepeoplearebangingontheschoolhousedoor,”
saysKevinRyan,directoroftheBostonUniversityCenterfortheAdvancementofEthicsand
Character.“Theinvitationiscomingfromoutside.Parentsandpolicymakersaredisturbed
byatotalinabilityofourculturetopassonitsvalues.”
ThomasLickona,anauthorandprofessorofeducationattheStateUniversityofNew
YorkatCortland,seesthemotivatingforceasa“growingnationalsenseofmoralcrisisand
whatpeoplespeakofasasteadymoraldecline.”Someofthecausesbeingdiscussedare
thebreakdownofthefamily,thefailureofadultstoexercisemoralleadership,andtheaban-
donmentofethicsatalllevels.Societyisnowturningbacktoschoolstotransmitpositive
312
moralvalues.GallupPollsprovideoneindicationofthegrowingsupportforschool-based
valueseducation;pollsineachofthelastseveralyearsshowthatparentsstronglyagreethat
schoolsneedtoprovideinstructiononmoralsandmoralbehavior.
But even with broadening public support, some schools may be reluctant to adopt
explicitvaluescurriculumpartlybecauseofthecheckeredpastofvalueseducationandthe
fearofcreatingconlictwithreligiousandethnicgroupsoverwhosevaluestoteach.
THEEFFECTIVESCHOOLREPORT’SMAY1993ISSUECARRIED“DIALOGUESININTERNAtionalEdu-
cation”byNickZienauwhichdiscussedaconferenceinSochi,RussiaorganizedbytheMinistry
ofRussiaandaNorwegiannetworkknownasIMTECwhichworkswiththeU.S.Department
ofEducation’sMidcontinentRegionalEducationalLaboratory(McREL),thedeveloperofTactics
forThinking.Thewriterhasselectedthefollowingcuriousexcerptswhichindicatethatsome
fairlyweirdactivitiesaretakingplaceinRussiadealingwitheducationandbrainresearch,
activitiesinwhichEuropeanandAmericaneducatorsareinvolved:
EvenorganisingaconferenceseemedbeyondthecapacityoftheMinistryofEducation
itself!SomeWesternersevenleftinimpatienceatthedreadfullackofmovementineither
thepracticalorganisationoftheeventorinmovingthediscussionsonbeyondwhatseemed
tothemendlessbizarrephilosophicalramblings.
Soafter3daysinRussia,IwasamazedwheninashoddyhotelinSochiontheBlack
Sea,IirstheardayoungwomanspeakaboutEducationalCultures,alternativeschoolsand
withpassionaboutphilosophyandpedagogy.
AsTatyanaKovalyovatalkedaboutherschoolinTomskwith25teachersand25phi-
losophersworkingtogether,IrealizedwhatanenormouslydifferentvalueisplacedinRussia
oneducationthaninarichWestwhere30kidsarelikelytogetoneteacherbetweenthem.I
couldalsoseewhatanimpactthishadonthedegreetowhichveryfundamentalprocesses
oflearningwereunderstoodandexperimentedwith.
…Activephysicistsandintellectualsseemedtobethereaswellasprofessionalteach-
ers, schools in which university staff taught seven-year-olds mathematics! And yet they
were really interested in how children and people learn as a science—they kept talking
aboutresearchtheyweredoing.…TheircontinuousinterestinresearchremindedmeofTV
playsaboutCrickandWatsonresearchingthestructureofDNAortheManhattanproject
inthewarwhenateamofscientistssearching[sic]forthekeytoatomicbombsbeforethe
Germansgotthem.Itwasthatsamefeelingofbeinginatthemomentofdiscoveryofsome
basicunderstandingofhowtheworldworks.…
AlotofstuffiswritteninEuropeabouttheideasofthe“learningorganisation”but
itwasinRussiathatIreallyfoundoutwhatsuchathingfeelslike.InEuropeIbelievewe
havealwaysbeenrestrictedintheseprinciplesoflearningbytheresistancetonewthinking
thatadultsdevelop.InRussiaandinparticularinEureka[Russiantermforlargeteacher
professionaldevelopmentseminars]Ifoundawhole-heartedcommitmenttochangeand
developmentthatbothimpressedmeandattimesalarmedme.
Thereisakindofruthlessnesswhichseemsassociatedwithdoinganythingquiteso
singlemindedly,andsoitiswithEureka.IntheRussiancontextitseemsrathernaturalthat
suchacompleteandradicalapproachtochangeisnowpossible.ThequestionthatIthink
AlexanderandhiscolleaguesconfrontuswithishowfarareweintheWestreallyprepared
tolookatourbasicassumptionsandtheevidencethatthingsneedtochange?…
Firstly,thereseemsanoverwhelmingneedinternationallytoimproveanddevelopthe
educationsystemtopreparethenextgenerationforahugelydifferentworld….Theending
313
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1993
ofthecoldwarmakesitpossibletoreunitethreadsofthinkinganddevelopmentineducation
andlearningthathavebeenlongkeptseparate.
…WebelievewehavereachedapointofsynergybetweenourteamintheWestand
thatofAlexanderintheEastthatwillresultinaninnovativenewstepingrouplearningfor
educatorsandthoseinterestedinthesubjectoflearningsystems.
Intheend,mybestrecommendationmustbethatIseetheseminarinCaliforniaasa
furtherchallenge,afurtheropportunitytodeveloptogetherandarealchancetobeatthe
cuttingedgeofdevelopmenttowardsa21stcenturythatIwanttobearoundin.Hopeto
seeyouallthere.
(NickZienauisaseniorpartnerinZienauConsultingwhichtogetherwithCascade
InternationalofSanFranciscoisorganisingtheseminar.TheRussianpartnerinthisenter-
priseisEurekaFreeUniversity,Moscow.)
SUSTAINABLEAMERICA:ANEWCONSENSUS FORPROSPERITY,OPPORTUNITY ANDHEALTHYEn-
vironment for the Future was published in 1993 by the President’s Council on Sustainable
Development.Inchapter3,“InformationandEducation,”underasubtitle“ReformingFormal
Education”thereportsays:
Educatingforsustainabilitydoesnotfollowacademictheoriesaccordingtoasingle
disciplinebutratheremphasizesconnectionsamongallsubjectareas,aswellasgeographic
andculturalrelationships....
Educationforsustainabilityisnotanadd-oncurriculum—thatis,itisnotanewcore
subjectlikemathorscience.Instead,itinvolvesanunderstandingofhoweachsubjectrelates
toenvironmental,economic,andsocialissues.
AN INTERVIEW WITHKENHAZLIP ANDJAMESBLOCK WAS INCLUDED IN THEFALL1993issueof
Outcomes,theOutcome-BasedEducationmovement’sjournalmentionedinpreviousentries
inthisbook.Excerptsfromthatinterviewfollow:
Jim:Tostayonthispointaboutlabels,thismovement,thisideaset,hasmadeseveral
choicesoflabels.AtonetimeitwascalledMasteryLearning,anotherOutcomes-
Based Education, and now Partners for Quality Learning. Yet much of what has
driventhismovementundertheOBElabelhasnotchangedfromMasteryLearning
andwhathaschangedstillcomesfromtheresearchdoneundertheMasteryLearn-
ingrubric.WillthisnewQualityLearninglabelstimulateabetterideabasethan
theoldlabelOBE?
Ken:Idoubtit.ThepowerofourmovementstillderivesfromtheoriginalMastery
Learningidea.…
Jim:WhenwewereaMasteryLearningmovement,wewereconcernedwithschools
andschooldistricts.Aswemovetoquality,westarttoseelinkagesbetweenschool
andtheworkplace....
Ken:Ourschoolenvironmentcertainlydoesnotlooklikethis.Theironyofthelink-
agesyoudescribeisthatwewillhavetolooktoindustryto“ix”problemsthatwe
haveimportedfromoldindustrialpracticesbecauseweweretryingsohardtolook
likefactoriesyearsago.
Jim:Iamalittlesurprisedbyyourresponse.Itseemstomethatoneofthecharac-
314
teristicsoftheworkplaceisthatitisorganizedtoproduceaproduct.…Surelyyou
arenotarguingthattheworkplaceandtheworkworldisthesamekindofplacethat
weshouldgenerateforkidsinourschools?
Ken:Again,itdependsonthelevelofhealththattheworkplacepresentsus.
Jim:Sowhatweareinthebusinessofdoingisjustgeneratinglittleworkers?Where
dothekidscomeintotheequationofthisprocess?
Ken:Kidsshoulddrivethetermsformingtheequation.Weshouldbelookingatthem
andtheirneedstodeterminehowbesttoworkwiththem,notforcingtheminto
themouldourtraditionalclassroomsandtraditionalmethodsrequire....Mostwork-
placesarestill180degreesawayfromthis,however—theyarenegative,coercive,
demanding.ButmanyintheAmericanworkplacearereinventingorreengineering
thatworkplace.Manyarebeginningtolookatthe“old”researchthatJohnChamplin
mentionedinoursummerinterview—GetzelsandGubaandtheirorganizational
developmentwork,Herzberg’smotivation-hygienework,andDeming’sideas[TQM].
Inreinventingtheworkplace,theybelieveitcanbecausedtobebothproductive
andsatisfyingfortheworker.Wecancreatethatintheclassroomandhavekids
whoarechallenged,motivated,andexcitedtobethere....
Jim:…Ourmovementhasbaseditseffortsontheresearch,butapparentlytheresearchin
thiscaseisperceivedaseitheroutofdateoroutoffashion.Whydoweneedtolook
outsidetoindustryformodelsthatwehavedescribedinsidetheML/OBEield?
Ken:Somanyoftheconceptspresentedbybusinessgurusaboutworkplacechange
aresummedupverywellinMasteryLearning’sbasicbeliefs.
Jim:IsitthatpeoplewithintheMasteryortheOutcomesmovementcanonlygoso
far,ordoweneedaswiftkickfromtheoutside?
Ken:Asfarasourmentalmodelsgo,experienceandenvironmenthaveputburden-
someblindersonus,andmanywillnotseetheimplicationsofideasuntiltheyare
approachedfromadifferentperspective.Iwouldratherwedidnotneedsomany
detours, but if Deming gets us closer to better schools, then we “do” Deming. I
incorporatedhisideasandmanybusinessmodelswhenIwasdirectingadistrict’s
restructuringefforts.Weallwanttheresearchtodriveourefforts,butourmovement’s
MasteryLearningresearchexistsinabroadercontext,andeducationresearchjust
doesnothavealotofcredibilityamongtoomanyeducators.Thereasonsaremostly
poorones,buttheyexistnonethelessandformarealbarriertochange.IfDeming
presentsanideawithouttheresearchprejudicebaggageattached,Iwillstartwith
Demingandendupteachingthegroupabouttheresearch.
ALETTERFROMLAWRENCEW.LEZOTTE,PUBLISHEROFEFFECTIVESCHOOLSRESEARCHAbstracts,
waswrittentohiscolleaguesinSeptember,1993.Anexcerptfollows:
First, whether or not you have been engaged in this debate as yet, you need to become
familiarwiththeconcernsandissuesoftheChristianCoalition.Youmustbepreparedto
respondtoitschallenges,whichareoftenbasedonhalftruthsandmisinformation.These
issuesmustbecarefullyandclearlyexplainedtothosecitizenswhowishtoheartheedu-
cators’pointofview.Thiswillrequireallofustobefamiliarwiththeresearchonsuch
importanttopicsasMasteryLearning,ContinuousProgress,andDe-Tracking—tomention
justafew.Second,todevelopmainstreamcommunityinvolvement,Istronglyrecommend
thatschoolanddistrictleaderscreateataskforcetostudytheissuesrelatedtoschoolreform
andbepreparedtopresenttheirviewsalongwiththeviewsthatwillbepresentedbythe
ChristianCoalition.Itrulybelievethatifeducatorshavetodebatethecoalitionalone,more
oftenthannot,educatorswilllosethedebateonschoolreform.Weneedtomakesurethat
315
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1993
abroadcross-sectionofourcitizensareinvolvedintheimportantdebateonthefutureof
publiceducationand,inturn,thefutureofournation.
[Ed.Note:WhilethisauthorthinksitisremarkablethatDr.Lezottewouldadmittobeing
atadisadvantageincombatting“resisters,”itissomewhatunfortunatethatheshouldgive
credittoonlyoneorganizationasbeingresponsiblefortheoppositionwhichrestructuring
hasencountered.Abroadcross-sectionofthecountry—includingteachersandadministrators
inpublicschools—hasbeeninthecampofthe“resisters”whenitcomestorestructuring.
Thewriterindsithardtobelievethattheeducationalestablishment—withtheextraordinary
resourcesatitsdisposal—wasunabletoobtainthesupportofthecommunity,andfoundit
necessarytouseRonaldHavelock’schangeagentryonthecitizenry.
InwritingthisletterLezotteevidentlyiredtheirstshotofwarningtotheeducationcom-
munity,fornotsixmonthsafterLezotte’sletterwaswritten,aresearcherdownloadedfrom
theinternettheNationalEducationGoalsPanel’sCommunityActionToolkit,whichcontained
instructionsforcombattingcommunityresistancetorestructuring.Itprovidedrecommendations
foractionbyspeciiccommunityentities—thepress,civicorganizations,religiousentities,and
business—andsamplesofletterstotheeditor,advertisements,supportivelyers,andpublic
serviceannouncements,foruseinbuildingsupportforlocaleducationalrestructuring.Oneof
themostdistastefulresultsofthiseffortwastherecommendedmanipulationofthereligious
community.(SeeAppendixXIV.)]
THE IMPACT ON EDUCATION OF THEUNITEDSTATES SIGNING THENORTHAMERICANFREETrade
Agreementwasdiscussedinanarticleentitled“USIA’sGrantsGotoSchoolsinNAFTANa-
tions”publishedintheSeptember12,1993editionofTheWashingtonTimes.Someexcerpts
follow:
United States Information Agency Director Joseph Duffey attending a four-day “imple-
mentation”conferenceatVancouver,BritishColumbia,yesterdayannouncedtheirstNorth
Americanthree-wayuniversityafiliationgrantstoinvolveexchangesoffacultyandstaff
amongCanadian,MexicanandU.S.universitiesforteaching,lecturing,researchandcur-
riculumdevelopment.
“Weoftenhaveuniversityafiliationgrants,”Mr.Duffeysaidinaninterviewbefore
heleftforVancouver.“Thisistheirsttimewe’vedecidedtostartawardingthreeorfoura
yearthatinvolvedthreecountriesinNorthAmerica.”…EachUSIAawardwillcarryabout
$100,000,plustravelandperdiemexpenses,forexchangesoffaculty,administratorsand
educationalmaterials.
Theagreement,partofthebroadeneddialoguethathascomeoutoftheNorthAmer-
icanFreeTradeAgreement,willsupportanarrayofprojectsfocusedonhistory,economic
development,internationaltradeandtheenvironment.
“Whatweseektodois,amongotherthings,nothinglessthandismantlingbarriersto
academicmobility,”Mr.Duffeysaidinaspeechattheconference.
Mr.DuffeysaidheexpectstheNorthAmericancountriestosucceedinachievinga
senseofregionalcommunitywherethequestforacommoncommunityofnationsinWest-
ernEuropehasfoundered.
“We’retryingtoreversethetraditionofnationalismandpeople,whoinlookingto
theiridentity,lookbackwardstothepast,”hesaid.“Instead,wewantthemtolooktothe
future.”(p.A–5)
316
THE FOLLOWING LETTER FROMUTAHGOVERNORMICHAELO.LEAVITT AND HISSTATESUperin-
tendentofPublicInstructionScottW.Bean,datedSeptember30,1993,gaveaclearpictureof
theroleofthegovernorsoftheindividualstatesinimplementingUnitedNationsEducational,
ScientiicandCulturalOrganization’s(UNESCO)lifelonglearning“cradle-to-grave”agendain
theUnitedStates.Utah’sstatereport,“AUtahPerspectiveontheNationalEducationGoals,”
waswrittenandeditedbyDr.DavidE.NelsonoftheUtahStateOficeofEducationwhowas
alsoinvolvedinthe1984UtahOBEgrant.Someexcerptsfollow:
AttheeducationsummitinCharlottesville,Virginia,inSeptember1989,thenation’sgovernors
agreedtoestablishnationaleducationgoalsandasystemtoassessandmonitorprogress
towardachievingthem.Today,September30,1993,theanniversaryofthehistoricsummit,
theNationalEducationGoalsPanelwillissueitsthirdannualeducationreport.Thereport
willfocusonnationalandstateprogresstowardachievingtheeducationgoalssetin1990
by the President and the governors. This progress report will inform the nation on how
wellwearedoingoneachofthegoals.Thegovernorsalsoagreedtoreportindividuallyon
effortsoftheirrespectivestatesrelatedtotheirstate’sperformancetowardachievingthe
nationalgoals.
Ourownreport,“AUtahPerspectiveontheNationalEducationGoals,”isissuedto
citizensofthestateofUtahtoinformthemontheprogressbeingmadeinourstatetoward
thenationalgoals.Becausethegoalsare“cradletograve”andcoverthepreschoolyearsand
theafterschoolyears,theinformationhasbeencompiledfrommanystateagencies.Meeting
allofthesesixgoalswillrequirethecoordinationandworkofallstateagencies.
INLONNIEHARP’SARTICLE“WIDELYMIXEDTESTRESULTSLEAVESOMEINKENTUCKYPuzzled,”
whichappearedinEducationWeek’sOctober13,1993issue,theproblemswiththenational
reform leader’s implementation of its widely-acclaimed restructuring—Kentucky Education
RestructuringAct(KERA)—wereoutlined.Anexcerptfollows:
As Kentucky moves toward implementation of its path-breaking system of rewards and
sanctionsforschools,statestudentshavehandedoficialsahard-to-readsnapshotofthe
progressofreform.
Resultsofthesecondyearofanewopen-endedassessmentsystem,releasedlastmonth,
producedwidelymixedresultsand,inthecaseofolderstudents,sometroublingdeclines.
THENOVEMBER15,1993 ISSUE OFTHEATLANTACONSTITUTION CARRIED AN ARTICLEentitled
“WareStudentsAreDrawntoSwampyExperiment:MagnetSchoolMakesOkefenokeeItsLab.”
Outliningwhatcouldbeinterpretedastheuseofmagnet/charterschoolsinaschool-to-work
scenario,excerptsfollow:
TheWareCountySchoolofAgriculture,EnvironmentalandForestrySciencesisanexperiment
ineducationalexcellencethatwasyearsinthedreamingandapplication-pendingstages.
TheconceptwastocreateamagnetschoolunlikeanyotherintheSoutheast,aschool
wherethestudyofsciencesmostimportanttothesurroundinglandwouldbeincorporated
intoalmostallthecurricula.Thatwouldproducegraduatesorientedtowardthedisciplines
mostneededbyemployersintheregion’sforestryandagricultureindustries.
317
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1993
IN1993THESCHOOLTOWORKOPPORTUNITIESACTPASSEDTHEHOUSEOFREPRESENTAtiveswithout
arollcallvote.[ItpassedtheSenatein1994,ed.]ThislegislationcalledforSoviet/German
fullemployment/quota-typesystem,incorporatingtheDanishmodelforpolytecheducation.
Anyonefamiliarwiththislegislationwillrecognizethesimilaritybetweenitswordingandthe
lateProfessorEugeneBoyce’sdeinitionofcommunistpolytecheducation(foundinthisbook’s
1983entryforTheComingRevolutioninEducation)whichstatesthatthecommunists“do
noteducatepeopleforjobsthatdonotexist.Nosuchdirect,controlledrelationshipbetween
educationandjobsexistsindemocraticcountries.”
INACRITIQUEOFH.R.6—THEELEMENTARYANDSECONDARYEDUCATIONREAUTHORIZAtionAct
of1993—CynthiaWeatherlywroteinamemotothiswriter:
HR6isanomnibusbilloriginallypresentedtoCongressinJanuary1993asareauthorization
billforTheElementaryandSecondaryEducationActof1965.Theirstandlastparagraphs
ofthis901–pagetomearetheonlypartsoftheoriginalbillwhichremain.886pagesare
printedinitalics,whichmeansthatthereare886pagesofnewlanguage,otherwiseknown
as“newlaw.”Goals2000andtheNationalEducationGoalsPanelformtheframeworkfor
HR6.AlloftheeducationproposalsinHR6areconstructedinsuchawayastocause“the
nationtomeetthenationaleducationgoals.”Therefore,insteadofareauthorizationbillfor
ESEA1965,HR6becomestheimplementationbillforGoals2000andtheSchool-to-Work
bills.OneofthemostcontroversialcomponentsincludedinHR6dealswithbasicpedagogy
in which the framers deny the need for basic skills acquisition before engaging in more
complextasks.Referencestomorecontroversialcomponentsfollow:
[T]he “disproven theory that children must learn basic skills before engaging in more
complex tasks continues to dominate strategies for classroom instruction, resulting in
emphasisonrepetitivedrillandpracticeattheexpenseofcontent-richinstruction,ac-
celeratedcurricula,andeffectiveteachingtohighstandards.Useoflow-levelteststhat
arenotalignedwithcurriculafailstoprovideadequateinformationaboutwhatchildren
knowandcandoandencouragescurriculaandinstructionthatfocusonthelow-level
skillsmeasuredbysuchtests.
[H.R.6]Providesforrestructuringofournation’seducationandsocialservicesdelivery
systems....Localschoolsmayusefederalfundstoserveascentersfordeliveryofeducation
andhumanservicesformembersofthecommunity;unaccountableconsolidationofpro-
grams;waiversoflaws,outcome-basededucationlanguageandpractices;parentsaspartners
skilltraining;i.e.“Allparentscancontributetotheirchildren’ssuccessbyhelpingathome
andbecomingpartnerswithteacherssothatchildrencanachievehighstandards.”Requires
school-parentcompactsthatoutlinehowparents,staffandstudentswillshareresponsibility
forstudentachievementandmeansbywhichschoolandparentswillbuildanddevelopa
partnership,etc.;facilitatesschool-to-worktransition;encouragementtopursuepublicschool
choice,anddevelopmentofcharterschools.
WELCOMENEWSONTHEOUTCOME-BASEDEDUCATIONFRONTWASREPORTEDINANARTICLEentitled
“InLittleton,Colorado,VotersExpelEducationFaddists,”whichappearedintheNovember
18,1993issueofTheWallStreetJournal.ExcerptsfromthisarticlewhichillustratehowDavid
overcameGoliathinthelatetwentiethcenturyandrevealtheextentofcontroversyragingin
Littletonoveritsschoolsystem’sadoptionof“outcomes-basededucation”(OBE)follow:
318
There [Littleton, CO.], a slate of three “back-to-basics” candidates crushed another
coalition,includingtwoincumbents,thatsupportedahostoftrendyeducationalreforms
andwasbackedbytheeducationalestablishment.All15principals,forexample,released
anopenlettertovotersdenouncingtheinsurgentslate.Yetthemarginofvictorywasnearly
2to1.Whathadsogalvanizedvoters?Thefactthattheirdistrictisanationalleaderin
implementing“outcome-basededucation”(OBE)andthatoficialstherehad,asthejournal
EducationWeekexplainedinapre-electionarticleacknowledgingthecontests’signiicance,
“pioneerednewperformanceassessmentsandstandardsforhighschoolgraduation.”
…HavingacknowledgedthatAmericanschoolsareinneedofimprovement,agrowing
numberofeducatorsaregravitatingtowardtheviewthatthefaultliesintoomuchemphasis
on“contentknowledge”andnotenoughconcern,toquotetheLittletonprincipalagain,
with“decision-makingskills,thinkingskills,andtheabilitytoindanduseinformation.”
Or,toquotetheLittletonelementaryprincipals’letter,students“mustdomorethanspell
andcompute.Theymustbeabletoreason,persuadeandsolveproblems.”
Nevertheless,OBEproponents,withtheiremphasison“thinkingskills,”repeatedly
contrasttheirtheorywithanapproachthathasn’tbeeninvoguefordecades,oneofperpetual
rotelearninginwhichallcreativityisstiled.EducationWeekistypicalinpresentingthis
caricature.ItdescribedtheLittletonreformsasnothingmorethanencouragingstudents“to
focusonproblem-solvingratherthanmemorization”—asifanationinwhichonly32%of
17-year-oldsina1986surveycouldplacetheCivilWarinthecorrecthalf-centurywasin
dangerofstufingtoomanyfactsintostudents’heads.
AcrossAmerica,schooldistrictsareconsidering,orputtinginplace,reformssimilar
tothoseinLittleton.Educators,oftenwiththebestofintentions,arerewritingreportcards
toincludefuzzycriteriasuchasself-esteemandinterpersonalrelationships.Theyaredeni-
gratingstandardizedmeasurementsofknowledgeandthememorizationoffacts.Tobesure,
notalloftherethinkingismisguided,butsomeofitamountstodubiousexperimentation
onchildren.Littletonprovesthatwiththepropercandidates,themovementtowardavague,
“skill-oriented”curriculumcanbestoppedinitstracks.
[Ed.Note:Veryregrettablytheaboverefreshingandimpressivevictoryoverthebureaucracy
wasshort-lived.Slickchangeagenttacticsmanagedtobringatleastonenewsupposedlyanti-
reform,back-to-basicsboardmember“onboard”whatonehopedtobeasinkingship,thus
assuringareturntoimplementationofthe“nationally-detested”OBE.Littleton,Coloradobe-
cameoneofWillardDaggett’sModelSchoolsystemsandanationalmodelforimplementation
ofoutcome-basededucation.
SixyearslaterLittletontragicallymadefront-pagenewsnationallyandinternationally
whenonApril20,1999,twoteenagersatColumbineHighSchoolkilledtwelvestudentsand
oneteacher,woundingmanyotherswithshotgunblasts,automaticpistolire,andhomemade
pipebombs,afterwhichtheytooktheirownlives.Thiswastheworstofwhathasbecome
arashofschoolviolenceagainstfellowstudentsandteachersbyyoungpeople.Thesitesof
thislengtheninglistoftragediesarealsositesofschoolsandschoolsystemswhichhavebeen
restructuredandembracedtheoutcome-based/performance-based/masterylearningconcepts
ofschooling,withalltheprogramsandmethodswithwhichtheyareassociated.Thiswriter,
inalettertotheeditorpublishedbyseveralnationaljournals,discussedwhatsheperceivesto
beapossiblecauseofsuchviolence.Thetextofthisletterisreprintedhereinitsentirety:
AnimportantquestionshouldbeexaminedinregardtothetragedyinLittleton,Col-
orado.“Whatwasgoingoninsidethebrainsofthetwoboyswhocommittedthisterrible
crime?”
319
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1993
NotonlyshouldAmericanspointtheingeratviolenttelevisionasareasonforcopycat
violence.Theyshouldexaminetheeffectsofcomputersandcomputergamesonthehuman
brain.Iamnoexpert,butthecomputerisanoperantconditioningmachineandnolessthan
thelateHarvardProfessorB.F.Skinner,thefatherofoperantconditioning,referredtoitas
“hisbox.”Operantconditioningbypassesthebrainwithalltheimportantfunctionswhich
distinguishmanfromananimal:memory,conscience,imagination,insight,andintuition,
functionsbywhichhumanbeingsknowabsolutesandtruthsandareabletoknowGod.
Useofcomputerprogramming(simulation/virtualreality)totrainindividualstoly
anairplane,performsurgery,etc.serveaveryusefulpurpose.Ontheotherhand,thesame
simulation/virtualrealitycomputerwargamevideoswhichallowtheindividualtoengage
inkillinginabloodyandviolentatmosphere,playedoverandoveragain,desensitizethe
individualtotheevilactofkilling,wherebytheindividual,asaprogrammedrobot,indsit
increasinglyeasytocarrythisdistortedvisionofrealityoutsideintootherareasofhislife,
suchasaschoolbuildingorplayground.Ifthatindividualhappenstobefullofhatred,it
doesn’ttakemuchimaginationtoigureoutwhat“programmed”actionheorshemaytake
inordertoventthathatredandfrustration.
Theuseofcomputer-assistedinstructioninschool,whichunfortunatelyhasbeenac-
ceptedasthealternativetotraditionaleducation,shouldalsobeofsomeconcerntothose
seekingananswertoschoolviolence.Thesameoperantconditioning,uponwhichschool
programs for all disciplines is based, can be used for training an individual to perform.
Skinner said “I could make a pigeon a high achiever by reinforcing (rewarding) it on a
properschedule”and“Whatisreinforced(rewarded)willberepeated.”Such“training”is
not“education”inthetraditionalsensesinceitdoesnottransfer.Withtraditionalacademic
“education”astudentiscapableoftransferringwhathelearnstootherareasofhislife,at
somefuturetime.Hecanstoretheinformationforfutureuse;itisinhisbrainwhereitis
abletoberelectedupon,wherehissoul,memoryandconscienceareabletoinluencethe
informationanddecisionshemakes.
Notsowithoperantconditioningwherenosuchtransferoccurs.Childrenwhospend
theirschoolyears“learning”(being“trained”)inthismannercanbeexpectedtoexperience
acertainfrustrationanddehumanizationintheirbehaviorsincethecreativefunctionsof
thebrainarebeingconstantlycutoff.Operantconditioningexperimentsonanimalshave
causedsimilarfrustrationandviolentbehavior.
IfLittleton,Coloradoschoolsareanythinglikeotherschoolsaroundthenation,they
are using the highly controversial “scientiic research-based” Outcome-Based Education/
MasteryLearning/DirectInstructionbasedonSkinnerianbehavioralpsychology,whichis
necessaryforSchool-to-Workprogramsandworkforcetraining.OBEandcomputer-assisted
instructiongotogetherasahanditsinaglove.Thecombinationamountstoamostlethal
concoctionforourchildren.
Ifearthatunlessweexaminetheuseandeffectofvideogamesandtheusefortwelve
yearsofcomputersintheclassroomwemayexperiencemoreLittletons.Isittoofar-fetchedto
assumethathewhoistrainedlikeananimalmayjustendupbehavinglikeananimal?]
EDDIEPRICE, A39-YEAR-OLD SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHER WITH SEVENTEEN YEARS OF TEACHingex-
perience,wrote“AReignofTerror—ImpressionsofKERA”whichappearedintheDecember,
1993issueofTheHancockClarionofHawesville,Kentucky.Excerptsfromhisimportantand,
onemightpointout,extremelycourageousarticlefollow:
Iwouldneverdoanythingtojeopardizemyteachingcareeror,evenmoreimportantly,the
320
securityofmyfamily,butIMUSTspeakoutagainstwhatIperceiveasamassivewrongin
education—theKentuckyEducationReformAct(KERA).
TheperpetratorsofKERAbeganinundatingourschoolswithmountainsofregulations,
restrictions, and KERA mandates.... When we expressed our concerns we were told “Be
patient....GiveKERAachance....Teachers,weneedyourhelp.Thisisapartnership.”
KERA’sOutcomesappearedtothrowthehard,objective,factualsubjectmatterout
thewindowinfavorofaffectivegoals(moreconcernedwithemotionsandfeelings).Our
curriculumwouldhavetobepareddownandstructuredaroundvaluesandattitudes.
WhenteachersvoicedconcernsaboutnotmeetingtheValuedOutcomes,theywere
“soothed” with the explanation that schools would be given the chance to improve. “A
‘KentuckyDistinguishedEducator’willbesenttoyourbuildingtohelpyougrow.”ThenI
learnedthatthisoficialhadtheabsolutepowertodeclaretheschool“ASchoolinCrisis”!
Theprincipal,andindividualteacherscouldbeeliminatedwiththesinglestrokeofapen.
Pastperformances,evaluations,educationaldegrees,experience,awards,studentachieve-
mentoutsideofKERAwouldmeannothing....
WhenIsatdownandreadtheentirehistoryofKERA’sevolution,Irealizedthatour
lawmakersand,evenworse,ourpublichadbeenskillfullyandstrategicallyduped.KERA
hadbeenslicklypackagedindeceptivelanguageof“glitteringgeneralities”thatthepublic
seemedeagertoswallowinthenameofreform.Whocouldarguewithsuchglossywords
as“excellence,”“revamping,”“progress,”“outcome-based,”“self-esteem,”etc.,unlessthey
are“traditional,”“hidebound,”“inlexible,”and“resistanttochange”?Irealizedthatour
distinguishedandinfalliblecommissionerbaskedinthefulllimelightofapresshehadmas-
terfullymanaged.Kentuckynewspapereditorshadbeenappointedtostatecommitteesin
thenameof“progress”andtheireditorialsprovided—freeofcharge—anexcellentsoapbox
fromwhichtoindoctrinatethepublic.Pro-KERAarticlesandcommentshavenoproblem
makingheadlineswhileotherswithopposingviewsmustpayexorbitantsumsfor“political
advertisements.” School principals and test scores can be subjectively manipulated from
abovetobringdowntheKentuckyDistinguishedEducatorsuponschools“notpolitically
correct.”Fora“dissident,”teachinginthepublicschoolstodayissimilartolivingundera
Stalinist“ReignofTerror.”
Thisisallsoincrediblyun-Americanthatsomeone,maybetheFBIagain,mustinves-
tigateourlegislaturetodiscoverhowandwhysuchamassivepieceoflegislationpassed
withoutmorediscussion.Howmanymillionshavealreadybeensquandered?Howmany
millionsmore?Noonetrulyhadachancetoexamineitfully.Thepubliceducationhear-
ingsheldacrossthestatewerestructuredaroundapreconceivedplandevisedbyanational
organization—thePritchardCommittee.Thewholethingwasrammeddownthepublic’s
throatbeforeanyonecouldmobilize.Mostconcernedwereplacatedbythefalsenotionthat
parentsandteacherswouldhavemorecontrolwiththe“depoliticalization”ofeducation.
Theendresult?Ourlocal,electedschoolboards(thosemostresponsivetoacommunity’s
needs)werevirtuallystrippedoftheirpowerwhilestatecontroldrasticallytightened.The
statenowmandatestheoutcomes,approvesthecurriculum,trainstheteachers,andjudges
theperformanceofstudents—allofwhichmustconformtoKERA.
[Ed.Note:Hadthemedia,overthepasttenyears,beenwillingtopublishthemanyarticles
andletterstotheeditorwhichmirroredEddiePrice’sconcerns,thenationalrestructuringef-
fortwouldbedeadinitstracks.Evenwithcensorshipofopponents’views,restructuringhas
runupagainstintenseoppositionandis“indeeptrouble.”Anarticlewhichappearedinthe
October10,1998issueoftheLouisville,KentuckyCourierJournalentitled“KentuckySchools
TestScoresVaryLittlefromLastYear”showsthatKERAhasbeenatotallop,ashaveall
theothermulti-milliondollar,corporation-backedstatereformactsimplementedacrossthe
321
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1994
country.WhereverCarnegie’sDavidHornbeckgoesonecanexpectairst-classacademiclop!
Ofcourse,lopsareessentialinordertoconvincethepublicthat“workforcetraining”isthe
solution—thedeliberatedumbingdownatwork.]
1994
U.S.COALITIONFOREDUCATIONFORALL:AHISTORYWASPUBLISHEDIN1994BYTHEU.S.Coalition
forEducationforAllbasedinWashington,D.C.Excerptsfromthatpublicationfollow:
U.S.delegatesfromgovernmentagenciesandnon-governmentalorganizationsparticipated
inthe1990WorldConferenceandhelpedtopreparetheEducationforAll(EFA)goalsand
actionplan.InFebruary1991theU.S.CoalitionforEducationforAll(USCEFA)wascreated
topromoteEFAawarenessandactivitiesintheUnitedStatesandtoserveasalinktothe
globalEFAmovement.…In1991,USCEFAhelditsirstmajorconference,“LearningforAll:
BridgingDomesticandInternationalEducation.”…
…FromthisconferencetheUSCEFA’sagendaunfolded.USCEFAorganizedasymposium
entitled“IntegratingSocialServicesandEducation:ALookatCollaborationandDelivery.”
AttheirstmeetingoftheInternationalConsultativeForumonEFA,U.N.sponsorssingled
outUSCEFAasamodelfornationalinitiativessupportingbasiceducationworldwide.This
forumselectedUSCEFAtoleadaninternationaltaskforcetoexploretheinvolvementof
mediaineducation....
USCEFA’s1994maineventsincluded:asymposiumentitled“TheEducationalImpli-
cationsofNAFTA”[NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement]thataddressededucationalissues
emerginginthewakeofthesigningoftheNAFTAagreement;co-sponsorshipofaglobal
teleconferenceentitled“GlobalInterdependence:theUnitedStatesandtheThirdWorld.”
USCEFA’smostprominent1994eventisitsDecemberconference;“TheRevolutioninWorld
Education:TowardSystemicChange.”Thisconferenceexploressystemicchangeineducation
andtheachievementofeducationalgoalsandoutcomesaroundtheworld....USCEFAwill
continuetocooperateinternationallytokeepthespiritoftheJomtienConferencealiveand
tomakeEducationforAllarealityathomeandabroad.
“TOOBEORNOTTOOBE?”WASTHEQUESTIONPOSEDBYMARJORIELEDELL,ASSOCIATEofWil-
liamSpady’sinhisHighSuccessNetwork,inherarticleforEducationalLeadership’sJanuary
1994issue.Frompage18weread:
Finally,raisetherealissueanddependondemocracy.Don’tlet“toOBEorNottoOBE”
or“toimplementornotimplementeffortstoimprovestudentlearning”cloudtheoverdue
nationaldebateaboutwhetherpubliceducationshouldexistorbereplacedwithpublicly
fundedprivateeducation.
THEJANUARY1994ISSUEOFTHEEFFECTIVESCHOOLREPORTCARRIEDANARTICLEENtitled“Alter-
nativeAssessmentofStudentAchievement:TheOpenBookTest”byThomasA.Kelly,Ph.D.
Anexcerptfollows:
322
Allclassroomtestsshouldbeopenbooktests....Wearemovingtowardhigherlevelthink-
ingandawayfrommemorizationoffacts.Givethemthefacts.Onceweleaveschool,we
canusereferencesanytimewewant.Wearenolongerrequiredtomemorizeendlesslists
offacts,formulas,etc.Openbooktestswillmoveschoolactivitiesmuchclosertoreallife
activities.Thehumanbrainshouldbeusedforprocessing,notstorage.
[Ed.Note:Initiallythewriter’sreactiontothisquotewasdisbelief,andthenplainrevulsion
overwhatcanonlybereferredtoasapervasivemindsetfoundinthoseeducatorswhohave
been“transformed”intomanagersofthelearningprocess,totalqualitytechnicians,etc.A
trueunderstandingofthesigniicanceofDr.Kelly’sstatementcametomeonlyafterGenYvette
Sutton, a ine researcher from Pennsylvania, made the following perceptive comments as
partofhercontributiontoavideoentitled“TheTruthbehindOutcome-BasedEducation”in
whichthiswriteralsoparticipated.32Inthesegmentofthevideodealingwiththedangersof
Skinnerianoperantconditioningusedincomputerprogramming,thenewemphasisoncritical
thinking,andDr.Kelly’scommentsregardingthebrainbeingusedforprocessingandnotfor
storage,Suttonsaid:
Trueeducationshouldexpandallthefacultiesofthemind:memory,conscience,imagi-
nation,insight,intuitionandbrain.Whenyoujustprocessinformation,youdenyorcut
offthoseotherfunctionsofthemindandreduceittothebrainalone,whichisjustsimply
[respondingtostimuli].Thedangerisunbelievable….
ColumbiaTeachersCollegeheldasymposiumon“Knowing:HowWeCometoKnow
Things”andhowimportantthisis.Somespeakerssaidthatmuchthatisbeingdonein
educationdeniestheseotherfunctionsofthemindandreducesthemtothe[responsive]
brainalone.Theyremindedusthatthoseotherfunctions—memory,conscience,imagination,
insight,andintuition—arethefunctionsbywhichweknowabsolutesandtruths,[discern
rightfromwrong],andareabletoknowGod.
Outcome-basededucation,becauseitconcentratesonthe“endproduct”ofitsprocess,
canbesaidtorestrictthestudent’smentalfunctioningtothelevelKellydescribedas“pro-
cessing.”Thepredeterminedgoalsandoutcomespreventthestudentfromusingbrainfunc-
tionswhichmakehimuniqueasahumanbeing.Successinanoutcome-basedenvironmentis
restrictedtoperformingprescribedtaskstothepointofautomaticity.Thefunctionsofmemory
andcreativityarenotused,noraretheyconsiderednecessarytosucceedinanOBEprogram
oranyprogramthatusesSkinnerianmasterylearningordirectinstruction.Predictabilityis
thebottomlineforOBE,limitingthestudenttoonlythoseresponseswhichareprescribed.
WhentrainedbyOBEmethodology,thestudentcannotfailunlessheemployscreativityand
producesanunpredictedresponse.InanOBEenvironment,hecanbelieveonlythatwhich
isacceptable.Themostpredictableoutcome,overtime,isfrustration—andultimately,low
achievementandbehaviorproblems.Weshouldberemindedthatrobots,althoughgenerally
reliable,havenofeelingsandarenotgovernedbyconscience..
Whatachillingthought.]
EDUCATIONWEEK CARRIED AN ARTICLE IN ITSMARCH16,1994 ISSUE ENTITLED“BACK TOthe
Future—withFundingfromNASDCandDirectionfromtheHudsonInstitute,theModernRed
SchoolhouseUpdatesanAmericanIconforthe90’s”byLynnOlson.Excerptsfollow:
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1994 323
Of all the design teams funded by the New American Schools Development Corporation
in1992,theModernRedSchoolhousewastheonewiththeclosesttiestotheRepublican
Administrationtheninpoweranditsideologicalheart....
…ItschiefsponsoristheHudsonInstitute,apublicpolicycenterbasedinIndianapolis
thatmadeitsreputationanalyzingnationalsecurityissues.Hudson’sboardoftrusteesincludes
formerGov.PierreS.duPont,IV,ofDelawareandformerVicePresidentDanQuayle.
WilliamJ.Bennett,aU.S.SecretaryofEducationunderPresidentRonaldReagan,served
aschairmanofthedesignteam.Bennett,anoutspokenproponentofprivateschoolchoice,left
theprojectlastyearwhenheformedEmpowerAmerica,aconservativethinktankbasedin
Washington.BennettoncedescribedtheModernRedSchoolhousetoTheWashingtonTimes
asa“conservativeplanwiththethreeC’satitscore:content,character,andchoice.”
Yet,inmanyways,theModernRedSchoolhousedeiespoliticalorideologicallabels.
Someofitsinstructionalapproaches,suchasmulti-agehomeroomsandself-pacedlearning,
wouldbeconsidered“radical”byobserversonbothsidesofthepoliticalaisle.
PRESIDENTCLINTONSIGNEDGOALS2000ACTONMARCH24,1994.THISLEGISLATIONLAIDalarge
portionofthegroundworkforradicalrestructuringofthenation’sschoolsfromtheteaching
ofacademicstoworkforcetraining.
MICHIGAN’SSTATEBOARD OFEDUCATION ADOPTED THE FINAL VERSION OF THECOMMUNICAtion
ArtsFrameworkfortheHighSchoolProiciencyTestinAprilof1994.Extensiveexcerptsfrom
theFramework,representativeofstandardsadoptedthroughoutthecountryintendedtoassist
studentsinenteringtheworkforceorinpursuinghighereducation,follow:
AssessmentFrameworkfortheMichiganHighSchoolProiciencyTestinReading
INTRODUCTION
Oneofthemorewidelyusedmethodsofcontrolislegislativelymandatedgraduationstan-
dardsthatrequirestudentstopassstatemandatedtests(Berk,1986).…Thelessonseems
tobethatiftestsremaininadequate,sowillthecurriculumtheyinluence.
ThechallengeforMichiganistocreateareading/communicationartsframeworkfor
curriculumandassessmentthatdoesnotnarrowthecurriculum.Topreventthisfromhap-
pening,theModelCoreCurriculumOutcomesinReading,thefoundationuponwhichthe
proiciencytestisbased,mustbeincorporatedintoaframeworkthatisconsistentwiththe
emergingtrendsintheield.TheModelCoreCurriculumOutcomesinReadingarederived
fromtheMichiganReadingAssociation’sdeinitionofreading(Wixson&Peters,1984).The
deinitionprovidedatheoreticalfoundationforchangingreadinginstructionandassessment
inthestate.Itisbasedonaconstructivistviewofreadingthatposits,“Readingistheprocess
ofconstructingmeaningthroughthedynamicinteractionamongthereader,thetext,and
thecontextofthereadingsituation.”(Wixson&Peters,p.4)…
Whiletheconstructivistperspectiveisausefulwaytoviewthereadingprocess,itmust
beexpandedtoincludethesocialdimensionoflearning.Thisperspectiveisbestillustrated
bytheworkofVygotsky(1978).Hecontendedthathighercognitivelearningisrootedin
socialconnections;andasaresult,knowledgeissociallyconstructedaslearnersengagein
holisticandauthenticactivities(Englert&Palincsar,1991;Palincsar&Klenk,1992).…
Acommonfeatureoftheconstructivistandsocioconstructivistviewsofreadingisthe
importanceplacedonmetacognition—purposeful,effortful,self-regulated,active,intentional
324
learning.…Whatiscalledforisavisionofcurriculumthatincorporatesasocioconstructiv-
istviewofreadingintoacurriculumframeworkthatdeinesthecontextforconstructing
meaninginawaythatisconsistentwiththeModelCoreCurriculum.
ANewVision
Fortoolongaperiodoftimethereading/communicationartsareahasavoidedthequestion:
Isthereacontenttoreading/communicationarts?[emphasisinoriginal]…Attheelementary
levelthepredominatefocusisprocess—reading,writing,viewing,listeningandspeaking.
Whileliteraturehasrecentlyassumedamoreprominentrole,theideasandissuesthatpersist
andrecurovertimearerelegatedtoasecondarylevelofimportance.Asaresult,literature
instructionattheelementarylevelishaphazardatbest(Walmsley&Walp,1992).
Atthemiddleandhighschoollevelstheemphasisisprimarilyoncontent,content
whichisoftennarrowlydeinedbyliterarystudiesofthecanon.Instructionresemblesmore
ofatransfusionist’sperspectiveinwhichstudentsreceiveinformationmuchinthesame
waypatientsreceiveblood(Applebee,1989;Crews,1992).Taughtinthismanner,content
is memorized, regurgitated, and trivialized. When this occurs, the high school literature
curriculumbecomesdecontextualizedandfragmented(Purves,1992).Inthiscontextthe
primarygoalistounderstandanovel,shortstory,poem,orplay;theresultisthattheliter-
aryworkbecomestheendratherthanameanstotheend.Whatisabsentfromboththe
processandcontentperspectivesistheapplicationofknowledgeinauthenticways.Whatis
neededisavisionofreading/communicationartscurriculumthatmoreexplicitlydeinesthe
contextforconstructingmeaninginamoremeaningfulway,onethatfostersactivelearning
inauthenticcontextssuchasthehome,community,andtheworkplace.
AnExpandingViewofText
[T]hereismoretodevelopingacurriculumthancontent.Theideas,themes,issues,and
problemsthatmakeupthecontentoftextmustbeplacedinaframeworkthatislinkedto
otherconsiderationssuchas:whatistobelearned,howitistobelearned,inwhatcontext
itistobeapplied,andhowisittobeassessed?Theframeworkbecomesthecommonthread
thattiestogetherallthecomponentsoftheinstructionalsystem.
…The context in which this type of learning occurs is prescribed by a reading/
communicationartscurriculumthatprovidesstudentswithlearningopportunities.These
learningopportunities…applytheirexistingknowledgetoissuesandproblemsthatresult
innewunderstandings,tosynthesizeandcommunicatewhattheyhavelearned,togenerate
newknowledgeorcreativeapplications,andtothinkcriticallyaboutthecontentandmake
decisionsortakeactionsthatrelatetoit.Thistypeofinnovativecurriculumpointstheway
towardhigher,richerlevelsofknowingthatareassessedinauthenticways.
OverviewoftheFramework
TheprimarygoaloftheReading/CommunicationArtsFrameworkdescribedinthisdocument
istodevelopindependent,self-suficient,lifelonglearnerswhoseunderstandingsandcapa-
bilitiesallowthemtobecomepersonally,socially,andcivicallyinvolvedintheworldaround
them…requirestheintegrationofdisciplinaryknowledgewithlearnercharacteristicsthat
promotepositiveattitudesanddispositions.Theseelements…guidethesystematicdelivery
ofthecurriculum.Studentachievementofthegoalsisdeterminedbyanassessmentsystem
thatusesauthenticperformancestoevaluatestudentproiciency.(SeeFigure1)
Figure1
CommunicationArts/ReadingFrameworkforCurriculumandAssessment
GOALS
RESOURCES
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1994 325
DISCIPLINARY KNOWLEGE LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS *Literary Knowledge
*DispositionsofThoughtfulness*DiscourseKnowledge*MetacognitiveKnowledge
*ProcessKnowledge*AttitudesandPerceptions
AUTHENTIC APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE *Engaging *Meaningful *Functional
*Integrated
READINGOUTCOMES
CURRICULUMCONSIDERATIONS
ASSESSMENTSYSTEM*ModelTasks*Portfolio*On-DemandTasks
[Ed. Note: The material that was emphasized in the Assessment Framework for the Michi-
ganHighSchoolProiciencyTestinReadingaboveisanexcellentexplanationoftheWhole
Languagephilosophy.Wheneducationmaterialsreferto“authentic”applicationsoflearn-
ing,thatmeansreadingoranyotherlearningwhichis“applied”inarealworldsetting;for
instance,manualsofinstructionforoperationofhouseholdappliances,orletterstotheeditor
concerningatopicwhichhasbeendiscussedintheclassroomandaboutwhichthestudent
hasformulatedan“acceptable”position.AnywheretheMichiganFrameworkmentions“social
dimensionsoflearning”or“socioconstructiveviewsoflearning”itissayingthatlearninghas
tobeappliedinasocialsettingorhaveasocialend.Inthiscontext,learningforthesakeof
learningandwithoutprejudiceregardingasocialpointofviewisunacceptable.Theremust
bea“socialconstruction”takingplaceforthelearningtobemeaningful.Thisisagoodil-
lustrationofhowchildrenobtainasocial/politicalpointofviewwhichisoftencontraryto
thatoftheirparents.
ThereferencetoandbuildingupontheworkofVygotskyindicatesthewaywardnessof
theMichiganFramework.L.S.VygotskywasaSovietpsychologistandmentortotheinfamous
psychologistofthesameorigin,A.R.Luria.VygotskyandLuriaconductedresearchintheteach-
ingofhigherlevelskills—knowninthiscountryasHigherOrderThinkingSkills(HOTS)—which
dealswiththechangingofattitudes,valuesandbeliefs.“Constructivist”learningisaterm
whichVygotskyusedwhentrainingteachersto“buildontheknowledgethatchildrenhave
alreadyobtained”andwhichisoftenmistakentomeanbuildingoneconceptuponanother.
Thiscouldnotbefurtherfromthetruth.WithVygotskyinmind,thebuildingofknowledge
isalwaysinaparticulardirection—thatwhichhasbeendeterminedbythesocial/political
outcomesdesiredbytheonewhoisteachingordirectingthestudent’sefforts.TheMichigan
Framework—andmostotherstates’frameworks—arebasedontheideathatthe“methodof
control”isastate-mandatedtestwhichrelectsthecurriculum—teachtothetest.]
EDUCATIONWEEKPUBLISHEDTHEARTICLE“SUCCESSWITHCOALITIONREFORMSSEENLIMitedin
SomeSchools”byDebraViaderoofNewOrleansonApril13,1994.Anexcerptfollows:
SomeoftheirststudiestolookattheacclaimedCoalitionofEssentialSchoolsreformnet-
worksuggestthatsomeparticipatingschoolsarehavinglimitedsuccessinimplementing
itsideas.
Fivestudiesoncoalitionschoolswerepresentedherelastweekduringtheannualmeet-
ingoftheAmericanEducationResearchAssociation.Collectively,theydrawontheexpe-
riencesof24schoolsnationwide.Thecoalitioncurrentlyhasnearly160memberschools.
Fouroftheivestudiessuggestthat,whilesometeachershavemadeprofoundchanges
intheirteachingstylesasaresultofinvolvementinthecoalition,few,ifany,oftheschools
studiedhaveimplementeditsphilosophywholesale.Someschools,facingteacherdissension
326
orinancialordistrictpressures,haveabandonedit.
THENATIONALSCHOOLBOARDSASSOCIATION(NSBA) RECOMMENDED RADICAL CHANGESforlo-
calschoolboardsatitsannualmeetinginNewOrleansinAprilof1994.Anarticleentitled
“N.S.B.A.EndorsesAllAlternativestoTraditionalSchoolGovernance”inEducationWeekfor
April13,1994relatesthefollowing:
“ANewFrameworkforSchoolGovernance”endorsesschool-baseddecisionmaking,charter
schools,andotheralternativestotraditionalgovernancestructures,providedtheymeetlocal
needs....Muchofthereportfocusesonimprovingthealignmentofgovernmentservicesat
alllevelssothatchildrencanmeethighacademicstandards.
Inadditiontothenationaleducationgoals,thenewreportadvocatesthecreationof
nationalgoalsforchildandyouthdevelopment....Establishingexplicit,substantivegoals
basedonchildren’sneedswillallowproviderstocoordinateservicesmoreeffectivelyand
insurethathelpisavailabletothoseinneed.
[Ed.Note:Whatadifferenceseventeenyearscanmake!OnMarch27,1977theimmediate
pastpresidentoftheNationalSchoolBoardsAssociationwarnedschoolboardmembers“to
beawareofandleeryof…proposalsforpublicinvolvementinpublicschooloperationsthat
wouldshiftdecision-makingauthorityto‘vaguely-deinedgroupsofcitizens’attheschool
sitelevel,”whichisexactlywhatNSBAmeantwhenitcalledfor“alternativestotraditional
governancestructures”in1994.]
SCHOOL-TO-WORKTRANSITION IN THEUNITEDSTATES:THECASE OF THEMISSINGSOCIALPart-
ners—AReportoftheGovernanceandFinanceTeamoftheComparativeLearningTeamsProject
(CenterforLearningandCompetitiveness,SchoolofPublicAffairsoftheUniversityofMaryland:
CollegePark,Md.,1994)waspreparedbyRobertW.Glover,teamleaderfortheCenterforthe
StudyofHumanResources,andAlanWeisberg,FoothillAssociates,withassistancefromteam
members:AndrewM.Churchill,JobsfortheFuture;SharonKnottsGreen,Motorola,Inc.;
RobertMcPherson,CenterfortheStudyofHumanResources;JanetLewis,HewlettPackard
Corporation;QuintRahberger,OregonBureauofLaborandIndustries;MarkScott,Centerfor
LearningandCompetitiveness;andF.EugeneScott,SutterHealthSystems.Thisdocument
waspublishedasajointprojectoftheCenterforLearningandCompetitiveness(CLC)and
TheGreaterAustin[Texas]ChamberofCommerce.
TheCLCAdvisoryBoardincludesthefollowingpersons:TheHon.WilliamE.Brock,33
chair,seniorpartnerofTheBrockGroup;Dr.AnthonyP.Carnavale,directorofHumanResource
Studies,CommitteeforEconomicDevelopment;NancyS.Grasmick,statesuperintendentof
schoolsfortheStateofMaryland;Dr.HerbertJ.Grover,professorofeducation,Universityof
WisconsinatGreenBay;MayorVeraKatz,Portand,Oregon;EugeniaKemble,assistanttothe
presidentforeducationalissues,AmericanFederationofTeachers/AFL-CIO;TheHon.JohnR.
McKernan,Jr.,governorofMaine;HilaryC.Pennington,president,JobsfortheFuture;William
B.Rouse,chiefexecutiveoficer,SearchTechnology,Inc.;and,MarcTucker,president,National
CenteronEducationandtheEconomy.AnneHealdistheexecutivedirectoroftheCLC.
ExcerptsfromSchool-to-WorkTransitionintheUnitedStatesfollow:
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1994 327
InFebruary1993,CLCbroughttogether25leadingexpertsfromstateandfederalorganiz-
ationsaswellasinternationalleaders,toidentifythemostpressingquestionsandproblems
that confront policymakers and practitioners working to build school-to-work transition
systemsintheUnitedStates.Theoutcomeofthatmeetingwasaconsensusthattherewere
iveareasinneedofimmediatein-depthattention:
•BuildingaSystem:GovernanceandFinance
•DevelopingStandards,AssessmentandCredentialing
•BuildingPartnerships:TheRoleofEconomicActors
•DesigningQualityPrograms
•ProvidingCareerGuidance
Toaddresstheseissues,andwiththegenerousinancialsupportoftheGermanMar-
shallFundoftheUnitedStates,CLCinitiateditsComparativeLearningTeamsProject.CLC
issuedarequestforproposalsnationwide,andrespondentswereaskedtoselectoneofthese
areasasthefocusforaninternationallearninginvestigation,developinglevelsofinquiryin
substantialdetailandwithspeciicoutcomesfortheirtrip.Thecapacityofteamstoeffec-
tivelydisseminatetheirindingsinawaythatwouldpositivelyimpactonthedevelopment
ofschool-to-worksystemsintheUnitedStateswasakeyselectioncriteria.
CLCawardedgrantstoiveorganizationsintheschool-to-worktransitionieldwho
led,plannedandsupportedaComparativeLearningTeam.Thegrantsenabledeachteam
ofatleastninepeopletovisittwoEuropeansiteswheresophisticatedschool-to-worktran-
sition teams operate. Each comparative learning team participated in carefully planned
12–to14–dayworkingsessionsinGermany,Denmark,theUnitedKingdom,Switzerland
andSweden,wheretheygaineddirectaccesstotheirforeigncounterpartsandirst-hand
exposuretoEuropeansystems....
Already,theworkofthecomparativelearningteamshashadanimpactonsystem-
buildingintheUnitedStates.TeammemberswereabletobuildontheirEuropeanexperience
whendesigningstatesystemsundertheguidelinesofthenewFederalSchool-to-WorkOp-
portunitiesAct.OficialsintheDepartmentsofLaborandEducation,workingonschool-
to-workpolicies,werebriefed….Participantshavespokenatnumerousconferences,and
publishedcommentsinnewspapersandnewsletters.Keyindingsoftheteamsareguiding
furtherpolicyworkaroundkeyissuessuchastheengagementofindustryinschool-to-work
programsandinthedesignofskillstandards.…
ForoveradecadeAmericanpolicyleadershavelookedtoEuropeforinsightintohow
tomoveyoungpeopleeffectivelyfromschooltotheworkforce,whileprovidingthemwith
relevantandvaluableskills.TheimpressiveachievementsofEuropeansystemstriggered
muchenthusiasminthiscountryaboutthepotentialpositiveimpactofreformhere.
Nowwiththepassageoftheschool-to-worklegislation,andwithstatesactivelyat-
temptingtobuildschool-to-worktransitionsystems…theinternationalexperienceremains
highlysigniicant.IssuesthatchallengeAmericanpolicymakersinbuildingsystems,such
asdevelopingappropriatefundingmechanisms,engagingindustrypartnershipandensuring
relevantstandards,havelongbeenatthecoreofinvestigationinEurope.…
…AsstatesandsitesmovetoimplementcomprehensivereformintheUnitedStates
undertheauspicesoftheSchool-to-WorkOpportunitiesAct,allivereportswillprovidevalu-
ableinformationandinsightintothebestinternationallessons….Wewanttoexpressour
thankstotheleadorganizationsfortheproject:TheAustin[Texas]ChamberofCommerce,
theNewStandardsProject[MarcTucker’sNationalCenterforEducationandtheEconomy
program],TheCouncilofChiefStateSchoolOficers,theNationalAllianceofBusiness,and
theNorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory.
328
ThefollowingquotefromanarticleintheMay14,1984issueofTheWashingtonPost
entitled“IndustrialPolicyUrgedforGOP”shedssomelightonbehind-the-scenesactivities
whichhaveledtoacceptanceofcorporate-fascistworkforcetrainingnecessaryforaplanned
economy:
AconservativestudygroupfoundedbysupportersofPresidentReaganisabouttoissuea
reportthatadvocatesRepublicansshedsomeoftheirdeep-rootedantipathytoaplanned
economy.The“IndustrialPolicyDebate”istobeissuedtodaybytheInstituteforContem-
poraryStudies,athinktankfoundedbyPresidentialCounselorEdwinMeese,Secretaryof
DefenseCasparWeinberger,andotherReagansupporters.
ItshouldalsobepointedoutthatSecretaryofDefenseCasparWeinbergerservedasSec-
retaryoftheU.S.DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfareintheNixonAdministration
in1973,andthatheoversawthedevelopmentandpublicationofthePlanning,Programming,
Budgeting and Evaluation Systems (PPB[E]S) State Educational Records and Reports Series
handbookswhichdocumenttheestablishmentofthecentralplanningsystemfortheUSA.
OneofthehandbooksincludedinthisseriesentitledFinancialAccounting:Classiicationsand
StandardTerminologyforLocalandStateSchoolSystemsstatedinitspreface:
AnotherprojectfundedbytheOficeofEducationfrom1968to1971wasthedevelopment
ofaprogram,planning,budgeting,andevaluationconceptualdesignunderthesponsorship
oftheAssociationofSchoolBusinessOficials’ResearchCorporation....Theemphasisinthis
projectisonthedevelopmentofagoal-orientedsystemforevaluatingprograms.34
[Ed.Note:Onecan’tresistaskingthepoliticallyincorrectquestions:WhenweretheAmer-
ican people asked if they wanted to exchange our free enterprise system for the socialist
school-to-worksystemidentiiedwithEuropeancountries?Whenwasthedecisionmade,and
bywhom,thattheUnitedStateswouldbeneitfromaplannedeconomy,whenthisnation
hasservedasthelighthousefortheworld,beckoningmillionstoitsshorestobeneitfrom
theupwardmobilityprovidedbythefreeenterprisesystem?Bythistimethereadershould
seriouslyquestionthelegitimacyofthe“leadorganizations”fortheComparativeLearning
TeamsProject—organizationsthatthisbookhasdocumentedtobeinvolvedin“thedeliberate
dumbingdown”ofAmerica.]
A PAPER ENTITLED “ISSUE FOR DESIGNING A SYSTEM OF SKILL STANDARDS AND CERTIFICAtion
fortheAmericanWorkforce:OnWhatBasisShouldOccupation/Skill/IndustryClustersBe
Organized?”byRobertW.GloveroftheCenterfortheStudyofHumanResources,University
ofTexasatAustin,waspreparedfortheU.S.DepartmentofLaborinMayof1994.Mr.Glover
hascontributedtoseveralnationalandinternationalstudies,includingAmerica’sChoice:High
SkillsorLowWages!35andwastheauthoroftheTexasDepartmentofCommerce’spublication
entitledDevelopingaSystemofSkillStandardsfortheStateofTexas(January1993).Excerpts
fromGlover’spaperfollow:
TheAppealofSettingNationalStandardsasaDeviceToReformand
UpgradeAmericanLearningSystems
InitsreportpublishedinJune1990,theCommissiononSkillsoftheAmericanWorkforce
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1994 329
placedthedevelopmentofskillstandardsandcertiicationonthetableasamajorpolicy
instrument for improving the education and training preparation of the American Work-
force.…Speciically,theCommission’sirstrecommendationcalledfor“Aneweducational
performancestandard...forallstudents,tobemetbyage16...establishednationally”(p.
69)…[and]describedthenewassessmentsystemasfocusingonthinking-basedachievement
ratherthanroutineskills.Thisnewcertiication,whichhascometobecalledtheCertiicate
ofInitialMasterywasenvisionedasacumulativeassessmentandcertiicationprocessin-
volvingavarietyofassessments,includingaportfolioofperformancesandprojects.Itwas
tobeadministeredbyanindependentexaminingorganizationandfocuson“thinking-based
achievement,notroutineskills.”
Recommendationnumber3…calledforthedevelopmentof“acomprehensivesystem
of Technical and Professional Certiicates and associate’s degrees for the majority of our
studentsandworkerswhodonotpursueabaccalaureatedegree”(CommissiononSkillsof
theAmericanWorkforce,1990,p.77).
TheCertiicateofInitialMasteryaimstocovergeneralworkplaceskillswhereasthe
envisionedsystemofTechnicalandProfessionalCertiicatesandassociate’sdegreeswasaimed
atassessmentandcertiicationofspeciicoccupationalskills.Thetwotypesofcertiication
areparallelandcomplementary….Thetwosetsofskillsarerelatedbutseparable.Obtaining
aCertiicateofInitialMasterywasconsideredbytheCommissionasagatewayorthreshold
conveyingeligibilitytocompeteforTechnicalandProfessionalCertiicates.
TheCommissiononSkillsoftheAmericanWorkforcerecommendedthattheCertiicate
ofInitialMasterybe“benchmarkedtothehigheststandardsintheworld”[undeined](p.
69).LikewisethestandardsofProfessionalandTechnicalCertiicatesshouldbe“atleast
equaltothosesetbyotheradvancedindustrializednations”(p.77).
SincethepublicationofAmerica’sChoice:HighSkillsorLowWages!inJune1990,
considerableprogresshasbeenmadetowardmovingtheconceptofacumulativeportfolio
oftests,projects,andachievementsintoreality.Withinashortyear,publicopinionabout
nationaltestingmadearemarkabletransformationfromhighnegativetopositive(Marshall
and Tucker, 1992). The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS),
chairedbyWilliamBrock(whoalsoservedasco-chairoftheCommissiononSkillsofthe
AmericanWorkforce[U.S.SecretaryofLabor]),developedaninnovativetaxonomyoftrans-
ferablegenericskillsapplicabletoallworkforceentrantsinahighperformanceeconomy.
TheNewStandardsProject,underthedirectionofMarcTuckeroftheNationalCenteron
EducationandtheEconomyandLaurenResnickoftheLearningandDevelopmentCenter
attheUniversityofPittsburgh,workingwithaconsortiumof19statesand6localschool
districts,isdevelopingnewapproachestoassessmenttowardthecreationofacertiicateof
initialmastery(NationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomy,1994a,1994b,and1994c).
NowtherecommendationsoftheCommissionareembodiedintheGoals2000legislation
recentlypassedbyCongressandsignedintolaw.
Asanampliicationoftheabovereport,thewriterwouldliketoquotefromthepre-
sentationbyPaulF.Cole,secretary-treasureroftheNewYorkStateAFL-CIOChapter,atthe
SecondAnnualModelSchoolsConferenceinAtlanta,Georgiain1994.Mr.Cole’sstatements
included:
IworkedonthecriticalthinkingskillsportionoftheSecretary’sCommissiononAchieving
NecessarySkills(SCANS)report.Thefundamentalrevolutionintheworkplacecalledfor
restructuringofeducationtomeetthechallenge….
Value-addedstudentsproduceahighperformanceenvironment….36
Wemustgofromnorm-referencedtocriterion-referencedtesting.Educationalequality
330
isthegoal.Wemustbenchmarknationally.OficeofEducationalResearchandImprovement
(OERI)studyonstandardsrelectedthesechangestobemade:
1.Settingstandards
2.Newassessments—portfolios,authenticassessment
3.Systemofcredentialing
4.Curriculumframeworks
Someindustriesaredevisingstandardsforschoolachievement.QueensAviationHigh
School,[Queens]NewYork,meetsFAAstandards.NationalSkillStandardsBoardisworking
onintegratingcomprehensiveskillstandards….
Manipulationofsymbolsisaskillusedwithcomputersratherthandirectobservation
ofinformation.Thiswillaffecthowweteachreading.
[Ed.Note:Thislaststatementregardingreadingshouldbeconsideredveryseriously.What
changes in the teaching of reading have been promoted of late? Primarily, the “scientiic,
research-based, direct, systematic” Skinnerian behavioral approach characterized by direct
instruction—andfundedunderTheReadingExcellenceActin1998.Isthisemphasisanout-
growthofSCANS-relatedpoliciesadoptedby“partnerships”betweengovernmentandbusi-
nessinterestsattheexpenseofrealeducationalopportunitiesforchildren?In1981Professor
AnthonyOettingersaidinaspeechthat“inthemoderncontextoffunctionalism,they[comic
books],maynotbeallthatbad”forinstruction.ComicbooksandPaulCole’s“manipulation
ofsymbols”havemuchincommon.(SeeAppendixXIandXXV.)]
PRESIDENTBILLCLINTONSIGNEDTHESCHOOL-TO-WORKOPPORTUNITIESACTOF1994ONMay4,
1994.Thislawprovidedseedmoneytostatesfordevelopmentoflocalpartnershipsofbusi-
ness,labor,government,educationandcommunityorganizationstodevelopschool-to-work
systems.
THEWASHINGTONPOST CARRIED AN ARTICLE ENTITLED“TRYING TOCATCHUP ONTHEIRRead-
ing:TutorsFindWhatStudentsMiss”initsMay25,1994edition.Excerptsfromthisarticle
follow:
StudentsareselectedfortheprogrambyEnglishteachers,counselors,andprincipals....Sykes
saidtheD.C.schoolsystemwillestablish“gates,”orassessmentsatgrades3,5,6,8and9.
Therewillbenostudentwhowillmovebeyondthatgateunlesstheyhaveshownmastery
skillstomovetothenextlevel.Sykessaidtheschoolsystemalsoisdevelopingastatewide
readingcurriculumthatwouldalleviatetheproblemofstudentsmissinglessonswhenthey
changeschoolsintheDistrict.
ThestudentswhoareenrolledintheSylvanCenter[aprivatecontractorwhichuses
masterylearning]atAnacostiaHighSchoolsaidtheyareproudtogothere.Thereisnostigma
attachedtotheprogram.Infact,theysaid,theirfriendswanttoknowhowtojointhemina
learningenvironmentwheretheteacherspaycloseattention...andgivethemtreats...don’t
seemirritatedwhentheydon’tunderstandandcongratulatethemforeverystepofprogress
theymake.“Thisprogramgivesyouconidence.It’sfuntolearnlikethis.Ifyoudogood,
theygiveyouawards.”
TareniaRogers,15,atenth-grader,saidtheprogramgiveshersomethingtolookfor-
wardtowhenshegoestoschool.“It’slikeajob,”shesaid.“Whenyoucomeinhereand
work,yougetpaid”[emphasisinoriginal].Whenstudentsscorewellorcompleteassign-
331
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1994
ments,teachersrewardthemwithtokensthatcanbeusedtobuyproductssuchasbeads,
basketballsandT-shirtsattheSylvan“store”—adisplaycounterthatstandsinonecorner
oftheclassroom.
[Ed.Note:ThisistheschoolsysteminwhichWilliamSpadyandThomasStichtservedas
consultantsintheimplementationofthenowinfamousMasteryLearningprogramin1978,
andwhichin1996hadthelowesttestscoresinthenation.InterestingthatWashington,D.C.
schools—likeChicagowhichexperiencedthe“humantragedy”duetomasterylearning—is
againimplementingthesameSkinnerianrattrainingmethodfor“tutoring”itsinnercitychil-
dren.(SeeAppendixXXV.)]
THECONFERENCEBOARD PUBLISHEDBUSINESS ANDEDUCATIONREFORM:THEFOURTHWave—A
ResearchReport(CBReportNo.1091–94–RR)in1994.Foundedin1916,theConferenceBoard
wasestablishedwithatwo-foldpurpose:1)toimprovethebusinessenterprisesystemand2)
toenhancethecontributionofbusinesstosociety.Toaccomplishthis,theConferenceBoard
strivestobetheleadingglobalbusinessmembershiporganizationthatenablesseniorexecu-
tivesfromallindustriestoexploreandexchangeideasofimportanceconcerningbusiness
policyandpractices.TheBoardhasoficesinNewYorkCity,Brussels,Belgium,andOttawa,
Ontario,Canada.Someexcerptsfromthisextremelyimportant,41-pagedocumentfromThe
ConferenceBoardfollow:
Astudyofbusinessinvolvementinsystemiceducationreformshowsthatsuchreform:
•is a long-term, complex and politically charged process requiring on-going com-
mitment
•demandsthatbusinesscollaboratewithotherimportantstakeholderstoeffectreal
reform
•requiresclearlystatedandexplicitgoalsthatplacechildrenirst
•emphasizesstructuralchangeswithinschools,communitiesandthepublicpolicy
process.
…Datashowthatduringmorethan10yearsofdedicatedefforttoimprovetheU.S.
educationalsystem,thebusinesscommunityhasinvestedsigniicantinancial,human,and
timeresourcesinschools.Butbusinessexecutiveshaveoftenbeenfrustratedastheyhave
discoveredthatmostoftheinitiatives,whilewell-intendedandoftenquiteusefultosmall
groupsofstudents,havefailedtoeffectmajorchangesinthewaysschoolsoperateorinthe
overallperformanceoftheeducationsystem.
Thebusinesscommunitynowstandsatacriticaljunctureinitsinvolvementinschool
reform,withtwosigniicantlydifferentpathwaysdeveloping.Theirst,evidencedbythe
emergenceofcharterschools,privatizationinitiatives,andemphasisonschoolchoiceinvolves
steppingoutsidethecurrentsystemandattemptingtoimproveeducationbystartinganew.
Businessesthatchoosethispathacceptthepremisethatthecurrentsystemisirretrievably
brokenandcannotpossiblyberepairedbythoseworkingwithinit.
Thesecondpath,collaborationforsystemicreform,inwhichmanyConferenceBoard
companiesaredeeplyinvolvedanduponwhichthisreportfocuses,assumesthatsignii-
cantcompetenciesexistwithinschoolsandthatsystemicchangescanbemadetoimprove
performance.
Collaborationinvolvesformalworkingrelationshipsamongbusinessandschoolofi-
cials,socialandhumanserviceagencies,parentsandotherrelevantstakeholderstoreform
332
schoolsbychangingthesystemsinwhichtheyareembedded,therewardstructuresthat
perpetuate them, and the deining features (e.g., curriculum, school days, performance
measurement)oftheschoolsthemselves.Thecriticalassumptionisthattheschoolscanbe
transformedfromwithin....
Ineffect,blamefortheproblemsofnationalcompetitivenessandfortheproblemsof
childreninacomplexandchangingsocietyismovingawayfromschoolstowardamore
honestassessmentofwhatisproducingtheso-calledcrisisinourschools.Theanswersoften
lieoutsidetheschoolsthemselves.
Sinceschoolsrelectsociety,itmaybenecessarytorebuildthecommunityinfrastructure
innewways,byusingtheschoolitselfasacommunityresource….
Despitesigniicantexternalpressuresandconstantcriesofcrisisintheeducational
system,schoolshaveremainedlargelyunchanged….
Schooldaysremain,forthemostpart,shorterthanthoseofotherindustrializedna-
tions,andtheschoolyearremainsonanagrariancalendar.Thestructureofschoolstends
toisolateteachersnotonlyfromeachother,butalsofromotherimportantstakeholders,
suchasparents,businesses,socialserviceandcivicagencies,andcommunityorganizations
thatmighttakeupsomeofthesocialandfamilyburdensthathavebeenplacedonschools.
Subjectsarestillpredominantlytaughtinrotememorizationfashioninshortburstsofactivity
of45–50minutes.Oftenlittletimeisdevotedtostafforcurriculumdevelopment.
Inpart,thissituationexistsbecause,asChesterFinnhasstated,“peoplearen’tchanging
theirbehavioratthe‘retail’levelofeducation.”Theexplanationforthisinabilitytochange
isdue,inpart,topublicattitudesabouteducationandschooling.Theseattitudes,which
research shows are pervasive, mean that, rhetoric aside, fostering serious organizational
changeinschoolshasbeendificulttoaccomplish….
MODELSOFCOLLABORATIONFORSYSTEMICREFORM
Case1:Re:Learning—Monsanto,SouthwesternBell,EmersonElectricandHallmark’sSup-
portforSystemicEducationReform
Thegroupdeterminedthatthegoalwouldbeactivestudentlearningwithdemonstra-
tionsofstudentaccomplishment,whichisafundamentalaspectoftheCommonPrinciples
oftheCoalitionofEssentialSchools.Theprinciplesprovidedafoundationuponwhichall
ofthegroup’seffortscouldbuild,withparticularattentiondevotedtotheaspectitdeemed
mostcriticaltoactuallyachievingtheirgoals:developmentoftheteacherswhoworkinthe
restructuredschools.
TheorganizationalframeworkthecoalitionchosetoachieveitsgoalwasRe:Learning,
anationalefforttoaddresseducationreformbyredesigningthetotaleducationsystem.Re:
Learning,begunin1988,includestheCoalitionofEssentialSchools,theEducationCom-
missionoftheStates,andallmemberschools,districts,andstates....
Case5:PartnershipforKentuckySchoolReform
The state of Kentucky is identiied as being on the leading edge of the school re-
structuringandreformmovement.FacedwiththeKentuckyEducationReformAct(KERA),
whichwasintendedtoradicallyrestructureschoolsbecausethesystemhadbeendeclared
unconstitutional,businessleadersinthestateralliedtogetherwitheducatorsandgovern-
mentleaders.
Thistypeofcollaborationwasnotnew:Leadersinthesethreesectorshadbeeninter-
actingforanumberofyears,particularlyconcerningissuesofeducationintheLouisville
areaandsurroundingJeffersonCounty.Indeed,Louisvillehadbeenoneofthe12National
AllianceofBusinessCompactCities,fundedtodevelopwaysforthesesectorstoworkto-
gethertoimproveeducation.
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1994 333
KERArepresentsalong-termandsystemicapproachtoschoolreform.Amongother
things,theactguaranteesacertainleveloffundingonaper-studentbasis,establishesmech-
anismstoequalizeschoolinancing,andintroducesschool-basedmanagementateachschool
alongwithmajorcurriculumrevisionsandanentirelynewprimaryschoolprogram.
OneofthemoreinnovativeapproachesembeddedwithinKERAistheestablishmentof
familyresourcecentersandyouthservicescenterswithinschoolsinpoorareas.This“one-
stopshopping”approachismeanttoensurethatchildrenareabletolearnwhentheyarein
schoolbecausetheirfamiliesarereceivingneededservices.Additionally,allfour-year-olds
arerequiredtoattendpreschool.Astrictaccountabilitysystemaccompaniesandsupports
theimplementationefforts.OnecharacteristicofKERAisitsemphasisonhighexpectations
forchildren.
KERA,coupledwiththeBusinessRoundtable’seffortstoinvolvethebusinesscom-
munityinstate-leveladvocacy,galvanizedthebusinesscommunityintoaction.Inthefall
of1990,theCEO’softhreecompanies,JohnHallofAshlandOil,DavidJonesofHumana,
andKentC.“Oz”NelsonofUnitedParcelService,establishedthePartnershipofKentucky
School Reform. With the inaugural meeting held in March 1991, more than 50 leaders
joined together to solidify their support for successful implementation of the innovative
KERA.Thegrouprepresentedanon-partisancross-sectionofbusiness,government,civic,
andeducationleaders,allmakingacommitmenttoimprovethequalityofeducationinthe
statethroughastatewideinformationcampaigncombinedwithlocalactivitiestosupport
thereformmovement.
[Ed.Note:KERAhasbecomeacasestudyinhoweducationalreformwentastrayinastate
that“wasontheleadingedgeoftheschoolrestructuringandreformmovement,”andhow
itbroughtgrieftoparents,students,teachersandlegislators.Itwasalsoacasestudythatin-
volvedakey,ifnotthekeyeducationchangeagent—whoisnotevenaneducator—DavidW.
Hornbeck,whotookhismarchingordersfromMarcTucker’sNationalCenteronEducation
andtheEconomy(NCEE).
Toaddinsulttoinjury,HornbeckleftKentucky’ssinkingKERAshiptobecomesuper-
intendentofthePhiladelphia,PennsylvaniaschoolsystemwherehistenureinPennsylvania
wasequallycontroversialanddestructive,resultingintheschoolsystem’sbeingdeclaredun-
abletofunction,wantingthestatetotakeitoverpendingits“re-establishing”itself.Isitthe
roleoftheHornbecksofthisworldtodestructureschools,enablingthemtoberestructured
accordingtotheneedsoftheglobaleconomy?
AretheHornbecksoftheworldbroughtinspeciicallyforthatpurpose?
Additionally,onecouldaskwhyTheConferenceBoard,andbusinessinterestsingeneral,
indtheworkofparticularchangeagentsandtheirtacticssoappealingandpositive?Isit
becausethechangeagentpuppetsareperformingperfectlyfortheirpuppeteerswhoconsider
ourchildren“humancapitalresources”tobetrained,allowingthemultinationalcorporations
tospinoffproitsasaresult?TakethecaseofaschoolsysteminNewMexico;thelocalschool
boardrejectedtheRe:LearningProjectonlytobeheavilypressuredbythegovernorandaCEO
ofamultinationalcorporation—andothers—whoabsolutelyinsistedontheimplementation
ofRe:Learning.Thesefolkshadjustreturnedfromthe“CharlottesvilleSummit”wherethey
hadreceivedtheirmarchingordersunderAmerica2000.37]
IN THE READING (PENNSYLVANIA) EAGLE/TIMES ON JUNE 25, 1994 AN ARTICLE BY STEPHANIE
Ebbertentitled“SchoolExamsLikelytoHaveRussianOrigin”statedthefollowing:
334
TeachersintheformerSovietUnion,whoplayedhosttovisitingU.S.educators,express
interestinexchangingtestsandcoursematerialtocomparestudents’aptitudesandcur-
riculum....WyommissingSchoolDistrictstudentsmaysoonbetakingtestsdrawnupby
teachersintheformerSovietUnion.
Dr.CharlesR.Walker,superintendent,hasestablishedtieswitheducatorsinSt.Pe-
tersburg,theformerLeningrad,asaresultofanAprilexcursionthere.Walker,oneof32
educatorswho,alongwiththeirspouses,tooka10-dayeducationaltriptovisitschoolsin
St.PetersburgandMoscow,returnedwithcontacts,faxnumbersfromRussianschools,and
planstoestablishtiestoensurestudentsarecompetitiveonaglobalscale.
Teachersthereexpressedinterestinexchangingtestsandcoursematerialtocompare
students’aptitudeandcurriculuminthetwocountries,Walkersaid.Inonepublicschool
thatWalkervisitedtheboardhadrecentlydecidedtomandatethatstudentswearuniforms
totrytocontaintheforcesofcommercialism,atleastduringtheschoolday,hesaid.
[Ed.Note:Althoughdresscodesareproper—andmanyprivateschoolsrequireanidentiiable
uniform to distinguish their schools’ students from others—many government schools in
urbanareasintheU.S.arebeginningtorequireuniforms.Withtheadventof:reducedtime
forrecess;encouragingmilitarypersonneltofunctionasteachersorinstructors;theuseof
policetomonitorschoolcorridorsandtoteachtheunsuccessfulDARE(DrugAbuseResistance
Education)program;andtheconceptofourchildrenbeinglabeled“humancapitalresources”
forthegovernment-promotedschool-to-workscheme,theideaofuniformsforpublicschool
studentsismorethanalittledisturbing.]
THESECONDANNUALMODELSCHOOLSCONFERENCE, SPONSORED BY THEINTERNATIONALCenter
forLeadershipinEducation,Inc.(ICLE—whosedirectorisDr.WillardR.Daggett,previously
employedasaco-trainerwithWilliamSpadyatOutcome-BasedEducationtrainingsessions
sponsoredbySpady’sHighSuccessNetwork)washeldJune26–29,1994inAtlanta,Georgia.
RepresentativesoftheeducationalsystemsofChina,Denmark,England,France,Germany,
Japan,andRussiawereincludedaspresentersattheconference.
OfspecialinterestwasthepresentationgivenbySuLin,founderandchairwomanofChina
InternationalIntellectualResourcesDevelopmentCenterforChildren(CICC).38Thisschool
hasbranchesintheUnitedStates,Germany,andothercountriestofacilitatetheimmersion
ofitsChinesestudentsintothecultureaswellasthelanguageofothercountries.Excerpts
fromherpresentationfollow:
ItisCICC’stasktobeengagedineducationalreforms,toestablishorganizationsofintercultural
communications,andtointegrateeducationalinstitutionswithenterprises.Therefore,CICC’s
systemsengineeringofeducationisanenormousconstitution[composition]ofeducation
andtechnology,theoryandpractice,experimentation,organization,andmanagement.
CICChasbeenincorporatedintoaninternationalgroup.
Westressthefollowingaspects:
1.Thekindofcitizensrequiredbythe21stcenturywillconstituteouressentialcon-
siderationofeducationalreceivers,aims,andcontents.
2.Wemustdoexperimentsinthesearchforaneweducationmodel.
3.Thegreatestcharacteristicsofthe21stcenturywillbetheinternationalizationof
education.Withthatinmind,weaimtodevelopoureducationinaninternational
environment,aseducationissupposedtobeanopensystem.
4.Chinaiscarryingonitssocialreforms,encouragingindividualsandthenon-govern-
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1994 335
mentalsectortoruneducation.EducationalinstitutionsinChinaareallaffectedby
theshortageofinancialresources.
5.Thesecurejobpolicymakeseducationaclosedandextremelystablesystem,closed
tocompetition.Ourcurriculumisoutofdate.Educationreformsareimperativein
China….
SincereloveofchildrenistheprincipleuponwhichCICCisconstructed.…
Iamstronglyagainstparentsorteacherswhoimposetheirownviewsanddemandson
thechildren.Educationisanoblejobthatcallsfordevotionanddedicationwithnoreser-
vation.Chancesandconditionsforeducationshouldbeequalforeverychild….
Thecultural,economic,andeducationallevelsfortheminoritiesinHainanarerelatively
low.Withthesefactorsinmind,CICCintentionallyenrollsstudentsfromtheseminorities
foreducationalexperimentationandresearch….
TheaimofCICCistodevelopchildrenintopersonswithsoundpersonalityforthe21st
century.Tothisendweincorporatethefollowingfeatures:
1.Standardization—aseriesofeducationalactivitiesdesigned,organized,andmanaged
accordingtoeducationalprinciplesandsocialneedstoachieveadesiredend.
2.Complyingwithnaturallaw—alleducationalactivitiesmustobeythenaturalphysio-
logicalandpsychologicaldevelopmentofchildren.Tamperingwiththeselawsleads
tofailure,asinthemedievalmissionaryschoolsandfamilyeducation.
3.Exploitation—exploitingthetremendouspotentialcapacitiesofchildren.
4. Succession and systemization—treat the developmental process as a systemic
whole.
…Personalityisthesynthesisofaperson’smentalandphysicalqualities.Ourproposal
isthatelementaryeducationshouldbegloballyoriented....Thisistheinexorableresultof
internationaleconomicdevelopment.
EducationreformsconductedbyCICCincludetheshorteningofthewholeeducational
periodtoifteenyearsofschooling.Weekdayboardingisoneoftheeducationalfacilitiesof
CICC.They[thestudents]arerequiredtoboardatschoolonweekdaysandgobackhome
byschoolbusonweekends.Weprovideboardingforthefollowingreasons:
1.Mostpeoplearetoobusyworkingtopayenoughattentiontotheeducationoftheir
ownchildren.
2.Manyofthechildrencomefrombrokenfamilies.Theboardingschoolisaplacethey
canturntoforcomfort.Someevenprefertostayatschoolonweekends.
3.Manyparentsarenotwell-educatedthemselvesandknownothingabouthowto
bringuptheirownchildren.
4.Chinahasa“one-child”policyasawayofcontrollingthebirthrate.Itisstatistically
shownthatproblemssuchasself-centeredness,stubbornness,anddependenceare
somecommoncharacteristicsofonlychildrennowadays.CICCprovidesboarding
tostrengthenthechildren’ssenseofequality,solidarity,andindependence.
Wehaveestablishedaschoolfortheparents,wherepeoplecanlearnhowtoeducate
theirownchildren.TheoverallplanforCICChasMoonLakeasthehubofthecommunity
withtheeducationalcenteraroundit.CICChasorganizeditselfintoaself-supportedinter-
nationalgroupcorporationofeducationalinstitutionsandenterprisesbyopeningbusinesses
andservicesinchildren’seducation,scienceandtechnology,medicineandhealth,legal,
insurance,tradeandtourism.
[Ed.Note:DotheaboveoutlinesremindthereaderoftheNewAmericanSchoolsDevelopment
Corporation’s criteria for schooling in the United States through charter schools that bear
manyoftheabovecharacteristics?CanthereaderrecognizetheChineseequivalentof“at-risk”
categoriesthatourcountryistargetingforeducationalfunding?Doesreferencetoboarding
336
schoolsremindthereaderoftheNovember1979articleinTheBangor(Maine)DailyNews
aboutradicalchangesproposedbyaVermonttaskforcewhichincludedboardingschools,
acenterforeducationalresearchandteachertraining,andelementsoftheschool-to-work
agendaforthe1990s?
TheaboveChinesemodel,describingtheschoolasthe“hub”ofthecommunity,bears
muchresemblancetothecommunityeducationprogramsofthepasttwenty-iveyearsorso.
WhiletheChinesestillusetheword“children”insteadofthiscountry’ssubstitute“human
capitalresources,”onemustnotlosesightoftheenvironment—political,economic,andreli-
gious—inwhichtheaboveextreme,communistandcoercive“educationalsolutions”aresug-
gestedandestablished.Thereadershouldalsobearinmindthatthisprogramwaspresented
atWillardDaggett’sICLE“ModelSchools”conference.]
“SCHOOLS:INTOTHEFUTURE”ISTHETITLEOFANARTICLEWHICHRANINTHEOREGONIAN[Port-
land,Oregon]onSeptember8,1994andcarriedasubtitleaslead-inwhichread“Oregon’s
school-reformplanisoneofthecountry’smostambitious—andthisyearitreallykicksinto
gear.”SinceOregonwastheirststatetoimplementtheGoals2000Act(signedbyPresident
ClintononMarch31,1994)andTheSchool-to-WorkOpportunitiesAct(signedbyClintonMay
4,1994),beforequotingfromthearticleinTheOregonian,thewriterwantstoquotefromthe
irstparagraphoftheradicalGoals2000Act:
PUBLICLAW103–227
March31,1994
103rdCongress
Toimprovelearningandteachingbyprovidinganationalframeworkforeducationreform;to
promotetheresearch,consensusbuilding,andsystemicchangesneededtoensureequitable
educationalopportunitiesandhighlevelsofeducationalachievementforallstudents;to
provideaframeworkforreauthorizationofallFederaleducationprograms;topromotethe
developmentandadoptionofavoluntarynationalsystemofskillstandardsandcertiication;
andforotherpurposes.39
Excerptsfromthe“Schools:IntotheFuture”articlewhichenablethereadertocomprehend
thecontroversialnatureofGoals2000:
Effortstomakelearningmorerelevantbybreakingdownwallsbetweenschoolsandthe
adultworldarebringingthemostvisiblechanges.AtPortland’sRooseveltHigh,forexample,
studentswillchoosecareerpathsearlyintheirhighschoolyearsandactuallywillfollow
themintotheworkplacewithreal-worldexperiencessuchasinternshipsandjob-shadow-
ingprograms.AtGrantHigh,studentswilllearndirectlyfromCellularOneworkers.And
atMarshallHigh,businessleaderswillserveasmentorstoindividualstudents,guidingthe
choicesthatwillaffecttheirfuturesintheworldofwork.
Oregon’slaw,likePresidentClinton’sGoals2000reformlegislation,aimstodramatically
raisetheeducationlevelsofstudentsschoolsfailedtoreachinthepast.Thisyear,Portland
PublicSchoolswillembarkonaplantopushallstudentsintoanacademicregimenequal
to that traditionally reserved for the college-bound, says Jack Bierwirth, Portland Public
SchoolsSuperintendent.
It will do so by aggressively following Oregon’s school-reform blueprint. The state
planattemptstoreachtheforgottenhalf intwoways:40byrequiringallstudentstomeet
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1994 337
highacademicstandardsandbyblendingacademicswithnewvocationalpathsthatleadto
furtherstudiesandgoodjobs.
Becauseofthestateplan’sscopeandhighstandards,theAmericanLegislativeEx-
changeCouncillastmonthchoseOregonasoneofeightstatestoreceiveitsA+awardin
education.
ReplacingtheDiploma
Oregon’sreformplanwillrequirestudentstoearntwocertiicatesofmasterytograd-
uate—oneatabouttheendoftheirsophomoreyearandthesecondabouttwoyearslater.
Thisyear’seighth-graderswillbetheirstclasstoearncertiicatesinsteadofdiplomas.
Reformerssaythedistinctioniscentraltothechangeseducationfaces:diplomasare
basedoncoursecreditsorthetimestudentsputin.Butcertiicates,theysay,arebasedon
standardsorwhatstudentsknowandcando.
AnotherarticleinthesameSeptember8,1994issueofTheOregonianwasentitled“Model
ProgramLinksClassroomtoWorkplace.”ThisarticlebyCourtenayThompsondealswitha
pilotprojecttoimplementschool-to-workrequirementsoftheOregonEducationalActforthe
21stCentury.Thefollowingareexcerptsfromthatarticle:
Inthebloodsplattersofmurdervictims,DavidDouglasHighSchoolseniorChrissyBallantine
islearningaboutbothforensicsandherfuture.
Astudentintheschool’sinnovativeLawNetworkcourse,the17-year-oldisexploring
careersbylearningtointerpretbloodsplatterswiththehelpofaMultnomahCountyforensic
specialist.Lastyear,shealsoanalyzedthebookLustKiller,atrue-crimenovelbyAnnRule
aboutJeromeBrudos,anOregonserialkiller.
Notstandardclassroomfare,butBallantineravesaboutthetwo-yearcourse,apilot
programtoimplementschool-to-workrequirementsoftheOregonEducationalActforthe
21stCentury....“Weweredoinganexcellentjobofprovidingawell-roundedcollegeprep
education,”saidAnthonyPalermini,DavidDouglassuperintendent.“Butitwasn’trelevant
to25to30percentofourstudents.”
Asaresult,thedistrictbegandevelopingwhatitcallsProjectStars—”StudentsTaking
AuthenticRoutestoSuccess”—inwhichstudentsselectoneofsixgeneralcareerareas,or
“constellations,”toconcentratetheirelectives.Studentswillworktowardcertiicatesofad-
vancedmastery,akeymeasureofacademicsuccessunderstate-mandatedschoolreform....
Thecareerfocuswouldstartintheseventhgrade,whenstudentswouldtakeacareer-orien-
tationclass.Studentswouldselecttheirconstellationbythetimetheyhithighschool.
[Ed.Note:ThefactthatOregon’sschool-to-workreformplanreceivedtheAmericanLegis-
lativeExchangeCouncil’s(ALEC)highesteducationalawardshouldcomeasasurprisesince
ALECisanassociationcreatedby“conservatives”(PaulWeyrich)in1981asacounterpartto
theliberal,Rockefeller-spawnedACIR(AdvisoryCommissiononIntergovernmentalRelations);
bothorganizationsdraft“model”legislationforusebystateandfederallegislators.]
ONNOVEMBER2,1994EDUCATIONWEEKPUBLISHEDANEDITORIALLETTERBYTHISWRITERentitled
“ViewingReformPartnershipsasBigBrother’sIntrusion.”Aportionoftheletterfollows:
DonDavies(“PartnershipsforReform,”Commentary,October12,1994)justdoesn’t
getthemessage:SmartAmericansdon’tlikepartnershipswiththegovernment;andifpublic
schoolsaren’t“government,”whatarethey?
338
Evidentlytherearestillenoughpoliticallysavvy(educated)Americanswhorejectsuch
partnerships,havingstudiedgovernmentintrusioninthehomeandfamilyincountriessuch
asCuba,theformerSovietUnionandEasternbloccountries,andespeciallyinCommunist
China, from which some of Don Davies’s community-education research apparently has
emanated.
The Community Learning and Information Network, Inc., or CLIN, incorporated in
1992andsupportedbymajorcorporationsandeducationassociations,willmakeProfessor
Davies’sdreamcometrue.He“won’thavetoworryaboutcitizenswho‘resist’”Goals2000
reform(don’twanttodancewiththegovernment).AccordingtotheCLINfactsheet,“The
CLINconceptistoimplementacommunity-linkedlearning-technologyandinformation-de-
liverysystemthatuses…two-wayinteractivevideo,networkedcomputer-assistedlearning,
videoprogramming,multimedia,interactivecable,andelectronicmail(includingelectronic
videomail)basedonan‘opensystems’architecturalapproach.CLIN,Inc.’sgoalis[to]link
everypublicandprivateschoolintheUnitedStates,aswellaseveryinstitutionofhigher
educationandcorporateandindustrialtrainingsites.”
AninformationpacketfromtheCommunityLearningandInformationNetworkstates:
“CLINhasalsodevelopedinternationalprojects,toincludeanapprovedprojectwiththe
People’sRepublicofChinasponsoredbythehighestlevelsoftheChinesegovernment.”
ProfessorDavies’sconcernsaboutlackofparentalandtaxpayersupportforreformwill
alsobedealtwithwhentheNationalGoalsPanel’s235-pageCommunityActionToolKit,
theintentofwhichistopsychologicallymanipulatetaxpayersintosupportingGoals2000,
hitsourcommunities.TheToolKitrecommends,amongothertechniques,these:“Describe
alliesandopponents;identifychangeagents;getthepresidentofHewlettPackardtowrite
thechairmanoftheschoolboardalettersupportingtheproposal.”Italsoprovidesacase
studyofhowChristianministersweremanipulatedintosupportingGoals2000inEdmonds,
Washington.
Alexander Solzhenitsyn, the famous Soviet dissident, issued an important warning
whenhesaid,“Coexistenceonthistightlyknitearthshouldbeviewedasanexistencenot
onlywithoutwars...butalsowithout[government]tellingushowtolive,whattosay,what
tothink,whattoknow,andwhatnottoknow.”
So-called“peace”isbreakingoutallovertheworld.Howlongthistypeofpeacewill
last will depend on the patience freedom-loving citizens have with Global Big Brother’s
intrusionintotheprivacyoftheirhomesandfamilies.
CHALLENGERS FORINSIGHT IN ITSNOVEMBER1994 NEWSLETTER PUBLISHED AN ARTICLEentitled
“SusanKovalik’sIntegratedThematicInstruction”whichenablestheaverageparentorteacher
to understand a new teaching model based on “brain compatible learning” for outcome-
/performance-basededucation.41ThiscritiqueofKovalik’smodelwaswrittenbyeducation
researchersMarilynBoyerandBarbaraVolkmanofIndiana.42Sincethisarticledescribesanew
andmostcontroversialmethodwhichmaywellbeusedextensivelythroughoutthenation,this
writerhasincludeditinitsentiretysothatthereadercanuseitforeducationalpurposes:
SUSANKOVALIK’SINTEGRATEDTHEMATICINSTRUCTION
ByBarbaraVolkmanandMarilynBoyer
Controversy continues to rage throughout Indiana over a state-supported teaching
modelforOutcome-/Performance-BasedEducation.Manytraditionalteachingmethodsare
being eliminated as public school classrooms experiment with new teaching techniques
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1994 339
basedonbrain-compatiblelearning,suchasthosepromotedinthe1992IntegratedThematic
Instruction:TheModel(ITI)developedbySusanKovalikandAssociatesofArizona.
A memorandum was sent to all Indiana superintendents, inviting them to attend a
lunch/conversationwithSusanKovalikinIndianapolisonNovember10,1994duringthe
7thNationalConferenceoftheAmericanAssociationofSchoolLibrarians.[Itstatedinpart
that]ITIisofgreatinteresttoparentsinIndianaandelsewhere,since“Susaniswellknown
asawriter,facilitator,andpresidentofoneofthelargestinservicetrainingorganizationsin
theUnitedStates,”accordingtotheinvitation.
Kovalik’smaterialshowsastrongconnectiontotheNewAgephilosophiesofEastern
mysticismandWesternoccultism.Indianahasforseveralyearsbeenputtinginplacethe
newagecurriculumthatcontainsallofthepsychological/educationalprocessesnecessary
toachieveinthestudentthedesiredstate,nationalandinternationaloutcomes.
Master teacher Barbara Pedersen, an associate of Susan Kovalik’s from Central El-
ementary School in Lebanon, Indiana, has brought the ITI model to Indiana classrooms
throughtheIndianaDepartmentofEducation-supportedC.L.A.S.S.(ConnectingLearning
AssuresSuccessfulStudents)project.Pedersennotonlytrainsandcoachesteachersinmany
schoolsinIndiana,butnowhasexpandedtoincludeKentuckyteachers.
TheITImodel’sapproachtoteachingusesasingletheme(yearly,monthly,weekly)
totietogethervariousareasofinstructionsuchasscience,math,history,andreading.The-
maticteachingisnotnew.Whatisnew,saysKovalikinher1992ITImanual,isthat,“The
entireITIModel—curriculumdevelopmentandinstructionalstrategies—hasbeenselected
andorganizedwithgreatcaretoithowthebrainlearns”(p.3).
Thistypeofthematicmodel,basedonhumanbrainresearch,iscalledbrain-compatible
learning.However,acloselookbehindthemodelatthebooksthatKovalikcitesasbrain
researchrevealsthatITIisnotbasedonvalidscientiicstudies,butratheroneducational
theoriestiedtopsychicphenomenaresearch.
Themind,claimsKovalik,isdesignedtolearnfromtheexperienceandcomplexitiesof
thenaturalworld,andthussherejectsthelogical,sequential(traditional)teachingapproach
tolearning.AccordingtoKovalik,thegoalofschooldistrictsandschoolboardsshouldbeto
providestudentswithabrain-compatiblelearningenvironmentbyeliminatingpoliciesthat
supportbrain-antagonisticelements(i.e.,atextbookforeverystudent,traditionalevaluation/
grading,andsequentialcurriculapresentedinalogicalmanner).
OpponentsoftheITImodellistthefollowingmajorcriticisms:1)NewAgeideasand
practices including yoga relaxation, visualization, and guided imagery leading to altered
statesofconsciousness;2)Tribes,acooperativelearningmodelpredominantlycenteredon
social(peergroup)developmentratherthanindividualacademicachievement;3)academic
deicienciestracedtoemphasisonexplorationofthecomplex,random,chaotic“realworld”
insteadofconcentratedonsequential,logicalteachingofsubjectmatterthroughtextbooks;
4)controversialnatureofcertainthemes(political,religious,paranormal,etc.)andover-
emphasisonthemes;and5)teachingmethodsandcurriculumlinkedtoquestionablebrain
research(i.e.,Brain-CompatibleClassroom).
TheITImodelencompassessixmainbrainresearchtheories:
(1)TriuneBrain—PaulMcLean’sevolutionarytheoryofmankind’sthreeseparatebrains
ofvaryingages.Thisisakeycomponentandrationaleforprovidingastress-free
brain-compatiblelearningenvironment.
(2)AcceleratedLearning—thespeedupmemorylearningbyteachingdirectlytothe
subconsciousmindderivedfromGeorgeLozanov’sSuggestology,whichisbased
uponresearchfromyogisandpsychics.TheITImodelhasallofthepartsofthis
typeofAcceleratedLearning—yogarelaxation,visualization,guidedimageryand
specialeffectsofmusic.Lozanov’smethodisalsocalledSALT(SuggestiveAccel-
erativeLearningandTeaching[whichsupportsStanford’sHenryLevin’sAccelerated
340
Schoolsefforts])andIntegrativeLearning.
(3)LeftBrain/RightBrainThinking—atheorytodeveloptheintuitivesideoftheright
brainbyaccessingthesubconsciousmind.Thereisnoconsensusintheresearchto
supportthistheory.Althoughsomescientistshaveclaimedtovalidatetherolesof
theleft/rightbrainhemispheres,otherswoulddisagree.“Wedon’thaveoneshred
ofevidencethatsomethingashigh-levelascreativitycouldbeallocatedtooneside
ofthebrainortheother,”saysLevy(professorofbiopsychologyattheUniversity
ofChicago).“Attemptstoapplywhatisknownabouthemisphericdifferencestothe
enhancementoflearningarepremature....Thatwastheconclusionofthefourteen-
memberpanelofresearchersfromtheNationalAcademyofSciencesthatrecently
completedabroadviewof‘brainasymmetry’”(TheOmniWholemindNewsletter,
Vol.1,No.4,March1988).
(4) The Seven Intelligences—redeines intelligence to include music, dance, sports,
etc.HowardGardner,departingfromtraditionaleducation,theorizesthathumans
havesevenintelligencesthatareassociatedwithbrainlocations.Theyarelogical-
mathematical, linguisitic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal, and
interpersonal. Gardner labels what has been traditionally called a human talent
asanintelligence.Parentsshouldhavegraveconcernsaboutlabelingastudent’s
personalbeliefsandhis/herinteractionwithothersasintelligences,becausethe
statecanthendothedevelopingandassessingofthem.Thisisoneofthedangers
ofOutcome-BasedEducationsincethelearneroutcomesoftenincludethestudent’s
attitudesandbeliefs.
(5)PersonalityTypes/LearningStyles—Pedersenreferstotheimportanceoflearning
styles.Oneofthemethodsofidentifying/teachingtolearningstylesusedinIndiana
aswellasmanyotherstatesisthe4MATsystemofinstructiondevelopedbyBernice
McCarthy.4MATisbasedontheoriesfromeducation,psychology,neurologyand
management. The system includes four types of learners: Imaginative, Analytic,
CommonSenseandDynamic.McCarthyteachestothelearningstyleofthestudent
withleft/rightmodetechniques.
(6)Brain-CompatibleLearning,aphrasecoinedbyLeslieHart,authorofHumanBrain
and Human Learning. Hart believes humans learn best from the rich, random,
chaotic“realworld”insteadofconcentrated,sequential,logicalteachingofsubject
matterthroughtextbooks.
Replacingtraditionalteachingmethodswithocculttechniquesthatteachdirectlyto
thesubconsciousmindopensthedoortopossiblemindcontrol(brainwashing).Itappears
thatsomeeducationreformersthinkchildrencanlearnbetterinthishypnoticstatewhich
allowsallmaterialintothemind.Childrencanthenabsorbanyagendatheschool(state)
wishestoteachwithoutthebraindiscriminatingthevalidityofthematerial.
Authors’Update(recentdevelopmentssincethisarticlewaswritten):
HowardGardnerhasnowexpandedtoeightandahalfintelligencesbyaddingnaturalist
andhalfofspiritual.
Thefollowingrecentpublicationsshowthateducatorscontinuetomisapplythebrain
theoryandresearchthateventhescientiiccommunitystilldisputes:
ACelebrationofNeurons:AnEducator’sGuidetotheHumanBrainbyRobertSylwesteris
publishedbytheAssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment(ASCD)in1995
asamajorguideforeducators.Sylwesternotesthateducatorsmustnotmakethemistake
ofleft/rightbrainbooks,workshopsandcurriculumthatoftenwentfarbeyondtheresearch
indings. He sees misinformed or uninformed people making major policy decisions for
341
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1994
educators.However,hemaintainsthatapplicationofthisresearchisanimportantstepfor
educatorseventhoughtheapplicationsarenotclear,theissuesarecomplex,andeducators
generallylackthescientiicbackgroundtounderstandorbuildacurriculumutilizingthe
research.
TheEducationCommissionoftheStateshasheld16workshopsinthelastyearontheimpli-
cationsthatneurosciencemayhaveforstatepolicymakerswhomaybegettingcarriedaway
onbrainresearch.(“EducationPolicymakersEmbraceBrainFindings—ScientistsQuestion
RushtoApplyBrain-ResearchFindings,”byLindaJacobson,EducationWeek,April8,1998)
[allemphasesinoriginal]
JOHNOMICINSKI,GANNETTNEWSSERVICE,WROTE“MULTICULTURALISMISAWORTHYGoal,but
AmericaStillNeedsAmericans”whichappearedintheSunday,November20,1994issueof
theDetroitNews.Omicinski’sarticlecoveredaspeechbyLibrarianofCongressJamesBil-
lingtonatthe75thanniversaryofGeorgetownUniversity’sSchoolofForeignService.43Afew
interestingexcerptsfromthearticlefollow:
WillAmericaleadtheworldintothe21stcentury?Notthewaythingsaregoing,says
LibrarianofCongressJamesBillington.[Not]inacountryaflictedwithalazy,ill-deined
multiculturalismillingupwithAfricanAmericans,KoreanAmericans,JapaneseAmericans,
hesuggests.Andhisbottomlineissimple:Americadoesn’tworkwithoutAmericans.
Asacustodianofthelibraryandits105millionitems,Billingtoniscaretakerofthe
world’slargestdepositoryofhumanculture.HealsoisoneofWashington’ssharpestminds,
an expert on Russian history as well as America’s heritage, and an even rarer breed—a
straighttalker.
The arsenal of information we command ought to qualify the United States as an
unchallengedculturalsuperpower,Billingtonsays.Butthisimposingmotherlodeofwords
isn’tofmuchuseifU.S.residentsaretooindolent,tooself-satisied,tooculturallybalkan-
izedtouseit,hesays….
IsAmericaanideaoranation?
Thesharpeningsplitbetweenleftandrightmakesthatacutting-edgequestioninthe
currentculturalwars.AndBillingtoncomesdownonthesideofnationhoodlargelybecause
America’sgoodideasdon’tmuchmatterifthere’snonationtopushthem.
Gatheringtheworld’scivilizationtoitself,theUnitedStatesshouldbeprimedtoset
amodelfortheworld.Butitisn’tworkingthatway,saidBillington.Agaggleofvoices—all
givenequalweightinasocietythatmayhaveforgottenitstraditionalvalues—hasturned
Americaintoadizzyspin.“Unfortunately,weseemtohavelostournationalcompasssome-
whereontheroadtothenextmillenium,”Billingtonsaid.“Wearegettingevermorelazy....
Manyofourgreatinstitutionsofhigherlearningseemtohavebecomeindifferentto—even
contemptuousof—theirhistoricfunctionoftransmittingabasicunderstandingoftheirown
culturefromonegenerationtothenext.
“Inplaceoftheexpanding,inclusiveAmerica,whichaddswithoutsubtracting,the
ideologicalmulticulturistwouldcreateabalkanizedAmericaandacontinuousprocessof
subtractionfromanysenseofcommontraditionorsharedvalues....Thiskindofmulticultur-
alismisthedenialratherthanthefulillmentoftruepluralism,whichinthegreatAmerican
traditionassumesavarietyofauthenticanddeepconvictionsratherthana...uniformityof
relativisticindifference.”
Billingtonseesasinglelanguageastheultimatenationalglue.ThoughEnglishison
342
itswaytodominatingtheworld,America’sleft-wingelitistintellectualssayitshouldn’tbe
America’slinguafranca.“Inanycountrythatendures,theremustbeaunumaswellasa
pluribus,”saidBillington.
That’snotall.
Billingtonsaysanationalideaalsorequiresa“clearerunderstandingthanoureduca-
tionalsystemhasoftendoneinrecentyearsofourdurableconstitutionalsystemandpublic
institutionsandofourdistinctivelyJudeo-Christianroots....Thebridgestoothercultures
willnotbesolidunlesstheybeginwithcasementsthataresunkdeepintoone’sownnative
ground.”
Leadersofourgovernments,schoolsanduniversitieshavemuchtoanswerfor,perhaps
eventhedeathoftheAmericannation.Billington’sspeechisanotherreasontodemand
betterfromthem,orshowthemthedoor.
EDUCATIONWEEKOFNOVEMBER23,1994RANTHEARTICLE“EDUCATION,RELIGIOUSGroups,Seek
CommonGround.”Excerptsfollow:
Theleadersofseveralnationaleducationassociationsandconservativereligiousandcitizens’
groupshavebeenmeetingbehindthescenesinanefforttoindcommongroundonschool
reform and end their increasingly hostile debate.... An encouraging sign—and surprising
turnabout—inthedebatebetweenschool-reformleadersandtheirconservativeopponents
hasbeentherecentpartnershipofWilliamG.Spady,aleadingadvocateofoutcomes-based
education,andRobertL.Simonds,thepresidentoftheCostaMesa,California-basedCitizens
forExcellenceinEducation,whichsaysithasabout250,000membersnationwide.Inmany
ways,thetwomenrepresentpolaroppositesinthedebateoverthedirectionofschools.Yet
inrecentmonths,theyhavemadeplanstosponsorjointlyanon-proitNationalCenterfor
ReconciliationandEducationalReformattheUniversityofNorthernColoradoinGruel....
Inmanyareas,CEE-afiliatedactivistssupportaback-to-basicsagenda,opposingwhole
languageinstruction,open-endedassessmentsandteachingstrategiesthatstrayfromthe
drill-and-practiceroutine.Butafterbuildingaconstituencythathasseenitsjobasighting
againstthetide,Mr.Simondssaid,itistimetoworkwitheducatorsonbetterchoices....
“WearenotopposedtoBillSpady’stheoryofoutcomes-basededucation.Therearealotof
goodideasinit,”Mr.Simondssaid.
INALETTERDATEDDECEMBER12,1994FROMWILLIAMSPADYOFTHEHIGHSUCCESSNetwork
toDr.NancyGrasmick,Marylandstatesuperintendentofschools,acopyofwhichwasvery
likelysenttothe49otherstateschoolchiefs,Spadymadethefollowingstatements:
Withboththefederalgovernmentandstatebodiespushingharderthanevertoimprovethe
focusandeffectivenessofwhathappensatthelocallevel,majoreducationalreformseems
inevitable—exceptforonenewfactor:theopenresistancebycitizens’groupstoahostof
“progressive”reformideasandinitiatives....
WhenwemetinMarch,Dr.Simondswasastaunchopponentofvirtuallyeverything
Iadvocatedintermsofoutcomes-basededucationalchangeandrestructuring.Today,tothe
amazementofmanyeducatorsandpolicymakers,heisinagreementwiththebasiccom-
ponentsandprinciplesarticulatedintheencloseddocumentdevelopedbyDr.KitMarshall
andmyself.Moreimportantly,heandIhavejoinedforcestoformaNationalCenteron
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1994 343
EducationalReconciliationandReform—anendeavorthatcolleaguesacrossthecountrytell
usisbadlyneeded....
Wewouldbedelightedtodiscussthefeasibilityofworkingwithyouandyourcon-
stituentstobringthisprogramtoyourstateandtogenerateabroadbaseofsupportfor
reconciliationandreform.ThiscouldbedoneeitherundertheauspicesoftheGoals2000
initiativeorthroughothersponsorship.
COTTAGEGROVE,OREGON’SSOUTHLANESCHOOLDISTRICTPLOUGHSAHEADASTHENATION’Scer-
tiicateinmasterypackleader.Accordingtoanarticleentitled“CottageGroveEnduresTrials,
TriumphsasItTestsNewSchoolPlan”intheDecember13,1994issueofTheOregonian:
Parentsarestillightingthechanges.Studentswillmutteraboutbeingguineapigs.Teach-
ers—eventhosewhobackthereforms—groanabouttheworkload.
Lastspring,CottageGroveHighSchoolhandedoutthestate’sirstcertiicatesofini-
tialmasteryto81sophomores.Thecertiicate,keystoneinthe1991reformact,isdesigned
tomeasurestudentsonwhatthey’velearnedandwhattheycando,asopposedtowhat
coursestheyhavetaken.
Muchofthecriticismarisesfromthewayninth-graderswerethrustcoldintothenew
programtwoyearsago.Theyworkedonteamprojectsthatwouldbegradedjointly,took
moreresponsibilityfortheirownlearninganddevelopedportfoliosoftheirclasswork.And,
moresigniicantly,theyhadtomeethigheracademicstandards.
TimmWagner,16,failedtogethiscertiicatelastyearbecause,hesays,histeammates
onagroupprojectdidn’tgettheirworkdone.“Idon’tlikeit,”hesays.“IfI’mdoingajob,I
shouldgetiredifIdosomethingwrong,notifsomebodyelsedoessomethingwrong.”
SCHOOL-TO-WORK PROGRAMS PROMOTED BY BUSINESS IS THE SUBJECT OF AN ARTICLE ENtitled
“LeadingBusinessExecutivesCreateCounciltoPromoteS-T-WPrograms”intheDecember
14,1994issueofEducationWeek.Someexcerptsfollow:
Someofthenation’sleadingcorporateexecutiveslastweekannouncedthattheyhaveformed
agrouptopromotebusinessinvolvementinschool-to-workprograms.
Members of the National Employment Leadership Council will work with the U.S.
Education and Labor departments to implement school-to-work programs in their own
companiesandencourageotherirmstodothesame.Whethermanybusinessestakethem
upontheoffercoulddeterminetheprospectsforwork-basedlearningintheUnitedStates.
Thenewcouncilprovidesthestrongestsignaltodatethattheprivatesectormaybeready
tosupportsuchprograms....
Butthecouncilstoppedshortofreleasingnumericgoalsforhowmanyirmsithopes
torecruitorhowmanytrainingslotstheywouldprovide....JeromeGrossman,thechair-
manandC.E.O.oftheNewEnglandMedicalCenter,saidthecouncilhopestosetnumeric
objectiveswithinthenexttwomonths.
Thecouncil’sstaffishousedattheInstituteforEducationalLeadership,anon-proit
groupbasedinWashington.
ThefollowingcompaniesandC.E.O.’sarechartermembersofthecouncil:FordMo-
tor Co., Alan Trotman; American Express Travel Related Services Co, Inc., Roger Ballou;
AtlantaLifeInsuranceCo.,JesseHill,Jr.;BellSouthCorp.,JohnClendenin;CharlesSchwab
344
Corp.,LawrenceJ.Stupski;CybernetSystemsCo.,HeidiJacobs;EastmanKodakCo.,George
Fisher;H.J.Russell&Co.,HermanJ.Russell;ImmunoGen,Inc.,MitchellSayare;Manpower
Corporation,MitchellFromstein;McDonald’sUSA,EdRensi;NewEnglandMedicalCenter,
JeromeH.Grossman;PacerSystems,Inc.,JohnC.Rennie;PeaveyElectronicsCorp.,Melia
Peavey;PhillipsDisplayComponents,Dr.IvaWilson,president;SiemensCorporation,Albert
Hoser,presidentandC.E.O.;theTaubmanCompany,AlTaubman,chairman;ThomMcAn
ShoeCompany,LarryMcVey,president;UNUMCorporation,JamesF.Orr,III,chairmanand
C.E.O.;andWill-BurtCompany,HarryFeatherstone,chairmanandC.E.O.
WEDNESDAY,DECEMBER28,1994ISSUEOFTHEWALLSTREETJOURNALCARRIEDANARticleunder
itscolumnCriticalThoughtentitled“AcclaimedReformsofU.S.EducationArePopularbut
Unproven—TedSizer’sMethodsStressReasoningoverRote:GainsAren’tMeasurable—Am-
biguityandFacultyBattles.”Sizer’sCoalitionofEssentialSchools,consideredbymanytobe
thecenterpieceofnationaleducationreform,provestobemoreworkableintheorythanin
practice.Someexcerptsfollow:
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1995 345
Inthecrusadetorevitalizehighschools,noonehasattractedmoreattention—ormoney—
thanTheodoreR.Sizer,professorofeducationatBrownUniversityandcreatorofEssential
Schools.ButasDr.Sizer’sadherentsanddonationspileup,sotoodoesresearchchallenging
theeffectivenessofcoalitionschools.Fiverecent,little-publicizedstudies,includingaive-
yearresearchprojectsponsoredbythecoalitionitself,suggestthatDr.Sizer’sideasmaybe
alotmoreworkableintheorythaninpractice....
NotsinceJohnDewey,whosewritingsshapedthe20thcenturyU.S.curriculum,has
oneperson’sphilosophytakenholdinsomanyclassrooms,educatorssay.Morethan$100
millionhaspouredinfromeducationfoundationsanddonorssuchasAT&T,Exxonand
Citicorp.Anecdotalevidencefromsomecoalitionschoolspointstoimprovedattendance
rates,lowerdropoutrates,bettertestscoresormorestudentsgoingtocollege.
Butevencoalitionoficialsconcedesuchevidenceisspotty.Theyalsohaven’ttriedto
determinecomprehensivelywhethercoalitionstudentsarelearningmore,despitepressure
todosofromsomebenefactors.GrantWiggins,thecoalition’sformerresearchdirector,says
heremainsunconvincedthatcoalitionschoolsarebetter.“Ithasalwaysbeenmysensethat
it’snotbetter.It’snotworse;it’sjustdifferent,”explainsDr.Wiggins,whosayshequitthe
coalitionin1988becauseof“acombinationofburnoutandfrustration.”
1995
THEJANUARY1,1995ISSUEOFEDUCATIONWEEKCARRIEDANARTICLEBYROBERTC.Johnston
entitled“33ReligiousGroupsJoinRileyinSeekingGreaterFamilyRoleinSchools.”Some
excerptsfollow:
NearlythreedozenreligiousleadersputasidetheologicaldifferencestojoinSecretaryof
EducationRichardW.Rileyinaholidayseasondeclarationsupportinginvolvementinedu-
cation....
…Mr.Rileyaddedthatreligiousleaderscametoa“clearrecognition”thatthereligious
community can play a “more active and positive role” in helping parents educate their
children.
Ms.Doylesaidthedepartmentmayfollowupbyworkingwiththereligiousorganiz-
ationstoprovideinstructionalmaterialsforparents.Thedepartmentalsohopestoprovide
aneducationguideforministersaswellasmeetingspaceforfutureactivitiesarrangedby
thereligiousgroups.
Askedaboutthepoliticalovertonesofreachingouttochurchgroups,Ms.Doylesaid:
“TheSecretarymadeitclearhewasnotaskingthemtostandwithhimandsupportall
(Clinton)Administrationinitiatives.Thisisaboutfamilies.”
[Ed.Note:Separationofchurchandstateliesoutthewindowwhenchurchcommunities
plantojoingovernment,business,parents,andschoolsinhelpingallfamiliesparticipatein
theirchildren’seducation,andespeciallywhentheU.S.DepartmentofEducationprovides
religiousorganizationswithinstructionalmaterialsforparents!]
INANARTICLEENTITLED“RUSSIANTEACHERREVIEWSWORKINSAD53”WHICHWASpublished
intheJanuary12,1995issueofTheBangor(Maine)DailyNews,BrendaSeekinsexplainsall
tooclearlytheextentofcooperationbetweenRussiaandtheU.S.inschool-to-work(planned
346
economy)activities.AccordingtoSeekins’sresearchtheseactivitieswerenotconinedtoivory
towermusings,buthadpenetratededucationatthelocallevel.Someexcerptsfollow:
PITTSFIELD—RussianexchangeteacherTanyaKoslovaaddressedtheSAD53boardofdirectors
Mondaynighttoexpressherappreciationfortheopportunitytoworkwiththedistrictand
MaineCentralInstitute[MCI—deeplyinvolvedwithworkforcetraining].
Sheofferedanoverviewoftheworkshehaddoneinthedistrictoverthepastfour
months,spendingtwomonthswithchildreninkindergartenthroughgradeeightandthe
balanceofhertimeatMCI.
SheparticularlyenjoyedstudentswhoparticipatedinherRussianhumanitiesclasswho
were“highly-motivatedandeagerstudents.”[MCIHeadmaster]Cummingstoldtheboard
thatMCIwillbetherecipientoftheSchool-to-WorkfundinginconjunctionwiththeMaine
YouthApprenticeshipProgram.
Theschoolcouldreceiveupto$8,000toprovidestafftrainingtobetterintegrateaca-
demicswiththeprogramprovidedbyapprentices’worksites.
MACHIAVELPEDAGOGUEOULEMINISTEREDELAREFORMEPSYCHOLOGIQUE[MACHIAVELlianPed-
agogyortheMinistryofPsychologicalReform]byPascalBernardin(EditionsNotre-Damedes
Graces:Paris,1995)waspublished.ThisbookdealswithUnitedNationsEducational,Scientiic,
andCulturalOrganization’s(UNESCO)roleinthetransformationofeducationworldwidefrom
asystembasedonacademicinstructiontooneinwhichthepurposeisnothingbutconditioning
foracceptanceofworldgovernment(NewWorldOrder).MonsieurBernardindiscussesbrain-
washingtechniquessuchascognitivedissonanceandthegroupprocess,andishighlycritical
oftheroleplayedbyAmericanandEuropeanbehavioralpsychologistsinthetransformation
oftheworld’sschoolsfromplacesoflearningtomentalhealthclinicsforbrainwashing.The
followingareexcerptsfromthiswriter’stranslationfromtheFrenchversion:
The general philosophy of the pedagogical revolution is exposed, without detour, in the
publicationsoftheinternationalorganizations(UNESCO,OECD,CouncilofEurope,Com-
missionofBruxelles...)....
Thispedagogicalrevolutionattemptstoimposeanethicforthecreationofanewsociety
andtoestablishaninterculturalsociety.Thenewethicisnothingmorethanaremarkable
presentationofacommunistutopia.Astudyofthedocumentsleavesnodoubt,undercover
ofethicsandbehindarhetoricandremarkabledialectic,ofacommunistideologyforwhich
onlythepresentationandthemeansofactionhavebeenmodiied....Alsoitisnosurprise
thatthelevelofscholarshipwillcontinuetogodownsincetheroleoftheschoolhasbeen
redeinedsothatitsprincipalmissionisnolongerintellectualbutsocialformation....Oneno
longergivesstudentsintellectualtoolsforliberationbutimposesonthemvalues,attitudes,
andbehaviorusingpsychologicalmanipulationtechniques.
SALEM,OREGON’STHESTATESMANJOURNALOFFEBRUARY4,1995CARRIEDANARTICLEentitled
“ServiceLearningProjectsMatchStudentswithNeedsintheSalem-KeizerCommunity.”Ex-
cerptsfollow:
Servicelearningisamethodthroughwhichstudentslearnvalues,citizenship,andskillsby
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1995 347
performingavarietyofcommunityservices.Onanygivenschoolday,hundredsofSalem-
Keizerteensleavetheirclassroomstovisitlocalbusinesses,nonproitagenciesandother
communityorganizationsoractivities.
Thestudentsaren’tonieldtrips—they’revisitingtheirservicesites,wheretheyperform
avarietyofcommunityservicework,alsoreferredtoas“servicelearning.”Itisherethat
studentsarelearningthemeaningofcitizenshipandservice.They’realsobecomingmore
awareoftheirroleinthecommunity.
“Service learning demonstrates the partnership between the school district and the
community.Studentslearnirsthandabouttheneedsandissuesofourcommunity—the
homeless,thehungry,theelderly,andenvironment—whiletheyworktowardmeetingthose
needs,”explainsPatAbeene,VolunteerServicescoordinatorforthedistrict.
Abeene said service learning takes various forms. These range from the district’s
YouthCommunityServiceProgram—inwhichhighschoolstudentsget[selectiveorelec-
tive]creditforcommunityservice—toindividualschoolprojectsintegratedintotheregular
curriculum.
OtherservicesitesofferedthroughtheprogramincludetheBoysandGirlsClubs,nursing
homes,theHumaneSociety,andOregonstateparks....Anotherexampleofservicelearning
wastheMcNaryAreaServiceLearningProject.ThesuccessfulprojectteamedeightKeizer
schoolsinthecollectionof6,000recyclablemilkjugsfromareahomes—aservicecurrently
unavailablethroughSalem-Keizerdisposalcompanies.
THEFOLLOWINGSTATEMENTSWEREPUBLISHEDIN1995INTHEMARYLANDSTATEDEPARTmentof
Education’sMSDEBulletin(Vol.6,No.3)entitled“KeepingYouCurrentonEducationReform
inMaryland”:
SEEKINGCOMMONGROUNDONSCHOOLREFORM
WilliamSpady,aleadingproponentofoutcomes-basededucation,andRobertSimonds,
headofaChristiangroupthathasledtheightagainstOBE,madeajointpresentationbefore
theStateBoardinFebruarytodiscusstheir10-months’dialogueofreconciliation....
Earlyintheirdiscussions,whichbeganatameetinglastMarchoftheAssociationof
SupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment(ASCD)thetwomenagreedthatthepublicschools
areessentialtodemocracyandmustbestrengthened....
Thetwomenhavecometoagreementonasetofcomponentsandprinciplesforschool
reform,whichSpadycallsthe“HighSuccess”model.Theyagreethatspeciicreformalter-
nativesshouldincludethefollowingcomponents:
*Qualityperformancestandards
*Future-focusedplanning
*Extensivecommunityinvolvement
*Continuousimprovementstrategies
*Challenginglearningexperiences
*Advancedinstructionalprocesses
*Real-lifelearningassessments
BothmenhadpraiseforMaryland’sreforms.Simondssaid,“TheMarylandLearning
Outcomesarewhatparentswant.”...
Several education associations (including the Association for Supervision and Cur-
riculum Development, the American Association of School Administrators, the National
348
SchoolBoardsAssociation,theNationalPTA)havejoinedwiththeCitizensforExcellence
inEducationandotherconservativegroupstocontinuethesearchforcommongroundon
education.
[Ed.Note:RobertSimonds’sco-optionbytheverygroupsresponsibleforatleastthirtyyears
offailed,so-called“reform,”isbeyondthiswriter’scomprehension.44]
“CONTENTOFOURKIDS’TESTSSHOULDN’TBESECRET”BYMARGARETSITTE,COLUMNIST,ranin
theMarch3,1995issueofTheBismarck(N.D.)Tribune.Excerptsfollow:
In1990NorthDakotaeighth-gradersscoredhighestinmathontheNationalAssessmentof
EducationalProgress.Questionsofpsycho-analysishavesurfaced,however,leavingmany
parentstoask,“WhatexactlyistheNAEP?”SenatorBobStenehjem,R.,Bismarck,thinks
it’stimetoindout,andhehasintroducedSB2308allowingparentstherighttoseeit.
AnitaHoge,aPennsylvaniamotherofthree,listenedintentlyonedayin1986asher
ninth-gradesoncamehomecomplaining,“I’vejusttakentheweirdesttestintheworld.It
wassohard.Youcouldn’tanswerthequestions.”
“The prospect of working most of my adult life depresses me. Check ‘yes,’ ‘no,’ or
‘sometimes.’”
Beingaconcernedparent,Anitamarchedtoschoolanddemandedtoseethetest,the
PennsylvaniaEducationalQualityAssessment.Shewasrefused.Afeelinginthepitofher
stomachtoldhersomethingwasterriblywrong.
Anitacalledotherparents,andtogethersixwomenembarkedonanextensiveinves-
tigationthatlastedseveralyears.
BeritKjos’sBraveNewSchools(HarvestHousePublishers:Eugene,Ore.,1995),indis-
cussingAnitaHoge’scase,states:
AnitaHoge,anativeofPennsylvania,isnostrangertoconcernedparentsortothe
educationalestablishment.Whileherstoryhasencouragedthousandsofparentsacrossthe
country,ithasalsobroughtanxietytothechangeagentswhohopedtoconcealtheirstrategies
untiltheyaccomplishtheirpurpose.Anita’scourageoussearchforanswerstomystifying
schoolpracticeshasgivenusaglimpseofaneducationalprocessdesignedtoconformall
childrentothenew,politicallycorrectversionof“appropriatementalhealth.”
Anita’sjourneywilltakeyouthroughamazeofwhitepapersandtechnicaldocuments
andexposethetruenatureofcontemporaryeducation:socialengineering.Itwillgiveyouan
insidelookatthedeceptivetestingmechanismdesignedtomeasuretheattitudesandvalues
ofourchildrenandmakesureeverystudentwilldemonstratethepre-plannednonacademic
“outcomes.”Unwillingtogiveupinthefaceofoverwhelmingopposition,Anitahasbecome
alivingdemonstrationofthehopethat“onepersoncanmakeadifference.”(p.206)
[Ed.Note:AnitaHogeiledalawsuitagainsttheU.S.DepartmentofEducation,thePennsyl-
vaniaStateDepartmentofEducationandothers,usingthefederalProtectionofPupilRights
Amendment.TheoutcomeofhersuitwasdelayedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducation’s
tacticsuntilthestatuteoflimitationsexpired,thusitsacknowledgmentthathersuitwasle-
gitimateservedonlyasamoralvictory.ThePennsylvaniaDepartmentofEducationcontinued
tostonewallMrs.Hoge’seffortstouncovertheprivacy-invadingcomponentsofitsstatewide
assessmenttest,discontinuingitsuseforatimeandlaterchangingthenameofthetest—as
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1995 349
goodchangeagentsarewonttodo!
Forfurtherinformation,seethe1964discussionoftheoriginsoftheNAEP;1988Na-
tional Citizens Alliance press conference at the National Press Club; 1998 Ohio Supreme
CourtfavorabledecisioninSteveRea’schallengetotheOhioDepartmentofEducation;and
AppendixIV.]
THE BISMARCK (N.D.) SUNDAY TRIBUNE CARRIED AN ARTICLE ENTITLED “TEST BOARD Tackles
SecrecyStigma”byJeffOlsonintheMarch5,1995issue.Excerptsfollow:
ABismarcklegislator’sbilltoletparentsinspectanationalstudentachievementtestsent
theexam’sgoverningboardscramblingforanewpublicaccesspolicy.
Newpolicydirectivesgiveparentsalookatoldtestquestionsanddemographicback-
groundquestions,butmaintainhighsecurityforNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress
[NAEP]examquestionsstillinuse.TheywereapprovedFridayinWashington.
ShouldSen.RobertStenehjem’sbillbecomelaw,directoroftheNAEP,ArchieLaPointe,
saiditwouldmeantheendoftheexaminNorthDakota.Nationaltestresultswouldn’twaver
becauseNorthDakotastudentsareasliverofthenation-widetestsample.ButLaPointefeared
copycatlegislationcouldseriouslydisruptNAEPoperationsinotherGreatPlainsstates.
NationalAssessmentpersonnelcamefromtheEducationalTestingServiceatPrinc-
eton,N.J.,aprivatecompanyundercontracttothefederalgovernmentwhichsponsorsthe
NAEP.45
ETSstaffandgoverningboardmembersfromacrossthecountrysaidtheyweresur-
prisedbyStenehjem’sbill.NorthDakotachildrenhavedominatedstate-by-statecomparisons
intheNAEP.
Butthe25-year-oldprogramhasbeenpepperedwithaccusationsthatitamountsto
psychologicaltesting,andisnottheanonymouscomparisonofacademicachievementas
prescribed by law. Parents are also upset that they can’t have easy access to active test
questions.
“TheNAEPjustisn’tworthit,”saidStenehjem,aRepublicanwhosponsoredSB2308.
“Thereistoomuchsecrecyandtherearetoomanyintrusivebackgroundquestions.”
ParentsfromPennsylvania,Nebraska,Iowaandotherstateshavecomplainedbitterly
abouttheNAEPforseveralyears.Butnoonehasscaredthegoverningboardwithlegis-
lation.Untilnow.
“EDUCATORS,RELIGIOUSGROUPSCALLSCHOOLTRUCE—THEYAGREETODISAGREEONHotIssues
of‘90s”bySallyStreffBuzbeewaspublishedintheMarch22,1995issueofTheAtlantaCon-
stitution.Whatthearticleactuallysaidisthattheleftandtherightwillmeetatthemiddle
(commonground,orwhatShirleyMcCunereferstoas“theradicalcenter”).Thisisanexcel-
lentexampleoftheHegelianDialecticatwork.Somepertinentexcerptsfollow:
ARLINGTON,VIRGINIA—Educatorsandreligiousparentsightingabitter“culturewar”over
thefutureofAmerica’spublicschoolssignedapledgeTuesdaytotonedowntheirrhetoric
andcooperateforchildren’sgood….
...[T]he17groups,rangingfromtheconservativeChristianCoalitiontotheliberalPeople
fortheAmericanWay,pledgedtoworktosolvedisputesbeforetheybecomelawsuitsand
toimprovecommunicationandrespecteachother’spositions.
350
TheagreementcouldinluencedebateslikelyinCongressthisyearoverschoolvouch-
ersandschoolprayer.Buttheagreementwillbeaimedatsolvingdisputesthathavedivided
communitiesinrecentyears.
“The statement is eagerly awaited,” said Charles Haynes, a visiting scholar at The
FreedomForumFirstAmendmentCenter.Hebroughtthegroupstogetherwithhelpfrom
thenon-partisanAssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment(ASCD).
“PeopleinVista,California,andinmanyothercommunitieshavebeensaying‘We
wantitnow,’”Haynessaid.TheVistaschooldistrictnearSanDiegohasbeenightingover
theteachingofevolutionandcreationism.
“Thisisgoingtogivealltheselocaldistrictssomethingtolookat,somethingtohelp
guidethem.”Haynessaid.
“Severalprominentgroups,includingtheconservativeFocusontheFamilyandthe
liberalAmericanCivilLibertiesUnion,didnotsignthestatementofprinciples,”Haynes
noted.
“I don’t think any of them are against it in theory, but thought it was vague,” he
said.
Inpart,theagreementwillclarifyforlocalteachers,principalsandparentswhatthe
SupremeCourthasruledisallowableinpublicschools,suchasthefactthatreligiousgroups
haveequalaccesstoschoolroomsforafter-schoolmeetings.
“Far too often, constitutionally protected religious liberties are being denied,” said
RobertSimondsofCitizensforExcellenceinEducation.
Theagreementbasicallysays,“Publicschoolsshouldnotbehostiletoreligion,”said
EducationSecretaryRichardRiley,whoalsosignedit.
[Ed.Note:Thiswriterquestionstheuseoftheword“non-partisan”whenreferringtoASCD,
sinceASCD—aspin-offoftheNationalEducationAssociation—isnotapoliticalparty.Also,
anyonewhousestheASCDtobringgroupstogetherontheissueofreligionisbehavinglike
whomeverputthewolfinchargeofthehenhouse.AsfarasthepeopleinVista,California
saying,“Wewantitnow,”whatisittheywantnow?Whyhavetheyhungoutthewhitelag
inthewarcourageousparentsacrossthenationhavebeenightingsince1945toholdtheline
ontheissueof“comingtocommonground”onvalues?
Allowingreligiousgroupstohaveequalaccesstoschoolroomsforafter-schoolmeetings
isactuallythe“camel’snoseunderthetent”forstateregulationofreligiousactivitiesandthe
introductionofallsortsofreligionsintotheschool’scurriculum.RememberthatSecretary
Rileysaidthat“Publicschoolsshouldnotbehostiletoreligion”andevenwitchcraftisastate-
recognizedreligion.]
“WHYTHEEDUCATIONDEPARTMENTMUSTGO”BYGORDONS.JONES,FORMERUNDERsecretaryof
educationinSecretaryT.H.Bell’sdepartmentofeducation,waspublishedinTheWashington
TimesonApril7,1995.Jonessaidinpart:
Toputthematterinitsstarkestterms,stateschoolsuperintendentsliketheDepartmentof
Educationbecausetheyaregetting,onaveragenationwide,almosthalfoftheirfundingand
staffcourtesyofthefederaltaxpayer.ThestateofMichigan,forexample,receives77percent
ofitsoperatingbudgetfromtheDepartmentofEducation;itscounterpartinIowahas81
percentofitsstaffpaidforbyUncleSugar.
[Ed.Note:OneoftheprimaryreasonsforabolishingtheU.S.DepartmentofEducationisto
351
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1995
cutdowntosizethebloatedanddictatorialstatedepartmentsofeducationwhichreceivetheir
marchingordersfromWashington.]
THESUNDAYNEWYORKTIMESMAGAZINE OFAPRIL30,1995 PUBLISHED“WHO’LLTEACHKids
RightfromWrong?—TheCharacterEducationMovementThinkstheAnswerIstheSchools”by
RogerRosenblatt.Thisarticledescribesveryclearlytheprosandconsofaverycontroversial
subject—thecharactereducationmovementofthelate1980sand1990s.
RosenblattdevotesagoodbitofspacetoThomasLickona,adevelopmentalpsychologist
andaprofessorofeducationattheStateUniversityofNewYork,whoisanacknowledged
leaderoftheburgeoningcharactereducationmovement.Lickonahasrecentlyestablishedthe
Centerforthe4thand5thR’s(RespectandResponsibility)atStateUniversityofNewYork-
Cortland,whichisbecomingsomethingofanationalcenterforthestudyanddevelopment
ofcharactereducationcurricula.
IntheNewYorkTimesarticleRosenblattsaidthat
CharacterEducationrepresentsanefforttoteachmoralbehaviortoprimaryandsecondary
schoolstudentsinatimeperceivedtobemorallyrudderlessandtobewithoutsuchteaching
inlocalcommunitiesorinthehome.Acrossthecountry,teachersareconfrontingchildren
withmoraldilemmasandaskingthemtothinkandtalk.Thefeltneedforthiskindofeduca-
tionissodeepandwidespreadthatitspurredamovementthathasattractedasmanyformer
activistsofthe1960s—Lickonaisone—asithasconservativethinkersandpoliticiansofthe
1980s.(SupportersincludeBarbaraJordan,BarbaraBush,MarianWrightEdelman,Jesse
Jackson,TomSelleckandNathanGlazer)….
…Richard Baer, Jr., of Cornell University has found fault with the content of some
courses(blandpablum)andcomplainedtoRosenblattthatthereisnoempiricalevidence
thatcharactereducationactuallyimprovescharacter.Baer’smainconcernisthatthepublic
schoolswillbecomecentersofaculturewarbetweenthoseonthetherightwhobelieve
thatcharactereducationmustincorporatereligionandthoseontheleftwhodonotwant
religiousteachingatall….
…BesidesLickona’scenteratCortland,thereistheJosephsonInstituteofEthicsinLos
AngeleswhichsupportsaCharacterCountsCoalition.AmitaiEtzioni,aleaderoftheCom-
munitarianmovement,hasdevotedtheenergyofhisCommunitarianNetworktoadvance
thecause.BostonUniversityhasestablishedtheCenterfortheAdvancementofEthicsand
Characterspeciicallytodevelopcharactereducation.Allthisisinadditiontotheworkof
individualschoolteachersandeducatorsattheuniversitylevelwhoareturningtheideathat
valuescanbeformallytaughtintoaieldofstudy—KevinRyan,DirectoroftheCenterfor
theAdvancementofEthicsandCharacterEducationatBostonUniversity;KevinWalshatthe
UniversityofAlabama;WilliamDamonatBrownUniversity,andothers.KevinRyansays:
“We’vehad10yearsoftalkingaboutschoolreform.Thisissueisattheheart[emphasisin
original]ofschoolreform.”ForKevinWalsh,theultimatepurposeofcharactereducationis
nothinglessthan“topreparethenextgenerationtoinheritsociety.”
Rosenblattidentiiesthefollowingstatesasbeinginvolvedinimplementingcharacter
education:Mississippi,NewHampshire,NewJersey(theN.J.Dept.ofEducationhasendorsed
asetof“corevalues”andsetupacounciltodeinecommonlyacceptedvalues).HelistsSt.
Louis,Seattle,Chicago,SanAntonio,andFrankfort,KYascitiesandtownsinvolvedinchar-
actereducationandconcludesbysaying,“Classesincharactereducationareheldinruraland
suburbanschools,likethosearoundLansing,N.Y.,andininner-cityschools,likeTheodore
352
RooseveltHighSchoolintheBronx.”
Indiscussingtheproblemsassociatedwithcharactereducation,Rosenblattaskswhat
happenswhentwomoralrightscollide?Ateachermightwellbegincomplicatingthings,talking
ofexceptionsanddegrees,butateacheralsowantstoavoidslidingintothemoralrelativism
thatcreatedthemessthatcharactereducatorsaretryingtoix.Rosenblattthenrevealsthe
contradictioninLickona’sargumentregardingmoralrelativismwhenhesays,“Decidingto
dohis[Lickona’s]dissertationonchildren’smoralthinking,hewasdrawn…toLawrence
KohlbergofHarvard,amajorigureinthelate1960sonthesubjectofmoralreasoning.”The
readerisurgedtoreviewthisbook’s1975entrywhichdescribesKohlberg’s“EthicalIssuesin
DecisionMaking”foranunderstandingofthe“moralrelativismwhichcreatedthemessthat
charactereducators,”includingespeciallyLickona,aresupposedlycorrecting.
[Ed.Note:Curriculumisnottheanswer.Thehiringofcompetentteacherswhoselifestylesare
exemplaryandwhoexhibitcivilizedbehavior(respectful,courteous,caring,loyal,etc.)isthe
bestandsafestwayforschoolstoencouragemoralityinourchildren.Suchanatmosphere,
incombinationwithliteraturewhichhelpsstudentsunderstandthatmoralbehaviorissome-
thingtoemulate,notdisdain,woulddomorethanallthe“character,”“civics,”“citizenship”
and“valueseducation”beingdiscussedbythecarefullyselectedtaskforcesrepresentingall
degreesofpoliticalpersuasionbeingsetuptocreatethedialecticnecessarytoreach“common
ground”onconsensusvalues.
AcarefulreadingofRosenblatt’sarticleisrecommendedastheirststeptowardsanun-
derstandingofthepitfallsAmericansfaceastheyenthusiasticallyjoinforcestosolveproblems
whichclearly,shortofviolatingtheFirstAmendment,cannotbedealtwithsuccessfullyin
theclassroom.]
LOOKINGBACK,THINKINGAHEAD:AMERICANSCHOOLREFORM1993–1995WASPUBLISHEDbythe
HudsonInstitute’s(Indianapolis,Ind.)EducationalExcellenceNetwork(ChesterFinn,William
Bennett,LamarAlexander,DianeRavitch)in1995.Anexcerptfollows:
Thereportdecriesthebacklashagainstoutcomes-basededucation....Manystateoutcomes
areinappropriate...but...unfortunately,anawfullyimportantbaby[masterylearning]could
godownthedrainwiththeOBEbathwater,andthecountrycouldinditselfreturningto
anerawheninputs,services,andintentionsarethemaingaugeofeducationalqualityand
performance.
[Ed.Note:Thisquoteexposesthehypocrisyofthose“opposingOBE”;theyopposetheout-
comes,butnottheSkinnerianmethod.Asexplainedelsewhere,theoutcomescanbechanged
overnight,whereasonceallteachershavebeentrainedorretrainedinSkinnerianmastery
learning,therecanbenoreturntoacademicfreedomforteachersorstudents.]
COMMITTEE FORECONOMICDEVELOPMENT(CED)1995 YEARBOOK ENTITLEDPUTTINGLEARNing
First:GoverningandManagingtheSchoolsforHighAchievementwaspublished.This60-page
reportcalledforschoolchoice,charterschools,andsocialservicesdeliveredthroughschools
orincollaborationwithschools.
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1995 353
THENATIONALEDUCATIONGOALSPANELCOMMUNITYACTIONTOOLKITWASDEVELOPEDanddis-
tributedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducationin1995.TheToolkitwastobeusedforbrain-
washing,coercingandcoalescingcommunitiesintoacceptingGoals2000,H.R.6,school-to-
work,UNESCO’slifelonglearning,etc.Toolkitinstructionsdiscussedhowtodealwithresisters.
Electedoficials,governors,andotherswereinvolvedinproductionanddisseminationofthis
300+page“HowTo”Toolkit,whichusedProfessorRonaldHavelock’sTheChangeAgent’s
GuidetoInnovationsinEducationtechniquestobrainwashthemselvesandtheirconstituents,
especiallytargetingthereligiouscommunity.(SeeAppendixXIV.)
“THESHOCKINGBELIEFSBEHINDEDUCATIONALSTRATEGICPLANNING”BYMICHAELJACQUESwas
publishedintheAugust1995issueofTheInterpreter.Jacques,aconcernedparentfromWest
Allis,Wisconsin,hasprovidedsomevery“hard-to-come-by”informationregardingTheCam-
bridgeGroup,aninternationalstrategicplanningcenterforeducationreform.Excerptsfrom
thisinformativearticlefollow:
StrategicplanningseemstobethedrivingforceatthelocallevelforOutcomes-BasedEdu-
cation(OBE)/Goals2000.Mostschooldistricts...haveafacilitatortrainedbyTheCambridge
Group,whichisaninternationalstrategicplanningcenterforeducationoutofMontgomery,
Alabama.TheFacilitator’sTrainingManualstatesunder“TheUrgencyofChange”onp.
4:
Educationmustdeclareitsmagnanimousintentandomnipotentabilitytoserveasthe
surrogatefamily.
“StrategicPlanning”isdeined:
Eithernoonecanseeorwillacknowledgethefactthattherealtaskofreformation
is the radical transformation—a re-creation—of every facet of the American education
system—itspurposeandscope,itsgovernance,itsteachingandlearningdynamics,its
curricula,itstimeandplace—allwithanewdedicationtodevelopingtheoriginalgenius
inthemindofeverystudent.Thismeansacompletechangeofalleducationparadigms,of
deinitions,ofdisciplines,ofvocabularies—perhapsvalues.Thisisthemeaningofreform.
Andthatisthemeaningofstrategicplanning.…(p.20)
Theadventofthisnewage,andthediscoverythathumanbeingsnowhaveboth
thecapacityandtheinclinationstore-createthemselvesintheirownimageaccording
totheirownimaginations...speciicallyithasdemandedaredeinitionofthehumanbe-
ing….(p.28)
UrgencyofChange
Spiritual:onceconinedonlytothatthoughttobereligiousandotherworldly;forbid-
denintheworldofpracticalityandreality;arelationshipbetweensomeoneandGodor
something.Now,arealizationofthepneumapsychosomaticnatureofeveryperson;the
practicalrealityofthehumanspiritwhenmanifestedinself-esteem,motivation,aesthetic
appreciation,mannersandrespect,aswellasreverence;andapriorianultimaterela-
tionshipbetweenpeople.…
ThefactisthatallAmericaninstitutions—theConstitution,theBillofRights,the
legislativeandjudicialbranchesofgovernment,theeducationsystem,andotheraspects
ofthecurrentestablishedorder—werepredicatedonamono-culturalsociety.Itwillbe
interestingtoseehowlongthepresentsystemscanexistinapolyglotsociety.(p.29)
Mr.JacquesendshisarticlebyquotingfromtheWisconsinIndependentSchoolBoardAs-
354
sociation:“Onlythevillageidiotwouldconsiderlettingtheentirevillageinonthetaskof
raisinghischildren.”
“THELANGUAGEOFOBEREVEALSITSLIMITATIONS”BYGRETCHENSCHWARZWASPUBlishedinthe
September1995issueofEducationalLeadership,AssociationforSupervisionandCurriculum
Development’s(ASCD)journal.Ms.Schwarzisassistantprofessorofcurriculumandinstruc-
tionatOklahomaStateUniversity,Stillwater,Oklahoma.ExcerptsfromSchwarz’srefreshingly
objectivecritiqueofOBEfollow:
In contrast, the language of Outcome-Based Education (OBE) seems limiting and dehu-
manizing.ManyeducatorsnotassociatedwiththeReligiousRightarehighlycriticalofOBE,
as am I, but for different reasons.... In response to the March 1994 issue of Educational
Leadership,whichportrayedOBEinapositivelight,Iwouldliketoconsiderthelanguageof
OBEasrevealedinChoosingOutcomesofSigniicancebyWilliamSpady.Individualwords
andphrasesjumpoutatmeasareader.FollowingaretermsthatSpadyusedfrequentlyand
thatparticularlytroubledme...“outcomes,generalizable,DiscreteContentSkills,microforms
oflearning,StructuredTaskPerformances,componentsinalargerblockofcurriculum,com-
petence,mentalprocessing,performanceenablers,execution,Higher-OrderCompetencies,
technicalandstrategicLifePerformanceRoles.”...
Suchmechanistic,instrumentalistlanguagehasaconstrainingeffectonmeasareader,
justasOBEhasaconstrainingeffectonschoolreform.Thislistreadsliketheterminology
oftheCEOorthesocialengineer—verymuchinthemanagement-oriented,positivist-be-
havioristtradition....
…WithOBE,outsideexpertsprescribewhatisbestforstudentsandteachers,whore-
mainessentiallyvoiceless.Uniformoutcomesaredesignedandimplementedinacurriculum
thatreducesthinkingtomentalprocessing....
Allthebottom-linelanguageremindsthereaderoftheboardroom.Ofcourse,Spady’s
HighSuccessNetworkisabusiness.Butchildrenareneithercustomersnorproducts,and
aschoolisnotabusiness....
OBElanguageisthescientistic,industriallanguageofTylerandSkinnerasdocumented
byCallahan(1962)inEducationandtheCultofEficiency.Ultimately,thelanguageofOBE
iscontrolling,narrow,mechanistic,andinally,impoverished.Ourstudentsandteachers
deservemorethanOBEhastooffer.
[Ed.Note:ProfessorSchwarz’scommentthatOBE“reducesthinkingtomentalprocessing”calls
tomindtheThomasKellyquote:“Thebrainshouldbeusedforprocessing,notstorage.”]
AREAFFIRMATIONOFFAITHINMAINE’SPUBLICSCHOOLS,EDITEDBYMARGARETL.STUBBS,Ph.D.
oftheMaineDepartmentofEducationinAugusta,Maine,waspublishedin1995.Thisdocu-
mentrevealedtheextraordinarythrusttowardsapartnershipbetweenreligiousinstitutions
andthepublicschools.ReafirmationofFaithalsodescribesthesocialist(plannedeconomy)
natureofworkforcetraininginMaine.Excerptsfollow:
Religiousandspiritualinstitutionshavetheresponsibilitytocultivatewithintheirorganiz-
ationsthevaluestheyhopewillguidetheirconstituents’livesinachangingworldthatoffers
notonlyopportunityandbeautybutalsogreatdanger,andinsodoinghaveacomplementary
roletoplayascommunityparticipantsinsystemicschoolchange....
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1995 355
Beforehiringastudent,evenforpart-timework,revieweachstudent’sworkportfolio;
theportfolioshouldcontainvitalinformationastothestudent’sschoolattendancerecord,
achievementandassessment,samplewritings,letterofrecommendation,etc....
…Two-yeardegreeprogramsinregionalVocational/TechnicalCentersforpublichigh
schoolgraduates....Courseswouldbebasedonanassessmentoftheworkneedsofthe
region.Theparticularcourseswould“sunset”oncetheneedsoftheareawerefulilledand
newcoursesfortheassociatedegreewouldbeofferedtofulillnewassessedneedsforthe
area.
[Ed.Note:Thelasttwosentencesregarding“assessmentoftheworkneedsoftheregion”and
courses“sunsetting”oncetheneedsoftheareawerefulilledshowthatMainehasadopted
thesamesystemdescribedbyProfessorEugeneBoycewhenhesaidincommunistcountries
educationis“directlytiedtojobs….Theydonoteducatepeopleforjobsthatdonotexist.No
suchdirectcontrolledrelationshipsbetweeneducationandjobsexistsindemocraticcoun-
tries”(see1983EugeneBoyceentry).Supposeyourchildwantstotakeacoursethathas
“sunsetted”?Willhe/shehavetoleavethestateinsearchofsuchacourse,orbedeprivedof
theopportunity?]
H.R.1617ORTHECAREERSACT(CONSOLIDATEDANDREFORMEDEDUCATION,EMPLOYment,and
RehabilitationSystemsAct)passedtheU.S.HouseofRepresentativesinSeptemberof1995.
Thelawcallsforfourconsolidatedjobtrainingprogramstoreplaceformerlyexistingprograms:
youthdevelopmentandcareerpreparation;adulttraining;adulteducationandliteracy;and
vocationalrehabilitation.Thislegislationwasbasedonschool-to-worklegislationpassedin
1994.Fourblockgrantsforjobtrainingweretiedtogetheratstateandlocallevelstoformone
cohesivesystemorganizedaroundasingleplansubmittedtothefederalgovernment.
Underthisplanstateswoulddevelopone-stopdeliverysystems,business-ledunelected
localworkforceboards,andvoucherprogramstoallowthemtomaintain“top-notchstate-
of-the-artjobtrainingprograms.”Statelegislatureswouldbebypassedandmoneywouldbe
driventostatesandcommunities(inmostcases80%fundingisspentlocally).H.R.1617
gaveenormouspowertostategovernorsandremovedthepoweroflocalschoolboardsto
determinewhatisbestfortheirstudents.Labormarketinformationsystems,fundedbythe
federalgovernmenttoincreaseavailabilityofinformationprovidedtothosewhoneedaddi-
tionaljobtraining,wouldbestrengthened.
Topromoteaccountability,TheCAREERSActsetupasystemofgoalsandperformance
indicatorstoensurethatstates,communities,serviceproviders,and“clients”areallfocused
onresults.TheActconsolidatedoreliminatedmorethan150programauthorities.Thislegis-
lationfulilledrequirementsoutlinedinMarcTucker’slettertoHillaryClintonfollowingthe
November1992election.H.R.1617representedaradicalchangeinAmerica’sfreeeconomic
system.(SeeAppendixXV.)
IN1995REPORTSOFOUTCOME-BASEDEDUCATIONFAILURESCONTINUEDTOSURFACE:CHIcago,Il-
linois;JohnsonCity,NewYork;UtahOBEProject;Kentucky;Pasco,Washington;California;
Rochester,NewYork(CarnegieNationalAllianceforEducationandEconomy—MarcTucker/
DavidHornbeckpilots);CottageGrove,Oregon(irsthighschoolinnationtoissuetheCertiicate
ofInitialMastery,whichoriginatedandiscopyrightedbyMarcTucker’sCenterforEducation
356
andtheEconomy);TedSizer’sCoalitionofEssentialSchools(fundedbyCarnegie’sEducation
CommissionoftheStatesandmulti-millionaireWalterAnnenberg);innercities—mostofwhich
usedMasteryLearning—especiallyWashington,D.C.;andSecretaryofEducationRiley’shome
stateofSouthCarolina(lowesttestscoresinthenation).Thesefailuresandtroublingconse-
quenceswerereportedinmajornewspapers,magazinesandeducation-relatedjournals.
[Ed.Note:Thewriterpredictsthatonceschoolshavebeenmanipulatedintosubstitutingnon-
competitivecriterion-referencedtestingforcompetitivenorm-referencedtesting,thedismal
testscorescenariowillbeathingofthepast,asaresultoftheproposed“quality”teach-to-the
testmeasuresofeducationalachievementbeingputinplace.Then,allparentscanplaster
theircarswith“MyChildIsanHonorStudent”bumperstickers.]
TRI-CITIESFOUNDATIONFORACADEMICEXCELLENCE(TFAE)OFPASCO,WASHINGTONISsuedapress
releasein1995entitled“SurveyofFormerPasco,WashingtonTeachersGivesOutcomes-Based
EducationInsights”whichreadasfollows:
In 1988 the Pasco School District piloted OBE and has since been used as an OBE role
modelforeducationreformacrossWashingtonStateandthenation.Duringthe1992–93
and1993–94schoolyears,thePascoSchoolDistrictlostmorethanonehundredteachers.
Tri-Cities Foundation for Academic Excellence (TFAE) surveyed these former teachers to
obtaintheirinsightsontheOBEprogramandestablishwhetherornottheOBEphilosophy
andthemannerinwhichitwasimplementedwereinluentialfactorsintheirleavingthe
District.AreteacherscurrentlybeingcoercedorforcedtoleavethePascoSchoolDistrictif
theyarenotusingtheOutcomes-BasedInstructionalModel?Thefollowingresultsrepresent
responsesfromteachersinadistrictusedasamodelforWashingtonstate’snow-mandated
Outcomes-BasedEducationandOBEacrossthenation:
• 68%respondedchildrendidnotbeneitfromOutcomes-BasedEducation;
• 86%respondedOutcomes-BasedEducationdividedteachersandcreatedpolarized
camps;
• 27%statedthattheywereaskedtoleaveiftheydidn’tagreewithOutcomes-Based
Education.
Thesurveywasdesignedforcompleteconidentialityandanonymity.46
[Ed. Note: Barbara McFarlin-Kosiec, Ph.D. in Educational Leadership, a veteran teacher in
thePascoSchoolDistrict,hasiledsuitagainstthedistrictduetoitsnon-renewalofhercon-
tract.Thenon-renewalwasbasedonthevice-principal’sopinionthatshefailedtousethe
instructionalprocessofOBEintheclassroom.Ms.Kosiec’ssuitisbaseduponherbeliefthat
herconstitutionalrightshavebeenviolated;i.e.,inordertocontinueteachinginthedistrict
shewasrequiredtogoalongwithanalienphilosophyandtoholdcertainpoliticallycorrect
attitudesandbeliefs.47]
NATIONAL ISSUES IN EDUCATION: GOALS 2000 AND SCHOOL-TO-WORK EDITED BY JOHN F. Jen-
nings,generalcounselforeducationfortheCommitteeonEducationandLaboroftheU.S.
HouseofRepresentatives(PhiDeltaKappa:Bloomington,Ind.,andInstituteforEducational
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1995 357
Leadership:Washington,D.C.,1995)waspublished.48ThefollowingarecommentsbyMr.
JenningswhichrevealsomeheretoforecloselyguardedsecretsrelatedtotherootsofGoals
2000andTheSchool-to-WorkOpportunitiesAct:
Nowthereisameasureofnationalagreementthatthereshouldbevoluntarynationalstan-
dards....Allthemajoreducationorganizations,allthemajorbusinessgroups,thenation’s
governors,thecurrentDemocraticpresident,andtheformerRepublicanpresidenthaveall
advocatedthisconcept.Thepurposeofthisbookistoexplainwhyandhowthisagreement
cameaboutbyfocusingontwomajorlegislativeinitiativesoftheClintonAdministration:
the Goals 2000 Act and the School-to-Work Opportunities Act. The Clinton initiatives are
rootedintheBushlegislationandinthesummitconferenceheldbyPresidentBushwith
thenation’sgovernorsinCharlottesville,Virginia,in1989,inwhichthen-GovernorClinton
tookpart.AtthateventthegovernorsandthePresidentagreedontheconceptofnational
goalsforeducation,theirstevertobedevised.
Whilepreviouslytherehadbeensomeacceptanceoftheideathatthefederalgovernment
hadaroleindealingwithspecialneedschildrenandwithcertainproblemsineducation,
therehadnotbeenagreementinthiscenturythatthenationalgovernmenthadalegitimate
concernaboutthegeneralstateofeducation.And,itisimportanttopointout,thegovernors
didnotuniversallyendorsetheideaofexpandingtheinluenceofthefederalgovernment
ineducation.Some—probablymost—hopedthatsomenewwaycouldbefoundtoraisethe
issueofeducationtoalevelofnationalawarenesswithoutrelyingonsuchpastpractices
asfederalgrants.Thetensioncreatedbytryingtoindthisnewwaypermeatedthedebate
thattookplaceduringthenextiveyears.
PresidentBushcomplementedhismeetingwiththegovernorsbysendingtoCongress
legislationthathebelievedwouldreformeducation.Thatbillcontainedanumberofsmall-
scaleprogramsseekingtochangeafewschoolsandpractices.TheDemocraticHouseand
SenatereluctantlypassedaversionofBush’sbill.However,veryconservativeRepublican
senatorssubsequentlyilibusteredtheinalbill;andtheinitialBushschoolreforminitiative
diedin1990.
In1991LamarAlexanderwasappointedsecretaryofeducationbyPresidentBush,and
hesubstantiallyrevisedthebillthattheSenatehadkilledtheyearbefore.Alexander,work-
ingwithChesterFinnandotherswhowerefamiliarwiththeworkofBritishPrimeMinister
MargaretThatcherinenactinganationalcurriculuminEnglandandWales,convincedBush
toendorsetheideaofnationalstandardsforeducation.
[Ed.Note:OfinteresthereisthattheNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP)
hadbeenworkingonassessmentformanyyears,datingbackatleastto1980,withClare
BurstallofWales,U.K.]
The internationalization of education, with its exchanges of data systems, curricula,
methods,technology,teachers,etc.,isessentialfortheimplementationoftheinternational
socialistmanagementandcontrolsystembeingputinplacerightnow.Afascinatingbook
entitled Union Now: The Proposal for Inter-Democracy—Federal Union (shorter version) by
Clarence Streit (Harper Brothers Publishers: New York and London, 1941) described plans
forthereuniicationoftheUnitedStatesandEngland,theirststageofwhichispresently
beingexpandedtoincludetheEuropeanCommunityandformer(?)communistcountriesin
EasternEurope.
Ournation’sreplicationoftheEnglisheducationsystem,asproposedbyLamarAlexander
andChesterFinn,coincideswiththeproclaimeddesireofAndrewCarnegiein1886to“create
twonationsoutofonepeople”(returntheUnitedStatestothe“mother”country—England).
358
Carnegie’scorporationofthesamenameandallofitssubsidiarieshavebeentheprincipal
organizationsinchargeofAmericaneducation.Throughfundingofthemostimportantentities
controllingAmericaneducation—theEducationalTestingService,theNationalAssessmentof
EducationalProgress,theEducationCommissionoftheStates—andthroughitsmostimportant
exchangeswiththe“former”SovietUnion,Carnegie’spower,inluence,andpointofviewhave
beenstronglyfeltthroughoutthiscentury.Leninwouldbepleasedindeedwiththeaccom-
plishementsoftheCarnegieCorporationinpromotingwhatLeninreferredtoasinternational
socialismthroughthecreationofindividualregionsandlaterthroughtheamalgamationof
thoseregionsintoaninternationalsocialistsystem;i.e.,oneworldgovernment.
ThefollowingquotefromAndrewCarnegie’sTriumphantDemocracyorFiftyYears’March
oftheRepublic(CharlesScribnersSons:NewYork,1886)isthoughtprovoking:
Timemaydispelmanypleasingillusionsanddestroymanynobledreams,butitshallnever
shakemybeliefthatthewoundcausedbythewhollyun-lookedforandundesiredseparation
ofthemotherfromherchildisnottobleedforever.Letmensaywhattheywill,therefore,I
say,thatassurelyasthesunintheheavensonceshoneuponBritainandAmericaunited,
sosurelyisitonemorningtorise,shineupon,andgreetagainthereunitedstate,theBrit-
ish-Americanunion.
Jennings’srevelationsfromNationalIssuesinEducationcontinuebelow:
ThegovernorsandthePresidenthadagreedonnationalgoalsforeducationin1989,but
theyhadnotproposednationalstandardsforeducation.Therefore,Bush’ssecondreform
planmovednationalinvolvementineducationtoamoreadvancedstage….
ARepublicanpresidentproposingsuchnationalstandardsineducationwastheedu-
cationpolicymakingequivalenttothereshapingofforeignpolicywhenPresidentNixonwent
toChina.RichardNixonhadmadeacareeroutofattackingCommunismandcallingliberals
sympathizersofthatideology;andthenhe—notaliberal—openedthedoorsto“Red”China,
thesamedoorsthathehadspent25yearslocking.
[Ed.Note:ItwasalsounderNixon’swatchthattheNationalInstituteofEducationwascreated
anditwashewhocarvedthenationintotenregions,facilitatingthechangeinourconstitutional
governancefromaconstitutionalrepublictoaparticipatorydemocracy—throughtheregional
governmentprocessnecessaryforworldgovernment.ThelateSenatorEdmundMuskie(D.-
Maine),referredtoas“Mr.Metro”bythoseopposedtoregionalgovernment,saidNixonhad
accomplishedwhatseveraldemocraticadministrationshadbeenunabletoaccomplish!]
Jenningscontinuedhisfascinatingaccountasfollows:
DemocraticPresidentsKennedyandJohnsonhadproposedamajorexpansionoffederalaid
toeducationinthe1960sandhadachievedtheenactmentofhistoriclegislationthatcreated
thecurrentarrayoffederalprograms.Buttheyweredoggedalongthewaybycriticismfrom
conservativeswhoassertedthattheliberalswerereallytryingtonationalizeeducation.Now,
25yearslater,itwasaself-proclaimedconservativeRepublican,notaliberalDemocrat,who
wasadvocatingamonumentalmovementawayfromlocalcontrolofeducation.
DespitetheimportanceofthesecondBushlegislation,itranintothesameproblem
astheirst.ADemocraticCongressreluctantlypassedthebillintheHouseandtheSenate,
buttheconferencereportagainwasilibusteredbyveryconservativeRepublicansenators
whowerenotasimpressedaswereBush,Alexander,andFinnwiththeaccomplishments
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1995 359
ofMargaretThatcherinestablishinganationalcurriculum.
[Ed.Note:ThewriterwouldliketorepeatthequotefromTheodoreDalrymple(pennamefor
Dr.AnthonyDaniels),theBritishphysicianwhowroteforTheWallStreetJournalin1988the
followingobservationsconcerningthedeplorableconditionoftheEnglisheducationsystem
whichBush,AlexanderandFinnwishedtoemulate:
IneightyearsinmedicalpracticeinanEnglishslum(inwhichlivesincidentallyaifthof
apopulationoftheindustrialEnglishcitywhereIwork)Ihavemetonlyoneteen-agerof
hundredsIhaveaskedwhoknewwhenWorldWarIIwasfought.Theothersthoughtittook
placeinthe1900sorthe1970s,andlastedupto30years.]
National Issues in Education also includes a chapter by U.S. Secretary of Education
RichardW.Riley.Rileyprovidestwodeliciousmorselsregardingthe“bipartisan”atmosphere
surroundingthebirthingofGoals2000andtheSchool-to-WorkOpportunitiesAct:
TheNationalGoalsPanelwasactivelyopposedbyCongresswhichfeltnoownershipand
resentedthenon-votingstatusofCongressionalmembers....(p.5)
…Truthwasthereformmovementatthenationallevelhadnostatutorybasis.Eventen
yearsafterthereportANationatRisk,therehadbeenlittlefederalresponse.TheNational
EducationGoals,threeyearsaftertheirannouncement,hadnolegalstandingofanykind.No
federalinitiative,nofundingorlexibilityhadbeenenactedtoprovidestates,communities,
orschoolswiththeassistancetheyneededtoreachtheseimportantgoals.Mosttroubling
ofall,asattractiveasthegoalswere,asimportantastheywere,asessentialastheywere,
intheinalanalysistheyrepresentednothingmorethanapoliticalagreementbetweena
formerPresidentandthenation’sgovernors.Wedecidedtotaketheseedsofinterestwehad
inheritedandtransformthemintoanationalmovement—amovementinwhichstatesand
localdistrictswithaclearvisionofwheretheywantedtogocouldcountontheAmerican
peopleandthefederalgovernmentaspartnersinthejourney.ThustheGoals2000—Educate
AmericaActwasconceived.(p.6)
[Ed.Note:ThereaderbythistimerecognizesthefactthattheAmericanpeopledidnotbuy
intoGoals2000/School-to-Work,thatthegovernmentwascompelledtouseitschangeagent
manual—thebagoftricksintheCommunityActionToolkit—toimplementtherestructuring
andgetkeylegislationpassed.(SeeAppendixXIV.)
INDECEMBER OF1995 THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION WAS EXCERPTED FROMUNITEDSTATESIn-
formationAgencyinternetsourcesandputintosummaryformbyeducationresearcherand
writerJoanMastersofBowie,Maryland:
DECEMBER3,1995:MADRID,SPAIN—U.S.PresidentBillClinton,presidentoftheEuropeanCom-
missionJacquesSanter,andPrimeMinisterofSpainFelipeGonzalez,whoisalsopresident
oftheEuropeanUnion’sCouncilofMinisters,formallyendorseaNewTransatlanticAgenda
(NTA).TheNTAwouldenablethetwosides,theUSandtheEU,tojoinforcestodealwitha
widerangeofinternational,politicalandeconomicissues.TheNewAgenda’s“jointaction”
hassomeonehundred“initiatives”aimedatachievingfourbroadobjectives:
1.Promotingpeace,developmentanddemocracyaroundtheworld;
2.Respondingtoglobalchallenges;
360
3.Contributingtotheexpansionofworldtrade;and
4.BuildingbridgesacrosstheAtlantic.
WithlittleornonationaldebatetheUnitedStatesiscommittedtobecometheEu-
ropeanUnion’s“partner”insolvingmostoftheworld’sproblems.Onlytheenlargement
ofNATOreceiveswidecoverage.(OnSeptember9,1997,133oftheUnitedStates’“leading
foreignpolicyexpertsandstatesmen”signedtheNewAtlanticInitiativeStatementonNATO
enlargement.ThesesignerscoverabroadrangeofAmerica’swell-knownnationalistsand
internationalists. John O’Sullivan, editor of William F. Buckley’s “conservative” journal
National Review, resigned his position to become founder and co-chairman of the New
AtlanticInitiative.)
DECEMBER 21, 1995: WASHINGTON, D.C.—Dr. Joseph Duffey, Director of the United States
InformationAgency(USIA)andMr.JeronimoSaavedraAcevedo,ministerofscienceand
educationofSpain,signedanagreementbetweentheUnitedStatesofAmerica(U.S.)and
theEuropeanCommunity(EC)establishingacooperationprogrammeinhighereducation
andvocationaleducationandtraining.ThisagreementisinkeepingwiththefourthNTA
objective—”BuildingbridgesacrosstheAtlantic”—andestablishesa“formalbasisforthe
conductofcooperativeactivitiesinhighereducationandvocationaleducationandtrain-
ing.”TheannexofthissevenpageAgreementrevealsthattheUS/ECwillformaconsortia
tosupporteducationinstitutionsandvocationaltrainingestablishmentsundertakingjoint
projects.Eachconsortiumwillbesupportedbyseedfundingandwillmutuallyagreeupon
eligiblesubjectareas.Activitieseligibleforsupportmayinclude:frameworksforstudent
mobility,includingworkplacement;structuredexchangesofstudents,teachers,trainers,
andadministrators;jointdevelopmentofinnovativecurricula;andtransatlanticcoopera-
tion.Amongotherthingstoonumeroustomentionhere,thejointconsortiaprojectswillbe
madeavailablefortheuseof“awideraudience.”Nolongercalledcitizens,theAgreement
acknowledges“thecrucialcontributionsofeducationandtrainingforthedevelopmentof
humanresourcescapableofparticipatingintheglobalknowledge-basedeconomy.”[em-
phasisinoriginal]
By1996grantswerealreadybeinggiventoUScollegesanduniversitiesforsuchprojects
as:“GlobalDimensionsinHealthCare;”“Atlas”—aprojectforenvironmentalmanagement;
and“US/EUExportDevelopmentProgram,”afeatureofwhichistheuseofstudentmobility,
“notjustforacademicpurposes,butalsoaspartofanexportdevelopmentprogramdesigned
tofacilitatemoretransatlantictradeforlocalbusinessandindustry.”Anotherveryinterestingly
namedproject,givenouttosevendifferentAmericaninstitutions,iscalled“WorkWorld
2000:AnInternationalStrategyforSchool-to-WorkTransitions.”Usingsimulationsofboth
AmericanandEuropeanworkplacesandcompanymodels,studentswilllearnthestructures
ofinternationalbusinessandfollowupwithtransatlanticexchangesandinternships.
DECEMBER1995:BRUSSELS,BELGIUM—RepresentativesfromthenationsoftheEuropeanUnion
releasetheirstudygroupreportcalledAccomplishingEuropethroughEducationandTraining.
ForAmericanstounderstandtheinherentdangersofthrowinginourlotwiththesocial-
isticstatesofEurope,especiallyintheieldofeducation,thisreportneedstobestudiedin
depth.It’snosecretthatsomeconservativesintheU.S.believethataEuropeaneducation
isfarsuperiortowhathasbeenofferedinourpubliceducationsysteminthelastthirty
years.Andthismayberight,atleastacademically.Ontheotherhand,therearethosewho
believemanyofthe“innovations”weareplaguedwith,suchassexeducation,originated
inEurope,especiallyinEngland.OneEuropeangroupdoingstudieson“multi-media”mate-
rialscomplainsthatmostoftheeducationalsoftwareintheEUcomesfromtheUS.So,itis
dificulttoknowforcertainwhichcontinentcreatedthepropagandahorrorsinlictedonour
childrentodayintheclassroomsofourrespectivecountries.Butwhateverthetruth,much
361
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1996
astheSovietUniononcetriedtocreatethe“SovietMan,”theEuropeanUnionstudygroup
reportislayingoutaplantodevelopthe“EuropeanUnionCitizen.”
Thereportremindsitsreadersofthehistoryofpagantimesandthegreatphilosophers
ofGreece,thenrecallsEurope’sChristianroots,implyingthattheUnionofEurope’sancient
nationshasnowbegunanewage;educationoftheUnion’schildrenmustchangetoac-
commodatethismoderneraofglobalisationanddisseminationofinformationtechnologies.
ForAmericans,whocuttheirmilkteethontheidealsofindependenceandfreedom,and
thebeliefthatanyonewhoworkshardcanovercomeanything,evenclass,onesentenceis
particularlychilling.Thereportsays,“Trendsinwork/employmentpracticesandtheemer-
gence of a learning society will be even more instrumental in deining everyone’s place,
asafunctionofskillsandknowledgebuiltupthroughoutlife.”Butwithallthetalkofthe
informationsocietyand“life-longlearning,”theseEuropeaneducatorspredictthat“ever-
increasing ecological pressures will prompt a radical re-think of our model of economic
growthwithincreasingemphasison‘sustainability.’”Thiscontradictoryvisionofeconomic
growthandenvironmentalsustainabilitymayyetbetheun-doingoftheNewWorldOrder
onbothsidesoftheAtlantic.
1996
THECHICAGOTRIBUNE OFFEBRUARY14,1996 CARRIED THE ARTICLE“SCHOOLPLANSKIPSover
theBasics.”Someexcerptsfollow:
Yetforalltheirspeciics,schoolleaderssaidTuesdaythattheywillnotspelloutmanydetails
onhowtheywillimplementtheirversionofdirectinstruction,aback-to-basicsinstructional
approachthathaswonnationalacclaimforimprovingstudentachievementatotherinner
cityschools….
Chicago school oficials were so impressed with the approach, which uses scripted
lessonsdeliveredinarapid-iremanner,thatacontingentofthemlewlastyeartoHouston
toseehowdirectinstructionhelpedoneoftheschoolspostsomeofthehighesttestscores
inTexas....Butfornow,Chicagoschoolleaderssaidtheyneedmoretimeto“customize”
directinstructiontoitthelocalneeds.…
“Theeducationalplanisabigplan,andit’scomprehensive,”saidPaulVillas,chief
executiveoficeroftheschools.“We’velookedatalotofsolutionsanddirectinstructionis
justoneofthem.”...DeChicomaintainedthattheyremainedenthusiasticaboutthedirect
instructionapproach....
Oneothertopschooloficialindicatedthattheearlydraftoftheeducationplanincluded
onlyafewlinesaboutit.Thereason,accordingtothesource,wasbecauseofcomplaints,
particularlyfromlocalteachers,thattheapproachistootime-consumingandstuntsteacher
creativity.... The administrator suggested that school leaders may have been swayed by
teachercomplaintsthatdirectinstructionrequirestoomuchofteachers,whowouldhave
tostudythescriptedlessonsnightlyforthenextday....
VillassaidthatbyJune,schoolleaderswillbereadytotrotoutdetailsonhowthey
willusedirectinstruction.
[Ed.Note:Wherearethenorm-referencedtestscoresthatprovestudentachievementinin-
nercityschools?Or,hasenoughtimepassed(16years)thatthechangeagentscancounton
parentsandteachershavingsuchshortmemoriesthattheyhaveforgottenthat18,000inner
citystudentsdroppedoutofhighschoolduetothesame“ratlab”ChicagoMasteryLearning
362
experimenttowhichtheyweresubjectedbetween1968and1981?]
THECHICAGOTRIBUNERANTHEARTICLE“CITYSCHOOLSDROPPINGIOWASKILLSTESTS”onMarch
7,1996.Anexcerptfollows:
Thenewtestwouldassesswhetherstudentshavemasteredwhattheyhavebeentaught....
One potentially contentious issue remains: direct instruction, a strategy aimed at forcing
low-achievingschoolstoacceptacurriculumbasedonscriptedlessonsandrecitation....
“Ican’timaginethatthemajorityoftheteachersinourschoolwouldatallbewillingto
implementdirectinstruction,”saidJulieWopestehoff,ExecutiveDirectorofParentsUnited
forResponsibleEducation.
AN UNTITLED ARTICLE APPEARED INTHECHICAGOSUNTIMES ONMARCH8,1996.ANexcerpt
follows:
DeterminedtoshowthatallChicagopublicschoolstudentscansucceed,DePaulUniversity
is waiting for the stroke of Governor Edgar’s pen to kick off plans for its own charter
school....“ThesechildrencanlearnatthesamerateasthechildrenofPh.D.’s....Wehave
alistofthingswecanchoosefrom.There’sdirectinstruction,wholelanguage,teamlearn-
ing,cooperativelearning,”saidBarbaraSizemore,DeanofDePaulUniversity’sCollegeof
Education,Chicago.
[Ed.Note:Well,well.ThisquotestrippedtheEmpressandherchangeagentassociatesof
whateverclothingtheyhadleft—whichwasn’tmuchduetothistypeof“baitandswitch”
technique having been used on parents over and over again. Create the problem; parents
scream;imposeasolutiontheywouldneverhaveacceptedintheirstplace;parentsgratefully
acceptit,notknowingtheonlydifferencebetweenthesolutionandwhattheyhadbeforeis
anewlabel.
Some parents understood the manipulative mastery learning method. This writer has
boxesfulloflettersfromteachers,doctors,andparentsinTexas,Ohio,Arizona,Indiana,etc.,
deploringtheseriousnegativeeffectsofmasterylearning—sicknessandstress.Butwhenthe
changeagentssubstitutedthe“directinstruction”labelforthefailed“masterylearning”label,
howcouldparentsbeexpectedtorecognizethedeceit?
Actually,itdoestakesomekindofnervetoproposeasolutionwhichonlyfourteenyears
earlierhadbeendiscreditedasafailureinChicago,andwhichhasputChicago,Washington,
D.C.,andSouthCarolinaatthebottomoftheheapasfarastestscoresgo.Ifonecheckedall
theotherinnercityschoolsthathaveusedthisSkinnerianmethod,onewouldindonlyminor
differencesbetweentheirlowtestscoresandthoseofthethreementionedabove.
DeanSizemorewastellingparentsandteacherssomething—somethingveryimportant.
Shewasobviouslyveryproudofthemenubeingofferedtothenaïvecharterschoolparents
andchildreninChicago—themenutobeofferedtoallschoolsinthenation.Theimplement-
ationofsite-basedmanagement(unelected,hand-pickedcouncils)wouldassureapprovalof
Sizemore’scontroversialoutcome-basededucationwhichconsistedofcooperativelearning
and Engelmann’s direct instruction/DISTAR/SRA/mastery learning in conjunction with lit-
erature-basedwholelanguageinstruction,etc.—adeliciousconcoctiontobesure,guaranteed
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1996 363
tofurtherdumbdownourchildren.
Parents,DirectInstructionisnotback-to-basics(teacher-directedinstructionofcontent,
withtheteacherteachinginthefrontoftheclassroom).Itisfast-forwardintotheworldof
globalworkforcetraining,wheretheteacherwillbeinfrontoftheclassroomchanting,not
instructing;yourchildrenwillbeexpectedto“perform”likeratsorpigeons,notlearnaca-
demiccontent.
Parents want teachers to teach content which their child can relate to other parts of
his/herlifeforcompleteunderstanding;theywanttheirchildtobeabletomakeconnections
betweenwhathe/shelearnsandpastknowledge,tobeusedinthefuture.Chantingbackwhat
ateacherchantsisnotlearning—itistraining.Therecanbenotransferofknowledgewhen
bitsandpiecesofinformationwhichrelatetonothingareallthe“robots”canrepeat.Parents
don’twantteacherstobecontrollersordirectors,andtheysurelydon’twanttheirchildrento
bepassivelearnerschantingbackanswerslikeparrots,mimickingwhatateachersays.Such
trainingconsidersyourchildasnothingbutarawresourcetobepreparedandmoldedasa
product.Traditionaleducation,whichallowsforgiveandtakebetweenteacherandstudent
(creativity)isthelastthinginwhichthecorporate/educationeliteisinterested.
Thisnewtypeofeducation(training),inconjunctionwithmandatorycommunityser-
vice,workforcepreparationstartinginelementaryschool,mandatoryuniformsforAmerica’s
schoolchildren,newschoolboardpoliciesregardingightinginschoolwhichwillallowthe
policetocometotheschoolanddragyourchildrenintoholdingtanksforfurtherprosecution,
etc.,sendschillsdownthebackofthiswriter.Itbringstomindtheuglinessofarecenterain
historywhichmanyseemtohaveforgotten.]
IN-SERVICE TEACHER TRAINING WAS HELD INCHICAGO,INDIANAPOLIS, ANDMINNEAPOLISduring
theirstpartofMayin1996.Thelyeradvertisingtheseeventsstatedthefollowing:
NATIONALEDUCATIONINSTITUTEPRESENTS
UsingResearch-BasedTeachingTechniquestoIncreaseStudentLearning:
OrHowtoTeachAnyoneAnything
PROGRAMAGENDA:
Thethreekeypartsofdirectinstruction;discoverthemajorandminordifferencesbetween
directinstructionandtraditionalteachingmethods.
Nationalconsultant,teacherandtrainerAdrienneAllenconductedthetrainingsessions.
[Ed.Note:Thislyerwasreceivedfromahomeschoolmomwhosaidthe“research-based”
trainingwasforhomeschoolers.Theabovequotepresentsaverydifferentpicturefromthat
beingcirculatedthroughoutthenationwhichdescribesdirectinstructionasa“traditional”
teachingmethod.]
“DUMBED-DOWNSATSDISGUISEDEFICIENCIES—THEFAULT,DEAREDUCATOR,ISNOTINOurTests,”
byGeorgeC.Roche,presidentofHillsdaleCollegeinHillsdale,Michigan,waspublishedin
theJuly5,1996issueofHumanEvents.Dr.Roche’sarticleunderscoresthesuccessofthe
internationalistchangeagents’relentlesseffortstodumbdownourchildrenand,inturn,our
364
nation.Thefollowingexcerptsaremostenlightening:
“SATScoresRiseStronglyafterTestIsOverhauled”readaWallStreetJournalheadline.
The continuation of the article carried the title “SAT Scores Post Strong Increase.” Good
news?
Hardly.The“higher”scorescamefroma“dumbed-down”test.Studentsnowhave
anextrahalfhourtocompletethe“new”ScholasticAptitudeTest.Theynowuseelectronic
calculatorsandanswerfewerquestionsingeneralandfewermultiple-choicemathquestions
inparticular.Readingpassagesnowaskdeinitionsfromcontext.Andthedificultantonym
section(involvingknowledgeofwordsthatareoppositeinmeaning),callingforlinguistic
andintellectualsubtletieslonglost,hasbeendroppedentirely.
…Here’stheCollegeBoard’srationaleforthechanges:“StudentstakingtheSATinthe
1990saresubstantiallydifferentfromthosewhotookthetestinthe1940swhenthescale
wascreated.Continuingtoforce-ittheirscorestoascaleestablishedforaverydifferent
groupofstudentsreducestheinterpretivevalueofthescorewithinthepopulationforthe
sakeofslavishconsistencytotheoriginalscaleandcomparisonsovertime.”
They’dlikeyoutobepersuadedbyexaggerationslike“force-it”and“slavish”and
breezepasttheirstatementthattoday’sstudentsare“substantiallydifferent”fromthosewho
tookthetestin1940.I’dlikeyoutobepersuadedthattheCollegeBoardjustadmittedthatthe
educationalsystem’s“substantiallydifferent”studentsarereally“substantiallydeicient.”
…Thehistorystandardsofthegovernment’snewGoals2000program,drenchedin
politicalcorrectness,highlightAmerica’sadmittedfaultsandleaveoutmuchthatispositive.
OBEstudentsgoingthroughtheGoals2000programwouldn’thavemuchofachancewith
theolder,tougherSATtest,buttheeasierversion,plusthe“recentering”changesnowin
placewillhelpdisguiseactualdeiciencies.
Putting an artiicially higher number on actually lower academic performance only
highlightstheproblemsfacingAmericaneducation.Youcaniddlewiththeiguresforever,
butaslongaseducation“professionals”refusetobehonestwithourcitizens,matterscan
onlygetworse.
[Ed.Note:NotonlydidDr.RocheventhisfrustrationwiththenewSAT,TheNewYorkTimes,
inanarticleentitled“DeiningLiteracyDownward”initsAugust28,1996issue,stated:“The
S.A.T.turnspoorperformanceintoanewnorm.”]
DIANAM.FESSLER, A DULY-ELECTED MEMBER OF THEOHIOSTATEBOARD OFEDUCATION,wrote
“AnOpenLettertoGovernorVoinovichandMembersoftheGeneralAssembly”onAugust5,
1996.Thattherearestillelectedoficialswhotakeseriouslytheirdutiestorepresenttheircon-
stituentsandnotgovernmentoficialsinastatedepartmentofeducationiscauseforrejoicing.
Excerptsfromthisimportantandilluminatingletter,whichgivesairst-handaccountofthe
ridiculoustax-supportedanticsrequiredbythebureaucracytocreate“groupthink,”follow:
This letter will not engender the good will of my colleagues on the State Board of
Education(SBE),butIvaluegoodgovernmentmorethancamaraderie.Threeproblemsex-
ist:usingpublicmoneyforquestionableactivities,discussingcrucialissuesatlocationsnot
convenientforthepublic,andattemptingtosquelchFirstAmendmentrights.SBEretreats
havebeenhotbedsforthesemisdeeds.
DuringtheAugust‘94retreat,memberswereblindfoldedandcollectivelytiedupwith
rope,reportedly,toidentifymemberswithleadershipskills.
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1996 365
TheJanuary‘95retreatwasmyirstafterbeingelected.Statedgoalswereprioritysetting
and“teambuilding.”Dividingusintotwogroups,thefacilitatorsgaveeachpersoniveor
sixcardboardpuzzlepiecesfromdifferentpuzzles.Theyinstructedusnottospeak,point,or
otherwiseshowthatweneededcertainpiecesfromoneanotherinourgroup.Wehadthirty
minutestoinishourindividualpuzzles.Iinishedthetaskintwoorthreeminutesandthen
struggledtoremainsilent,yet,afterlookingatthepicturesfromthepreviousretreat,Ispoke
outagainstspendingpublicdollarsongames.Afacilitatortriedtoshushme.Unintimidated,
Iurgedourgrouptohelptheotheronesowecouldgoonwithbusiness.Ourgroupwas
admonishedforbreakingtherules.Puzzlingrules,ifthemissionwasteambuilding.
Loathtoattendtheive-dayJanuary‘96retreat,Iwentbecausecommitteeminutes
showedarequestforthecodeofethicsfromanotherstate’sappointedboard.Myantennaup,
Iwasnotsurprisedwhenthefacilitatoraskedustolistattitudesandbehaviorsweexpected
ofoneanother.Termslikerespect,tolerance,teamwork,andspeakingwithonevoicewere
used.Iaskedifwewerecreatingacodeofethicsandtheanswerwasyes.Ireasonedthat
anappointedorvolunteerboardmightneedacodeofethicsiftheydonotusesomeform
ofparliamentaryprocudure,but,fortheSBE,suchacodewouldbesuperluous.Wehave
eachswornanoathtosupporttheConstitutionandobeythelaw,andourmeetingsare
governedbyparliamentarylaw.Theissuewasdropped,temporarily.
More game-playing. Approaching from opposite sides at the same time, each team
wasinstructedtocrossalargematthatwasdividedintosquaresandtoavoidthesquares
thathadembeddedbeepers.Abeepsignaledthepersontoretracehisstepsandtheteamto
startover.Observingfromthesideline,Icouldnotstandthefoolishnessanylonger.Ibroke
therulesbyputtingpaperonthenon-beepingsquarestomarkthepath.AsIwatchedtwo
adultbodiesshareaspacebigenoughfortwoshoes,notfour,Iwonderedwhatthishadto
dowithpubliceducationorpublicpolicydebate.Afterdinner,someboardmemberswere
ropedtogether.
Dayslater,thecodeofethicsissueresurfacedwhenamemberraisedthenoxiousidea
thatweshould“speakwithonevoice.”MostmembersseemtobelievethatoncetheBoard
adopts a resolution, all members must support it, regardless of its merit or lack thereof,
becauseitisthewillofthemajority.Asanelectedoficial,itismyresponsibilitytospeak
onthebehalfofthosewhoelectedme—nottobeanechooftheBoard.Accordingly,evenif
allothermembersvoteyesandIcasttheonlynovoteonmattersofsubstance,Icannot
promotethattowhichIamopposed,nordoIfeelanyobligationtoremainsilent.
ThediscussionofspeakingwithonevoiceincludedtheabsurdnotionthattheOhio
DepartmentofEducation’s(ODE)500-plusemployees(thebureaucracy)andthenineteen-
memberStateBoardofEducationarejustonebighappyfamily—blurringthedistinction
between the two and minimizing SBE’s authority to direct the ODE. No one except me
seemedtorejectthisfallacy.
Speaking with one voice also included the notion that members should not attend
legislativehearingsorotherwiseinluencelegislation,butshouldreservethoseactivities
forODEstaff.Theconcernwasthatalegislatororthepressmightregardamember,notas
acitizen,but(forbidthethought),asamemberoftheSBEandthereforemighttakeheed
toanycommentsorconcerns!Nevertheless,membersareencouragedtosupportmajority
opinion,underthesupervisionofODEpersonnel.Iimmediatelyreactedbysayingthatthe
SBEcannotmakepoliciesthatviolatetheConstitution.Agitated,thesamememberwho
raised the issue asked me, “Why not?” Incredulous that an American in public service
wouldneedtoasksuchaquestion,IexplainedthatIwillnotsurrendermyrightsoffree
speechandassociation.TheODEattorneyremainedsilentthroughoutthisheatedexchange
althoughanothermembersuggestedthatsuchapolicycouldbeapublicrelationsproblem.
Weadjourned.
366
“PARENTSTURNTOTUTORS:REBELLIONAGAINSTWHOLELANGUAGE”BYROSALINDROSSIandSha-
ronCotliarwaspublishedinTheChicagoSun-TimesonAugust12,1996.Excerptsfollow:
JeanIovino,ownerofeightSylvanLearningCentersinthesuburbs,saidthenumberof
beginningreadersinhercentershasskyrocketedinthelastiveyears....Manyparentssug-
gestthattheshiftfromphonicstothe“wholelanguage”philosophyofreadinginstruction
isbehindthedropinscores....“Ourbusinesshasincreased20percentayeareveryyearfor
thepastfouryears,”saidVickieGlazar,spokeswomanforMaryland-basedSylvanLearning
Systems.
[Ed. Note: Sylvan Learning Centers use mastery learning/direct instruction. The Reading
ExcellenceActof1998(H.R.2614)containsthelegallyquestionablecallfortheuseofSylvan
LearningCenters:“Tutorialserviceprovidersmightincludepublicagencies,non-proitprivate
organizations,andproit-seekingprivatebusinessirms(e.g.,SylvanLearningCenters).”]
“AGUIDETOCOMPETINGTEACHINGMETHODS”BYROSALINDROSSIWASPUBLISHEDINTHEChicago
Sun-TimesonAugust12,1996.Aportionof“AGuide”follows:
DirectInstruction:Amethodofinstructioninwhichtheteacherdirectslessonsincarefully
sequencedsteps.Inoneofitsmostconservativeforms,developedbySiegfriedEngelmann
oftheUniversityofOregon,teachersusetextbookswithchild-testedscriptstoteachphonics
insmallsteps,andchildrenrepeatbackwords,orgiveanswersasagroupinfast-paced,
rhythmic,“choralchants.”Oftenincludesheavyuseofworkbooks.Complaintsaboutdirect
instruction:TheEngelmannmethod,usedalone,hasbeenaccusedofturningteachersinto
robots,ofrobbingchildrenofthejoyofreadingrealbooksatanearlyageandofempha-
sizingsoundovermeaning.
DR.SHIRLEYMCCUNE,PROJECTDIRECTORFORTHEMID-CONTINENTREGIONALEDUCAtionalLabo-
ratory(McREL)wroteTheLightShallSetYouFree(AthenaPublishing,AlphaConnections:Santa
Fe,NewMexico,1996),inwhichsherevealedhertheologicalconnectionswithNewAgeguru
AliceBailey.ExcerptsfromMcCune’sbookunderscorethefactthattheU.S.taxpayerispay-
ingthesalariesofsocialengineerswithbizarrebeliefswhoarewreakinghavocincurriculum
developmentandorganizationalrestructuringofthenation’sschools.Excerptsfollow:
ThosewhojourneyintotheLightwillmovewithusintheetherstoliveintheFifth
Dimensionandabove.Thosewhochoosetostayinthelowervibrationswillbeprovided
foraccordinglyalso.TheEarthwillbecleansedinthenextdecadeforthepuriicationmust
becomplete....ThewaytotheLightistoincreaseyourvibratoryfrequency....Thispointof
Lightstimulateseachbreathwetake....TheLightiswithin....Thistremendoussourceof
powercanbeaccessedonlybygoingwithinthemind’seyeandbylisteningtothesilence....
Thispathrequiresawholenewcurriculumandsetofguidelinestodescribeourexistence....
TheLightiswithinusalways,silentlywaitingtobediscovered,toshowusthewaybackto
ourdivinity....Eachindividualisactuallyaco-creatorwiththeDivine....Thedateforentry
intotheFifthDimensionisscheduledfortheyear2012,saysKuthum[Analleged“ascended
master”whosupposedlytransmittedhisideastoMadameBlavatsky,founderoftheTheo-
sophicalSocietyandauthorofTheSecretDoctrineandIsisUnveiled,ed.]....
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1996 367
...WeareenteringtheAgeofAquarius....Thegoalforallofhumanitywhowillenter
thenewmilleniumistobecomeandrogynous....Educationalsystems,businesses,political
structures,andgovernmentsallbuiltonself-servingprinciples,forexample,arecrumbling,
onlytobere-bornthroughtremendouspainintohigherforms.Thus,wearewitnessing“the
endoftheworld”andwedonotevenrecognizewhatwesee.Standingonthethreshold
oftheAquarianAge...wecanalignourbodiesandourbehaviorstocreateharmonyand
consistencywiththeGodwithinus.
“UNDERSTANDINGOUTCOME-BASEDEDUCATION,” AN ARTICLE WRITTEN BYJERRYL.HADdock,
Ed.D.,regionaldirectorforSouthernCalifornia/SouthernNevadaanddirectorofcurriculum
fortheAssociationofChristianSchoolsInternational(ACSI),andSharonR.Berry,Ph.D.,a
directorofcurriculumofACSI,waspublishedin1996andcirculatedthroughouttheACSI
networkofChristianschools.49Excerptsfollow:
MASTERYLEARNING
Developed from Skinnerian psychology, Mastery Learning proposes that students should
betaughtuntiltheyhavelearnedasubjectnomatterhowlongittakes.Believingthatall
learningcouldbebrokenintominute,successivestepsofbehavior,thousandsofobjectives
foreachsubjectareawerepublishedinvoluminousbooks.ThedifferenceinOutcome-Based
Educationisaspeciicationofasmallernumberofmoregeneraloutcomes.Forexample,
thereare36outcomesspeciiedforgraduationintheLittleton,Coloradoproject.…
Onthelastpageofthearticle—asapartofalargercategoryentitled“WhereDoWe
Stand?”—underthetitle“MasteryLearning”theauthorsassert:
This[mastery]isalsoanimportantpartoftheChristianschool.No,notinthesensethat
secularOBEproponentsadvocate,butwithaChrist-honoringemphasis.Onethatsaysevery
studentisimportantenoughtohaveanappropriateinstructionalprogramandateacherwho
issensitiveenoughtodowhatisnecessarytoensurethatthestudentmasterscurriculumat
his/herabilitylevel.Thedistinctionhereisthatweshouldnotrequireallstudentstolearn
atthesamerate.Godhasgiveneachofusdifferenttalentsandabilities.Tothebestofour
abilityweensurethatstudentsachievebasicstandards,withallstudentsbeingchallenged
toreachtheirpotential.AsDr.BruceWilkinson,authorof“The7LawsoftheLearner,”has
emphasized,“Ifastudenthasn’tlearned,theteacherhasn’ttaught.”
[Ed. Note: It is dificult to understand ACSI’s support for a method of teaching which is
clearlybasedonDarwin’stheoryofevolution(thatmanisananimal),whichusesSkinnerian
stimulus-response-stimulusoperantconditioning.HowcanChristianeducatorsandparents
opposetheteachingofevolutionatschoolboardmeetingsacrossthecountryandthenreturn
totheirhomes/schoolsthenextdayanduseamethodofteaching/learningwhichisbased
ontheevolutionisttheorywhichtheyoppose?Personally,thiswriterdoesnotagreewithDr.
Wilkinson’sstatementconcerningthestudentandteacher.Sometimes,nomatterhowwella
teachermayteach,thestudentmaynotbeinterestedinlearning.50]
ANITAHOGEDEVISEDANDDISTRIBUTEDWIDELY“FIVEMAGICQUESTIONSENABLEPARENTStoDebate
theIssues”in1996asatoolforparents’groupstouseintestimonybeforestatelegislatures
368
andlocalschoolboards.Thetextofthepamphletfollowsinitsentirety.
FIVEMAGICQUESTIONSENABLEPARENTSTODEBATETHEISSUES
Educationregulationsorlawsstatewhichstandardsoroutcomesyourchildneedsto
meettograduate.Manyoftheoutcomesarevagueandsubjective.Lookattheverbs.This
showswhytheseoutcomesareimpossibletomeasureobjectively.Anexampleunderacat-
egorylike“Citizenship”states,“Allstudentswillnegotiateandcooperatewithothers.”The
FiveMagicQuestionsparentscanusetowinthedebatewhenoutcomesrelectsubjective
orvagueareasare:
1.Howdoyoumeasurethatoutcome?Ifanoutcomestatesthat“allchildrenmusthave
ethicaljudgment,honesty,orintegrity,”whatexactlyisgoingtobemeasured?How
doyoumeasureabiasinachildinorderforhimtograduate?Mustchildrenbe
diagnosed?Willtheybegradedbyobservationorpencilorpapertests?Howwill
performanceorbehaviorbeaddressed?
2.Howisthatoutcomescoredorwhatisthestandard?Whatbehavioris“Appropriate”
andtowhatdegree?Forexample,howmuchself-esteemistoomuchornotenough
tograduate?Cangovernmentscoretheattitudesandvaluesofitscitizens?
3.Whodecideswhatthatstandardwillbe?Thestatehasextendedtheirmandated
graduationrequirementsorexitoutcomesdowntotheindividualchild.Thisbypasses
alllocalautonomy.Whataboutlocallyelectedschooldirectors?Willtheybecome
obsolete?Arewetalkingaboutastateorgovernmentdiploma?
4.Howwillmychildberemediated?Whatareyougoingtodotomychildrentochange
themfromheretothereintheirattitudesandvaluesinordertograduate?Howdo
youremediateethicaljudgment,decision-making,interpersonalskills,environmental
attitudes?Whattechniqueswillbeused?Whatrisksareinvolved?Whatjustiication
doesthestatehavetochangemychildren’sattitudes?
5. What if parent and state disagree on the standard or how it is measured in the
classroom?Whohastheultimateauthorityoverthechild?Whataboutprivacy?Can
parentsoptoutofagraduationrequirementofthestate?
Allchildrenmustmeetthesameixedstandardof“futurecitizen”ornotgraduate,go
tocollege,orgetajob.Yourchildishumancapital.Thisiswhythestatewantscontrolof
thegraduationrequirement—andthatiswhylocalschoolboardsmustcreatepolicytostop
thestatefromexertingpoweroverelectedoficials.Askthisquestion:Doyouwantequity
inopportunity,ordoyouwantequityinstandards?
AMERICANFAMILYASSOCIATIONLAWCENTERINTUPELO,MISSISSIPPIISSUEDAPRESSreleaseon
Septemberl3,1996whichreadinpart:
Onbehalfofconcernedparents,studentsandschoolboardmembersintwoOregonschool
districts,theAmericanFamilyAssociationLawCenterandNationalLegalFoundationteamed
uptoilealawsuitinfederaldistrictcourttodaychallengingOregon’sstatewideeducation
reformsadoptedinconjunctionwithGoals2000.
ThemomentouslawsuitallegesthreeclaimsofconstitutionalviolationsbytheOregon
State Board of Education, Superintendent of Public Instruction and two school districts,
resultingfromOregon’sadoptionandimplementationoftheradicaltransformationalideas
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1996 369
embodied in the Oregon Education Act for the Twenty-irst Century. The forty-two page
complaintallegesthatOregonhasadoptedreformsthatdispensewithaspectsoftraditional
educationand,intheirplace,mandate“outcomes”thatbecometheonlyabsolutestolerated
bythestatewideeducationalsystem.
TheComplaintfurtherallegesthattheOregonreformsformallyabandonanybeliefin
absolutesorfactsinatraditionalsense,and,intheirplace,decreefeelings,attitudes,and
beliefsapprovedbythegovernment.AccordingtoAFALawCenterSeniorTrialAttorney
StephenM.Crampton,“Theimpositionofgovernment-approvedattitudeandbeliefslies
squarelyinthefaceoftheFirstAmendment.ItwasThomasJeffersonwhosaidthatGod
createdthemindfreeanditis,therefore,notsubjecttoforceorcoercionbygovernment.
Apparently,theOregoneducationalestablishmentisunfamiliarwithJeffersonortheFirst
Amendment.Whatisgoingon[inOregon]isnothingshortofslaveryofthemind.”51
[Ed.Note:HatsofftotheconcernedparentsandcitizensofOregon!AlthoughtheOregon
lawsuitwasnotsuccessful—thenegativedecisionbythecourtisbeingappealed—itprovided
acasestudyofwhatcouldbedoneinalliftystates,sinceallstateshavethesameproblems
duetoGoals2000mandates.ManyNewStandardsProject(NSP—Tucker’sNationalCenter
forEducationandtheEconomyprogramwhichleadstoCertiicateofInitialMastery)states
must comply with NSP requirements which totally remove any local control or signiicant
input.TheOregonlawsuit,inthiswriter’sopinion,wouldhavebeenmoresigniicantand
havehadabetterchanceofsucceedinghaditincludedasitsmajorconcerntheroleofthe
federallyfundedNorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratoryindevelopingtheNWRELGoals
Collectionasthedeliverysystemforthedehumanizingmasterylearning/directinstruction
methodrequiredbyOBEandGoals2000.]
APAPERENTITLED“AREPORTONTHEWORKTOWARDNATIONALSTANDARDS,ASSESSmentsand
Certiicates”waspreparedfortheOhioStateBoardofEducationin1996byDianaM.Fessler,
electedboardmember.ThissuperbreportwassubmittedundercoverofaLetterofTransmittal,
excerptsofwhichfollow:
TheNationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomyisanorganizationdedicatedto
thedevelopmentofauniiedsystemofeducationandemployment.TheNationalCenter’s
visionistocreateanationalhumanresourcesdevelopmentsystem,interwovenwithanew
approachtogoverning.ThisreportisasummaryoftheNationalCenter’sagendathatis,
bydesignandintent,applicabletoallstates,anditisnowbeingimplementedinmanyof
them.
Asyouarewellaware,the“StandardsforOhioSchools:ComingTogethertoBuilda
FutureWhereEveryChildCounts”documentiscomingupforavoteinthenearfuture.Itis
riddledwithcontinuousimprovement,professionaldevelopment,diminishedauthorityfor
localschoolboards,schoolperformancestandards,acallto“organize”programsaccording
tolabormarketneeds,aprovisionforworksite-basedlearningopportunities;allofwhich
dovetailnicelywiththeNCEEagenda....
ThereisnodoubtthatH.R.1617(knownastheConsolidatedandReformedEducation,
Employment,andRehabilitationSystemsActorCAREERS),andtheSenateversionofthe
samebill,S.143(TheWorkforceDevelopmentActof1995),areextensionsofthe1994School-
to-WorkAct.TheyrepresenttheculminationoftheNCEE’sefforttogetCongresstoimpose
“TheSystem”onallAmericans.However,federalcontrolisnotneededtoput“TheSystem”
inplaceineverystate.Theonlythingthatisneededisthefederalmoneythatwillbecome
370
availableastheresultofthelegislationbeingpassed.Asanaside,althoughaveryimportant
one,theproposedlegislationwouldhavesentthemoneytotheoficeofthegovernor,by-
passingtheGeneralAssembly.
OnSeptember27,1996,theNCEEplanwastemporarilyhaltedfrombeingincorporated
intofederallawwhentheCAREERSbillwasdefeatedinConferenceCommittee.Undoubtedly,
thebillswillbere-introducedin1997.Nevertheless,muchoftheplancanbe,andisbeing,
implementedunderexistinglaws,regulations,and/orwaivers.Unlesssomethingisdoneto
stopit,theNCEEagendawillcontinuetobeimplemented,albeitonalessexpansivescale,
tothedetrimentofourchildrenandgrandchildren.
INTHESEPTEMBER1996ISSUEOFVITALITYANARTICLEENTITLED“EDUCATION:WHYTHE‘Dumbing
Down’intheSchools?”byRep.HenryHyde,chairmanoftheRepublicanPlatformCommittee,
waspublished.CongressmanHyde,inanexcellentcritiqueofGoals2000,School-to-Workand
CAREERSlegislation,asserted:
Thisconcepthasbeenaroundsinceatleastthe1960sandperhapsasfarbackasthe1930s.It
hasbeentriedinmanyschoolsoverthelast20–30years,tothedetrimentofourchildren.In
the70s,itwascalled“MasteryLearning”underthesupervisionofProfessorBenjaminBloom,
andnowitisknownas“Outcomes-BasedEducation”(OBE).Stateschoolsuperintendents
havelearnedtocallOBEbyothernamesbecauseofitsbadreputationwhichprecedesit,
buttheconceptsareallthesame.
[Ed.Note:RepresentativeHenryHydeseemstobeoneofthefewcongressmenwhounder-
standsthe“method.”ThiswriterwondersifheisawareofthefactthattheChicagoschools
are using the method under the label “direct instruction”—and that Chicago schools have
signedaneducationagreementwithRussia?]
INTHESCHOOLWATCHCOLUMNOFTHEATLANTACONSTITUTIONTHETOPICOFTHEDAYFOROc-
tober14,1996was“TeachingPolitics.”Excerptsfollow:
Teachersareindinginnovativewaystointereststudentsinbecomingwell-informedvoters.
Manyteachersformaseatingchartbasedonalphabeticorder,butLindaMorrisonusesanother
method.InhercurrentissuesclassatNorthCobbHighSchool,liberalssitontheleftsideof
theroomandconservativessit—whereelse?—ontheright.Morrison’stechniqueisoneof
manymethodsteachersareusingtoeducatestudentsonelectoralandpoliticalprocesses.
“When you combine what we do in here with their American government class, it
makeseverythingalotmoreinterestingforthestudents,”saidMorrison,aformerCobb
CountyTeacheroftheYear.
Atthebeginningoftheyear,Morrisongivesherclassapoliticalorientationtest,which
chartshowconservativeorliberalastudentisonseveralissues.Themoreliberalyourviews,
thefarthertotheleftoftheroomyousit.Thosewithmoderateviewssitclosertothemiddle,
andconservativessitontheright.
“OurmaintextbookisNewsweek,”Morrisonsaid.“Whateverthecurrentissuesare,
wediscussthem.AllIusuallydoisreferee.”
371
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1997
OCTOBER21,1996THENEWYORKTIMESPUBLISHEDANARTICLEENTITLED“CARNEGIEFoundation
SelectsaNewLeader,”LeeShulman,Ph.D.Forfurtherinformationaboutthe“newleader”the
readershouldre-readthe1968entryon“LearningandInstruction...ChicagoMasteryLearn-
ing”inwhichthebehavioralpsychologistLeeShulmanwasdeeplyinvolved.
1997
ONJANUARY25,1997THEFIRSTPLENARYSESSIONOFTHENATIONALCOMMISSIONONCivicRe-
newalwasheld.FundedbythePewCharitableTrusts,theCommissionoperatesoutofthe
InstituteforPhilosophyandPublicPolicy,aresearchcenterattheUniversityofMarylandat
CollegePark.Onecommonthemerunningthroughthenumerousreportsproducedin1998as
aresultoftheCommission’sstudyofthe“deplorable”lackofcitizeninvolvement,cryingout
forpartnerships,etc.,wasthatelectedoficialsarenolongerabletomeaningfullycontribute
tothedecision-makingprocesswhenseekinganswerstosocietalproblems.
Those chosen to promote political and social “action” in our “needy” communities
camefromallpoliticalpersuasions—aclevertechniquewhichmadetheCommissionseem
all-embracing and allows for public ownership of the projects selected for implementation
and encouragement. When one had Ernesto Cortes, Jr. of the Industrial Areas Foundation
representingthepoliticalleftandformerSecretaryofEducationWilliamBennettrepresent-
ing the political right—which is increasingly controlled by “neoconservatives”—it was not
unreasonabletoexpectthatdiscussionswouldresultinreaching“commonground”politics
ofthe“radicalcenter;”whichisanabandonmentofprinciplebyboththerightandtheleft.
AlistofhighproileAmericansinvolvedintheNationalCommissiononCivicRenewalwill
beincludedattheendofthisentry.
WhyistheNationalCommissiononCivicRenewalbeingcreatedatthistime?TheCom-
missionsaysthat:
In spite of recent improvement in the economy, both experts and ordinary citizens have
becomeincreasinglytroubledaboutwhattheyseeasadeclineinthestrengthofoursocial
fabricandinthequalityofourcivilandciviclife.Basicinstitutionsatthefamilyandneigh-
borhood level have come under intense pressure; voting and other forms of community
andpoliticalparticipationhavedeclined;Americans’trustinlargeinstitutionsandinone
anotherhasplunged.TheCommissionwillseektoaddresstheseills:bygatheringandas-
sessinginformationandadvicefromawiderangeofvoices;byinventorying,studying,and
highlightingpromisingcivicorganizationsandinitiativesaroundthecountry;andbyoffering
speciicrecommendationsforimprovingourcivicandcivillife.
Statistics published in a 1982 National Center for Citizen Involvement report quoting
froma1981issueofTheNationalVolunteerstatedthat44%ofAmericansworkasvolunteers
outsideofanorganization—“doingtheirownthing,”sotospeak—notthevolunteerismthe
eliteinvolvedincommissionssimilartotheNationalCommissiononCivicRenewalarein-
terestedinpromoting.
Thewriterwillwagerthattheabove-referenced“ordinary”citizenswerenotconsulted
onthiselitistproject.“Ordinary”citizensaretooinvolvedintryingtomakealiving,“meeting
thepayroll,”andbeingpartofthat“44%”toindtimetobeherdedaroundbychangeagent
planners,participatinginprojectswhichmoreoftenthannotdonotsigniicantlyaffectthe
372
livesofthosemostinneed.Ifthereaderfeelsthatthewriterofthisbookisgoingoverboard
withheruseoftheword“elite,”holdontoyourseatwhilewemakeanascentintotherooftop
conferenceroomofaWashington,D.C.clubwhereoneofthemeetingsheldbytheCom-
missiontookplace.Hearye!Hearye!ThedaSkocpol,professorofgovernmentandsociology
atHarvardUniversity,isabouttogivetestimonybeforetheCommission:
MyresearchonthepastandpresentofU.S.civicengagementsuggeststhatthisCommission
shouldlookupward,notdownward.[allemphasesinoriginal]Toomuchmoneyinpolitics,
toogreatarelianceonstaff-ledgroups,toomuchtop-downmanipulation—andfartoofew
incentivesforleaderstoorganizeorengageindialoguewithactualgroupsoffellowcitizens
acrossthenation—theseareAmericans’senseofdisconnectionfromsharedciviclife.You
won’tindtheanswersyouseekinpurelylocalgroups,oramongthelessprivileged.You
mustlooktoAmerica’spowerfulandbest-educatedelites—tofolkslikeallofussittingin
thisroom.Whatis[it]thatwe[businesspeople],professors,foundationheads,thinktank
impresarios,andreligiousandpoliticalleadersaredoingthatweshouldnotbedoing?Equally
pertinent,whatnewthingsshouldweelitesdo?America’sbesteducated,wealthiest,and
mostpowerfulleadersaretheoneswhoarefailingourfellowcitizens—becausewehave
withdrawnfromthegroupsettingsinwhichwewouldhavedailychancestoworkwith,
anddiscussthenation’sconcerns,withmostofourfellowcitizens.
ThewriterhasananswerforMs.Skocpol:stoptryingtosocialengineer“thelocals”into
acceptingsolutionswhich“thelocals”neveraskedforandprobablywouldnotwantifthey
wereinformedoftherealpurposeoftheso-called“solutions.”Skocpolreferstotheactivities
of“tax-exemptfoundationheadsandthinktankimpresarios.”Shewouldbewisetoremain
silentonthatscore,consideringtheseveredamagedonebythoseveryentitiestothepreser-
vationoffreedominournation.TheCommissionseemstohavemadeabigmistakepublishing
Skocpol’spaper.Itscondescending,elitisttonesurelywillnothelptogettheirprojectoffthe
ground—perhapsthatisbestforallofus.
ExcerptsfromTheFinalReportoftheNationalCommissiononCivicRenewal:ANation
of Spectators—How Civic Disengagement Weakens America and What We Can Do about It
(1998)follow:
DeiningtheChallengeofCivicRenewal.
InAmericawedonotdependonkings,clerics,oraristocrats,or(forthatmatter)ontech-
nocraticelitesorself-appointedleaderstoserveasthe“vanguard”fortherestofus.[This
isastrangecommentinlightofthemakeupandconclusionsoftheCommissionandits
expertconsultants,ed.]…
Webelievethatthecapacityfordemocraticcitizenshipmustbenurturedininstitu-
tionssuchasfamilies,neighborhoods,schools,faithcommunities,localgovernments,and
politicalmovements—andtherefore,thatourdemocracymustattendcarefullytothehealth
oftheseinstitutions….
Webelievethatbuildingdemocracymeansindividuals,voluntaryassociations,private
markets,andthepublicsectorworkingtogether—notlockedinbattle.
[Ed.Note:First,thewriterthoughtthattheUnitedStateswasaconstitutionalrepublic,nota
democracy.Secondly,againweindthereferencetothepublicsectorandtheprivatehaving
tojointogether;i.e.,partnerships,whichthereadershouldrecognizeascorporatefascism/
socialism.Thisistheirsttimethewriterhasbeeninformedthattheabove-mentionedgroups
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1997 373
havebeen“lockedinbattle.”Thenextthingwewillhearisthatinorderfor“democracy”to
lower,alaRedChina,wemustallparticipateinsensitivitytraining/conlictresolution/en-
countergroupsessionssimilartotheOhioStateBoardofEducationretreatdescribedbyOhio
StateBoardmemberDianaFessler(seeAugust5,1996entry).]
Webelievethatdemocracymeansnotonlydiscussingourdifferences,butalsounder-
takingconcreteprojectswithourfellowcitizenstoachievecommongoals….(p.7–8)
ANewMovement.
Neworganizationsarerefocusingtheattentionoffamilies,schools,andcommunitiesonthe
formationofciviccharacter….
…But we believe that the current level of mistrust [of government and large insti-
tutions,ed.]isinconsistentwithcivichealth.Americanscannotlovetheircountryifthey
havecontemptforitsgovernment.…(p.10–11)
MeetingtheChallengeofCivicRenewal.
Thegoalsofcivicrenewalarestraightforward:tostrengthentheinstitutionsthathelpform
theknowledge,skills,andvirtuescitizensneedforactiveengagementinciviclife;toremove
theimpedimentstocivicengagementwherevertheyexist;andtomultiplythearenasfor
meaningfulandeffectivecivicaction.…(p.12)
Individuals.
Wethereforechallengeeverycitizentobecomeanactivememberofatleastoneassociation
dealingwithmattersoflocalneighborhood,church,orcommunityconcern.[Isthisachal-
lenge to the “44%” who cannot presently be tracked and controlled in their “civic and
volunteer”service?ed.]…
Families.
Itmeanssweepingawayimpedimentstoadoption.Itmeansdramaticallyreformingfoster
careandestablishinganationalnormthatnochildshouldspendmorethanonebirthday
withoutapermanenthomeinastable,lovingfamily.Itmeansamassivenewpartnership
amongthepublic,private,andvoluntarysectorstoprovideadultmentorsforonemillion
youngpeoplenowlanguishingonwaitinglistsacrossourland.
[Ed.Note:“Anationalnorm”?Whokeepstrackandevaluates?Whodecideswhatisa“stable,
lovingfamily”?“Massivenewpartnership”?“Adultmentorsforonemillionyoungpeople…
onwaitinglists”?Whatwaitinglists?Tobeadopted,tohaveamentor?Thesepartnerships
meanthatgovernmentwillcoordinatetheactivitiesoftheprivateandvoluntarysectorstoac-
complishenforceablestandardsintheareaoffamilylife.TheCommissionalsoacknowledged
thatahealthymistrustofgovernmentisessentialfora“democracy.”Thiswriterbelievesit
tobeessentialforthepreservationoffreedomaswell.Perhapswhatournationneedsisan
evenhigherlevelofcitizenmistrustwhichwouldresultinmorepeoplegoingtothepollsto
voteoutrascals.]
Neighborhoods.
Everyneighborhoodshouldassumeresponsibilityformattersofsigniicantlocalconcern,
emphasizingareaswhereneighborscandomeaningfulcivicworktogether.Forexample:
neighborhoodcrimewatches;cleaning,repairing,andpatrollingpublicparks;escortservices
forstudentswalkingfromhometoschoolinthemorningandbackintheafternoon….(p.
374
13)
…WeapplaudtheeffortsoforganizationssuchastheNationalCivicLeague,theCenter
forDemocracyandCitizenship,theCivicPracticesNetwork,theCenterforLivingDemocracy,
thePewPartnershipforCivicChange,and[HeritageFoundation’s]PolicyReview:TheJournal
ofAmericanCitizenshiptoidentifypromisingcommunity-basedempowermentefforts,to
makethisinformationavailabletocommunitiessearchingforusablemodels,andtoweave
togetherlocalactivitiesintoawidercommunity-basedmovementforcivicrenewal.
Schools.
First, we add our voices to others—such as the Communitarian Network, the Character
Counts!Coalition,theCharacterEducationPartnership,andtheCenterforCivicEducation—in
support of a far greater emphasis on civic and character education. We believe that our
schoolsshouldfostertheknowledge,skills,andvirtuesouryoungpeopleneedtobecome
gooddemocraticcitizens….
WhiletheNationalCommissionhasnotreachedagreementonmandatorycommunity
serviceforhighschoolstudents,weareimpressedwiththewaysinwhichwell-designed
communityworkcarefullylinkedtoclassroomrelectioncanenhancetheciviceducationof
students….Everystateshouldrequireallstudentstodemonstratemasteryofbasiccivicin-
formationandconceptsasaconditionofhighschoolgraduation.[Citizenship,OBE-style]
Inadditiontotheirroleinformingciviccompetenceandcharacter,webelievethatthe
overallperformanceofourschoolshasimportanteffectsonourciviccondition.Tocitebut
oneexample:studentsconsignedtofailingschoolsarefarlesslikelytoachievefullpartici-
pationinciviclife.Freecitizensmustbeeducated.Forthisreason,weoffersomeproposals
toimproveteachingandlearning….
…Despitethepoliticalandsubstantivedificulties,thefederalgovernmentshouldspur
thedevelopmentofavoluntarynationaltestingsystemwithhighstandardsandmakeit
availableforadoption(oradaptation)bystatesandlocalities.(p.15)
Thefederalgovernment,states,andlocalitiesshouldcooperatetoincreaseparental
choicethroughsuchmeasuresasopenenrollmentandpublicschoolchoicewithindistricts
(andevenbeyond).Withiniveyears,everystateshouldenactmeaningfulcharterschool
legislation,andthefederalgovernmentshoulddramaticallyincreaseitssupportforcharter
schools.(pp.14–16)
Note:WhiletheNationalCommissionhasfocuseditsreportandrecommendationson
areasofsubstantialagreement,wenoteanimportantareaofongoingdisagreementamong
us.
SomemembersoftheNationalCommissionadvocatepublicsupportforparental
choicebroadenedtoincludeprivateandreligiousschools,especiallyforlow-incomestu-
dentsnowtrappedinfailingsystems.Thesemembersbelievethatwiderchoicewillenhance
educationalopportunityandaccountability,improvequality,helpgetparentsmoreinvolved
intheirchildren’sschoolingandcatalyzecivicengagement.Theyconsiderschoolchoice
tobeacrucialandnecessarysteptowardcivicrenewalandself-government.
OtherCommissionmembersbelievethatpublicschoolshavebeen,andcontinue
tobe,vitalmeetinggroundsinwhichfuturecitizenslearntorespectandworkwithone
another across their differences. These members fear that choice widened beyond the
boundsofpublicschoolscoulddiminishsupportforpubliceducation,furtherfragment
oursociety,andweakenourdemocracy.
Wewerenotabletoresolvethesedifferences.(Notsurprisingly,ournation’srep-
resentativeshavenotyetreachedcommonground,either.)Butwedoagreeonthecivic
standardsandprinciplesthatshouldbeemployedinpublicdeliberationonschoolchoice,
andwecallforcontinuedcivildialogueonthisquestion.
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1997 375
Faith-basedInstitutions.
Faith-basedinstitutionsshouldtakefulladvantageofnewopportunitiesunderfederallaw
toreceivepublicsupportforactivitiessuchasjobsearchprograms,“secondchance”homes
forunmarriedteenparents,childcare,anddrugtreatment,whilemaintainingtheirreligious
character.Thefederalgovernmentshouldbroadenthisnewpartnershipwithfaith-based
institutionstocoverthemaximumfeasiblerangeofsocialservices.…
Thefederalgovernmentshouldrevisethetaxcodetoincreaseincentivesforcharitable
contributionsandtorecognizethecharitableeffortsofallAmericans,includingpoorand
low-incomefamilies.…
Individualfaith-basedinstitutionsshouldbandtogetherintocommunity-widecoalitions
toachieveimportantcivicobjectives.…
…Wecallforthemobilizationofpublic,foundation,andcorporatesupportfornew
ventures,suchasJohnDilulio’sJeremiahProject,whichwillhelpgathercredibledataabout
theeffectivenessoffaith-basedactivities,mobilizeresources,anddirectthemtopromising
faith-basedprograms.
[Ed.Note:Thisisthemostfrightening“partnership”proposalofall.Whenthegovernment
“partners”withanotherentity,itisalwaysthegovernmentwhosetsthestandard—anden-
forcesit.Whiletheremaybeworthwhileeffortsthatmanychurchesinacommunitycanagree
uponandworktogethertoaccomplish,again,thisshouldbedecidedonthelocallevelbythe
churchesinvolvedwithoutanycoordinationbyanyotherentitytosatisfyitsgoalsandaims.
Gathering“credibledata”about“faith-basedactivities”sothatresourcescanbedirectedto
“promisingfaith-basedprograms”isexactlywhatthewriterwasreferringtoearlierwhenshe
cautionedthereaderaboutpartneringchurchesor“faith-basedinstitutions”withthegovern-
ment.]
ThefollowinghighproileindividualsareinvolvedintheNationalCommissiononCivicRe-
newalproject:
• Co-ChairmanWilliamBennett,formerU.S.SecretaryofEducation,andco-directorof
EmpowerAmerica,anorganizationdedicatedtopromoting“conservative”principles
andideas.SecretaryofEducationBennettfundedtheAmericanInstituteforCharacter
Education/ThomasJeffersonResearchCenter’sverycontroversial,noright/nowrong
answerscharactereducationprogrambasedonAbrahamMazlow’sHierarchyofNeeds
andSelf-Actualization.WhenconfrontedwithinformationconcerningtheU.S.-Soviet
educationagreementssignedduringhistenure,Bennettsaid,“I’mnotinthatloop.”
• Co-ChairmanSamNunn,formerU.S.SenatorfromGeorgia,wasdeeplyinvolvedin
the passage of National Service legislation to lay the groundwork for a nationwide
“civilianservicecorps”byofferinggeneroushighereducationbeneitsinexchangefor
oneortwoyearsofpublicvolunteerservice.ThoughNunnservedaschairmanofthe
SenateArmedServicesCommittee,the“volunteerservice”legislationhesponsored
wasinnowayinvolvedwithmilitaryservicetothiscountry.
• Executive Director William A. Galston, professor of government in the School of
PublicAffairs,UniversityofMarylandatCollegeParkanddirectoroftheUniversity’s
InstituteforPhilosophyandPublicPolicy.FromJanuary1993throughMay1995,Galston
servedasdeputyassistantfordomesticpolicytoPresidentClinton.Galstonwasalso
deeplyinvolvedinthedraftingofGoals2000.Priorpoliticalexperienceincludes:chief
376
speechwriterforformerIndependentPartypresidentialcandidateJohnAnderson’s
NationalUnityCampaignin1980;issuesdirectorforDemocraticpresidentialcandidate
WalterMondale’scampaign;senioradvisorforthen-SenatorAlGore’scampaignforthe
DemocraticParty’spresidentialnomination;andsince1989servedassenioradvisor
fortheDemocraticLeadershipCouncilandtheProgressivePolicyInstitute.
• LamarAlexander,formergovernorofTennessee,formerU.S.SecretaryofEducation,
formerandpresentcandidatefortheRepublicanPartynominationforPresidentofthe
UnitedStates.
*ElaineChao,DistinguishedFellow,TheHeritageFoundation.Untilrecently,ElaineChao
waspresidentandchiefexecutiveoficerofUnitedWayofAmerica.
• Ernesto Cortes, Jr., Industrial Areas Foundation (IAI), Southwest regional director.
FoundedmorethaniftyyearsagoinChicagobythelateSaulAlinsky,theIAFisa
non-proit organization, originally operating throughout the Catholic Church in the
U.S.,designedtoprovideleadershiptrainingtopoorandmoderateincomepeoplein
morethanfortybroadlybased,multi-ethnicorganizationsintheUnitedStatesand
theUnitedKingdom.(SeeResourcesforavailabilityofStephanieBlock’sarticleand
forthcomingbookdealingwiththehighlycontroversialactivitiesoftheIndustrialAreas
Foundation.)
• Amitai Etzioni, professor at Georgetown University, founder and chairman of The
CommunitarianNetwork,isinvolvedwiththeEducationForAll(EFA)activitiesboth
nationallyandinternationally,theCharacterEducationPartnership,andtheactivities
oftheFreedomForumFirstAmendmentFoundation(VanderbiltUniversity).According
toWebster’sNewWorldDictionary(1976)a“communitarian”is“amemberoradvocate
ofacommunisticcommunity.”CommunitarianismisthesocialphilosophyoftheSkin-
nerianWaldenIIexperimentalcommuneatLosHorcones,Mexico.52
• JohnGardner,professorofeducationatStanfordUniversityinCalifornia,hasserved
asformerpresidentoftheCarnegieCorporationofNewYork,which—asthereader
knows—hashadvirtualcontroloverAmericaneducationsincetheearly1900s.
• PeterC.Goldmark,Jr.,waselectedtheeleventhpresidentoftheRockefellerFoun-
dationinJune1988.GoldmarkisamemberoftheCouncilonForeignRelations.
• OzGuiness,SeniorFellowwithTheTrinityForum.Guinessheadedupthecontro-
versialWilliamsburgCharterCharacterEducationProjectwhoseworkwascontinued
byCharlesHaynesoftheFreedomForumFirstAmendmentFoundationatVanderbilt
University.
• MichaelS.Joyce,presidentandchiefexecutiveoficerofTheLyndeandHarryBradley
FoundationinMilwaukee,wasformerleaderoftheJohnM.OlinFoundationinNew
YorkandtheGoldsekerFoundationinBaltimore.Astrongsupporterofparentalchoice
ineducation,JoycespentsixyearswiththeEducationalResearchCouncilofAmerica
andwasacontributingeditortoatextbookseriesonthesocialstudies.Joyceserved
onthePresidentialTransitionTeamintheReaganAdministrationandin1993joined
withWilliamKristoltofoundtheProjectfortheRepublicanFuture.
• RichardD.Land,president-treasureroftheEthicsandReligiousLibertyCommission
oftheSouthernBaptistConvention,theagencyfor“appliedChristianity”(socialand
moralconcerns)fortheConvention.
• HisEminenceBernardCardinalLaw,ArchbishopofBostonsince1984.Hewascre-
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1997 377
atedCardinalbyPopeJohnPaulIIinMay1985.
• EdwinLupberger,chairmanoftheU.S.ChamberofCommerceandmemberofthe
U.S. Chamber’s Center for Workforce Preparation, also serves on the board of the
CommitteeforEconomicDevelopment(CED)andisLouisiana’sHonoraryConsulof
theFederalRepublicofGermany.
• BrunoV.Manno,executivedirectoroftheNationalCommissiononPhilanthropyand
CivicRenewal,iscloselyassociatedwithVanderbiltUniversityandtheHudsonInstitute.
Mannohasservedasassistantsecretaryofeducationforpolicyandplanningandas
directorofplanningfortheOficeofEducationalResearchandImprovementunder
SecretaryofEducationLamarAlexanderin1986.
• SanfordMcDonnell,chairmanoftheCharacterEducationPartnershipandMcDonnell
DouglasCorporation.
• Michael Novak, currently holds the George Frederick Jewett Chair in Religion and
PublicPolicyattheAmericanEnterpriseInstitute.Mr.Novakhasreceivednumerous
awards,includingtheTempletonPrizeforProgressinReligion(1994).
• Lester Salamon, director of the Institute for Policy Studies at The Johns Hopkins
University,andwastheco-editorofHumanCapitalandAmerica’sFuturewithDavid
Hornbeck.
• RobertWoodson,Sr.,founderandpresidentoftheNationalCenterforNeighborhood
Enterprisewhichhasbeenintheforefrontofthemovementto“empower”low-income
Americans.In1990Woodsonreceivedthehigh-proileJohnandCatherineT.MacArthur
Fellowship.HeisaboardmemberoftheAmericanAssociationofEnterpriseZones
andtheCommissiononNationalandCommunityService.
[Ed.Note:Thewritercannothelpbutcomparethiscommissionanditsraisond’etrewithfor-
merPresidentDwightEisenhower’sAmericanAssembly,whichdevelopedthepre-determined,
socialistic“GoalsforAmericans”in1960.Astothemeetingofmindson“commonground,”
ShirleyMcCune(referredtopreviouslyinthisbookasamajoreducationchangeagentwith
theMid-ContinentRegionalEducationalLaboratory)quotedfromThe[John]NaisbittGroup’s
trainingmaterialsregardingpoliticalphilosophyataneducationalrestructuringpresentation
totheMillard,NebraskaSchoolDistrict53whensheexplainedthatbasicshiftsrelatedtore-
structuringmoveacrossacontinuum:Naisbittlisted“From”and“To”asbeing“leftvs.right
politics”resultingin“apoliticsoftheradicalcenter.”Thisisanexcellentillustrationofthe
HegelianDialecticatworkandisthebasisoftheactivitiesoftheNationalCommissionon
CivicRenewal.]
NATIONALBLUERIBBONSCHOOLSPROGRAMWASTHESUBJECTOFINFORMATIONALLETTERNo.54
fromMaine’sCommissionerofEducationJ.DukeAlbanesetoallsuperintendentsofschools
andsecondaryandmiddleschoolprincipals,datedMay16,1997.Thereadershouldrealize
thatallstatesparticipateinthisprogram,sothenexttimeyoursuperintendentoranymember
oftheeducationbureaucracysaysyourschoolisnotcontrolledbythestateorfederalgovern-
ment,pulloutacopyofthisletterandshowittothem.Thecriteriaforselection,whichare
noticeablyshortonreferencestotraditional“academicexcellence,”aretakenfromGoals2000
materials.Excerptsfollow:
378
Iampleasedtoinviteyoutoparticipateinthe1997–1998BlueRibbonSchoolsProgram,for
secondaryandmiddleschools,sponsoredbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducationandadmin-
isteredbytheMaineDepartmentofEducation.
TheBlueRibbonSchoolsProgramidentiiesandgivesnationalrecognitiontoadiverse
groupofpublicandprivateschoolsthatareunusuallyeffectiveinmeetinglocal,state,and
nationalgoalsineducatingalloftheirstudents[emphasisadded].Theprogramseeksto
promoteschoolimprovementnationwidethroughthecollaborativeself-evaluationprocess
requiredoflocalschoolcommunitiesthatparticipate.Inaddition,recognizedschoolsserve
asmodelsforotherschoolsandcommunitiesseekingtoprovidehighqualityeducationfor
alltheirstudents.Thisprogramallowsustodemonstratethattoday’sschoolscanachieve
excellenceandtospotlightexamplesofwhatbreak-the-moldprogramsandpracticesmight
looklike.
Criteriaforselectionasanationalschoolofexcellenceinclude:
• Studentfocusandsupport
• Challengingstandardsandcurriculum
• Teachingandactivelearning
• Learning-centeredcultureandorganization
• Professionalcommunities
• Leadershipandorganizationalvitality
• School,familyandcommunitypartnerships
• Indicatorsofsuccess
Thequalityofeachschoolisjudgedinthecontextofhowsuccessfullyitismeeting
itsowngoalsandhowwellitsprogramsaretailoredtolocalneeds.
Nevertheless,foraschooltobejudgeddeservingofnationalrecognition,itmustshow
signiicantprogressinmeetingstateandnationalgoals,andmusthaveattainedastandard
ofoverallexcellencethatisworthyofrespectandemulationbyschoolselsewhereofsimilar
sizecharacteristics.
[Ed.Note:Don’ttheprecedingtwoparagraphsrepresentanoxymoron?]
THEMAY1997 ISSUE OFTHEEFFECTIVESCHOOLREPORT CARRIED AN ARTICLE ENTITLED“The
FutureofHongKongIsLinkedtoEducation.”Excerptsfollow:
Theinformationtobepresentedwillcomefromamajorreportrecentlyissuedbythe
EducationCommissionestablishedbytheCentralGovernmentofHongKongin1983.The
majorreferencewillbeEducationCommissionReportNo.7,QualitySchoolEducation,is-
suedinNovember,1996.
Asonereadseach[article]intheseriesofarticles,theobviousandcontinuousref-
erencetotheeffectiveschoolsmovementbecomesmorethanapparent.Itservesuswellto
understandthatjustastheeffectiveschoolscorrelatesweredevelopedwithinourrealmof
theworld,soitisthesesamecorrelateshavebeenadoptedthroughouttheworldtoimprove
thequalityanddesignofeducation.
AblueribboncommissionwasformedinApril,1996tomakerecommendationsonthe
developmentandestablishmentofqualityschooleducation.Threebroadprinciplesserved
asthebasesfortheworkofthecommittee.Theyincludedthefollowing:
• Waystorelateschoolfundingtoperformance54
• Rolesofkeyplayersintheschoolsystemand
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1997 379
• Theirrelationshipwithoneanother.
Beyondtheprimaryprinciplesestablishedbythecommitteearesixobjectiveswhich
mayappeartomanyeducatorsasfundamentalobjectivesforanyschoolsysteminanyna-
tion.Theseprimaryobjectivesinclude:
• to enhance the community’s appreciation of the need for quality school educa-
tion;
• toinculcateaqualitycultureintheschoolsystem[emphasisinoriginal];
• toprovideapracticalframeworkforkeyplayersintheschoolsystemtoachievethe
aimsofeducationinaneffective,eficientandaccountablemanner;
• torecommendanintegratedstrategyforqualityassurance;
• torewardorgiverecognitiontoperformingschools;and
• toassistortakeappropriateremedialactionregardingunder-performingschoolsto
encourageinitiativesandcontinuousimprovement.
Initsdeliberations,thecommitteereviewedlargevolumesofoverseasandlocalliterature
ontheeffectiveschoolsmovement,qualityassurancemeasuresandschoolmanagement
approaches.Membersofthecommitteeparticipatedinvisitstostudytheoperationofedu-
cationthroughouttheworld....The[EducationCommission]reportwasprimarilyaproduct
whichofferedaplantodevelopperformanceindicatorsfortheschoolsystem....Societyhas
acceptedtheresponsibilitytoprovideaneducationforeachandeverychildandtostruc-
turesuchaneducationaccordingtotheirindividualabilitiesandaptitudes....Asaleaderin
internationalcommerce,thecommunityofHongKong,especiallythebusinesscommunity,
recognizesmassivechangesinworldtradeandproduction.Asbusinessesthroughoutthe
world,includingnationsinNorthAmericaandEurope,haverestructuredtheirbusinesses
andproductionsystems,HongKonghasemergedasoneoftheworld’sforemostinancial
centers,ahubofregionaltelecommunications,transportandtrading,aleadingtouristand
conventiondestinationandamajorexporterofprofessionalservicestotheworld,especially
mainlandChina.Alongwithitstransformation,HongKongcommercenowdemandsalabor
forcewhichis“informedandknowledgeable,highlyqualiiedandspecialised,withadvanced
skillsandtheabilitytothinkindependentlyandtocommunicatewell.”(p.5)
[Ed.Note:Surprise!Surprise!ThereadershouldturntoAppendixVIfortheSAFEeffective
schoolinternationalpilotprojectcarriedoutinKoreain1970toseethatmanyofthe“ef-
fectiveschoolcorrelates”referredtoabovewereexportedfromtheU.S.tootherpartsofthe
world.]
“THEGOALOFHONGKONGSCHOOLS—ESTABLISHINGQUALITYINITSSCHOOLS”WASTHEfeature
articleintheJune/July,1997issueofTheEffectiveSchoolReport.Thisarticlecontinuesthe
explanation of the transformation of Hong Kong’s educational system which began in last
month’sissue.Excerptsfollow:
Excellenceisfoundintheinnovationsandoutstandingperformancewhichdistinguishone
schoolfromothers.
SchoolChoiceShouldBeMadeAvailable
HongKong’seducationsystemprovidesparentswithachoiceofdifferenttypesofschools.
Theperceptionofparentsandstudentsoftheeducationalprocess,andthesatisfactionof
380
membersofthecommunitywithoutcomesarealsousefulindicatorsofthequalityofedu-
cation.
Excellenceisnotconinedtoachievingoutstandingacademicresultsorpromotingthe
self-esteemofstudents.Forinstance,someschoolsmightachieveexcellencebydeveloping
thepotentialoflowachieversandproducingvalue-addedresults.
Inordertobuildaqualitycultureinschools,anumberofmeasuresmustbetaken.
Theyinclude:
• translating the goals into achievable, observable and measurable quality indica-
tors;
• havingaschoolfundingsystemwhichiseficientandequitable,whichmeetsbasic
needsandwhichisrelatedtoperformance;
• providingincentivestorecognizeandencourageinitiativesandthepursuitofexcel-
lence.
Aims
Topreparestudentstobecomeresponsiblecitizensandmaintainhighmoralstandards....
OutputIndicators
Outputindicatorsmaystartwithvalue-addedperformanceinthreeareas;academicachieve-
ment;students’self-esteem;andperceptionoftheschoolteachers,parentsandstudents.
Asastart,thesethreetypesofoutputindicatorsmaybedevelopedirst,followedbythe
developmentofindicatorsinotherdomainssuchasthestudents’abilityforself-learning,
socialandcommunicativeskills,moralattitudesandcivic-mindedness.Inordertoencourage
continuousimprovement,thesoonerthevariousindicatorsaredeveloped,thebetter….
Value-AddedConceptofOutputIndicators
Wesuggestthatinassessingtheperformanceofaschool,itwouldbemoreappropriate
andfairertobringintheconceptofvalue-addedachievementratherthansimplylooking
atabsoluteperformance.Value-addedperformancecanbeassessedinanumberofareas.
Forexample,itwouldnotbeappropriatetocomparetheacademicperformanceofdifferent
schoolsiftheyadmitstudentscomingfromdifferentbackgrounds.Thevalue-addedconcept
allowscomparisonofstudentsastheyenteraschoolandastheyleave.Thesameconcept
canbeappliedacrosstheoutputindicators.Thefocuswillbeonastudent’sprogressover
theyears.
(Informationusedinthisserieshasbeenderivedfromthepublication,EducationCom-
missionReportNo.7—QualitySchoolEducation,preparedbytheHongKongTaskGroupon
SchoolQualityandSchoolFundingandtheHongKongEducationCommission,chairedby
ProfessorRosieYoung,November,1996.)
[Ed. Note: Anyone the slightest bit familiar with educational restructuring, Goals 2000, or
school-to-workprogramswillunderstandfromtheaboveexcerpts,theextentoftheinterna-
tionalizationofeducationandtheduplicityofthose—includingthemedia—whodenythat
restructuringisinternational.RudyardKipling’s“EastisEastandWestisWest”hasbeensuc-
cessfullyrepudiatedbythoseinvolvedintrainingtheglobalworkforce.Amoreappropriate
KiplingquotemightbeonefromLondonTruth,reprintedintheMiddlebury,VermontRegister
ofMarch1899,whichfollows:“Pileonyourbrown{white,black,red,pink,yellow}man’s
burdentosatisfyyourgreed.”]
381
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1997
ATLANTICMONTHLY’SJULY1997ISSUECARRIEDTHEARTICLE“THECOMPUTERDELUSION”byTodd
Oppenheimer.Excerptsfollow:
Thereisnogoodevidencethatmostusesofcomputerssigniicantlyimproveteachingand
learning, yet school districts are cutting programs—music, art, physical education—that
enrichchildren’slivestomakeroomforthisdubiousnostrum,andtheClintonAdminis-
trationhasembracedthegoalof“computersineveryclassroom”withcredulousandcostly
enthusiasm....
ThenotedpsychologistB.F.Skinner,referringtotheirstdaysofhis“teachingma-
chines,”inthelate1950sandearly1960swrote,“Iwassoonsayingthat,withthehelpof
teachingmachinesandprogrammedinstruction,studentscouldlearntwiceasmuchinthe
sametimeandwiththesameeffortasinastandardclassroom.”TenyearsafterSkinner’s
recollectionswerepublished,PresidentBillClintoncampaignedfora“bridgetothetwenty-
irstcentury...wherecomputersareasmuchapartoftheclassroomasblackboards.”Clinton
wasnotaloneinhisenthusiasmforaprogramestimatedtocostsomewherebetween$40
billionand$100billionoverthenextiveyears.SpeakeroftheHouseNewtGingrich,talk-
ingaboutcomputerstotheRepublicanNationalCommitteeearlythisyear,said,“Wecould
dosomuchtomakeeducationavailabletwenty-fourhoursaday,sevendaysaweek,that
peoplecouldliterallyhaveawholedifferentattitudetowardlearning.”...Inapolltakenearly
lastyearU.S.teachersrankedcomputerskillsandmediatechnologyasmore“essential”
thanthestudyofEuropeanhistory,biology,chemistry,andphysics;thandealingwithsocial
problemssuchasdrugsandfamilybreakdown;thanlearningpracticaljobskills;andthan
readingmodernAmericanwriterssuchasSteinbeckandHemingwayorclassiconessuch
asPlatoandShakespeare....
Interestingly,shopclassesandieldtripsaretwoprogramsthattheNationalinformation
InfrastructureAdvisoryCouncil,theClintonAdministration’stechnologytaskforce,suggests
reducinginordertoshiftresourcesintocomputers.Butaretheseresultswhattechnology
promotersreallyintend?“Youneedtoapplycommonsense,”EstherDyson,thepresidentof
EDventureHoldingsandoneofthetaskforce’sleadingschooladvocates,toldmerecently,
“Shopwithagoodteacherprobablyisworthmorethancomputerswithalousyteacher.
Butifit’sapoorprogram,thismayprovideagoodexcuseforcuttingit.Therewillbealot
oftrialsanderrorswiththis.AndIdon’tknowhowtopreventthoseerrors.”55Theissue,
perhapsisthemagnitudeoftheerrors.
Alan Lesgold, a professor of psychology and the associate director of the Learning
ResearchandDevelopmentCenterattheUniversityofPittsburgh,callsthecomputeran
“ampliier,”becauseitencouragesbothenlightenedstudypracticesandthoughtlessones.
There’sarealrisk,though,thatthethoughtlesspracticeswilldominate,slowlydumbing
downhugenumbersoftomorrow’sadults.AsSherryTurkle,aprofessorofthesociologyof
scienceattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyandalongtimeobserverofchildren’s
use of computers, told me, “The possibilities of using this thing poorly so outweigh the
chanceofusingitwell,itmakespeoplelikeus,whoarefundamentallyoptimisticabout
computers,veryreticent.”...
Clifford Stoll, the author of Silicon Snake Oil: Second Thoughts on the Information
Highway(1995),toldTheNewYorkTimeslastyear,recallinghisownschooldaysinthe
1960s,“Welovedthembecausewedidn’thavetoteach,andparentslovedthembecauseit
showedtheirschoolswerehigh-tech.Butnolearninghappened.”...
Reading programs get particularly bad reviews. One small but carefully controlled
studywentsofarastoclaimthatReaderRabbit,areadingprogramnowusedinmorethan
100,000schools,causedstudentstosuffera50percentdropincreativity.(Apparently,after
forty-ninestudentsusedtheprogramforsevenmonths,theywerenolongerabletoanswer
382
open-endedquestionsandshowedamarkedlydiminishedabilitytobrainstormwithluency
andoriginality.)
Whatabouthardsciences,whichseemsowellsuitedtocomputerstudy?Logo,the
high-proileprogramminglanguagereinedbySeymourPapertandwidelyusedinmiddle
andhighschools,fosteredhugehopeofexpandingchildren’scognitiveskills.Asstudents
directedthecomputertobuildthings,suchasgeometricshapes,Papertbelieved,theywould
learn“proceduralthinking,”similartothewayacomputerprocessesinformation.According
toanumberofstudies,however,Logohasgenerallyfailedtodeliveronitspromises....
JudahSchwartz[aphysicist],aprofessorofeducationatHarvardandaco-directorof
theschool’sEducationalTechnologyCenter,toldmethatafewnewerapplications,when
usedproperly,candramaticallyexpandchildren’smathandsciencethinkingbygivingthem
newtoolsto“makeandexploreconjectures.”Still,Schwartzacknowledgesthatperhaps
“ninety-ninepercentoftheeducationalprogramsareterrible,reallyterrible.”...
Opinionsdivergeinpartbecauseresearchonthebrainisstillsosketchy,andcom-
putersaresonew,thattheeffectofcomputersonthebrainremainsagreatmystery.“Idon’t
thinkweknowanythingaboutit,”HarryChugani,apediatricneurobiologistatWayneState
University,toldme.Thisveryignorancemakesskepticswary.“Nobodyknowshowkids’
internalwiringworks,”CliffordStollwroteinSiliconSnakeOil,“butanyonewho’sdirected
awayfromsocialinteractionshasaheadstartonturningoutweird....Nocomputercanteach
whatawalkthroughapineforestfeelslike.Sensationhasnosubstitute.”...
InSiliconSnakeOilMichaelFellows,acomputerscientistattheUniversityofVictoria,
inBritishColumbia,wasevenblunter.“Mostschoolswouldprobablybebetteroffifthey
threwtheircomputersintotheDumpster.”...Theproblemisthattechnologyleadersrarely
includetheseorotherwarningsintheirrecommendations.WhenIaskedDysonwhythe
Clintontaskforceproceededwithsuchfervor,despitetheclassroomcomputer’sshortcomings,
shesaid,“It’ssocleartheworldischanging.”
[Ed.Note:“Theworldischanging”istheresponsechangeagentsaretrainedtousewhen
confrontedbycommonsensetaxpayerswhoaskwhydumbprojectsarebeingfunded.The
writercan’tpossiblyrecallthenumberoftimesherchangeagentsuperintendentresponded
withthoseexactwords!Thereadercanrightfullyaccusethewriterofthisbookofananti-
computerbiasandofselectivityinchoosingquotestoproveherpoint.Istand“guilty”on
allcounts.Thoseinterestedincomputer-assistedinstructionshouldgetacopyoftheabove
articlesotheywillnotbeoverlyinluencedbythiswriter’sselectionofquotes.]
ANARTICLEENTITLED“‘REAL-LIFE’SCHOOLELIMINATESBOOKS”APPEAREDINTHESEPtember1,
1997issueofTheWashingtonTimes.ThearticlerevealstheextenttowhichAmericanpublic
schoolsaredoingawaywithbooks.
WALKERSVILLE,MD—Third-graderBillyHornhadamathproblemhismothercouldn’thelp
solve,sosheaskedforthesource.
“Isaid,‘Where’syourbook?’andhesaid,‘Theydon’thavebooks,’”JoanHornsaid.
Likemostpeopleschooledinthe1960sand1970s,Mrs.Hornassumedherchildren
wouldlearntheirlessonsasshedid,fromheavybookswithproblemsattheendofeach
chapter.
Buttextbooksplayasmallerrole,evenaminorone,inmoderneducation.
“We’retryingtomakeschoollookmorelikereal-lifeexperiencesandhaveassignments
thatareintriguingandcaptivatingandproblem-solving,”saidJeromeStrum,Billy’sprincipal
atGladeElementary.
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1997 383
ONSEPTEMBER24,1997TEXASCHRISTIANALERTNETWORK(TCAN) ISSUED A MEMOentitled
“CommunismComestoTexasPublicEducation.”TCANhadreceivedthefollowingexcerpted
analyticalsummarybyChrisPatterson,reseacher,oftheTexasversionofthenationalschool-
to-worklegislation.Theirstparagraphofthealertwarnedthat:
Thisnationallymandatedprogramwilldifferverylittlefromonestatetoanothersopersons
inallstatesshouldreadthefollowingverycarefullyanddecidewhetheryouwantthefed-
eralgovernmenttohaveabsolutecontrolofyourchildandhis/hercareer,fromthecradle
tothegrave.
TEXASSCHOOL-TO-WORKSYSTEM
byChrisPatterson
Introduction
InNovember1996,Texasreceiveda$61milliondollarfederalgranttoimplementaSchool-
to-Work(STW)system.Withthisgrant,Texasjoinedthegroupof36stateswhichparticipate
inanationalworkforcedevelopmentprogram.Thenationalprogramisdesigned,regulated
andinitiallyfundedbythefederalgovernment.Theobjectiveofthisprogramistocoordinate
workforcedevelopmentwitheconomic,educationalandwelfareplanswithinandbetween
statesofournation.STWintroduces“majorchangesoraradicaltransformationofthepur-
pose,contentandstructureofpublicschools.”
KeyComponentsofSTW
EmployerneedsandskillstandardsdriveSTWascurriculumandinstructionalpracticesare
modiiedtopreparestudentstoenterthelocalworkforce….
Academic education and vocational instruction are fully integrated. Curriculum is
founded upon performance-based standards. Academic subjects incorporate instruction
relatedtopersonalandcareergoals.Bothworkandschool-basedinstructionaredesigned
accordingtolocalworkforceneeds.“AllstudentswillengageinSTW.”...
Studentswillbepreparedfor,certiiedandplacedinpost-secondaryeducationorjobs
whichreducemismatchesbetweenstudents/educationandeducation/workplace,incorpo-
rating:
• Careerawarenesskindergartenthrough6thgrade.
• Choiceofcareerpathwaybynolaterthan8thgrade.
• Work-basedlearningwhichincludesmentorship,job-shadowing,volunteerservice,
school-basedenterprise,apprenticeship,internshipandpaidworkexperience.
• Students will be required to acquire the following as conditions for graduation:
certiicatesofinitialand/oradvancedmastery.
• Workplacecompetenciesandpaidworkexperienceincareerield.
• Statutoryrequirementswillbeestablishedforschoolstoadoptblockscheduling.
• Healthandhumanserviceswillbeintegratedwithschoolandwork-basedlearn-
ing.
• Anelectronicdatatrackingsystemwillbedevelopedforallstudents.
TheonlyelectedoficialresponsibleforSTWgovernanceistheGovernorofTexas.The
TexasSkillsStandardsBoardrecommendsstandardsandcertiicationtotheTexasCouncil
onWorkforce&EconomicCompetitiveness....
TheCouncilexercisesstatutoryauthoritytodevelop,maintainandenforceSTW....
TheCouncildelegatesauthoritytotheTexasWorkforceCommissiontodirectactivi-
384
tiesofparticipatingorganizations,including:theTexasEducationAgency,HigherEducation
Board,HumanServices,RehabilitationCommission,CommerceDepartment,Commission
fortheBlind,National&CommunityServices,andVeteransEducation.TheTexasWorkforce
Commissiongovernstwenty-eightLocalWorkforceDevelopmentBoardswhichdirectlocal
implementationofSTW....
ProponentsofSTWClaim:
TheobjectivesofSTWaretoprovidestudentswith:
• Rigorousacademics;
• Opportunityforhighlyskilled,highly-paidjobs;
• ParticipationinSTWisoptionalforbothstudentsandbusinesses.
OpponentsofSTWClaim:
Academicsaredilutedandacademicachievementwilldecreasebecause:
• Curriculumstandardsareperformance-oroutcomes-based;
• Academiclearningisdisplacedbypersonal,socialandworkplacecompetencyin-
struction;
• Blockschedulingresultsinlesscoursecontentandlowertestscores;
• AbilityGrouping(includingHonorsCourses)whichincreasesstudentachievement
isprohibited;
• Traditionalliberalartseducationisreplacedbyvocationaltraining;
• Studentswillbeidentiiedandtrainedforlowskill,lowpayjobs.Lessthan15%of
workforcerequiresaBachelor’sDegree;
• Leading5targetedoccupationsidentifycashiers,janitors/cleaners,salesclerksand
registerednurses;
• Participationisnotfullyvoluntary—thestateispursuinglegislationtomakeSTW
aconditionofgraduation.
Vocationalandacademicinstructionareintegrated;studentsarenotprovidedanop-
portunitytoselectacademiccourseworkwhichisnotintegrated.Privatesectorfundingis
requiredtosupportSTW(matchingfundsof$20millionwillberequiredin1997andwill
increasetoaprojected$45millionin2001).AccordingtotheSTWgrantproposal,Texashas
noimmediateplanstotaxbusinessestoforceparticipationasisdoneinEurope,butareas
willberequiredtoraiseprivatefunds.
STWPosesTroublingQuestions:
• Shouldthegovernmentdirectthedevelopmentofcurriculum,implementationof
instructionalpracticesandestablishmentofadatacollectionsystemforschools?
• Shouldthegovernmentthroughschoolsidentify,train,certifyandplaceworkers?
• Should educational policies be established without the authority of state school
boards,localdistrictboardsandlegislators?
• Should the purpose, structure and means of public education be “transformed”
withoutpublicdebateandconsent?
• Shouldthegovernmentestablishanationalplanforeconomicmanagement?
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1997 385
ONOCTOBER14,1997 THECENTER OF THEAMERICANEXPERIMENTBREAKFAST ANDLUNcheon
ForumSeriesofMinneapolis,MinnesotahelditsmeetingattheRadissonPlazaHotel.Thelyer
announcedtheappearanceofChesterE.Finn,Jr.,whowouldspeakon“ReformingEduca-
tion—WhyDoBadThingsHappentoGoodIdeas?”Excerptsfromthelyerread:
JoinusforanAmericanExperimentBreakfastForumatwhichChesterE.Finn,Jr.,discusses
whyconservativelyinspiredschoolreformsfrequentlygetmorphedintoanti-intellectualand
statistmush.Whyarebasicallygoodideassuchasoutcomes-basededucationandnational
standardsoftenturnedupsidedownbyeducationalestablishmentarians?Whatdoesthis
trackrecordportendforschoolchoice?Howcanfuturehijackingsbeaverted?Dr.Finnis
presidentoftheThomasB.FordhamFoundationandalsoservesasJohnM.OlinFellowat
theHudsonInstitute.Quitelikelythenation’smostproliiceducationcritic,heistheauthor
ofashelfofbooksandwritesregularlyforTheWallStreetJournal,Commentaryandother
publications.
[Ed.Note:ThelyerconvenientlyomittedthefactthatChesterFinnwasoneofthearchitects
ofPresidentGeorgeBush’sAmerica2000,whichisthefoundationdocumentforPresident
Clinton’sGoals2000“real”conservativessothoroughlydetest.Theauthorincludesthisin-
formationregardingFinnasproofthatthedialectic(rightvs.leftmeetingattheradicalcen-
ter)hasbeenaccomplished.The“neo-conservatives”haveseizedthehighground,andare
developingandsupportingsocialistprogramsinitiallyproposedbytheliberals.Anexample
beingthelyerstatement“basicallygoodideassuchas‘outcomes-basededucation,’”whichis
shockingcomingfromasupposedly“conservative”organizationandspeaker.Theexceptions
arechoice,vouchers,magnet/charterschools,whichgivetheappearanceoforiginatingwith
conservatives—whichwillalsotrackyourchildintoapreplannedfuture.Thisalien(socialist)
concept is, however, supported by the multinational corporations, foundations, education
unionleadership,andinstitutionalizededucationalresearchanddevelopmentchangeagents
forglobalworkforcetrainingpurposes.
Asanexampleoftheabovecollaborationtowardglobalworkforcetrainingtakingthe
placeofeducation,pleasereferbacktothe1976entryforNEA’s“CardinalPrinciplesRevisited,
1976,”whichincludedonitspanel:DavidRockefeller,ChaseManhattanBank;McGeorgeBundy,
FordFoundation;FrancoisBlanchard,SyndicatNationaldesEnseignementsdeSecondDegre
(France);LesterBrown,WorldwatchInstitute;WillisHarman,StanfordResearchInstitute;Fred
Jarvis,NationalUnionofTeachers(England);SallySwingShelley,UnitedNations;SirWalter
Perry,TheOpenUniversity(England);andJoeH.Foy,HoustonNaturalGasCo.Theauthorhas
selectedtheabove,primarilynon-educatorindividuals,fromalengthylisttohelpthereader
understandhowtheeducationestablishmentattheverytopis“inbedwith,”ormorelikely
controlledby,leadinginternationalthinktanksandmultinationalcorporations.
TheauthorwouldalsoliketopointoutthattheAmericanExperimentorganizationin
Minnesotaisanotherstateafiliateoftheneo-conservativeHeritageFoundation.]
“CLINTONCHARMGETSRIOWORKOUT”WASTHETITLEOFANARTICLEFORTHENEWS&Observer
ofRaleigh,NorthCarolinaonOctober16,1997.Excerptfollows:
Bystressingtheimportanceofeducation,ClintonidentiiedapassionsharedbyhisBrazil-
ianhost,PresidentFernandoHenriqueCardoso,auniversityprofessorwhohasearmarked
aportionoftheunexpectedearningsfromBrazil’smassiveprivatizationprojecttoimprove
386
publicschools.Thetwogovernmentsagreedtoa“partnershipforeducation”inwhichthe
UnitedStateswillhelpBrazildevelopstandardizedtestingofitspublicschools’performance,
U.S.andBrazilianclassroomswillbelinkedbycomputer,andacommissionwillbeset
uptooverseeanewstudentexchangeprogramandpromoteprivatesectorinvestmentsin
schools.
H.R.2614,THEREADINGEXCELLENCEACT,PASSEDTHEU.S.HOUSEOFREPRESENTATIVESinNo-
vemberof1997.56FortheirsttimeinU.S.historylegislationhasbeenpassedwhichmandates
aparticularmethodofteaching.Excerptsfromtheabstractofthelegislationfollow:
SELECTIONOFREADINGANDLITERACYGRANTAPPLICATIONS
ApplicationsfromReadingandLiteracyPartnershipswillgototheSecretaryofEducation,
whowouldforwardthemtoaPeerReviewPanelforinitialapproval.ThePeerReviewPanel
willconsistofexpertsintheieldofreadingwhoareappropriatetoevaluatesuchgrant
applications.MemberswouldbeselectedbytheNationalInstituteforLiteracy(NIFL)in
consultationwiththeNationalResearchCouncil(NRC,adivisionoftheNationalAcademy
ofSciences);theChildDevelopmentandBehaviorBranch(CDBB)oftheNationalInstitutes
ofHealth;andtheSecretaryofEducation.NIFL,NRC,CDBBandtheSecretarywouldalso
bemembersofthePeerReviewPanel.Aprioritywouldbegiventoapplicationsfromstates
thathavemodiiedorplantomodifystateteachercertiicationintheareaofreadingtorelect
reliable,replicableresearchonreading....Inselectinganapplicant,theReadingandLiteracy
PartnershipmustgiveprioritytosubgranteesthatformapartnershipwithalocalHeadStart
programoracommunity-basedorganization(CBO)workingwithchildrentoimprovetheir
readingskills,orstateorfederallyfundedpreschoolprogramsorfamilyliteracyprograms.
INFORMATIONDISSEMINATION
TheNationalInstituteforLiteracywouldheaduptheefforttodisseminateinformationon
reliable,replicableresearchonreadingtoallrecipientsofFederalinancialassistanceunder
ESEA,HeadStart,IDEA,andtheAdultEducationAct.Indoingso,NIFLwouldbuildupon
applicableinformationnetworkscurrentlyinexistenceincludingOERI(OficeofEducational
ResearchandImprovement,U.S.DepartmentofEducation)andthoseestablishedbystates
andprivatesectorentities.Thepanelmayassistanyreadingandliteracypartnershipsto
determinewhetherapplicationsforsubgrantsmeettherequirementsofthisActrelatingto
reliable,replicableresearchonreading.
AUTHORIZATION
Therewouldbeatotalof$260millionavailableforthisAct.Formoredetailedinformation,
visittheworldwidewebathttp://www.house.gov/eeo/.
[Ed.Note:Legislatingaparticularmethodtoteachreadingwouldneverhavebeenpossible
hadtheHegelianDialecticnotbeenused.WorkforcetrainingrequiresthatSkinnerianoperant
conditioning(programmedlearning)beimplementedintheschools.Theonlywaytogetthat
methodacceptedwas:
(1)Createtheproblem:introduceWholeLanguagewhichisguaranteedtohinderchildren’s
abilitytolearntoreadandcausesparentstoscreamforasolution—anysolution!
(2)Rightonschedule,thesocialchangeagentsrespondedwithapredeterminedsolution
whichnecessitatedtheuseofSkinneriandirectinstruction(programmedlearning)to
teachreading.
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1997 387
Little have parents realized that Skinnerian direct instruction and Skinnerian mastery
learningareidenticaltwinswithverybadtrackrecordswhichcausedWilliamSpadyetal.to
renamethem“Outcome-BasedEducation”intheearly1980s.
InordertoassurepassageofTheReadingExcellenceAct,DouglasCarnine,Ph.D.,director
oftheFollowThroughDirectInstructionModelintheUniversityofOregon’sDepartmentof
SpecialEducationwhichisassociatedwiththeNationalCentertoImprovetheToolsofEdu-
cators(NCITE)fundedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducation’sOficeofSpecialEducation,sent
aletterto“ConcernedFriends”requestingtheylobbyforpassageofH.R.2614.Theauthor
has deliberately emphasized the word “special” in special education because the fact that
direct instruction programs are designed for special education students should not be lost
onthereader,sinceallstudents—notjustthoseneedingspecialeducation—willbeexposed
tothedirectinstructionprocessandtheSkinnerianoperantconditioningmethod.(Formore
informationregardingdirectinstruction,pleaserefertoAppendixII,III,VI,XVII,XX,XXI,
XXV,andXXVI.)
ThefollowingcritiqueofDISTAR,Engelmann’sDirectInstructionspecialeducationpro-
gram,byaspecialeducationteacherinFloridashouldserveasawarningforthosewhodo
notunderstandtheimplicationsofusingspecialeducationprogramsonallchildren.57The
teacherpointsoutthatDISTARwas:
1.Developedforteachingtheseverelyimpaired(retardationandneurologicallyim-
paired).
2.NOTsuitableEVERforregulareducation.
3.Ispolitical“goosestepping”—grouptraining.
4.Purely“mechanical”system—“authoritarian.”
5.ForNORMALintelligencetoSUPERIORintelligence—aDISASTER.Teacherpounds
away(scripted);childrenbecomebored;“frigidity”setsinandchildrentuneout.
Becomethenextbehaviorproblems[emphasisinoriginal].
6.Wewouldbedeliberatelycreatingbehavioral(mental)dropouts.
Youcanteach(theteachers)DISTARintwodays(“mechanistic”).Teachersdon’thavetoknow
anythingaboutlanguagedevelopment.“Elcheapo”responsetowholelanguagedebacle.]
BARBARACROSSETEWROTEANARTICLE,“HOWTOFIXACROWDEDWORLD:ADDPEOPLE,”pub-
lishedinTheNewYorkTimesonSunday,November2,1997,whichtookarefreshinglydifferent
positiononthesubjectofpopulationcontrolthanthattakenbymostjournalistswritingfor
themajorprintmedia.Someexcerptsfollow:
Inthe200yearssinceThomasMalthuspublishedhisEssayonthePrincipleofPopu-
lationandthrewascareintothehumanraceaboutthelimitsoftheearth’sresources,people
everywherehavebeenasking:Aretheretoomanyofus?
Thisweek,leadingdemographersfromaroundtheworldwillmeetheretofretovera
revolutionarynewfear:Willtheresoonbetoofewofus?...
…Butfordemographers,theproblemlatelyisnotabsolutenumbersofpeopleandtheir
pressuresontheenvironmentandnaturalresources.Nowtheexpertsareworriedaboutwhat
happenswhenpopulationgrowthslowsinalotofplacesorevenstopsentirelyordeclinesin
some.Fertilityratesinmanyplacesaredroppingrapidly,especiallyintherichestcountries,
where,toputitsimply,anytwopeoplearenotproducingtwomorepeople.
388
If this trend continues it could have far-reaching consequences, demographers say.
Whenmoreandmoreoftheworld’smosthighlyindustrializedandeconomicallyproduc-
tivenationsdonotreplenishtheirnumbers,theirroleasenginesofglobalgrowth—bothas
producersandconsumersofgoods—isthrownintodoubt.
“Thesedevelopedcountrieshaveaparticularlyimportantrolebecausetheyprovidea
greatdealoftheeconomicleadershipandsocialleadership,”saidJosephChamie,director
oftheUnitedNationspopulationdivision,whichorganizedtheconferencethisweek.
“Therearebasicallytheproducernations,theconsumernationsandthedonornations,”
hesaid.“Chinatodayisexportingtowhom?BasicallytotheUnitedStatesandEurope,and
that’shelpingtheChineseeconomy.Europealoneconsumesagreatdealandproducesa
greatdeal.Iftheystartshrinkingtherewillbeareadjustment,anditwillbeglobalinits
impact.Itwillaffecttheentireworldeconomy.”
Unlikedipsinpopulationgrowththroughouthistory,thisslide—whichbeganinthe
1960’s—wasnotcausedbyanaturaloreconomicdisaster,awarorplagues.Thereisno
BlackDeathtoblame,noWorldWarI,noGreatDepression.Thisdeclineiswidespread.It
issteady.Andwhilenodemographerwouldsaythatpredictionsareinfallible—prognostica-
torshavesurelybeenwrong.
[Ed.Note:WhileCrossetttellsthereaderwhatdidn’tcausetheslideinpopulationgrowth,
sheneglectstopointoutthatRoev.Wade,whichlegalizedabortion,waslargelyreponsiblefor
theslideintheUSA.Foranunderstandingoftheresultsofpopulationplanningintheearly
1970s,pleaserefertotheApril6,1971entryonthe“RevisedReportofPopulationSubcom-
mittee”inLansing,Michigan.]
FORMERVICEPRESIDENTDANQUAYLEJUMPEDONTHEPUBLIC-PRIVATEPARTNERSHIPBANDwagon,
extendingittoincludethegovernmentandchurches“dancingtogether”tohelpthelessfor-
tunateinoursociety,asreportedintheNovember13,1997issueofThe(Louisville,Kentucky)
CourierJournal.Thefollowingaresomeexcerptsfrom“QuayleBacksChurch-Government
Partnerships”:
Soundinglikeapreacherandapolitician,formerVicePresidentDanQuayletoldabout
5,000peopleinLouisvillelastnightthatthegovernmentshouldusechurchesandother
“faith-basedinstitutions”toadministerhelptothepoor,thehomeless,theabusedandthe
neglected....
Hesaideveryonesupportstheconceptofchurch-stateseparation,but“TheConstitution
protectsreligionfromgovernment.It’snottheotherwayaround.”...
Hetoldthemthatinner-citychurchesmustbecomepartnerswiththegovernmentto
ightcrime,delivernutritionandrestorefamilyvalues,saidJeffersonCountyRepublican
PartyChairmanBillStone,whoarrangedthemeetingandattendeditwithQuayle.
[Ed.Note:Mr.Quayle,haveyoubeenlivingunderarockeversince1965whentheElementary
andSecondaryEducationActpassedandallthegovernment’svalues-destroyingeducation
programsandmethodsbecameapartofourlocalschools’curriculum?Mr.Quayle,didyou
understandtheintrusive,far-reachingeffectsofAmerica2000developedbytheadministration
forwhichyouservedasVicePresident?]
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998 389
1998
THEAMERICANINSTITUTEFORCHARACTEREDUCATION(AICE),ALEADINGDEVELOPEROFcharacter
educationmaterials,fundedbygrantsfromtheLillyEndowmentaswellasotherfoundations
andbestknownforitsdevelopmentofmaterialsfortheThomasJeffersonResearchCenter’s
controversialcharactereducationprogram,transferreditsassetstoLearningforLifein1998.
Information downloaded from Learning for Life’s website reveals that Learning for Life is
extendingAICE’scurriculumdevelopmenteffortsintotheareaof“school-to-careers”(school-
to-work).Oneofitsbrochuresstatesthat:
LearningforLifecanprovidethebasisforoperatingandmeetingthegoalsoftheSchool-to-
WorkOpportunitiesActof1994.TheActhasthreebasiccomponentsthatareusedtoaccom-
plishitsgoals:school-basedlearning,connectingactivities,andwork-basedlearning.
BeforeaSchool-to-Careersprogramisdeveloped,anassessmentisconductedtode-
terminepreciselyhowtheLearningforLifeprogramcanhelptheschoolorschoolsystem
helpthestudentsaddressthetransitionfromschooltocareers.Onlyafterthisisdonecan
aprogrambedesignedtohelpmeettheschool’sneeds.
LearningforLifewillbecomeacatalystforestablishingrelationshipsbetweencom-
munity-basedorganizations,includingbothfor-proitandnot-for-proitorganizations,and
thelocalschooldistrict,selectedschools,andstudents….
SomeofLearningforLife’sconnectingactivitiesarelistedas:
• Camps,retreats,conferencesandworkshops
• COPE courses, with team building, leadership, self-reliance, respect for self and
others,andself-esteem
• Community-wideserviceprojects,suchasfooddrives,crimepreventionprograms,
andservicelearning
• Program resources, such as leadership development workshops and scholarship
opportunities
• EthicsinActioninExploring:Fivecomponentsthatassistwiththedevelopmentof
ethicaldecision-making.
[Ed.Note:Thelast“connectingactivity”listedinLearningforLife’smaterialsshouldbeofpar-
ticularconcernforparentsupsetovertheThomasJeffersonResearchCenterCurriculum.]
IN1998THEEUROPEANCOMMISSIONDIRECTORATEGENERALOFEDUCATION,TRAININGandYouth
inBrussels,BelgiumannouncedtheavailabilityoftheirLeonardodaVinciProgrammeCo-
operationinHigherEducationandVocationalEducationDocumententitled“Cooperationin
HigherEducationandVocationalEducationandTrainingbetweentheEuropeanCommunity
and the United States of America—Third Call for Proposals. Launching Date: 17 February
1998.”ExcerptsfromtheannouncementtakenfromtheInternetfollow:
On23October1995,theCounciladoptedadecisionconcerningtheconclusionofanagree-
ment for cooperation in higher education and vocational training between the European
CommunityandtheUnitedStatesofAmerica.TheCooperationProgrammeaimstoadda
new European Community/United States dimension to student-centered cooperation and
390
bringbalancedbeneitstoboththeEuropeanCommunityandtheUnitedStates.
Transatlanticcooperativeactivitieseligibleforsupportare:
• Development of organisational frameworks for transatlantic student mobility, in-
cludingworkplacements,whichwillprovideadequatelanguagepreparationand
fullacademicrecognition;
• Jointdevelopmentofinnovativecurricula,teachingmaterials,methodsandmodules
includingthoseexploitingtheneweducationtechnologies;
• Other innovative projects, including the use of new technologies and distance
learning,whichaimtoimprovethequalityandcost-effectivenessoftransatlantic
cooperationinhighereducationandvocationaleducationandtraining.
ECUMENICALNEWSINTERNATIONAL’SNEWSHIGHLIGHTS(LONDON-ENI) OFFEBRUARY19,1998
reportedthattheWorldBankandtheworld’sfaithspromisetoworktogether:“TheWorld
Bankandtheworld’smajorreligions[agreed]toestablishjointworkinggroupsondevelopment
issues,itwasannouncedattheendofahigh-level,two-daydialogueatLambethPalace.”
THENEWYORKTIMESOPEDPAGECARRIEDANEDITORIALINITSMAY5,1998EDITIONentitled
“TheNewWorldOrder”byA.M.Rosenthal.Mr.Rosenthalputintoperspectivethevalues
dilemmafacingthosewhobeneitfromtradewithnationsnotcommittedtothetraditional
deinitionofhumanrights.Excerptsfollow:
APRIL30—U.S.approvesanother$1billioninaidtoIndonesiaaspartoftheinternational
$40billioneconomicbailout.PresidentSuhartorefusestobreakupthemultibillion-dollar
monopoliescontrolledbyhimself,hisfamilyandfriends.Hesaysnopoliticalreformsuntil
2003,atearliest.Policebreakupstudentprotests.
• May1—WashingtonTimesandA.P.sayC.I.A.reportsChinahasnuclearmissiles
targetedatU.S.
• May3—PresidentClinton’sJunevisittoChinawillincludewelcomeceremoniesat
TiananmenSquare.WashingtonpreparingtoallowU.S.companiestosellnuclear
reactorstoChina.
• May4—HumanrightsworkersreportcontinuedoppressioninChinaandIndonesia;
moreexecutionsinChinathaninalltherestoftheworld.
TheU.S.,itsdemocraticalliesandmajordictatorshipsarerapidlybuildinganewworld
order—notquiteinishedyet,butalreadyacentralpartofinternationallifeandvalues.
Itsideology,powers,rewardsandpunishmentsaresupplantingthosethatprevailed
internationallyuntil1994,whenPresidentClintonjoinedtheneworder.Ifitcontinues,it
willbethemostimportantnewinternationalconceptsincetheendofWorldWarII.
Theorderwascreatedwithoutformalparliamentaryapprovalbyitssponsors,orany
treaty.Buteveryweek,sometimeseveryday,theunderlyingtenetsarerevealed,inaction.
Seeabove.
Thefollowingdescriptionofobjectivesandgoalsoftheneworderissodifferentfrom
principlesrecentlyassumedintheWest,thoughnotalwaysfollowed,thatitmayreadas
satire.Itisnot.
Thefundamentalchange,demandedbythedictatorshipsandagreedtoinpracticeby
391
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998
thedemocracies,isthattheinternalpoliciesofpersecutionbytherulers,andtherightsof
thegoverned,arenotaprimarymoraloreconomicconsiderationoftheworld.
Thedemocracies,underthesevalues,canprotestsomeinternalactsofthedictator-
ships—tortureandsuch.Buttheymustdosoquietly,notallowingtheseacts,orofteneven
securityinterests,todamagethenewoverridingvalueofthedemocraticleaders.
That value is the trade and investment with the dictatorships that the democracies
believeimportanttotheirnationaleconomies—whicharesometimescalledjobs,butusually
interpretedascorporateproit.
In exchange, dictatorships allow democracies to invest and trade in enterprises the
capitalistsconsiderproitabletotheircorporatestrength,althoughnotnecessarilytotheir
ownemployeesorthenationaleconomichealthoftheircountries.
Ifthedictatorships,orauthoritariangovernmentsassomeareknownmorepleasantly,
indtheireconomiescollapsingthroughthecorruptiongenerictosuchsocieties,theInter-
nationalMonetaryFundandindividualdemocraciesrushtoarrivewithbailout.
Theexplanationgivenisthatotherwisethedictatorships’economieswoulddisintegrate,
bringingrevolution.Now,thepeopleofthedictatorshipsmaylongforrevolution.Obviously
thatcannotbeallowedtoovercomesavingthedictatorshipandthusrescuingthemoney
investedbynationalsofdemocracies.
Acceptingthesevalues,theeventsdescribedabovebecomeunderstandableandeven
neatlylogical.
TheIndonesiandictator,forinstance,wasinstalledbythearmy33yearsagoandhas
beeninpowereversince.Nowheneedsscoresofbillionswithwhichtoovercomehisown
ineptitudeandfamilycorruption,anddotherightthingbyhisforeigninvestors.Whocan
denyhim?
TheU.S.getstosellstrategicmaterialtoChina,offeringasanextraavisittoChina
bytheU.S.PresidenttohonortheCommunistleadersandexpandtheirpowerandpolitical
lifespan.
Religiousandpoliticalmavericksinthetotalitarianpartnershipofthenewworldorder
getprison,ordeath,oftenboth.
Thepressofthedemocraciesgetstowritestoriesaboutthegrowthoforderinthe
newworldorder.Othercitizensofthedemocraciesgettosaycostsofimportedgoodsare
down:hownice.
AmericansandEuropeansmaycometoobjectforpoliticalormoralreasons,orbecause
thenewworldordermayafterallcostthemtheirjobs.Buttheywillneverbeabletosay
theyneverknew;seeabove.
THEBOSTONGLOBECARRIEDANARTICLEENTITLED“SUSPICIONSABOUTTHESTATEWIDETests”by
JeffJacobyintheMay7,1998issue.Thearticlecontainedsuchgoodinformationthatmuch
ofitisincludedhere:
IwasgoingtowriteacolumnexpressingmyreservationsabouttheMCAS,a15-hour-
longseriesoftestsnowbeingadministeredtofourth-,eighth-,andtenth-gradersinevery
Massachusettspublicschool.Iwasgoingtopointoutthatforalltheinkandairtimebeing
devotedtotheMassachusettsComprehensiveAssessmentSystem,asit’sformallycalled,
littleisactuallyknownaboutit.Iwasevengoingtosuggestthatwithalltheuneasyques-
tionstheMCASraises,parentsoughttoexercisetheirlegalrighttokeeptheirchildrenfrom
takingit.
392
Foronething,IwasgoingtocallattentiontothespottyrecordofAdvancedSystems,
theDover,N.H.,companyhiredtodeviseandgradethe210,000testsbeingadministered
thismonth.AdvancedSystemslostits$32millioncontractwiththeStateofKentuckyafter
botchingthescoresofmorethan1,000elementaryandmiddleschools.Thestatelaunched
whatthemagazineEducationWeekcalled“asweepingaudit”ofthecompany’sperformance,
scrutinizing“howthemistakecouldhavegoneundetectedformanymonths.”
Kentuckywasn’ttheonlystatewhereAdvancedSystemsfailed.ScoresinMainewere
miscalculated,too.InNewHampshire,skepticismrunssohighthatthestateSenatewants
anelaborateregimenofsupervisionovereveryaspectofAdvancedSystems’operations.Has
thecompanycleanedupitsact,Iwasgoingtoask,orisMassachusettsalsogoingtowind
upwithshoddyandunreliabledata?
Butincompetentscoringwastheleastofmyconcerns.
Iwasgoingtohighlightthecopycatnatureofthese“assessments.”Otherstateshave
beenadministeringsimilartests,alwayslinkingthemtothefederalGoals2000andSchool-
to-Worklaws,bothofwhichareconsiderablymorecreepyandNew-World-Orderishthan
theirinnocuousnamessuggest.Theveryword“assessment”conveyssomethingbeyond
meremeasurementofacademicachievement.Parentsinstateafterstatehavediscoveredthat
theirkidsarebeingevaluatednotjustontheirknowledgeoflanguage,math,andscience,
butonwhattheythink,howtheybehave,andthewaytheywereraised.
WouldtheMCAS,Iwasgoingtowonder,beasfulloffuzzyPCquestionson“feelings”
and“attitudes”astestselsewherehavebeen?Ifnot,whyhaveoficialsbalkedatasimple
amendmenttothe1993EducationReformActprovidingthattheMCAS“shallbedesigned
toavoidthegatheringormeasuringofindividualstudentattitudes,beliefs,orbehaviors”?
Noone,Iwasgoingtosay,couldobjecttoaclariicationsostraightforward—unlessthe
purposeoftheassessmentsisinfacttoprobestudentsonmattersthatarenoneofthestate’s
concern.
Suchas?Well,thePennsylvaniaEducationalQualityAssessmentinstructedstudents
toreacttostatementslike“IoftenwishIweresomebodyelse”and“Idon’treceivemuch
attentionathome.”Tomeasuretheir“tolerance,”studentswerepresentedwith35situations—
”Yoursisterwantstomarryapersonwhosereligionismuchdifferentfromyoursfromyour
family”[sic],“Youareaskedtositatatablewithretardedstudentsinthelunchroom”—and
askedhowcomfortableoruncomfortableeachwouldmakethem.
TheCaliforniaLearningAssessmentSystemincludedloadedquestionslikethis:“Eu-
ropeanAmericansdiscriminatedagainstChineseimmigrantsbecauseofethnicandcultural
differences.Byyourself,thinkaboutaninstanceofdiscriminationthatyouknowof.Itcould
beasituationinwhichapersonoragroupofpeopleistreatedunfairlybecauseofage,color,
customs,orsomeotherqualityorbelief.Whatcouldbedonetohelpsolvethisproblem?”
Kentuckytoldfourth-graderstoimaginethemselvesIndiansatthetimetheirstpio-
neersarrivedandtowrite“howyouwouldhavefeltwhenyousawthepioneerscutting
downtreesandclearingland.”RhodeIslandgrilledstudentsonhowoftentheylikebeing
inschool(“Never?Sometimes?Always?”),whethertheyarehappywiththemselves“asa
person,”andhowsociallyactivetheirparentsare.
IwasgoingtoquotethesweepingphraseintheMassachusettsed-reformlawthat
empowerstheDepartmentofEducationtoassembleadossieroneachstudentcomprising
“basicdemographicinformation,programandcourseinformation,andsuchotherinformation
asthedepartmentshalldeterminenecessary.”Iwasgoingtodescribetheextraordinaryse-
crecythatsurroundsthesetestsinmanystates.Parentsandschoolcommitteemembersare
forbiddentoseethem,orareallowedtodosoonlyiftheysignnondisclosureagreements.
TheCollegeBoardisn’tsomysteriousaboutitsSATs(eachyearitreleasesthepreviousyear’s
tests).Sowhyaremanystatessofurtiveabouttheir“assessments”?
IdistrusttheMCAS.Iammorethansomewhatskepticalofthemotivesbehinditand
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998 393
wasgoingtowriteacolumnsayingso.
ButIhavebeenpersuadednottojumptoconclusions.Ihavebeenurgedtowaitforthis
irstMCAStoplayitselfout,toseewhetherstudentsreportbeingaskedanythingdubiousor
improper.Ihavebeenremindedthatthisyear’stestswillonlysetabench-mark—thatnot
until2003willthetestsactuallyhaveanimpactonstudents’abilitytograduate.
So,I’llholdmydoubtsinabeyance.Fornow.Icanalwayswritethatcolumnanother
time.
“SOUTHCAROLINATAKESTOHEARTCOACH’SSHOTAT‘HORRIBLE’SCHOOLS”WASANarticlewith
aClemson,SouthCarolinadatelinewhichappearedintheMay15,1998AtlantaJournal-Con-
stitution.Someexcerptsfollow:
EducatorsandpoliticiansscreechedwhentheyheardformerClemsonUniversitybasketball
coachRickBarnessayhewaspackinguphisfamilyandmovingtoAustin,Texasinpart
becauseSouthCarolinaschoolsare“horrible.”...
Eversincethelate1970s,whencurrentU.S.EducationSecretaryRichardRileybecame
governor,educationreformhasbeenatopissueinSouthCarolina.Yet,overnearlytwo
decades,thestatehasremained—alongwithseveralotherSouthernstates—atthebottom
ofnationalrankings....
Moreover,SouthCarolinaschoolsregularlywintheU.S.DepartmentofEducation’s
BlueRibbon,showingexcellenceinstudentachievementandteacherperformance.Three
elementaryschoolsinfast-growingGreenvilleCountywontheawardlastyear.
[Ed.Note:SouthCarolinacanclaimthedubiousdistinctionofhavingbeenthehomestateof
EffectiveSchoolsResearchchangeagentDonaldThomas,promoterofU.S.-Sovietpedagogy
exchanges,andU.S.SecretaryofEducationRichardRiley,formerstateschoolsuperintendent
andgovernorofSouthCarolinaduringtheadoptionphaseofthestate’sOBE/school-to-work
experiments.Theabovearticleismosttellinginthatitprovesthatthesouthernstateswhich
adopted the late Professor Ron Edmonds’s Effective Schools Research and its components
(masterylearning/directinstruction/outcome-basededucation/cooperativelearning,etc.,etc.)
inthemid-1970shavethelowesttestscoresinthenation.ThephilosophybehindEffective
SchoolResearch,that“allchildrencanlearnifprovidedwiththenecessary‘environment’and
enoughtime”isnomore,nolessthantheoutcome-basededucationphilosophywhichhas
by1998beenimplemented“inallschoolsofthenation.”HowcanSouthCarolinahavethe
lowesttestscoresandwinBlueRibbons?
TheEffectiveSchoolReport,thejournalfromwhichthiswriterhasfrequentlyquoted—and
theoneandonlyjournalwhichconsistentlydealswithOBE,TQM,EffectiveSchools,etc.—
wasborninJackson,Mississippiintheearly1980s.FormerSecretaryofEducationT.H.Bell
servedontheboardofdirectorsofitsparentcompany,Kelwynn,Inc.,theEffectiveSchools
trainingcompanywhichpublishedTheEffectiveSchoolReport.Itshouldcomeasnosurprise
thatJackson,Mississippischoolsservedastheirstguineapigschoolsforimplementationof
EffectiveSchoolResearch.
The fact that South Carolina and Mississippi, two of the southern states most deeply
involvedinmasterylearningoveralongperiodoftime,havesuchlowacademictestscores
shouldbeadequatejustiicationforCongresstocallforaninvestigationoftheconsequencesof
adoptingeffectiveschoolresearchandoutcome-basededucation,if,andthewriterrepeatsif,
394
academicperformanceiswhatisbeingsoughtbytheeducationbureaucracyandtheCongress
whichfundspubliceducation.Surely,ifthedepartmentsofeducationinthosesouthernstates
whichimplementedeffectiveschoolresearchhadperformedlongitudinalstudiestrackingthe
childrenwhowentthroughthoseschools,educationpolicyplannerswouldhaveevidencethat
effectiveschoolresearchfallsfarshortoftheclaimsmadebyitsproponents,mostofwhom
beneitinanciallyfromsuchpromotion.(SeeAppendixXXVI.)
ThiswriterhasaquestionforCoachBarnes:Couldn’thisfamily’smovetoAustin,Texas,
whichisimplementingthesameSkinnerianmethodunderanotherlabel(directinstruction),
beawonderfulexampleofjumpingfromthefryingpanintotheire—especiallysinceAustin,
Texasisalsodeeplyinvolved(aleader)innon-academicschool-to-work?]
AVERYINTERESTINGARTICLEENTITLED“TAKINGTECHNICALASSISTANCEONTHEROAD”waspub-
lishedintheSpring1998issueofEarlyDevelopments(Vol.2,No.l),apublicationoftheFrank
PorterGrahamChildDevelopmentCenterattheUniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill.58
ThiscenterisfundedinpartbyUNCandpartlybyPR/AwardNo.R307A60004administered
bytheOficeofEducationalResearchandImprovement,U.S.DepartmentofEducation.Ex-
cerptsfromthearticlefollow:
Bytheearly1990s,FrankPorterGraham’sresearcherswereatworkinthePeople’sRepublic
ofChina,EasternEurope,andtheformerSovietUnion.Forexample,in1995ShelleydeFosset
andPatTrohanisbeganworkingwiththeprivatelyinancedStepbyStepprogramwhichwas
aimedatcreatingearlychildhoodeducationdemonstrationprojectsinitiallyin17emerging
democraciesofCentralandEasternEuropeandtheformerSovietUnion.
StepbyStepfounderandsponsor,GeorgeSoros,throughhisOpenSocietyFoundation,
wantedtocreateachildhoodeducationprojectthatwouldultimatelyleadtoanewpartici-
patorycitizenrybeginningwiththeyoungestmembersofsociety,itschildren.59Educators
andparentsinthecountriesinvolvedhavebeenenthusiastic—and,bytheendofthesecond
yearStepbyStepwasin1,500classroomsservingover37,500childrenandfamilies.Most
countrieshavebeensuccessfulingettinglocalfundingfortheprograms.
ThroughasubcontractwithChildren’sResourcesInternationalofWashington,D.C.
whichistheOpenSociety’stechnicalassistancearmfortheStepbyStepproject,deFosset
andTrohanishavehostedtwogroupsofRussianteachersandadministratorsintheUnited
States,anddeFossetestimatedthatshe’svisitedRussia“16or17”times.WhileintheU.S.
Russiansreceivedtrainingandvisitednumerouspreschoolprograms.“Whenwe’reinRussia,
wedotraininginthecitiesinRussia—andthenwevisitprogramsandprovidefeedbackon
existingprograms,”saiddeFosset.
MARILYNPEASEOFNEWBEDFORD,MASSACHUSETTSWROTEANARTICLEFORTHEMAY22,1998
issueofTheStandard-TimesofNewBedfordentitled“MCASTestsUndermineRightsofPar-
ents”whichdealswiththesamesubjectcoveredbyMr.Jacoby’sMay7column,butfroma
parent’sperspective.Excerptsfollow:
Onceuponatime,Americanslivedinarepublic,wherethevoiceoftheminoritycarried
asmuchweightasthevoiceofthemajoritybecauseofarepresentativegovernment.Laws
andrightsappliedtoindividualswhetherone,onehundred,ormorepeopleexercisedtheir
rightsasopposedtomarchinglocksteporallowingthemselvestobeherded.
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998 395
AlongcomestheMassachusettsComprehensiveAssessmentSystem.TheDepartment
ofEducationwantsustobelievethatit’smandatedforall4th,8th,and10thgradersandthat
thelawhasnotprovidedforstudentsorparentsto“optout.”However,thelawalsodoes
notspeciicallyprohibitparentsfromexemptingtheirchildrenfromtheassessment;doing
sowouldbeausurpationofparentalauthorityandresponsibility.
ThestateSupremeCourtrecognizesthatchildrenarenotmerecreaturesofthestate.
Thosewhonurtureanddirecttheirdestinyhavetherighttopreparethemforadditional
obligations.Furthermore,PublicLaw96–88,TitleI,Section101,number3states:“Parents
havetheprimaryresponsibilityfortheeducationoftheirchildrenandstates,localities,and
privateinterestshavetheprimaryresponsibilityforsupportingthatparentalrole.”...
IsubmittedmyintentinwritingtoexemptmysonfromMCAS.Despitemylackofper-
mission,thetestwasadministeredtohim,regardless.Whateverhappenedtoparent/school
partnerships?Whatifparentsexpectthepublicschoolstoprovidefactualinformationfor
theirchildrentoassimilateinsteadoftheassessmentofopinionstheirchildrenareexpected
tosynthesize,opinionsthatarebeingscoredtowardstatestandards,andopinionsthatwill
consequentlyberemedieduntilthatstandardisachieved?
WethePeopleareallowingamajorparadigmshifttooccur,inwhichthestatewill
bedirectingstudentdestinybasedonhisorherperformanceontheMCAS.Thiscorrelates
withMGLChapter69,Section1D(I),whichparentsmayreviewbutnotcontest.Didpar-
entsknowinglyrelinquishtheirrightsandauthorityuponenrollingtheirchildreninpublic
schools?
Mr.RickAtkinsfromtheDOE’sAccountabilityandEvaluationServicesagreedthat
thelawdoesnotprohibitaparentfromexemptingtheirchildfromtheMCAS.However,he
saidthechildwouldreceiveascoreofzero,whichwouldbeaveragedwithandthuswould
affecttheentireschooldistrict.(Isthatinthelaw,oranotherarbitraryandcapriciousrule
theDOEspontaneouslymadeup?Didourlocaleducratsbothertoask?)
By refusing to exempt any child from the MCAS upon parental request, one might
presumethattheirchildisbeingexploitedbythepublicschoolssoasnottobringdownthe
averagescoresoftheentiredistrict.Itappearsthatfundamentalcivillibertiesarealsobeing
violated,butwhocares?It’sonlyoneperson,maybeafew.Iguessit’seasiertoperpetuate
thedeceptionthantoacknowledgeit.ThenWethePeoplewouldhavetodosomething
aboutit.
ALCUOCOANDFAYERUOPP,FORMERMATHEMATICSTEACHERSWHOWORKINMATHEDUCAtion,
wroteanarticleentitled“MathExamRationaleDoesn’tAddup:SimpleQuestionsAreOften
PosedinUnnecessarilyComplexWays”whichwaspublishedintheMay24,1998issueofthe
BostonGlobe.Excerptsfollow:
IntheForewordtothe“GuidetotheMassachusettsComprehensiveAssessmentSystem:
Mathematics”formerCommissionerofEducationAntonuccisays:“Ibelievethatteachers
andadministratorswillindthesamplequestionstobeparticularlyhelpfulinbringingthe
MassachusettsMathematics‘CurriculumFrameworks’learningstandardstolifeinclassrooms
andschools.”
Likemanyteachersacrossthestate,westudiedthesamplequestionsandweredis-
mayedbywhatwefound.Wechallengetheassertionthatthetestsgiveninthelastcouple
ofweeksrelectlearningstandardsand,evenmoreimportantly,wequestiontheassertion
putforthbyAntonuccithat“thiscriticalnewprogram...isdesignedtoraisetheacademic
achievementofallstudentsofthecommonwealth.”
396
Indeed,thebatteryoftestsgiveningrades4,8,and10followsatraditionwithwhich
teachers are quite familiar. It is one more example of a numerical indicator that can be
improvedovertimewithoutsigniicantlyincreasingourstudents’understanding.Inother
words,thetestisdesignedsothattheirst-roundscoreswillbelowandsothatscorescan
beimproved,yearbyyear,byanevolvingcottageindustryofcoachingtechniques.
Teachersknowhowtopreparestudentsfortestslikethese,buttheywillcertainlyfail
todosothisyearsincetheyreceivedtheguidedocumentsonlythreemonthsbeforethe
actualtests.Buttestscoreswillgoupinsubsequentyearsasteacherstakevaluableclass
timeawayfromwhattheyknowisimportantandspenditontestpreparation.Government
oficialswillthenmakepublicstatementsaboutraisingacademicachievement,and,once
again,ourstudentswillbeshortchanged.
Weareformermathematicsteacherswhocontinuetoworkineducation.Weareout-
ragedthatteachersandstudentshavetowastevaluableclassroomtimeonteststhatarenot
onlypoorlyconstructed,butalsocontaincontentthatisunnecessarilyvague,complicated,
andinappropriate.WeareworriedthatMCASwillraisehavocwithexistingcurriculums
withoutanyrealbeneittostudents’mathematicalexpertise.
Weexaminedthemathematicsguidedocumentsclosely,andwillcommentspeciically
onthoseforgrade10.Weencouragethepublictolookcloselyatthisguideandthosefor
othersubjectareasaswell,sincemuchofthedebateoverMCAShasnotfocusedonthe
qualityofthetests.
Ourclaimsthatscoreswillriseovertimewithoutanybeneittoourchildrenisbased
onwhatwefound:Themajorityofthesamplequestionsareshallow,one-stepproblems,
andit’spossibletosolvemostoftheproblemsusingverylittlemathematics.Buttheques-
tions are posed using unnecessarily sophisticated mathematical notation or appealing to
conventionsthatarenotuniversallytaughtin10thgradeclasses.Inotherwords,thetests
asktrivialquestionsinobscureways.
Teachersalloverthestatewillsoonabandoncurriculumsthattheyknowareeduca-
tionallysoundsotheycanteachmaterialofquestionablecontentvaliditytopreparestudents
fortheMCAS.
[Ed.Note:TheMay5,1986St.LouisGlobeDemocratarticle“SchoolOficialsUpsetbyNew
Plan”reportsthatschooloficialsinSt.Louismadethesame,exactprediction.(See1986
entry.)ThisprocessalsocorrelatestotheNationalCenterforEducationalStatistics’plansto
judge“teacherquality”byincreasein“studentperformance”—teach-to-the-test.(See1992
entryforFillingtheGaps.)]
THE SPRING 1998 ISSUE OF ASSOCIATION FOR SUPERVISION AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT’S
CurriculumUpdatewasdevotedtoartseducationandthemainarticlewasentitled“ArtsEdu-
cation:ACornerstoneofBasicEducation.”Thiswriter,alwaysasupporterofmusicandartin
thepublicschoolcurriculum,waseducatedregardingtherealpurposeofartseducationwhen
readingArtsandtheSchoolsbyJeromeHausmann,oneofthefourbookscommissionedfor
JohnGoodlad’sfederallyandfoundation-fundedTheStudyofSchooling.(See1979Schooling
intheUnitedStates.)TheCurriculumUpdatearticleexposesthesesame“reformed”purposes
forartseducationasdevisedbythosecontributingtoAmerica’sdumbingdown.Excerptsfol-
lowfromthisenlighteningarticle:
CLAIMINGITSPLACEINTHECORECURRICULUM
“Today’sschoolgatekeepersthinkofartseducationastheyexperiencedit,asholiday
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998 397
artorasrecreation,notasacognitiveprocess,”saysLeilaniLattinDuke,directorofthe
GettyEducationInstitutefortheArts.Bystudyingthearts,studentscandevelopcapacities
forcriticalthinkingandproblemsolving,sheexplains.
“Theartsrepresentformsthathumanshavecreatedtoconveytheirfeelings,theirvi-
sions,theiraspirations,andtheirvalues,”saysElliotEisner,professorofeducationandartat
StanfordUniversity.“Thepresenceofartsintheschoolsmakesitpossibleforchildrenand
adolescentstolearnhowtoreadtheimagesthatartsprovide....Childrenneedtobeableto
lookatartandimagesandtorecognizetheirhistoricalandculturalsigniicanceinorderto
understandthemessagebeingconveyed.”
Oncechildrencaninterpretthesesometimesconfusingmessages,theywillneedto
learnhowtomanagethem.“Alotofwhatistaughtinschoolsuggeststhattherearecorrect
andincorrectanswerstoquestions,asevidencedbytheuseofmultiple-choiceandtrue/false
tests,”explainsLehman.“Intherealworld,questionsaren’tposedthatway.”Forexample,
questionsabouthowtoachieveworldpeaceorendworldhungerdon’thaveanyeasyan-
swers.Theartsnaturallyrequirepeopletoseekmultiplesolutions.
[Ed.Note:Thewriterunderstandsandappreciatestheartist’slegitimateroleofcreatinga
paintingorwritingmusicasanexpressionofhisownfeelingsaboutlife.Thatiswhatmakes
artsospecial.However,socialengineersshouldnotusearttopromotetheirownagendasin
theclassroom.Thereaderisurgedtoturntothe1970entrywhichquotesfromLeonardS.
Kenworthy’spaper,“TheInternationalDimensionofEducation:BackgroundPaperIIPrepared
fortheWorldConferenceonEducation,”whichsaysinpart:
Forexample,thewriterhasfoundtremendouslyeffectivea10-minuteilmontheUnitedNa-
tions,entitled“Overture.”Thereisnonarrativeinthisilm;thepicturesareshownagainst
abackgroundofmusic,withtheViennaSymphonyOrchestraplayingtheEgmontOverture.
Itisapowerfullearningdeviceandmovesitsviewersinawayfewotherapproachestouch
them.
AnyonefamiliarwithChairmanMao’sbrainwashinginRedChinaunderstandstheuse
oftheatre,art,andmusictoindoctrinatecitizens.]
THEBUSINESSSECTIONOFTHEMAY27,1998ISSUEOFUSATODAYCARRIEDANARTICLEentitled
“SchoolsLearnLessonsinEficiencyfromBusiness.”Excerptsfollow:
The biggest experiment, however, involves the public school system itself. In one of the
mostambitiousattemptsyettotakesomethingthatworksinbusinessandapplyittopublic
education,the19schoolshereexpectinsixmonthstobecometheirstschooldistrictinthe
worldtobeISO9000certiied.
ISO9000,asortofGoodHousekeepingSealofApprovalforbusinesses,isawayof
enforcingexcellencethathasbeenembracedbybusinessesworldwide....Butbecausethe
Lancaster[Pennsylvania]schoolshaveidentiiedtheircustomerstobestudentsandparents,
ISO9000bydeinitionmustalsoforceimprovementsincurriculum,teachingmethodsand
anythingelsethatleadstotheultimategoalofhigheracademicachievement.
Thereisgrowingoptimismineducationcirclesthatthiscouldbethelandmarkexperi-
mentthatinallymarrieseducationtoanuts-and-boltsbusinesstool.ISO9000proponents
sayitwillenforcediscipline,notuponthestudents,butuponanunwieldysystem.Itwill
enforceconsistencysothataverageteacherscloselyresemblethebest.
Willitwork?Mixedsignalsabound.InterviewsindLancasterteachersandprincipals
398
soldonISO9000—butunabletoarticulatehowitwillaffecttheclassroom.That’saredlag
tothebusinessworld.
TheU.S.DepartmentofEducationissohopefulthatitisfundingtheLancasterex-
perimentwith$800,000infederalgrants.[Withaperpupilexpenditureof$18,000ayear,
theLancasterSchoolDistrictishavingahardtimemakingendsmeetandwasatthebegin-
ningof1999saddledwith$95millionindebt,ed.]Itwillbetheirstschooldistricttoget
certiied,althoughtheBrandywinedistrictinDelawareisnotfarbehind.
TheNewJerseyStateLegislaturewantsthestate’sentirepublicschoolsystemtobe
ISO9000certiiedandhasenactedawaiverfromstatemonitoringtothosethatimplement
it.However,onlyfourof600schooldistrictsaresofarconsideringit.
Successisfarfromcertain.ISO9000isladenwithlowchartsandstatisticsandcomes
steepedinmanufacturingterminologyguaranteedtomaketeacherscringe.Curriculumisa
“processcontrol.”“Scrap”isalostlearningopportunity.
Thebiggestroadblockhasbeentheinabilityofeducatorstofullyunderstandit.There
havebeenworkshopsfortwoyears,butmanystillareunabletociteexamplesabouthow
ithaschangedtheclassroom.
That’sawarningsigntoKurtLandgraf,chairmanofDuPontEurope,whohasamaster’s
degreeineducation.AtthisstageinISO9000training,everyemployee“shouldbeableto
tellyouexactlywhatthey’redoingdifferently,”hesays.
ButRobertBowen,thebusinessconsultanttheschooldistricthiredtoimplementISO
9000,sayshe’snotworried.Heknowsirst-handthatISO9000isdificulttograspbecause
he’sspentadecadeunsuccessfullytryingtoexplaintohisparentswhathedoesforaliv-
ing....
Businessleadershesitatetogettheirhopesup.Throughoutthe1990sschoolshave
dabbledincontinuousimprovementandotherpiecesoftotalqualitymanagement(TQM).
Butdespitethosemethods,U.S.12thgradersinishaheadofonlyCyprusandSouthAfrica
intheinternationalMathandScienceSurvey,saysIBMCEOLouisGerstner.
TrademagazineQualityProgresssaidthenumberofpublicschoolssurveyedthathad
TQMprojectsin1997dropped32%from1996.
“Welostourway,”saysMarySchutz,aprincipalinWagonMound,N.M.whereteach-
erswereonceasexcitedaboutTQMasLancaster’sareaboutISO9000.
He(WilliamKiefer,theLancasterschools’ISOcoordinator)alsopromisessolidevidence
bythisfallthatacademicachievementisontheriseinLancaster.
Sofar,suchevidencedoesnotexist.
[Ed.Note:Whenthewriterattendedthe1992NationalGovernorsAssociation“Qualityin
Education”ConferenceheldinMinneapolis,Minnesota,thesessiondesignedforschooland
other public oficials was facilitated by a representative of IBM. During the question and
answerperiod,asuperintendentinquiredaboutwhattodowhentheexpenseofprocessing
olderteachersthroughstaffdevelopmentwasnotyieldingchangesintheirbehaviororlevel
of acceptance of “reform.” The facilitator, without a second thought, pointed to the TQM
lowchartonthewallbehindherandindicatedaboxmarked“WasteManagement.”Shethen
answered,“Youwatchthem;youdocumenttheirmistakes;thenyougetridofthem.”Thatis
theTQM/ISO9000processatwork.]
ASSOCIATIONFORSUPERVISIONANDCURRICULUMDEVELOPMENT’SJUNE1998ISSUEOFEducation
Updatecarrieda“MessagefromtheExecutiveDirector”subtitled“SouthAfricaTacklesAmbi-
tiousCurriculumReformEffort.”Revealingexcerptsfollow:
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998 399
InMarch1998,ItraveledtoCapeTown,SouthAfrica,asaparticipantintheComparative
HumanRelationsInitiativeConsultation,fundedbytheFordFoundationthroughagrant
awardedtotheSouthernEducationFoundationinAtlanta,Georgia....SouthAfrica’seducation
systemiscrippledbythelegacyofapartheidasitstrugglestodealwithissuesofinequityand
quality....Consequently,thebrewofraisedexpectationsamongtheever-growingnumbers
ofthepoorandthegovernment’sinabilitytorespondportendstryingtimesahead.
Thenewgovernmentistryingtorespondtothissituationthroughanenterprisecalled
theNationalQualiicationsFramework(NQF),aninnovativeeducationandtrainingparadigm
thatusesoutcome-basededucationtopreparestudentstobelifelonglearners.Subsequently,
amassivecurriculumreformeffortentitledCurriculum2005wasinitiatedinJanuaryofthe
1998academicyearinallprimaryschools.ButthesolidvisionbehindCurriculum2005has
beenmarredbyinadequateimplementationofstrategiesandresources.
Variouspublicandprivategroupshaveeithersupportedorcriticizedthegovernment’s
decisiontoimplementCurriculum2005,whichisbasedlargelyonthetenetsofoutcome-
basededucation.SangalisoMikhatshwa,DeputyMinisterofEducation,assertsthat“this
systemoffersmuchinSouthAfrica’smoveawayfromtherotelearningandcontent-driven
curriculaofthepast.”Hefurthercontendsthatitrepresentsa“head,hands,andheartap-
proach,”aslearnersarerequiredtoindicatewhattheyhavelearnedintermsofknowledge,
skills,andattitudes.
Itisstilltooearlytopredictwhetherthesedificultiesrepresentmortalwoundstothe
government’s education reform plans or merely predictable roadblocks along the way to
successfulinnovation.TheonethingthatiscertainaboutSouthAfricaisthepredictability
oftheunpredictable.Still,thereareinsurmountablecourage,hope,andoptimismamong
SouthAfrica’speoples.
[Ed.Note:Thelanguageinthisarticle—particularlythewording“offersmuchinSouthAfrica’s
moveawayfromtherotelearningandcontent-drivencurriculaofthepast”—parallelsand
echoesthatoftheopeningpagesofH.R.6,thereauthorizationoffundingfortheElementary
andSecondaryEducationAct,whichcalledforfundingprogramsandcurriculawhichwould
notaddressso-called“lowerorderskills.”Thislanguageisinterpretedtomeanmemorization
offactsandbasicacademicskillsaswehavealwaysknownthem.Inaddition,thereader
shouldunderstandthatoutcome-basededucationisbasedonEffectiveSchoolsResearch,the
basisforinternationaleducationreform,andthatithasgeneratedintenseoppositionabroadas
wellasintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.60Thewriteralsoassumesthatlanguagecontainedin
InternationalLoanAgreementguidelinesissuedbytheWorldBanktofacilitate“development”
inSouthAfricamayhavecontributedtotheadoptionofthisinternationallyaccepted(man-
dated)Skinnerianmethod.(SeeNovember17,1984MaineAssociationofChristianSchools’
letterregardingKevinRyan,Portugal,andtheWorldBank,andAppendixVIwhichrelatesto
KoreaandtheWorldBank.)]
THEJUNE7,1998ISSUEOFOREGON’SSTATESMANJOURNALPUBLISHEDANARTICLEENtitled“Sa-
lem-KeizerTestScoresFall.”Excerptsfollow:
Salem-Keizerstudentscoresdippedforthesecondconsecutiveyearinaprominentachieve-
ment test, dragging district scores further below the national average.... “We can’t and
shouldn’t try to make any excuses for it,” said Dan Johnson, the district administrator
spearheadingeducationreformefforts.“It’sfairlyconsistentacrosseachofthecategories
intermsofthedecline.”
400
“Someaveragesfelltothe40thpercentileorlower.”…Districtadministratorswere
hard-pressedtopinpointreasonsforthefallingscores.
Johnsonattributeditpartlytoschoolreformsandaphenomenonhecalledthe“change
curve.” Schools that shift their teaching approaches often witness dips in scores while
they’retryingtomakechangesintheclassroom....Candalariahasworkedhardtoimprove
students’creativethinkingwhenapproachingmathproblems….Butbyfocusingonnew
skills,teachersmighthavegivenlessattentiontobasicmathcomputation,wherescoresare
dropping,shesaid.
THEATLANTACONSTITUTION RAN AN ARTICLE ENTITLED“GINGRICH:TAPS FORTEXTBOOKS—He
SaysComputersWillReplaceThem”initsJune9,1998edition.Excerptsfollow:
[Newt]Gingrich,speakingMondayattheSupercomtradeshowattheGeorgiaWorldCon-
gressCenter,saidtheonrushoftechnologywillmaketextbooksobsolete.
“OneofthegoalsshouldbetoreplacealltextbookswithaPC,”theGeorgiaRepublican
said.“Iwouldhopewithiniveyearstheywouldhavenomoretextbooks.”
Personalcomputersarethenewfocusforlearningandstudentsshouldbegivenone
whentheyenterirstgrade,hesaid.
ThatsuggestiondrewimmediateirefromWashington,D.C.-basedauthorHarrietTyson,
whowroteAConspiracyofGoodIntentions:America’sTextbookFiasco.
Gingrichhasdistortedtechnology’svalue,shesaid.“Heislikea16-year-oldwhojust
fellinlovewithcomputers.Heisnotatechie.He’sjustinlovewithtechies.”
Gingrich,aformercollegeprofessorwhopeppershistalkswithreferencestowriterssuch
asPeterDrucker,W.EdwardsDemingandAlexisdeTocqueville,alsocalledforanoverhaul
ofthenation’sschools.Gingrichurgedthatschoolsbejudgedinabusinesscontext.
Gingrich argued that Internet connections should often be available to replace the
traditionallecturebyaprofessor.Incontrasttotheold-styleteachingmodel,theNetwould
beaccessible24hoursaday,hesaid.“Wehavetobecomealearningsociety.”
[Ed.Note:Thefollowingquotefromthe1971TheIndividualizedLearningLetterentryechoes
theviewsofNewtGingrich:
Downwithtextbooks!Textbooksnotonlyencouragelearningatthewronglevel(imparting
factsratherthantellinghowtogatherfacts,etc.),theyalsoviolateanimportantnewconcern
inAmericaneducation—IndividualizedInstruction.
Thisisalsoanotherinstancewhichremindsusofthegravityoftheconsequencesof
H.R.6(reauthorizationoftheElementaryandSecondaryEducationActof1965)anditsas-
sertionsthat“lowerorderskills”(memorizationandbasicacademics)shouldnotbefunded
orpromoted.]
THETRI-CITYHERALDOFKENNEWICK,WASHINGTONCARRIED“GROUPSUPPORTINGPAULAJones
CaseSuesPascoSchools”byWendyCulverwellinitsJune11,1998issue.Thearticletellsus
that:
TheorganizationthatispayingPaulaJones’legalbillsinhersexualharassmentcaseagainst
PresidentClintoniledsuitMondayagainstthePascoSchoolDistrict.
401
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998
Thesuitcontendsthedistrictviolatedtheconstitutionalrightsofaformerteacherwho
objectedtooutcome-basededucation.
IntheactioniledinU.S.DistrictCourtinSpokane,theRutherfordInstituteallegesthe
districtwrongfullyterminatedBarbaraMcFarlin-Kosiecandviolatedherconstitutionalrights
tofreespeechandfreeexerciseofreligion.Thecomplaintseekseconomicdamages.
KenRice,theKennewickattorneywhorepresentsthedistrict,saidthedistricthasn’t
beenservedwiththecomplaint,buthedoesn’tbelievethesuithasmerit.Hesaidthedistrict
woulddefenditselfvigorously.
AccordingtothepressreleaseissuedbytheRutherfordInstitute,McFarlin-Kosiecwas
forcedtoresignasateacherin1995becauseofheroppositiontooutcome-basededucation.
Shewasaveteranteacherwhenshewashiredin1993toteachatMarkTwainElemen-
tary.
ThelawsuitwasiledbyGregCaseyandBruceGore,Spokaneattorneysafiliatedwith
theRutherfordInstitute....TheInstitutedescribesitselfasaninternational,non-proitcivil
libertiesorganizationspecializinginthedefenseofhumanrights.
Neither McFarlin-Kosiec nor her attorneys could be reached for comment Wednes-
day.
[Ed.Note:ThereaderwillrecognizethenameofBarbaraMcFarlin-Kosiecasoneoftheteach-
erswhoreviewedandendorsedthedeliberatedumbingdownofamerica.Whobettercould
understandtheconsequencesofoppositiontotherestructuringparadigmshift?]
THE WASHINGTON TIMES OF JUNE 11, 1998 PRINTED AN ASSOCIATED PRESS ARTICLE ENtitled
“CongresstoExpandEducationSavings.”Importantexcerptsfollow:
HouseandSenatenegotiatorsagreedyesterdayonabilltoexpandtax-favoredsavings
accountsforeducationalexpenses,includingtuitionatprivateandreligiousschools,andto
eraseabanonPresidentClinton’sproposednationalstandardizedtests.Thedealremoves
anobstacletoPresidentClinton’splanforvoluntarynationaltestsinfourth-gradereading
andeighth-grademath.NegotiatorsdeletedanamendmentpassedbytheSenateinAprilthat
wouldhavebannedthestandards-basedtestsunlessspeciicallyauthorizedbyCongressand
wouldhaveconvertedsomeEducationDepartmentprogramsintoblockgrants.
Thenegotiatorsalsotackedonareadingbill,supportedbyMr.Clinton,thatmustbe
signedinorderfor$210milliontobespentstartingJuly1forresearch,teachertrainingand
grantstohelpimprovereadinginstruction.
[Ed.Note:Althoughtheabovelegislationdidnotbecomelaw,theimportanceofthisentry
relatesto(1)theremovalofthebanonnationaltestingand(2)theapprovaloflegislation
whichwillmandateaparticularmethodofreadinginstruction,SkinnerianDirectInstruction
inTheReadingExcellenceAct,whichdidpassafewmonthslaterinNovemberof1998aspart
oftheomnibusbudget.]
ASASMALLITEMINTHEJUNE19,1998ISSUEOFTHEWASHINGTONTIMES,ANARTICLEappeared
entitled“Panel:MakeEducationCareer-Focused”whichsaysinitsentirety:
Allhighschoolstudentsshouldreceiveamixtureofacademicallychallengingcourses
andworkexperiencesregardlessofwhetherornottheyplantoattendcollege,agroupof
businessleadersandeducatorssaidyesterday.
402
ThereportsingledoutThomasJeffersonSchoolforScienceandTechnology,anelite
publichighschoolinFairfaxCounty[Virginia],asproofthatsuchanapproachdoesn’thave
tosacriiceacademics.
JUNE19,1998 THEEUROPEANCOMMISSIONDIRECTORATEGENERAL FOREDUCATION,TRAINing
andYouthinBrussels,BelgiumissuedanothercallforproposalsundertheLeonardodaVinci
ProgrammeDocument“CooperationinHigherEducationandVocationalEducationandTrain-
ingbetweentheEuropeanCommunityandtheUnitedStatesofAmerica.”Excerptsfromthe
Internetpostfollow:
Over17,600youngpeopleareonplacementsinotherEuropeancountriesundertheLeon-
ardo da Vinci programme.... The European Commission has granted assistance totalling
ECU[EuropeanCommunityUnit]29.7millionto22countriestakingpartintheLeonardo
daVincivocationaltrainingprogrammeinordertoorganisetransnationalplacementand
exchangeprogrammesforyoungpeopleandtrainersthroughoutEurope.Over17,600young
peopleundergoinginitialtrainingorinemploymentwillcarryoutaperiodoftrainingina
companyortrainingestablishmentinanothercountryparticipatingintheprogramme,in
ordertogainexperienceandimprovetheiremploymentprospects.
Thesectorsofactivityinwhichtheseyoungpeopleandtrainerswillexercisetheir
mobilityareextremelyvariedandcoverbothindustry(e.g.,apprenticeshipsinelectricalen-
gineering)andagriculture(e.g.,traininginaquaculture),aswellasservices(e.g.,thehotel
tradeorcatering).Theaimofsuchplacementsistoacquirecertiiedoccupationalexperience
andinthecaseoflongerplacements,tolearnanadditionalskill.
CONTINUING HER EXCELLENT WORK AS “WATCHDOG” ON BEHALF OF OHIO TAXPAYERS, STATE
BoardofEducationmemberDianaFessler—anarticulateopponentoftheschool-to-workphi-
losophy—wrotealetterdatedJune22,1998toU.S.SecretaryofEducationRichardRileyand
U.S.SecretaryofLaborAlexisHermaninregardtoherbeingbarredfromameetingsponsored
bytheNationalSchool-to-WorkOficeoftheU.S.DepartmentofEducationonJune14–18,
1998inCleveland,Ohio.Ms.Fessler’sletterisreproducedinitsentiretyinordertorelaythe
completedetailsofherexperience.
DearSecretariesRileyandHerman:
IamadulyelectedmemberoftheOhioStateBoardofEducation(SBE)withapproxi-
matelyonemillionpeopleresidinginmydistrict.Section3301.07(C)oftheOhioRevised
CodedirectstheSBEtoadministerandsupervisetheallocationanddistributionofallstate
andfederalfundsforpubliceducationinOhio.Accordingly,Ihaveanobligationtobefully
informedregardingeducationmattersaffectingmyconstituents.
SeekingtostayabreastofSchool-to-Work(STW),Imadearrangementstoattenda
meetingsponsoredbytheNationalSchool-to-WorkOfice(NSTWO)onJune14–18,1998in
Cleveland,Ohio.Forty-threestatesandPuertoRicowererepresented.Iwasformallyintro-
ducedandwelcomedfromthepodiumbyOhio’sSTWdirector,andIattendedtheSunday
throughTuesdaymorningsessionswithoutincident.
On Tuesday afternoon, Ivan Charner of the Academy of Educational Development
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998 403
(operatoroftheNSTWO’sLearningCenter)toldmeIcouldnotattendhisclosed“strategy”
meetingfortheeightstatesthatreceivedirst-roundSTWmoney.Iinditincrediblethat
thosewhoclaimthatSTWisgoodforkids,goodfortheeconomy,goodforournation,and
worthyofreplicationinditnecessarytoconductthepublic’sbusinessbehindcloseddoors,
andItoldhimso.Awomannearbysaid,“Well,theFBImeetsbehindcloseddoors,”and
Ithoughttomyself,“Goodgrief,thisisworsethanIthought;thesepeoplethinkaSTW
meetingisonparwithanFBIoperation.”
Mr.CharnerreferredmetoMs.IreneLynn,InterimDirectoroftheNSTWO.Shecon-
irmedthatIwasnotwelcome,saying:“Itisjustnotanopenmeeting;itisanon-public
meeting.”Iasked,“Whoispayingforthismeeting?”andsheacknowledgedthattaxpayers
were.Iaskedwhodecidedtokeepmeoutandshesaidthatshehad.IaskedwhattheNSTWO
wastryingtohide,andshesaiditwasjusta“workingmeeting,”andthatgovernmentwork-
ersoftengettogetherforsuchmeetings,andnothingwashidden.
Thesewerenotroutinestaffmeetings.Participantshadlowninfromallacrossthe
countrytomeetinaswankyhotel,attaxpayers’expense,toidentifyanddiscuss“obstacles”
thattheyfaceinmovingtheSTWagendaforwardandtodevelop“strategies”toovercome
those“obstacles.”
Ms. Lynn attributed the “problem” to my “not understanding STW” and used the
common,andoffensivetacticofcharacterizingthosewhodonotblindlyembraceSTWas
being “misinformed” or “lacking in understanding.” When I pointed that out, Ms. Lynn
correctedherselfandacknowledgedthatthe“problem”isphilosophicalinnature,notin-
formational.
ItisnosecretthatIhaveseriousreservationsregardingtheSTWsystem.Ihavere-
searcheditextensively,andIhavemadethatresearchavailabletomyconstituentsviamy
website—tothechagrinofSTWdevoteeswhoseektohidethefullscopeofSTWfrom
theAmericanpeopleforaslongaspossibleusingwhatevermeansnecessary.Thus,they
attempttoconductthepeople’sbusinessbehindcloseddoors,oronlyinthepresenceof
theEnlightened.Thisbureaucratictyrannyunderminesrational,opendisagreement—the
hallmarkofcivillibertyinthearenaofgovernment.
Toreafirmthattherewasaconcertedefforttobarmefromthemeeting,onWednes-
daymorningIenteredtheCommunicationsTaskForcemeetingroomandstoodattheback
oftheroom.StephaniePowers,DirectorofCommunication&PublicAffairs,Oficeofthe
AssistantSecretary,U.S.DepartmentofLabor,Employment&TrainingAdministration;and
PeterWoolfolk,SpecialAssistantforCommunications,VocationalandAdultEducation,Ofice
oftheAssistantSecretary,U.S.DepartmentofEducation,insistedthatIleave.
OnecanonlywonderwhatNSTWOwastryingtoaccomplishbybarringmefromthe
meeting.Onemightreasonablyconcludethatthedecisiontooustmewasconsideredtobe
thelesseroftwoevils;i.e.,therepercussionsofdoingsobeinglessproblematicthanrisking
fulldisclosureofwhattookplaceduringthemeetings.IalsofoundittroublingwhenMs.
PowerssaidthatIneedtounderstandthat“Congresshasprovidedforthesebusinessmeet-
ings”—implyingthatCongresswouldapproveclosed-doorSTWmeetings.
Ms.PowerssaidthatsheknewthatwedidnotagreeonSTW.AsItoldMs.Powers,
STWisnottheissue—itiswhetherthegeneralpublic,throughtheirelectedrepresentatives,
haveaccesstocriticalpublicinformationregardingtheworkbeingdonetore-shapeour
schools,oureconomy,andoursystemofgovernment.Shehadnoreply.Knowingthatthe
meetingwouldhavebeen“shortened”hadIstayed,Ileftthehotel,buttherearestillques-
tionsthatneedtobeanswered:
• BywhatauthoritydidMr.Charner,Ms.Lynn,Ms.Powers,andMr.Woolfolkbarme
fromthemeetings?
404
• Why was it imperative that the public’s business be conducted behind closed
doors?
• And,ifSTWisindeedgoodforkidsandessentialforthegoodoftheeconomy,why
mustthedetailsbekepthiddenfrompublicscrutiny?
NSTWOhasyettoprovidemewithcopiesofOhio’sUrban/RuralOpportunitiesGrants,
claimingthattheycannotdosounlessthegranteesgivetheNSTWOpermissiontodoso.Any
attempttomakethereleaseofpublicrecordscontingentontheoneseekingtheinformation
irstgettingpermissionfromtherecipientoffederalfundsisabsurd,butitdoesillustrate
theextenttowhichyouremployeeswillgotorestrictthelowofinformation.Therefore,
pursuanttotheFOIAct,pleaseseethatIgetacopyofeachOhioUROGgrantincludingthe
budgetnarrativesandappendices,aswellasthefollowingdocumentsrelevanttotheJune
14–18STWmeetinginCleveland:thecommunicationfromlegalcounselregardingclosed-
doormeetings;allRFP’s,SGA’s,andcontracts(includingfacilitationandtechnicalassistance)
withappendicesandthebudgets;alistofalldisbursementsincludingdate,amount,vendor,
andpurpose;allnotestakenbystaffand“recorders”;alloverheads,handouts,background
materials,audiotapes,andvideos,andcandidateapplications,includingresumesandap-
pendices,ofthoseapplyingforthepositionofDirectoroftheNSTWO.
Thisisnotaletterofcomplaint;itisadeclaration:yourpeopleareoutofcontrol.
Thisletteralsoservesasformalnotiicationthatconcealmentofpublicinformation,unless
requiredfornationalsecurity,willnotbetolerated.Furthermore,Iamseekinglegalcounsel
todetermineifanystateorfederallawshavebeenbrokenregardingthismatter.
The purpose of government is to serve the interests of the people—not to develop
legislative agendas, reine implementation strategies, and create marketing plans behind
closeddoors.Apologiesfrombureaucraticbullieswhowillfullypreventedmefromgath-
eringthebackgroundinformationtoenablemetocarryoutthedutiesofmyoficewould
bemeaningless.Ms.Lynn,Ms.Powers,Mr.Woolfolk,andMr.Charnershouldbeiredand
theirpositionsilledbypeoplewhohaveairmunderstandingof,andrespectfor,howrep-
resentativegovernmentissupposedtowork.
Pleasegivethisletteryourpromptattention.Ilookforwardtoreceivingyourpersonal
letterofreply.
Onbehalfofmyconstituents,
DianaM.Fessler
Ohio State Board of Education—Third Dis-
trict61
CC:SenatorsLott,Ashcroft,DeWine,GlennRepresentativesGingrich,Armey,DeLay,Boeh-
ner,Hyde,HoekstraandGraham
THEJUNE1998ISSUEOFTHECHRISTIANCONSCIENCECARRIEDANARTICLEBYEDUCATIONresearcher
BettyeLewisofMichiganentitled“ViolenceintheSchools:Part2—AchievingNationalEdu-
cationGoalSix.”InthisarticleLewisassertedthat“Goal6maybethemostdiabolicalgoal
intheGoals2000:EducateAmericaAct,sinceitisthisgoalwhichwillstripawayindividual
freedoms in favor of the collective world community (New World Order). Will Americans
wakeupandrefusetorelinquishtheirunalienable(God-given)constitutionalrights?Orwill
theycontinueinapathyastheyincreasinglybecomedronesinthecomingNewWorldOrder?”
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998 405
ExcerptsofLewis’sarticlefollow:
The Michigan Strategy Proposal for Drug and Violence Free Schools and Communities
states:
MichigannowhasoneoftheNation’smostaggressiveandcomprehensivelong-term
strategiestoreachGoal6:“Bytheyear2000,everyschoolinAmericawillbefreeofdrugs
andviolenceandwillofferadisciplinedenvironmentconducivetolearning.”
GovernorJohnEnglerandtheMichiganStateBoardofEducationhaveworkedjointly
toprovideleadershipandestablishaclearplanofactiontoenableourschoolsandcom-
munitiestocreatesafe,disciplinedanddrugfreelearningenvironmentsforourchildren
bytheyear2000.Itwilldemandlocalcommunityaction,greatercoordination,andcareful
targetingof$17millioninfederalDrugFreeSchoolsandCommunitiesAct(DFSCA).62
ThroughoutthisdocumenttheCommunitarianagendaisapparent.Thisphilosophy
assignsresponsibilitytothecommunity,nottheparents,forthedevelopmentofthechild....
Thesectionon“ActionItems”referstoStateandLocalGoalsandshowsushowdictatorial
thestateandfederalGovernmenthavebecometowardrecipientsofDrugFreeSchoolsand
CommunitiesActfunds.Noticethereisnochoice—”theschooldistrictwill....”
Everyschooldistrictwilldevelopalocalschool-communitycoalitionandadvisoryteam.
Thedatabanksestablishedforcontinualassessmentandanalysiswillbethecontrolling
factor,notonlyregardingtheindividual,buttheschoolandthecommunity,establishing
communitynormsaswell....AsonereadsthisproposalforaccomplishingGoal6,itbecomes
clearthisdocumentbecamethefoundationfortheBiasCrimeResponseTaskForceReport.
Surveys,marketingandamediablitzwillbeusedtoconvincethepublicthatviolenceis
outofcontrolandeverycommunitymustbeusedtoaddresstheproblemandfullyimple-
mentGoal6.Fiveyearsago—1993—thisdocument(Michigan’sStrategyProposal)citedthe
StateGoaltobe:
Everyschool-communitydrugeducationadvisoryteamwillreviewcurrentneedsassess-
mentandproblemstatements,undertakeandcompleteacomprehensiveneedsassessment
withdatasuficienttoidentify,alterorselectpreventionprogrammingandutilizedata
toplanevaluationsofprogramimpactbyJune1994.Thestatewillcompileacountyby
countyriskandprotectivefactorproileasalocalresourceandforcomparativedata.
TheStateGoalrevealsjusthowextensivethedatabankswillbeandhowthedatawill
beusedasameanstodictatehoweveryschool/communitywilladdresstheproblemand
developprescribednationalnorms.Thetargetdate,June1994,alignedperfectlywiththe
1994 Student Data Handbook: Elementary, Secondary and Early Childhood and the 1994
StaffDataHandbook:Elementary,SecondaryandEarlyChildhood.63Thesedatahandbooks
wereirstdevelopedin1974....Oneoftheoriginaltendatahandbookswasoncommunity
andnumber-codedcommunityvalues—thevalueseveryU.S.communitywaseventuallyto
embraceastheirnorms.64...
…The systems change and the implementation of the School-to-Work system will
forcethecontinualassessmentofchildrentoanalyzetheprogressbeingmadetowardthe
eliminationofallbias,individualismandprivacy.Commonunitycannotprevailunlessall
childrendevelopthepredeterminedbehavior,attitudes,andvaluesforexistenceinthein-
terdependentglobalsocietyofthefuture.
Thefederalgovernmentisuptoitsoldtrickofcreatingaproblem—whichtheycer-
tainlyhavedonebylimitingdisciplineinschools,subjectingchildrentocertainlearning
experiences,requiringinclusiveeducationwhichrequiresjuvenileoffendersintetherstobe
406
intheregularclassroom,requiringgroupconsensusdecisionmakingandproblemsolving.
Theviolenceproblemhasbeenadvertisedforquitesometime,andtheriggedsurveyresults
willbeusedtocontinuethemediablitztogainpublicacknowledgmentoftheproblem.The
solutiontotheproblemwasplannedlongbeforeGoals2000,buttheobjectivewasstate
enforcementandcontrol.
Mostoftheplanhasalreadybeenimplemented.Remember,everythingistobeinplace
bytheyear2000.Wealreadyhavealternativeschools,after-hoursprograms,full-service
schools,daycare,peermediation,communityservice,charactereducation,healtheduca-
tion,uniformsinsomeschools,etc.
Goal6databanksonviolenceandbiascrimesopenthepublicsquaretodrowningin
theloodwatersofthecollective.Lawswillbeofnoimportanceasnormsbecomedictated
bythefederalgovernmentviatheirdatacollectionsystem.Thesenormsarebecomingvery
evident:anewtypeoffamily(thecommunity),guncontrol…effortstomodifythevalues
ofChristiansoranyfaiththatdisagreeswiththenormsofanti-individualism,population
control,promotionoftheworldcommunityovernationalism,withsurvivalonlythrough
cooperation,collaborationandconsensus.(pp.14–23)65
[Ed.Note:Lewis’sexposéofwhatistakingplaceinMichiganisamostvaluablewarning
forallAmericans.Inordertofullyunderstandthesigniicanceofherexposé,substitutethe
namesofyourchildren,yourtown,yourcountyandyourstateandyouwillfeelchillsrace
downyourspine.]
DR.LAWRENCEW.LEZOTTE,SENIORVICEPRESIDENTOFEFFECTIVESCHOOLS,OKEMOS,Michigan,
presentedapaperentitled“LearningforAll—WhatWillItTake?”attheSixthAnnualModel
Schools Conference sponsored by Willard Daggett’s International Center for Leadership in
Education,Inc.,attheRenaissanceWaverlyHotelandCobbConventionCentreinAtlanta,
Georgia,June28–July1,1998.AnexcerptfromDr.Lezotte’spaperfollows:
Asingleschool,asasystem,cancontrolenoughofthevariablestoassurethatvirtuallyall
studentsdolearn.ThedistinguishededucationalresearcherRobertGagnesaidthatthees-
sentialtaskoftheteacheristoarrangetheconditionsofthelearner’senvironmentsothat
theprocessoflearningwillbeactivated,supported,enhanced,andmaintained.
[Ed.Note:Quotingfromthe1969entryinthisbookentitledImprovingEducationalAssessment
andanInventoryofMeasuresofAffectiveBehavior,thewriterwishestodrawthereader’sat-
tentiontoamostrevealingstatementfrom“ThePurposesofAssessment”byRalphTyler:
Now,asthepeoplefromconditioninghavemovedintoaninterestinlearningintheschools,
thenotionsofbehavioralobjectiveshavebecomemuchmorespeciic.AsfarasIknow,one
cannotverywellteachapigeonageneralprinciplethathecanapplytoavarietyofsituations.
TheobjectivesforpersonscomingoutoftheSkinnerianbackgroundtendtobehighlyspeciic
ones.WhenIlistenedtoGagne,whoisanintelligentandeffectiveconditioner,talkabout
humanlearningobjectives,Iwinceagooddealbecausehesetsveryspeciicones.Iknow
thatwecanattainlevelsofgeneralizationofobjectivesthatarehigherthanthat.
MakingtheconnectionbetweenLezotte,Gagne,andTylershouldhelpthereaderun-
derstandthattherestructuringgoingoninthisnation’sschoolsrelectstheuseofSkinner-
ianoperantconditioning(OBE/ML/DI).Lezotte,oneoftheleadersoftoday’srestructuring
407
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998
movement,hasmadethisclearbyhisreferencetoGagne,conditionsandenvironment.The
highproilethatLezottemaintainswithhisEffectiveSchoolsorganizationandhisconsistent
appearance at Willard Daggett’s meetings and seminars—and Daggett’s close former asso-
ciationwithWilliamSpadyofOBEfame—shoulddemonstratetothereaderthatallofthese
participantsandpromotersoftherestructuringmovementare“singingthesametune,”asit
were,andtheysoundexactlylikeSkinner’soperant-conditionedpigeons.LawrenceLezotte
hasalsoservedontheboardofdirectorsforTheEffectiveSchoolReport—thisveryimportant
andrelativelyunknown(tothepublic)journal.]
THEATLANTACONSTITUTION’SJULY1,1998 EDITION CARRIED AN ARTICLE BYDOUGCumming
entitled“GeorgiaSchoolsOKTrackingSystems”whichconirmedtheworstfearsofeducation
researcherstrackingPlanning,Programming,BudgetingSystems(PPBS)andManagementby
Objectives(MBO)forovertwenty-iveyears.Excerptsfromthisrevealingarticlefollow:
Takingitsbiggeststepyettocreateapowerfulnewcomputerinformationsystemthatcan
trackeverystateeducationdollardowntotheattendanceratesandtestscoresofeveryGeorgia
classroom,theStateBoardofEducationapprovedtwomajorcomputercontractsTuesday.
Thetwocontracts,forasmuchas$31millionoverthenext12months,alongwitha
relatedcontracttableduntilJuly9,willgiveschoolsystemsquickeraccesstoinformation.
“Forexample,thenewsystemswillletschoolsystemsinstantlyreportstudentswhoare
absentfortwoconsecutiveweeksorsuspendedfordrugs,alcohol,orguns.Thiswillallowthe
statetoimmediatelyrevoketheirdriver’slicensesunderalawthattookeffectthisyear.
“That’sjustatasteofwhatispossible.Inthefuture,bylinkingstudentrecords,staff
recordsandfundingformulas,thenewsystemwillalsoallowlocalschoolsandstatepolicy-
makerstoseehowwellteachersandstudentsareperformingwithinspeciicprograms.
“Weknowthatineducationfortoolong,programshavebeenimplemented,andthere
wasneveranycomprehensivemeasurement,”saidMiriamV.Holland,directorofadminis-
trativetechnologyforthestateDepartmentofEducation.
“Thestategoaloverthenextfewyearsistobeabletopinpointthecauseofacademic
weaknessessuchastherecentfailurerateonthescienceportionofthestate’sgraduation
exam,”shesaid.
BonnieKnight,headofbusinessandtechnologyfortheRockdaleschools,saidsheis
excitedaboutwhatwillbepossiblewhenanewstudent-informationsystemisintroduced
andlinkedtotheaccountingsystem.Then,teacherscanpunchupontheirowncomputer,
withinsecuritylimits,familyandstudentrecords,andadministratorscanaccessthekindof
informationthatprivatebusinessesnormallyusetodeterminethecost-effectivenessofany
program.Knightsayssheknowsofnootherstatethatislinkingstudentrecordswithstate
andlocalschoolaccountingsystems.
JamesMullins,alobbyistforDeKalbCountyschools,whichusesitsowninformation
systems,saidthenewsystemwillputincreasingpressureonsystemslikehistoadoptthe
state’ssystem.Hesaidmanylocalsystemsquietlyworrythattheproposednewsystemcould
eventuallygivethestatethepowerofa“BigBrother”tocontrollocalschoolsdirectly.
[Ed.Note:ThelegitimateconcernexpressedbyJamesMullinsofDeKalbCountyregarding
“BigBrother”comesasatimelywarningfornaïveAmericanswhoseenothingwrongwith
providinganyandallinformation—socialsecuritynumbers,ingerprints,personaldata—to
anyonewhorequestsit,even,andespecially,yourlocalschooloficials.Thereaderisurged
to re-read the 1972 entry in this book which quoted from “Schools to Try New Program”
408
publishedintheTallahassee,FloridaTheLedgerfortheCecilGoldencommentwhichlikened
PPBS/MBO—ofwhichtheabovearticleisthefulillment—toanatombomb:“[L]ikethose
assemblingtheatombomb,veryfewofthemunderstandexactlywhattheyarebuilding,and
won’tuntilweputallthepartstogether.”]
“VOCATIONALPROJECTLAUDED”WASPUBLISHEDINTHESALEM,OREGONTHESTATESMANJournal
onJuly7,1998.Thisarticlediscussedaprograminwhichstudentsrepairdonatedcomputers
foruseinschools(StudentsRecyclingUsedTechnologyorSTRUT).Someexcerptsfollow:
Gov.JohnKitzhaber,addressinganationalconferenceofeducatorsMonday,praisedavo-
cationaleducationprogramasanexampleofschoolreformthatemphasizesresultsinstead
ofclasstime.
Studentsrepairdonatedcomputersforuseinschoolsthroughtheprogramknownas
StudentsRecyclingUsedTechnology,orSTRUT.
TheprogramisamodelforthenextgenerationofvocationaleducationintheUnited
States,KitzhabertoldtheEducationCommissionoftheStates,aneducationalpolicygroup
thatincludesgovernorsandstatelegislators.
“Thenewmodel,”saidKitzhaber,“providesstandardsandthebasicsbutthenrequires
studentstodemonstratethattheycanactuallyapplytheknowledgethatthey’velearned.”
“Conceivedin1995,STRUThasplaced10,000refurbishedcomputersinschoolsand
hasmorethan800studentsrepairingcomputersstatewide.
“Theprogram’sresultshaveinspirededucatorsinWashington,California,Arizona,
NewMexicoandTexastocopyit.STRUTisamodernversionoftraditionalvocationaledu-
cationbecauseitcombinestwoobjectives,”saidFrankNewman,CommissionPresident....
“InIndiana,newprogramssimilartoSTRUTrelyonprofessionaltechnicians,notstudents,
torepairdonatedcomputers....Onedownsideisthatalotofwhatisdonatedislowqual-
ity,”saidCarolynBreedlove,atelecommunicationslobbyistfortheNationalEducationAs-
sociationinWashington,D.C.“Companiesgettaxwrite-offsoftennotcommensuratewith
thequalityofthedonations.”
THE JULY 9, 1998 ISSUE OF THE SOUTH BRISTOL, MAINE LINCOLN COUNTY WEEKLY PUBlished
anarticleentitled“DarlingCenterHostsUNESCOConference”whichillustratestheextent
towhicheventhesmallesttownsinournationarebeingaffectedbyinternationaleducation
policies.Thearticlestatesinpart:
WhilethemajorityofresidentsandvisitorsintheareacelebrateDamariscotta’spast150
years,aledglinggroupofinternationalvisitorsgatherattheIraC.DarlingMarineCenter
toplanforthefuture.
ParticipantsinthethirdInternationalWorkingConferenceonInformationTechnology
inEducationManagement(ITEM)havecomefrom18countries,includingAustralia,Japan,
NewZealand,ChinaandtheNetherlands,tosharetheirresearchonintegratinginformation
foreducationmanagement....
…“Oneveryimportantaspectofthisworkishowintegratedinformationinluences
orinformsthedecisionsofschooladministratorsandpolicymakers,”saidRayTaylor,the
conferencecoordinatorandaformersuperintendentoftheAugustaschooldistrict….
WhiletheDarlingCenterhostedthemeeting,SchoolUnion74,UNESCO(UnitedNa-
tions Educational, Scientiic and Cultural Organization), and a North Carolina company,
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998 409
OR/EDLaboratories,alsosupportedtheweek’sevents.
“Mostoftheparticipantsworkwithnationalinformationsystemsforeducation,with
GreatBritain,Israel,HongKong,andNewZealand,havingamongthemostadvancedsys-
tems,”Taylorsaid.
Speakersdebatedthebeneitsofstandardizingstudentandschoolinformationacross
regions.Suchinformationsystemsbeneitstudentsbytrackingtheiracademicachievement,
as well as administrators who have individual children continually entering and leaving
theirschools.
“Thisgoesbeyondcountingcheeseandbuses,”oneparticipantremarked.“Wewant
tocreateconsistentdataonlocal,regionalandnationallevels.”[Andinternational?ed.]
THEJULY11,1998ISSUEOFTHEWASHINGTONTIMESCARRIEDANARTICLEENTITLED“Classroom
Brain-Watchers?”byKathleenParkerwhichdiscussedthefederalgovernment’splantoprevent
schoolviolenceby“addingpsychoanalysistoourteachers’laundrylistofresponsibilities.”
Excerptsfollow:
Ihaveahealthyparanoiatowardgovernment,bornmostlikelyofhavingbeenreared
byamisanthropicWWIIpilotwithabombshelter.Let’sjustsay,whengovernmentbu-
reaucratsknockonmydoorandsay,“Wewanttohelpyou,”IgetthesamefeelingIgotas
alittlegirlwhentheoldmandownthestreetreachedoverhiscyclonefencetooffermea
pieceofcandy.Not“No,thanks,”but“Run!”
Whentheycomeknockingtosaytheywanttohelpmychildren,Irelectwistfullyon
moats.
SuchthatwhenIrecentlyheardaboutthefederalgovernment’splantopreventschool
violencebyaddingpsychoanalysistoourteachers’laundrylistofresponsibilities,Ibegan
pricingdrawbridges.
Judgingfromtheabsenceofnewsstoriesonthesubject,youmayhavemissedyour
future.PresidentClintonirstmentionedtheplaninhisJune13radioaddresstothenation.
EducationSecretaryRichardRileymentioneditagainacoupleofweeksagoduringtheSafe
andDrugFreeSchoolsConferenceinWashington,D.C.
Mr. Clinton has directed Mr. Riley and Attorney General Janet Reno to work with
theNationalAssociationofSchoolPsychologiststodevelopaframework—“earlywarning
guide”—tohelpteachersandprincipalsidentifywhichkidsaremostlikelytobringGrandpa’s
deerriletoschooloneofthesedays.
Theplanalsocallsforexpandinglinksbetweenschoolsandlocalpsychologicalcom-
munitiessochildrenidentiiedas“troubled”haveaccesstocounseling.
Becausetheguideisintheearlyplanningstages,detailsareskimpy.Nooneknows
yethowdangersignswillbedeinedorrecognized,accordingtoaDepartmentofEduca-
tionspokesperson.Rightoff,I’dhavetosayit’sprettyeasytotellwhichkidsaredangerous
withoutcreatingapsychologicalbureaucracy.Innearlyallrecentschoolshootings,asMr.
Clintonpointedout,theshootersannouncedtheirplansinadvance.
Inotherwords,ifakidsays,“I’mgoingtobloweverybodyawaytomorrowbecause
they’vebeenpickingonmesincenurseryschool,”youmightassumetrouble.If,onthe
otherhand,athird-gradeboydrawsapictureofashipexplodingwithbodieslyinginall
directions,punctuatedbyredinkblots,youmightassumeyou’vegotanormalthird-grader
onyourhands.
Butyoucanbetthatwon’tbethethinkingoncethewarningguideisinthehandsof
extremelywell-meaningeducatorsandcounselors,someofwhomhavethejudgmentand
410
perceptionofparakeets.Thatthird-graderwillwindupinsomecounselor’soficeforanalysis
andreprogrammingbeforeyoucansay“Freud.”
Paranoid?Youbet.
Myownchild—akind,sensitive13-year-oldwhosedisinterestingunsrivalshisin-
terestinhangingupwettowels—drewincrediblyviolentpicturesduringhisgrade-school
years.Theexplodingshipwithexplodingbodiescomestomind.Howmightanewlytrained
teacher—especiallyafemaleteacherwithoutsons—interpretsuchadrawing?
Clearlyasociopath.Getthatboydowntown!
Will any child who talks about guns be sent to the “thought police”? What about
playingcowboysandIndians,or“StarWars”duringrecess?Doesthisqualifyachildfor
re-education?Whatsortofrecordswillbekept?
EvenMr.Rileyexpressedconcernsabouttheplan.“Weneedtobeverycautiousabout
theideaofsortingoutourchildrenandlabelingthem,”hesaidinthespeech.“Toomany
childrenarealreadybeingsortedoutinourschoolsandtoooftenthisapproachtoeducation
hasbeenharmfultominorityyouth.”
Not to mention harmful to freedom. Can mandatory psychological proiling be far
behind?Thepotentialforabuseofpowerandthoughtcontrolisthestuffofscienceiction.
Butthat’sjustthethinkingofaparanoid.Iprobablyjustneedalittlepsychotherapy.
Andabigmoat.
INTHEJULY14,1998CONGRESSIONALRECORDCONGRESSMANHENRYHYDE(R.,IL)INcludeda
veryimportantarticlewrittenbyD.L.Cuddy,Ph.D.,formerseniorassociatewiththeU.S.De-
partmentofEducationandconsultanttotheNorthCarolinaHouseSelectCommitteeforFederal
EducationGrants.Cuddywrote“Education:TheNewTransatlanticAgenda”whichappeared
intheJuly2,1998issueofDunn,NorthCarolina’sTheDailyRecord.Excerptsfollow:
TheWhiteHousereleasedastatementMay18attheconclusionoftheU.S.-EuropeanSummit
inLondon,indicatingthat“throughtheNewTransatlanticAgenda(NTA),createdin1995,
theUnitedStatesandtheEuropeanUnionhavefocusedonaddressingthechallengesand
opportunitiesofglobalintegration.”
Onepartofthis“globalintegration”in1995wastheagreementbetweentheU.S.and
theEuropeanCommunityestablishingacooperationprograminhighereducationandvo-
cationaleducationandtraining.
Theagreement,signedDecember21,1995,calledfor“improvingthequalityofhuman
resourcedevelopment...transatlanticstudentmobility...andthusportabilityofacademic
credits.”Inthisregard,ajointcommitteewouldreachdecisionsbyconsensus.
AspartoftheNTA,theUnitedStatesandEuropeanUnionthenconvenedamajorcon-
ference,“BridgingtheAtlanticPeople-to-PeopleLinks,”May5–6.1997,callingfor“thematic
networks for curriculum development,” and further stating that in an information-based
globaleconomy,“governmentstooareobligedtoadapttheireconomic,trainingandsocial
welfareprograms.”
TheconferenceinalreportnotedthatintheUnitedStates,ACHIEVEhasbeenone
oftheorganizationsattheforefrontofdeiningkeyissuesinthisregardanddeveloping
strategiestoaddressthem.
ACHIEVE has been measuring and reporting each state’s annual progress in estab-
lishinginternationallycompetitivestandardsandbusinessleadersinvolvedhaveindicated
theircommitmenttoconsiderthequalityofeachstate’sstandardswhenmakingbusiness
locationorexpansiondecisions.
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998 411
The“PartnersinaGlobalEconomyWorkingGroup”oftheconferencediscussed“what
redesigningofcurriculaisrequired...(i.e.,whatcareerskillsareneeded)...portabilityofskill
certiicates...institutionalizingcross-nationallearning/trainingactivities.”
MostpeopledebatingSTWinAmericaarefamiliarwiththeroleofMarcTucker,pres-
identoftheNationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomy.He’salsoontheNationalSkill
StandardsBoard(NSSB).
On the National Skill Standards Board website under international links, one inds
“Smartcards Project Forum,” under which one reads: “The Tavistock Institute and the
European Commission are working on a feasibility study to research the effect of using
Smartcardsincompetenceaccreditation.ThestudywillbecarriedoutintheUSAandparts
ofEurope.”
Theprojectinvolvesassessingandvalidatingstudents’skills,withinformationplaced
onpersonalskillsSmartcards,which“becomerealpassportstoemployment.”
Ifwithoutapassportonecannotenteracountry,doesthismeanthatwithoutaskills
passport,onemaynotbeabletogetajobinthefuture?
InOctober1997,theTavistockInstitute(andManchesterUniversity)completedthe
inalreportfortheEuropeanCommissionanddescribedinareportsummaryweretherel-
evancyofGoals2000,SCANS...typologywithits“profoundimplicationsforthecurriculum
andtrainingchangesthatthiswillrequire,”validskillsstandardsandportablecredentials
“benchmarkedtointernationalstandardssuchasthosepromulgatedbytheInternational
StandardsOrganization(ISO).”
Thereportsummarywentontosaythat“thereisincreasingattentionbeingfocused
ondevelopingglobalskillstandardsandaccreditationagreements”andtherewillbe“part-
nershipsbetweengovernment,industryandrepresentativesofworkerorganizations...[and]
ahighdegreeofintegration...embeddingskillswithinthebroadercontextofeconomicand
socialactivityandspeciicallywithintheareasofsecondaryeducationwork-basedlearning
andlocalandregionaleconomicdevelopment....TheNSSB,Goals2000,STWProgramare
allcombiningtoactasacatalysttopromotetheformationofpartnershipstodevelopskills
standards.Inthisregard,asystemlikeO*Netcanbeseenasthegluethatholdseverything
together.”
O*NetisanewoccupationaldatabasesystemsponsoredbytheU.S.Departmentof
Labor’sEmploymentandTrainingAdministrationandisbeingpilotedinTexas,SouthCaro-
lina,California,NewYorkandMinnesota.Itincludesinformationsuchas“WorkerCharac-
teristics”(abilities,interestsandworkstyles)and“WorkerRequirements”(e.g.,basicskills,
knowledgeandeducation).
CHRISTINEBURNS,AVETERANTEACHEROFOUTSTANDINGCHARACTER,REPUTATIONANDcredentials,
labeledtheSt.LouisCareerAcademya“diabolicalgauntletofpandemonium”inanarticle
entitled“School-to-WorkAcademy:A‘Model’forChaos”whichappearedintheJuly1998
issueofTheEducationReporter.Excerptsfollow:
TheCareerAcademy...wastoutedbyeducationreformersasthewaveofthefuture—the
“NewUrbanHighSchool”—withtheintentthatitwilleventuallybeopen24hoursaday.
TheCareerAcademywasdesignedtobeoneofive“break-the-mold”School-to-Workmodel
highschoolsintheU.S.thataretobereplicatedthroughoutthecountry.
In May of this year, the Career Academy’s facade of “success” and “achievement”
begantocrumblewhenoneofitsteacherscameforwardtopaintasordidpictureofchaos,
confusionandineptitudeattheschool,callingit“adiabolicalgauntletofpandemonium”
412
foritsstudents.
Mrs.Burns,aftereightmonths’teachingattheacademy,desiredonlyto“getoutofit”
andbe“ridoftheproblem.”Butthentheschooldistricttoldhertoread,critiqueandsign
offonadocumententitled“BuildingtheFoundationforLife-Long,Self-DirectedLearning”
whichaccordingtoBurnswas“fulloflies,suppositionsandhalftruths.”Realizingthatshe
couldnotsignthedocument,shesaysthatneithercouldshe“walkawaywithoutsomeone,
somewhere,knowingwhatIbelievetobethetruthaboutwhatishappening,orrather,not
happeningattheSt.LouisCareerAcademy.”
Mrs.Burnsdraftedarebuttalto“BuildingaFoundation”whichshesenttotheschool’s
principal,theCEDSuperintendent,thecourt-appointedvocationaleducationmonitor,and
theschooldistrict’ssevenboardmembers.Therebuttalchargestheschoolwith“lyingabout
studentsgaininginacademicachievement.”Itcontendsthat“theschoolreliestooheavily
oncomputers,thatcomputerlabsaretypicallychaoticandpoorlycontrolledduetolackof
manpower,”andthat“destructionandtheftofequipmentarecommonplace.”“Studentscheat
oncomputerizedteststoadvancetotheirnext‘tier’(grade),”shewrote,addingthat“the
schoollackspracticalin-classroomteaching,orderanddiscipline.”Shechargedthat“children
attheacademyhavebeenpartofagiantSchool-to-Workexperimentforthepasttwoyears,
subjectedtounprovenandunorthodoxpracticesandprocedures,likeratsinamaze.”
ThoughtheCareerAcademyhasattemptedtorefuteMrs.Burns’scharges,“Building
theFoundation”’s37paragraphsprovidesomecluesastotheirvalidity.Paragraph9refers
totheschool’sstaffandstudentsasremaining“intenselyinvolvedinanon-goingprocess
ofself-creation.”Paragraph26whinesthat:“Inspiteofanexplicitcourtmandateto‘break
themold,’theacademycontinuestocomeunderattackfromproponentsoftheoldsystem.”
Yetparagraph30admitsthat“studentshavelearnedtheycanfoolthecomputerby‘smart
guessing’orbymemorizinganswersforretests.Somestudentswonderhowmuchoftheir
learningtheywillretain.Othershave‘maxedout’ontheEnglishandmathprograms,and
donotfeelchallengedbytheirsupplementalwork.”
BILLCARLSON,ANEDUCATIONRESEARCHERFROMTEXAS,COVEREDTHESCHOOL-TO-CAREERAcad-
emyConferenceheldJuly23–24,1998attheAirportHyattHotelinBurlingame,California.
Carlson’sarticleshouldbeinthehandsofparentsandsmallbusinessmenwhohavebeen
subjectedtotheskilledmanipulationofthechangeagentpromotersofSTW.Excerptsfrom
Mr.Carlson’sarticle,“ImpressionsandConcerns:APreliminaryReport”follow:
TheSchool-to-Career(STC)“academy”featuredtwokeynotespeakers,J.D.HoyeandWil-
lardDaggett.HoyebillsherselfasJ.D.Hoye,President,KeeptheChange,Inc.Herwebsite
(http://inet.ed.gov./ofices/OVAE/hoye.html)identiiesherastheDirectoroftheNational
School-to-Work(STW)OficeinWashington,D.C.(Note:STCandSTWasusedinthisreport
conveythesamemeaning.)Hoye’sformerinvolvementwaswiththeOregonDepartmentof
EducationandOficeofCommunityCollegeServices,Oregon,arguablyandtragicallythe
mostOBE-impactedstateinthenation....Bothspeakersareextremelysmoothandclever
STWmarketers.BothhaveapassionforALLchildrentolearnandseemconvincedthatSTW
will“leveltheplayingield.”(Itmust,however,bemandatorythatALLchildrenexperience
STW.Why?)
Hoyegivesthemessagethatourcurrenteducationsystemdoesgreatfor25–30%of
thestudents.ShewantsalevelplayingieldforALLstudents.Shepointstoabookcalled
TheNewBasicsasaguide.Sheplaysdownmemorization,abstractandtheoreticalteach-
ingbecausetheydon’tstickaswellascooperativeprojectcompletions.Nowisthetime
413
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998
topromoteSTCthroughoutourcommunitiesbecauseit“sunsetsin2001.”Becreativein
indingwaysto“convince”skeptics,especiallyparents.Involvethemintheprocessand
theywillbelievetheideasgeneratedweretheirown.Administratorsshouldmakesure,as
far as possible, that hiring, promotion and retention policies coincide with promotion of
school-to-workgoals.
StudentsarethebestcommunicatorsoftheneedforchangeandSTW.Periodically,
astudentwasbroughtouttogivea“irst-handexample”ofourneedtochange,change,
changetoSTW.Shedescribeswhatwearedoing(promotingschool-to-career)as“themost
importantthinghappeningonourplanet!”
WillardDaggettwasclearlythefeaturedevent.(website—http://www.daggett.com)
Hewasintroducedasonewhois“takingonthetaskofpromotingschool-to-careerinCali-
fornia.”IfDr.DaggettistheKingofSTW,HoyeiscertainlytheQueen.Daggetttoutshimself
asbeingthePresidentoftheInternationalCenterforLeadershipinEducation,Inc.
Heofferedthankstoeducatorsfor“hanginginthere”inspiteofallofthecriticism.
Hisadvicetotheaudiencewas,“Don’tputthespinonSTCasSTC,butputthespinon‘The
Basics’inrelationtoschool-to-career.”(Fool‘em?)Inordertoeffectchange(thekeyword,
again!), you must have a passion to change. Basic conditions to create change: 1. Have
passion,2.Havedata,3.Haveleadership,and4.Havestaffdevelopment.Usingthesefour
ingredients,youwillhavesuccessfulmodelstohelpmarketSTC.Someofthe255subject
areasinourschoolsshouldbetakenout.“InAmerica,whensomethinggoesintothecur-
riculum,itnevercomesout.”Examplesgiven(Ibelieve)totakeout:someoftherequirements
inmath,science,socialstudies,etc.Hewantsschoolstomakeroomforinformationthat
now“doubleseveryninemonths!”
Daggettsaysreadingforentertainmentshouldbemostlyreplacedwithreadingandwrit-
ingtechnicalmanualsandemphasisshouldbeplacedonprocedureandprocess....Daggett
saidthatthetimehascometocreatecontroversy....Hehasdiscussedwithneurosurgeons
(Hehasoneinthefamily.)whetherdeathisinevitable,or,withtheadvanceofbiotech,
anoption.Heavystuff!...Inoneofthe“breakout”sessionsthatIattended,thefocuswas
onhowtosellSTWtoanunawarecommunity.Forthepastfouryears,educators,school
boardmembers,teacherunions,andsomeemployershavebeenthetargetsofrepeatedSTW
indoctrination.Now,parents,studentsandothersmustsomehowbehauledin.Onelady
saidshethoughtthename(STW)shouldbechangedbecauseaconservativegroupcalled
“theEagleForum”isopenlyandeffectivelycriticalofSTW....Followingskepticalcomments,
thesameladyconcludedthat,“Now,forsure,we’llhavetochangethename”andcallSTC
somethingotherthanSTC.(Fool‘em!)...
Ihaven’theardspeakerslikethissincetheradical1960’serawhenthosedemanding
“change”worelonghair,headbandsandsandals,notasuitandtie.DaggettandHoyecon-
tinuedto“evangelize”thevastcult-likefollowingofthosewhonowsupportradicalchanges
toourschools.CitizensarepayingBIG-TIMEforthisexperimentinsocialcontrol,buttoo
fewknowmuchaboutSTC.Andprobablywouldwantnopartofitif/whenit’severfully
explainedtothem.
Idon’t.
DR.KENWILLIAMS,ANELECTEDTRUSTEETOTHEORANGECOUNTYDEPARTMENTOFEDUcationand
board-certiiedfamilyphysicianinSantaAna,California,wrotethefollowingAugust27,1998
lettertotheAmericanSchoolBoardJournalregardingtheSchool-to-WorkCareerInventory
andAssessments.Dr.Williams’sincredibleexperienceexposesthedangerousimplicationsof
theuseofpsychologicalassessments,etc.,topredictanindividual’scareerpotential.Thefull
textofDr.Williams’sletterfollows:
414
DearSir:
IamwritingyouasanelectedTrusteetotheOrangeCountyDepartmentofEducationin
CaliforniaregardingtheSTWCareerInventoryandAssessments.Iwasaskedtosharethis
informationwithyoubecauseofmyconcernswiththeSTWprogram.
Lastyear,Itookacomputer-assistedcareerinventoryprogramatthelocalhighschool
hereinOrangeCountytodeterminewhatcareerpathwayIwouldhavebeenencouragedto
takeifIwereafreshman.
Tomysurprise,thecareerinventoryprogramsencouragedmetofollowacareerpathway
thatwouldleadtooneofthefollowingoccupations:1)AutoMuflerInstaller,2)Plasterer
andDrywallInstaller,3)Glazier,4)CementMason,5)AutoBodyandFenderRepairer,6)
RailroadBrakeOperator,7)BusDriver,and8)Modeling.
Now,letmestatethatIamnotdegradinganyoftheseoccupations.Thegoodpeople
ofthisnationwhoareengagedintheseieldsarehardworkingAmericanswhodeserveour
respect.MyconcernisthatwhenItookthiscareerassessmentandinventory,Ianswered
alltwentyorsoquestionswiththeideathatIwantedtobeafamilyphysicianpracticingin
thecityofSantaAna,California,whereItookthecareerprogramatthelocalhighschool
(whereaSTWprogramisinplace).
Inconclusion,Iwonderhowmanysmartandtalentedkidsfromtraditionallydisad-
vantagedminoritygroupsinthisinnercityarebeingdirectedintolowwageandlowskill
jobs,insteadofintoprofessionalandgraduateschools.Isthistheultimate,“in-your-face”
federalprogramthatwilltakeawaylibertiesandfreedomsfromourpeople?
Sincerely,
Dr.KenWilliams
WILLIAMJ.BRAUN,SR.,ISSUEDAPRESSRELEASEDATEDAUGUST29,1998FROMCLEVEland,Ohio
concerningalandmarkeducationcase,Stateexrel.StephenReav.OhioDepartmentofEdu-
cation.ThepressreleasediscussedthesuccessfullyarguedStephenReacourtcaseregarding
thestatusofcertaintestsandassessmentsbeingdeclaredpublicrecords:
StephenRea,relyingontheU.S.FreedomofInformationActandtheStateofOhioAvailability
ofPublicRecordsLaw,requestedcopiesofsensitivetestingmaterialsusedonhisdaughter
atWestBranchHighSchool,Beloit,Ohio.
Hiscontinuedrequestsfellupondeafears,allthewayuptotheStateSuperintendent
ofSchools.Reaarguedthatallclassroommaterialsgeneratedwithgovernment-fundeddol-
larsconstitutedpublicrecordsperse.
Hewouldbeallowedtoviewtherequestedmaterials,butonlyifheagreedtosigna
secrecyagreementthatcarriedaineandimprisonmentclauseifviolated.On28August
1996,ReailedacomplaintwiththeOhioSupremeCourt,whichwasacceptedfortrial.
ReasoughtjudicialjudgmentagainsttheOhioBoardofEducationonfourissues.The
casewastriedinmandamus.Inapowerfullywordedmajorityopinion,theCourtruledin
favorofReaandhisdaughter.(StateofOhio,exrel:StephenRea,etalv.OhioDepartment
ofEducation.CaseNo.96–1997,inMandamus.)
Tomorrow’sbattleswillshiftabruptlyfromschoolsuperintendents’oficesandDe-
partmentofEducationconferenceroomstoStateandFederalCourtChambers,wherethey
aremorelikelywinnable,includingtherecoveryofreasonablefeesandcourtcosts.
“WORKFORCEINVESTMENTACTPUTSAMERICAONROADTOFASCISM—HILLARY’SGLOBALVillage
415
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998
andtheNewWorldOrderAreOficiallyInstitutedbyCongress”byJimDayappearedinthe
August,1998St.LouisMetroVoicemonthly.Excerptsfollow:
“FewbillswhichweconsiderwillhaveagreaterimpactonmoreAmericansthantheWork-
force Investment Act (H.R. 1385) we pass today.”—Sen. Edward Kennedy (Congressional
Record,July30,1998,p.S9490).
[PUBLISHER’SNOTE:Truerwordswereneverspokeninrelationtogainingtotalcontrol
ofthecitizensoftheUnitedStatesandturningournationintoafasciststate.Ifyouthink
thisisanoutlandishstatement,readthisarticle.Whatyouareabouttoreadistheabsolute
truthwhichisbackedbymoredocumentationthanyoucouldeverhopetoread.]
OnJuly30SenatorsEdwardKennedy(D)MA,JimJeffords(R)VT,MikeDeWine(R)
OH,PaulWellstone(D)MN,ChristopherDodd(D)CT,andJackReed(D)RI,unanimously
passedbyavoicevotetheConferenceReportonH.R.1385—theWorkforceInvestmentAct
of1998—thelatestversionof“TheCAREERSAct.”Avoicevoteonlyrequiresamajorityof
thosepresenttopassorrejectabill.ThereportwasthensentbacktotheHouseofRepre-
sentativesforreview.
AccordingtotheCongressionalRecord,onlysixsenatorsspokeontheloor.Dueto
thefactthatnorollcallvotewastaken,itisnotknownifanyothersenatorswerepresent
inthechamberatthetime.
Lateintheafternoonthenextday,July31,withoutanynotice,whenmostcongressmen
wereonplanesheadedhome,ivecongressmen,againbyavoicevote,unanimouslyap-
provedH.R.1385,pavingthewayforPresidentClinton’ssignatureonAugust7.Theive
congressmenwereWilliamClay,Sr.(D)MO,HowardP.“Buck”McKeon(R)CA,William
“Bill”Goodling(R)PA,DaleKildee(D)MI,andMatthewMartinez(D)CA.
Again,duetothefactthatnorollcallvotewastaken,nooneknowshowmanyother,
ifany,congressmenwerepresentatthetimeofthevote.These11menandPresidentClin-
tonhavejustcreatedandsignedintolawlegislationwhichconvertsAmerica’sfreemarket
economicsystemtoacontrolledormanagedmarketsystem—thesametypeofeconomic
systemwhichwasestablishedbyNaziGermany.
[Ed.Note:PresidentClinton,onAugust7,1998,signedthiscontroversialschool-to-work/job
trainingbill,theinalversionoftheinfamousCAREERSActwhichgrassrootsactivistshad
workedhardtokillforoverfouryearsandhadthoughttheyhadputtorestinthesummerof
1996whenSenatorTrentLottrefusedtobringitupforavote.Thesesameactivistsweretaken
bysurprisewhenRep.HowardP.(Buck)McKeon,proclaimedconservativefromCalifornia,
appearedoutofnowherelikeastealthbomber,reintroducedandassistedtopasssimilarlegis-
lationinApril1997—thistimetitledTheEmploymentTrainingandLiteracyEnhancementAct
of1997.Activistshadlittletimetomountanefforttodownthisnastystealthmissile,allowing
ittogoontotheSenatewhich,inturn,passeditinAugustof1998.]
THENATIONALACADEMY OFSCIENCES AND THEU.S.DEPARTMENT OFEDUCATION-FUNDEDPre-
ventingReadingDificultiesinYoungChildren,GrantNo.0235501(NationalAcademyPress:
Washington,D.C.,1998),wascritiquedbyAnnHerzerofArizona,M.A.,readingspecialist.
Herzerliterallylobbedawell-justiiedgrenadeatthoseso-called“experts”involvedinthe
researchandwritingofthebook,whosecredentialsindicatetheirlong-terminvolvementin
programsforspecialeducationandinthepromotionordevelopmentofSkinnerianoperant
conditioningprogramstoteachreadingandothersubjects.Mrs.Herzer’scritiquefollowsin
itsentirety:
416
TheNationalAcademyofSciencesisaprivate,non-proitorganizationwhichwas
grantedaCharterbyCongressin1963.TheAcademyadvisesthegovernmentonscientiic
andtechnicalmatters.(p.iv)
Thefollowingthreegroupsarenamedonthetitlepagefortheabovebook:
(1)CommitteeonthePreventionofReadingDificultiesinYoungChildren;
(2)CommissiononBehavioralandSocialSciencesandEducationand
(3)NationalResearchCouncil.
Apparentlytheirstcommitteementionedwasresponsibleforthereport(thebook)
andmemberswere“Chosenfortheirspecialcompetenciesandwithregardforappropriate
balance.”(p.ii)
TheAcknowledgmentsreadlikeaWho’sWhoofGovernmentChangeAgentsandBehav-
ioralScientists.ReidLyon(NationalInstituteofHealth—NIH)withwhomIspokeregarding
TheReadingExcellenceAct,islisted,asaremembersconnectedwithNIH’slabs,several
membersfromtheU.S.DepartmentofEducation,theCarnegieCorp.,etc,etc.,etc.
During the information-gathering phase, a number of people are mentioned who
madepresentationstothecommitteeonprogramsthatfocusedonpreventionofreading
dificulties.Theydidnotsaywhoselectedthepresenters.Iamfamiliarwithtwonames:
EthnaReid(Keyboarding,ReadingandSpelling)andJohnNunnary(SuccessforAll).Iwill
neverforgetReid’sgovernment-sponsored(NDN)program,theExemplaryCenterforReading
Instruction(ECRI).The1978week-longECRIworkshopIattendedstartedmyinvestigation
intotheSkinnerianMasteryLearning/DirectInstructionprograms.SuccessforAllisoneof
theNewAmericanSchoolsDevelopmentCorporationprograms,selectedandapprovedby
PresidentsBushandClintonforrestructuringeducation,whichalsousesSkinnerianDirect
Instruction.
Severalprofessionalassociationswerementionedalongwithgroups,includingSave
theChildrenInternational.
SomemembersoftheCommitteeareworthmentioning:MarilynJagerAdamswho
wroteBeginningtoRead:ThinkingandLearningaboutPrint(arealPavlovianbell-ringer
disguisedunderphonics)andEdwardJ.Kame’enui,specialeducation,UniversityofOr-
egonandassociatedirectorofthefederallyfundedNationalCentertoImprovetheToolsof
Educators(NCITE)—thesamecenterwithwhichDouglasCarnine(whowasinvolvedwith
thefailedFollowThroughfederalprogramandthegovernment-sponsoredSkinnerianS-R-S
programDISTAR—(DirectInstructionSystemforTeachingandRemediation)isconnected.
DISTARisnowbeingtoutedbythegovernmentchangeagentsandtheradicalrightHeritage
FoundationasaDirectInstruction“scientiic”programforteachingphonics(ofallthings)
topre-K–3rdgradestudents.
Membersandtheirqualiicationsarementionedasfollows:CatherineSnow,M.A.and
Ph.DinpsychologyfromMcGillUniversity(Canada);MarilynJagerAdams,visitingprofessor
atHarvardUniversitySchoolofEducationandapreviousresearchscientistatBolt,Beranek
andNewman,Inc.;BarbaraT.Bowman,co-founderandpresident,theEricksonInstitutein
Chicago,Illinois,recentappointeetotheGreatBooksFoundationandtheNationalBoardfor
ProfessionalTeachingStandards;M.SusanBurns,formerlyonthefacultyattheUniversity
ofPittsburgh;BarbaraFoorman,UniversityofTexas,HoustonHealthScienceCenterand
alsoprincipalinvestigatoroftheEarlyInterventionProgramoftheNationalInstituteofChild
HealthandHumanDevelopment,consultingeditorfortheJournalofLearningDisabilities
andamemberoftheNewStandardsProject;ClaudeN.Goldenberg,aresearchpsychologist
intheDepartmentofPsychiatry,BiobehavioralSciencesattheUniversityofCalifornia,Los
Angeles;WilliamLaboroftheUniversityofPennsylvania,currentlyengagedinseveralre-
searchprogramsfundedbytheNationalScienceFoundationandtheNationalEndowmentfor
theHumanities;RichardK.Olson,associatedirectoroftheCenterfortheStudyofLearning
DisabilitiesfundedbytheNationalInstitutesofHealth;CharlesA.Perfetti,aseniorscientist
417
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998
attheLearningResearchandDevelopmentCenterattheUniversityofPittsburgh;etc.,etc.,
etc.,whoaresupposedtogivethishand-pickedcommitteean“appropriatebalance.”
The“treatment”suggestedinbothoftheabove-mentionedbooks[Jager’sBeginning
toReadandPreventingReadingDificulties]forteachingyoungchildrentoreadappearsto
havebeendesignedforthementallyretardedtoseverelyhandicappedchildren—notaver-
agechildren.
This group is proposing language training from birth. Apparently parents are to be
trained as though none have any normal/natural instincts in child rearing or language.
HIPPY,PAT(ParentsasTeachers)andotherhome-boundprogramsarenowproposedfor
the“atrisk”—thepoorandminoritychildren,buthowlongwillitbebeforetheradical
behavioralscientistsdemandhomevisitsandtrainingforallchildrenandtheirfamiliesas
wasmandatedintheformerSovietUnion?
Inmyopinion,theindividualsinvolvedinproducingthetwoabove-mentionedbooks
andespeciallytheU.S.government,whosuppliesthegrantmoney,arenotinterestedin
childrenlearningtoreadbutonlyintrainingandprogrammingthemfortheplannedglobal
workforce.OtherwiseprogramslikeDISTAR,ECRIandMadelineHunter’sEssentialElements
ofInstructionwouldhavebeenexposedandstoppedlongago.
When I evaluated the Texas Alternative Document (TAD), I was not aware of the
signiicanceofTADuntilReidLyonandothersrespondedontheinterneteducationloop.
TheseindividualsapparentlyaresupportingtheSkinnerianDISTAR,orsimilarprograms,
asamethodtoteachreadingthroughthedistributionofTAD.TADisnowbeingpushed
inNebraskaascurriculaforlanguagearts.Ipredicteditwouldbethenationalmodelfor
restructuringandteachertraining.DISTARisnowtrainingteachersinCalifornia,according
toEducationWeek.Thebigemphasisnationallyison“teachertraining,”especiallyinRead-
ing—”re-training,”not“education”—istheemphasis[emphasisinoriginal].
THESEPTEMBER1998ISSUEOFTHEAMERICANFAMILYASSOCIATIONJOURNALCARRIEDANarticle
entitled“DespiteHeavyFundingPublicSchoolsShowingMarksofInternalCrumbling”which
statedthat59%ofnewteachersinMassachusettsfailedtomeettheminimumstandardofa
basicreadingandwritingtest.Excerptsfollow:
ThispastApril,theMassachusettsBoardofEducationfortheirsttimerequirednewteach-
erstotakeabasicreadingandwritingtest.Oficialswerehorriied,however,todiscover
that59%ofthenewteachersfailedtomeettheminimumstandard.JohnSilber,Boardof
EducationChairman,complainedthatthetestonlyrequiredwould-beteacherstoscoreat
aneighth-gradelevel.Thetestresultswere“prettyfrightening,”Silbersaid.“Thesewere
allcollegegraduates.”
Massachusetts’sstrategyfollowingtheembarrassment?Educationoficialsloweredthe
minimumscorerequiredtopassthetestfroma77%to66%.Thenewstrategysucceeded;
only44%ofwould-beteachersfailedthetest.
THESEPTEMBER16,1998ISSUEOFTHEWASHINGTONTIMESCARRIEDANARTICLEENTITLED“New
TackTakenonReligioninSchools:GroupSeeksEndtoSecularBias”whichchroniclesthe
publicationofanewguidebook,TakingReligionSeriouslyacrosstheCurriculumco-authored
byCharlesHaynesoftheFirstAmendmentCenteratVanderbiltUniversityandWarrenNord
oftheUniversityofNorthCarolina(AssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment
418
andtheFirstAmendmentCenter:Washington,D.C.,1998).Theopeningparagraphofthe
articleisverytelling:
Agroupofeducatorsandpolicyadvocatesyesterdayunitedarounda“newconsensus”
onteachingaboutreligioninpublicschools,callingitalong-shotagendabutthemostlikely
tosatisfyallAmericans….
…“Ifthisbookisthenextstep,it’sabigstep,”saidDianeBerrethoftheAssociation
for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD), which advises public schools on
teaching.
The“newapproach”seeksamiddlegroundbetweentotallysecularschoolsandthose
wherethelocalmajorityreligionispromotedbyschooloficials.“Religionisstillnottaken
seriously in the public school curriculum,” said Charles Haynes, a co-author of the new
guidebook.
WarrenNord,aUniversityofNorthCarolinahumanitiesprofessorandco-author,said,
“Afulleducationmustacknowledgedifferentwaysofknowingreality,fromthescientiic
andeconomictothereligiousandmoral.”...MissBerrethofASCDsaidafewpilotschools
musttestthenewagendatoproveitseffectiveness.“Thismaybearoleof[charterschools],”
shesaid.
[Ed.Note:Theabovetwoauthorsmadetheirremarksatasymposiumwithiveotherpan-
elists.TheeventwassponsoredbytheFreedomForumandtheASCD,whichpublishedthe
220-pagebookwiththeFirstAmendmentCenteratVanderbiltUniversity.
IfanyoneouttherebelievesabookpublishedbytheAssociationforSupervisionand
CurriculumDevelopment(aspin-offoftheNationalEducationAssociationwhichconsistently
issuestiradesaboutChristianswhobelieveinsoundmoralvalues)couldcomeupwithanything
thepurposeofwhichisnottomakefurtherinroadsintothedestructionofwhateverabsolut-
istvaluesourchildrenstillhave,thenIsuggesttheyhavebeenlivingunderarockeversince
the1940’swhenthedrivetoeliminateabsolutistmoralvaluesfromourschoolsstarted.The
ASCDwasheavilyinvolvedinthemind-alteringcurriculumTacticsforThinking.
Researchersandactivistsinvolvedinfollowingthecircuitouspathtakenbythosewho
wanttoremovereligious-basedabsolutevaluesfromthisplanet,startingintheschools,have
thrownroadblocksintheirwayeverytimetheysurfacedwithanewsugar-coatedversionof
theirsugar-coatedvalues-destroyingcurriculum.Howmanymoretimesmustcitizenresearchers
leapforwardtoexposethisfraudulentcrowdwhichhasusedsemanticdeception(givenits
programsthefollowingmisleadinglabels)andoperatedasthefollowingentities:
• “CharacterEducation”intheearly1970’s(whichadvisedthoseinvolvednottouse
the“redlag”word“values”);
• ThePublicEducationReligionStudyCenteratWrightStateUniversity’s“comparative
religion”curriculum(whichwasfundedbyReligiousHeritageofAmerica,Inc.and
theLillyEndowmentoftheEliLillyCorporation);
• the appointed Maryland Values Commission, another project shared with Religious
HeritageofAmerica;
• theAmericanInstituteforCharacterEducation(AICE),fundedbytheLillyEndow-
ment;
• theWilliamsburgCharterproposalwhichledtotheFirstAmendmentCenter’scur-
riculum “Teaching about Religion,” and now, Taking Religion Seriously across the
Curriculum,whichahighschoolteacherfromSanDiego,Californiasaidshouldbe
419
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998
“mandatoryreading”forallpublicschoolinstructors.]
ANARTICLEENTITLED“U.S.ANNOUNCEDEXCHANGEPROGRAMS”APPEAREDINTHESEPtember18,
1998editionoftheOdessa(Russia)PostwhichheraldedtheresultsoftheU.S.-SovietEducation
Agreementssignedin1985andnumerousplanningactivitiessince1985.Excerptsfollow:
TheprogramisadministeredbytheU.S.InformationService.TheAmericanCouncilfor
CollaborationinEducationandLanguageStudy(ACCELS),theInternationalRenaissance
Foundation,andtheInternationalResearchandExchangesBoardforScholars(IREX)willbe
responsibleforprocessingapplications,selectingcandidatesandadministeringtheexchange
andscholarshipprograms....
…ACCELSwilladministertheU.S.-UkraineAwardsforExcellenceinTeaching,which
willbring15UkrainianteachersofEnglishandAmericanStudiestotheUnitedStates...in
thesummerof1999.Finalistsselectedfromparticipatingregionscanalsowincomputer
equipment,copiersorinternetaccessfortheirschools....
...[N]otonlycanUkrainiansindoutmoreabouttheAmericanwayoflife,ourvalues,be-
liefs,hopeandambitions,AmericanswillalsolearnmoreaboutUkraineandUkrainians.
“AQUESTIONOFEFFECTIVENESS”BYANDREWTROTTERWASPUBLISHEDINTHEOCTOBER1,1998
issueofEducationWeek’sspecialreportentitledTechnologyCounts’98—PuttingSchoolTech-
nologytotheTest.Thisimportantspecialissueshouldbereadinitsentiretyforanunder-
standingoftheplussesandminusesofusingtechnologyintheclassroom.Oneinteresting
chartonpage9indicatedthatwhenthepublicandteacherswereasked“Howmuchdoyou
thinkcomputershavehelpedimprovestudentlearning?”membersofthepublic,incontrast
toeducators,werenearlytwiceaslikelytosay“Agreatamount”(MCINationwidePollon
InternetinEducation,1998).
THEOCTOBER7,1998ISSUEOFEDUCATIONWEEKCARRIEDAFULL-PAGEADVERTISEMENTFORTHE
SixteenthAnnualEffectiveSchoolsConferencetobeheldinMarchof1999.Thiswriterhas
copiedtheadvertisementinordertoillustratethatanyconcernforacademicinstructionfor
Americanschoolchildrenisathingofthepast.(Thesemanticdeceptionwillbeobvious.)
SIXTEENTHANNUAL
EFFECTIVESCHOOLSCONFERENCE
LEARNINGFORALL—WHATEVERITTAKES
March4–7,1999
WillardDaggett,LarryLezotte,RayGollarz,MichaelFullan,JohnJayBonstingl,Ernest
Stachowski,DouglasReeves,AlanNovember,SpenceRogers,SandiRedenbach,Robert
Slavin
NSCI
NATIONALSCHOOLCONFERENCEINSTITUTE66
Phoenix,Arizona
Pre-Conferences:
420
LeadingLearningforAll
MakingtheRightChangesattheDistrictLeveltoAssureSuccessful,SustainableSchool
Reform—withLarryLezotte
EducationalAccountabilityinComplexSchoolSystems
TheChallengesofHighStandards,AccurateAssessments,andMeaningfulAccountability
withDouglasReeves
CONTENTS
• CorrelatesofEffectiveSchools
• DevelopingtheLeadershipTeam
• MeaningfulEducationalAccountability
• CreatingPositiveSchoolClimate
• ManagingChangetoImplementStandards
• InstructionalStrategiestoEnhanceAchievement
• InfusingTechnology
• EnsuringtheSuccessofAllChildren
• EffectiveSchoolImprovementPlanning
• QualityTeachingintheClassroom
• CommunicationLiteracy
• ClassroomSuccess—ApplyingBrainResearch
• MotivatingStudents
• AssessmentsasaPerformanceTool
• QualityandEquityintheSchool
• Site-BasedDecisionMaking
• LearningOrganizations
ANARTICLEENTITLED“CHARACTEREDUCATIONCATCHINGONATSCHOOLS—RESPECT,REsponsi-
bilityEmphasized”byAnuManchikantiwaspublishedintheOctober9,1998issueofThe
WashingtonTimes.Excerptsfollow:
Charactereducationisanationalmovementtobringuniversalvirtuesintotheclass-
room.
AtWasatch,acharactereducationprogramhasbeeninplacefortwoyears.
ThomasLickona,directoroftheNationalCenterforthe4thand5thRs(respectandre-
sponsibility),saysamoraldeclineinyouthrelectsacharactercrisisintheUnitedStates.
Inhis1997StateoftheUnionAddress,PresidentClintoncalledforschoolstoteach
characterandmoldchildrenintogoodcitizens.Mostrecently,VicePresidentAlGorean-
nounced$2.7millioningrantsfor10statesunderthePartnershipsinCharacterEducation
PilotProjectsProgram.Thegrantsshouldallowstatestoworkwithschooldistrictsindevel-
opingcurriculumandprovidingteachertrainingforcharactereducationprograms.Iowa,
NewMexicoandUtahhavereceivedsuchgrants.
“Itisn’taseparatecurriculumoranadd-onoranextrathing,”saidKristinFink,char-
421
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998
actereducationspecialistattheUtahStateOficeofEducation.“It’sreallysomethingthat
shouldbewovenintoeverythingwedo.”
AccordingtoKevinRyan,directoroftheCenterfortheAdvancementofEthicsand
CharacteratBostonUniversity,thepotentialforcharactereducationexistsinallcurriculum
toengagechildreninmoralthought.
For instance, physical education teachers might emphasize the importance of play-
ingfairinathletics,orscienceteachersmaystimulatediscussionabouttheethicalissues
involvedingeneticcloning.
“They’regoingtoeitherlearngoodcharacterorbadcharacter,”Mr.Ryansaid.“It’sall
aninevitablepartoflifethatschoolswillhaveanimpact.”
ButMurrayPhilip,aschoolboardmemberinNashville,Tennesseequestionstheidea
thatcharactercanbetaught.“Whoarewetodecidewhatisgoodcharacter,andwhatis
badcharacter?”hesaid.Mr.Philipdoubtsthatcharactercanbetaughtbecausehefeelsit
islearnedthroughadversityandexperience.Manyarguethatthejobofteachingcharacter
liesinthehandsoffamiliesratherthanschools.“There’sanawfullotofkidswhoarenot
beingtaughtanythingathome,”Mr.Ryansaid.“There’snosuchthingasamorallyneutral
school.”
[Ed.Note:InresponsetothestatementsbyThomasLickona,itishardforthiswritertoac-
ceptMr.Lickonaasaleaderintheareaofmoraleducationconsideringhispromotionofthe
lateLawrenceKohlberg’shumanistic“StagesofMoralDevelopment”andmorallyrelativistic
charactereducationprogram“EthicalIssuesinDecisionMaking.”
AsforClinton’s1997StateoftheUnionspeech,withtherecentlyconcludedimpeach-
menttrialandtheeventswhichprecipitatedit,therearenowordstoadequatelyexpressthe
ironyofClinton’scallingfortheschoolstoteach“character.”Also,canonereallyimaginea
government-developedcharactereducationprogramoronethatwouldbeallowedtobeused
in government-supported schools which would be effective, when government-supported
“scientiicresearch”isbasedinanevolutionaryperspectiveofourchildrenbeingtrainable
animals?Childrenobservingteachersandothersinauthorityexhibitinggoodcharacteristhe
best“charactereducation.”Also,allowingschoolboardstohireteacherswhoselivesincor-
poratehighmoralcharacterwoulddomuchtocontributetothesolutionofthisproblem.
Afterhavingreadandsaidalloftheabove,thewriterwouldliketoissuedegreesinrocket
scienceforalltheparentswhounderstandtheproblem!]
APPROXIMATELY3,500PEOPLEATTENDEDARALLYONSUNDAY,OCTOBER11,1998ATTHEMin-
nesotaStateCapitolinMinneapolisinoppositiontoMinnesota’sgraduationstandards.[Some
accountsputthenumberpresentatashighas5,000.]Minnesota’smajormedia—TheMinne-
apolisStarTribune,TheSt.PaulPioneerPress,TheMinnesotaDailyandfourlocaltelevision
stations—gavecoveragetotherally.TheMinneapolisStarTribunearticle“MultipleChoice
ReviewofEducation—ProilesofLearningTakesCentralStageatGubernatorialDebateon
Education—LargeProtestatCapitolTargetstheState’sNewestGraduationStandards”stated
inpart:
Minnesota’sGraduationRulecameundervigorousattackonSundayasmanyhundredsof
residentsralliedatthestatecapitoldemandinganendtotheacademicstandardsknownas
the“ProilesofLearning.”Opponentslambastedtheruleasanattempttocontrolschools
andamovetowardsasocialistgovernment.Manyfeartherulewillforceschoolstosteer
422
awayfromthebasicsand“dumbdown”publicschools.Organizersestimatedthecrowdat
3,500.RonaldAnderson,age61,agrandfatherfromSt.Paulsaid,“Publicschoolsareteach-
ingmoretouchy-feelyeducationinsteadofhistory,mathandsciencesandallthatstuff.”
Hewavedasignthatread“Donotexperimentwithourchildren.”
[Ed.Note:Whywastheabove-mentionedimportantnewsitemignoredbyout-of-statemedia?
Isitbecausenewscoverageofsuccessfuloppositiontorestructuringinonestatemightserve
toencourageactivistsinotherstates?
Corporateandeducationjournalsindicatethatthoseinchargeofrestructuringourschools
arenothappyatallwiththesluggishpaceofrestructuringduetotheeffectivenessofparent
andteacheropposition.Ifthereaderputsallofthisinformationtogethertheobviouscannot
beavoided:opponentsacrossthecountryaredoingfarbetterthantheyrealize—theyhave
sloweddowntherestructuringofournationfromfreeenterprisetosocialismfarmorethan
theyknow.Howmanymore“Minnesota”storiesarethereoutthereaboutwhichweknow
nothingduetomediacensorship?]
THEFOLLOWINGNEWSITEMWASCARRIEDBYUSATODAYINITSOCTOBER12,1998ISSUE:
SALTLAKECITY,UTAH—TheUtahSchoolBoardsAssociationhasaskedajudgetodeclarethe
’98CharterSchoolsActunconstitutional.Charterschoolsarefundedwithpubliceducation
money,butareexemptfrommanyoftherestrictionsonpublicschools.Thelawsuitalleges
localschoolboardshavecontroloverschoolsintheirboundaries,andthatbyreachingwithin
thoseboundaries,thestateiscreatinganewschooldistrictwithoutapublicvote.
[Ed.Note:HatsofftotheUtahSchoolBoardsAssociation.Wheneducationactivists/researchers
intheirmanyspeechesacrossthenationreferredtocharterschoolsas“taxationwithoutrep-
resentation”thesilenceinconservativeaudienceswas“deafening.”]
IN1998 THENORTHWESTREGIONALEDUCATIONALLABORATORY, ONE OF THE TEN LABORAtories
acrossthenationsupportedbycontractswiththeU.S.DepartmentofEducation’sOficeof
Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), provided the following information on its
“Education&CommunityServices:EmergingIssues”website(http//www.nwrel.org/pscc/
emerging.html).Forthereaderwhomay,understandably,wanttohaveanup-to-datereport
on the status of the restructuring of the nation’s schools, through school-to-work and the
mergingofeducationandworkforcetrainingwithsocialservices(systemicchange),thereis
probablynobettersourcethantheNorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory.“Emerging
Issues”asofOctober16,1998follow:
Twelvemajoremergingissueshavebeenidentiiedfromananalysisofrecentpolicyreports
andvalidatedbyafocusgroupofstateleadersashavingasigniicantimpactoneducation
intheNorthwest:
1.Acknowledgingfundamentalshiftsinteachingandlearning.Aviewofstudentsas
activelearners…emphasisoncooperativeandappliedlearning.
2. Dealing with the rising threat of violence. High incidence of violence, substance
abuse,andgang-relatedcrimearecausingschoolstoreviewdisciplinepolicies,im-
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998 423
plementspecialcurricula,andworkincreasinglywithlawenforcementandother
communityagencies.
3.Assuringasoundinfrastructureforeducation.Agrowingstudentpopulationisona
collisioncoursewithanagingandinadequatephysicalandiscalinfrastructure.
4.Strengtheningtheconnectionbetweeneducationandwork.Relationshipsbetween
educationandworkarebeingre-examinedandrestructured….[M]arketplacerequires
workerswithhigherlevelsofcomplexskills.
5.Garneringsupportforeducationreform.Educationreform,likeallchange,isgen-
erating anxiety and opposition. Educators are increasingly attempting to involve
parentsandcommunitymembersinopen,honestdiscussion.
6.Changingexpectationsforeducationdecisionmakingandgovernance….[I]ncreased
communitycollaboration,schoolsitecouncils,andserviceintegrationeffortsare
alteringandredeiningmanytraditionalgovernanceanddecisionmakingprocesses.
[Noapprovalofvoters,ed.]
7.Usingstandardsasameanstosystemicchange.Consensusthatpiecemealchanges
in schooling are not adequate to meet the challenges of the future is giving rise
toagrowingemphasisonstandardsandassessmentatalllevelsoftheeducation
system.
8.Strengtheningsupportandrespectforteachers….[T]eachersarethecriticalelement
inprovidingqualityeducation,andthattheirtaskisbecomingmorecomplexanddif-
icultastheyfaceincreasedexpectationsinteachingamorediversestudentbody.
9.Supportingyoungchildrenandtheirfamilies.Educatorsaredeiningtheirrolein
workingwithfamiliestoensurethehealthyearlydevelopmentofchildren….[Does
theirroleincludeinterferenceinfamilylife?ed.]
10.Increasingcommunitycollaborationandserviceintegration….[C]hangeoccursonly
withthefullcommitmentofthecommunity,schoolsaregettinginvolvedincollabo-
rativeeffortswithmanyothertypesoforganizations.[Thiscollaboration,integration,
etc.,representsachangeingovernancewithoutapprovalofthevoters,ed.]
11.Harnessingnewtechnologies….[C]omputersinschoolsareputtingtechnologyin
theforefrontofeffortstofundamentallychangetheroleofstudentsfrompassiveto
activelearnersandtheroleofteachersfrominformationgiverstofacilitatorsand
coaches.[Clearlyashiftfromacademiceducationtoperformance-basedworkforce
training,ed.]
12.Shiftingthefocusfromrisktowardresiliency.Realizingthatthevastmajorityof
childrendevelopintosuccessfuladults,educatorsandotherserviceprovidersare
shiftingtheirattentionfromdeicitprogrammodelsthataddressspeciicriskfactors
towardprogramapproachesthatfocusmoreonenhancingpositivefactors.[Ifthe
readerunderstands#12,pleasecontactthewriter,ed.]
“CHARTERSCHOOLSBILLNOWLAW”REPORTEDTHEARIZONAREPUBLICINANAPREPORTappear-
inginitsOctober23,1998issue.Excerptsfromthisnewsitem,whichidentiiestheDemocratic
PartywithaRepublicaninitiative,follow:
PresidentClintononThursdaysignedtheCharterSchoolExpansionActof1998tospeed
thedevelopmentofhigh-qualitycharterschools,akeyelementofhiseducationagenda.
Thelawauthorizesupto$100millionayearoverthenextiveyearsfortheplanningand
expansionofcharterschools.Clintoncitedthecharterschoolslegislationasanexampleof
bipartisancooperation....
424
Clintonhassetagoalof3,000charterschoolsnationwidebythetimeheleavesofice.
Therenowareabout1,000.
Charterschoolstendtobesmallerandcustom-designed.Undercharterschoolslaws,
dependingonthestate,parents,communityactivists,teachersorevenprivatecompanies
maysetupschoolsunderaspecialagreementorcharter.Theschoolsmightemphasizea
particularcurriculumsuchasartsortechnology,ormoretraditionalteachingmethodsusing
repetitionanddrills,orexperimentalmethodsthatletchildrenlearnattheirownpace.
[Ed.Note:Charterschoolsareobligedtoadheretofederalguidelines;i.e.,Goals2000,etc.
Individualsfamiliarwithcharterschoollegislationconsiderthemunaccountabletothetax-
payersduetotheirbeingrunbyunelectedcouncils;taxationwithoutrepresentation.]
ANATIONALINSTITUTEONCAREERMAJORSWASANNOUNCEDNOVEMBER4,1998BYTHENational
School-to-WorkOfice.Theaccuracyofpredictionsmadebyanti-school-to-workcitizens—that
theirchildren’sacademiceducationwouldbewatereddown,ifnoteliminated,oncetheMarc
TuckerPlanmovedoutofitsplanningstageandintothefollowingactionmode—isdemon-
stratedbythefollowing:
Just one month after it announced that all 50 states were “on board” to receive federal
School-to-WorkImplementationGrants,theNationalSchool-to-Work(STW)Oficehasnow
announced(Nov.4)aNationalInstituteonCareerMajorstobeheldinChicago,Illinoison
February4–6,1999.
“ThepurposeoftheInstituteistobringtogetherStateTeamstostrategicallydesigna
plantoimplementcareermajorsattheStateandlocallevels.”Toparticipate,statesareasked
toassemble“aninteragencyteamof6–10membersrepresentingStatelevelpolicy-makers
aroundeducationandlabor;businessandindustry;educatorsatthesecondaryandpost-
secondarylevel;andincluderepresentativesfromalocal-levelpartnershipthatiscurrently
buildingaSTWsystemaroundcareermajors.”
Activitieswill“focusonstrengtheningthecapacityofeducationandbusinessleaders
todevelopastandards-basedcurriculumleadingtohighskills,highwage,highdemand
occupations.Throughindividualteamfacilitation,eachStateTeamwilldeveloporrevisea
plantoorganizeschoollearningaroundcareermajors.”
Attendanceatthisinstituteislimitedto15teams,butmorearesuretofollow.Funds
arebeingprovidedforteamtravel.Fundsarealsogoingtobemadeavailabletostatesata
laterdatetohostsimilarcareermajorsinstitutesfortheirlocalSTWpartnerships.
TheeventwilltakeplaceattheFairmontHotel...Chicago,Illinois.
“NEWMODELFORTEACHEREDUCATION—WITHFOCUSONCONTEXTANDWORKPLACE:ProjectCould
BetterPrepareStudents”byMichaelChildswaspublishedintheNovember9,1998issueof
Columns(p.2),aUniversityofGeorgiafacultynewsletter.Excerptsfromthearticlefollow:
University of Georgia’s College of Education is beginning a three-year project that
willattempttobringtogetherclassroomandreal-lifeworkexperiencesinawaythatcould
changehowteachersaretaughtandwhatthey’retaughttoteach.Theprojectcouldbetter
preparestudentsforthechallengestheyarelikelytofaceinthechangingworkplaceofthe
21stcentury.
Thecollegewilldevelopandpilot-testanewteacher-educationmodelthatwillplace
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998 425
prospectiveteachersnotonlyinthecontextinwhichtheywillwork—theclassroom—but
alsointhecontextofwheretheirstudentswillwork—communityandworkplacesettings
inbusiness,industryandtheprofessions.
“Teachersneedtounderstandmuchmoreofthepedagogy.Teachersneedtounderstand
howitappliesinlifesettings,”saysDeanRussellYeany.“Wedon’tjustwanttoperpetuate
academiclearning—atsomepointithastobeappliedtotheworkplace....”
…A long-term goal is to have a much more effective school-to-work transition for
students.
“Schooling should transition right into work and I think schooling has become so
academicthatitisn’ttransitioningwellintowork,”saysYeany.
Fundedfor18monthsbyaninitial$864,000grantfromtheU.S.DepartmentofEdu-
cation, the Teacher Development Pre-Service Model of Excellence Initiative is one of the
college’slargestandmostambitiousprojectsever.
“Thisisabiginvestmentbythefederalgovernmenttodevelopamodeltheyhopewill
becomeavailabletoothercolleges,”saysYeany.
Astudentorientationtoareabusinessandindustrywillincludebothon-siteandvirtual
observationofmanufacturingandbusinessprocesses.
THENOVEMBER16,1998EDITIONOFTHEATLANTACONSTITUTIONCARRIEDANARTICLEentitled
“Education in a Relaxed Atmosphere: Brain-Based Method—Teaching Trend Emphasizing
Creativity,FlexibilityandInformalityGrowinginAreaSchools”byDelbertEllerton.Theac-
tivitiesdescribedinthearticlearetypicaloftheexercisespromotedbySheilaOstrander,Lynn
SchroederwithNancyOstranderintheirbookSuperlearning2000(DellPublishing:NewYork
1994),anupdatedversionoftheirearlierbookSuperlearning.Thefollowingareexcerptsfrom
thearticle:
AtthefrontofAmandaNeff’ssoftlylit,irst-gradeclassroominHenryCounty,aplant
sitsnexttotheglasscasethatishometoRiley,asmallblackratsnake.
AsRileyslithersaroundinsidetheglassboxatWesleyLakesElementarySchool,a
groupofstudentseagerlycrowdsaround.
RileyisjustoneoftheseveralwaysNeffisbringinglifetoherclassroombyteaching
studentsinwaysthatemergingresearchsaystheynaturallylearn.Insteadofjustreading
booksaboutsnakes,thestudentshavetherealthingrightbeforethem.
TeacherssuchasNeffarepartofanationalgroupembracinganapproachformally
calledbrain-basedlearning.Thetrend,whichsurfacedinCaliforniainthe1980s,isbased
onteachersbeinglexibleandcreative.Italsoisbasedonthebeliefthateliminatingthe
sterile,institutionalenvironmentencourageschildrentorelaxandlearn.
InadditiontousingRiley,thesnake,asaneducationaltool,Neffsoftensthemoodin
herWesleyLakesclassroombydimmingthebrightoverheadluorescentlightsandturning
onlampsincornersoftheroom.SheplayssoftmusiconacomputerCDplayerthroughout
theday....
“It’smakingchildrenfeelmorecomfortableandtakingawaythethreat.They’remore
open.Theydon’tshutdownonmewhenIaskthemsomething,”Harrissaid.
Harris’sstudentssitingroupsofthreeinanarrangementeducatorscall“tribes.”The
setupissaidtoencourageteamwork.TeachersinHenryandClaytoncountieshavereceived
brain-basedlearningtrainingthroughstaffdevelopmentworkshops.Onesuchworkshop
inClaytonCountyiscalled“SymphonyonStyles”andfocusesoneffectiveteachingmeth-
ods for students’ diverse learning styles, said Bobbi Ford of Clayton’s staff development
426
department.…
InOctober,Fordattendedabrain-basedlearningconferenceinCaliforniawhichdrew
educatorsfromSweden,Canada,Australia,SouthAfricaandMexico....
…TeachersinCoweta,FultonandCarrollcountiesalsousebrain-basedtechniques.
OneCowetaschoolplaysclassicalmusicovertheintercom.
Anewlyformedstatewidebrain-basedlearningadvisorycouncilmetinAthenslast
month,attracting23interestededucators.Thecouncilisbuildinganetworktoprovideinfor-
mationaboutbrain-basedlearning,saidJudithReiff,anearlychildhoodeducationprofessor
attheUniversityofGeorgiawhoisonthecouncil.
[Ed.Note:EventhoughthereadercanreadtherootsofSuperlearninginthisbook’searlier,
1979entry,thewriterwouldliketorepeatasectionofSuperlearning2000thatgivesanex-
planationofwhatitis:
WhatisSuperlearning?
ThesearetheSuperlearningcoretechniquesthatvastlyacceleratelearningandbrighten
performance.Techniquesthatcanhelpyoutakechargeofchange.
• Getintoastress-free,“best”mindbodystateforwhatyouaredoing.
• Absorbinformationinapaced,rhythmicway.
• Usemusictoexpandmemory,energizethemind,andlinktothesubconscious.
• Engageyourwholebrain,yoursenses,emotions,andimaginationforpeakperfor-
mance.
• Becomeawareofblockstolearningandchange,thenloodthemaway.
Notevenamultiplepersonalitywouldwanttousealltheexercisesandploysoffered
inthisbook.Theideaistogiveyouachoice.Youdon’tneedtopickupverymanytolesh
outthebasicSuperlearningprotocols.Firstandforemost,Superlearninginvolvesanewsense
ofyourselfandyourpossibilities,anewperspective—atwenty-irstcenturypointofview.
IntheirstchapterofSuperlearning2000onpages8–9weindthefollowingquotes:
Fivepages,that’sallwedevotedtoLozanovlearningwhenwewroteaboutourCom-
munistodyssey.(SeePsychicDiscoveriesBehindtheIronCurtain,1970;updatedandtobe
republished,1995.)Inquiriesroaredinfromeverywhere,eventhePentagon’sInstituteof
Defense Analysis. Western mind-groupies rushed to Soia [Bulgaria], while a handful of
pioneeringeducatorsbeganthehardworkofadaptingtheCommunistlearningsystemto
NorthAmerica.
Agenuinelypowerfulnewwaytolearn,toexpandmemory,toexcelbegantoemerge
inDesMoines,Toronto,Atlanta.Bythelate1970saninnovativepsychologist,Dr.Donald
SchusterofUniversityofIowaatAmes,foundedtheSocietyforAccelerativeLearningand
Teaching(SALT).Nowthereareprofessionalsocietiesinadozencountries,includingthe
veryinternationalSocietyforEffectiveAffectiveLearning(SEAL)inEngland.Atthetime
onlyafewprofessionalshadmovedoutsideofestablishmentlines.Whataboutalltheother
peoplewhoalwayswantedtocoloroutsidethelines?Wetookwhatwasprovenanddevised
somethingthatwasn’t:ado-it-yourselfsystem.Superlearning,opentoeveryone.Thegeneric
nameisaccelerativeoracceleratedlearning.
BasicSuperlearningdrawsfromLozanovandhissources,ancientoneslikeRajaYoga,
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998 427
contemporaryoneslikeSovietscience....Andwegotlucky.Wecameacrossanother“ology”:
Sophrology,“thescienceofharmoniousconsciousness,”acornucopiaofroutestoexcellence
stillalmostunknowninAmerica,developedbyAlfonsoCaycedo,aSpanishM.D.everybit
asinnovativeasLozanov.
[Ed.Note:TheselastsentencesremindthiswriteroftheearlyworkofRobertoAssagioli,au-
thorofPsychosynthesis.ThereadershouldalsobemadeawarethatHenryLevinofStanford’s
InstituteforAcceleratedLearningdoesindeedadvocatetheSuperlearning(SALT,SEAL)method
foritsmemberschools.]
“COMINGSOON TO ASCHOOLNEARYOU:FORCEDLABOR” BYPAULMULSHINE, COLUMNIST,was
publishedintheNovember29,1998issueoftheNewark,NewJerseyStar-Ledger.Excerpts
fromMulshine’sarticlefollow:
Imagineastatethatusesitsschoolsystemnottoproduceindependent-minded,broadly
educatedcitizens,butcompliantworkerstrainedtobehave.Astatewhere,intheirearly
teens,childrenareforcedtomakealifelongdecisionfrom14government-sanctionedcareer
possibilitieswithsuchdepressingtitlesas“wastemanagement,”“administrativeservices”
and “manufacturing, installation and repair.” A state where students in the government
schoolsareforcedtospendonedayaweektoilinginmeniallabor.
TheoldSovietUnion?China?
Nope.NewJersey.
IwishIweremakingthisup.ButI’mnot.Thisisafairsummation—minusthejar-
gon—oftheSchool-to-Workprogramthatthestateisplanningtoimposeonusnextyear.You
canveiwitontheInternetathttp://www.state.nj.us/njded/proposed/standards/stass2.htm.
Seeforyourself.
NINASHIKRAIIREESOFTHEHERITAGEFOUNDATION,WASHINGTON,D.C.,WROTEANARticleentitled
“TimetoOverhaultheElementaryandSecondaryEducationActof1965”whichrecommended
amajorshiftinthetraditionalphilosophyofeducationfromanemphasisoninputstoan
emphasisonoutputs.AnabstractofherarticlewhichwaspublishedinaHeritageFoundation
PressReleasedatedDecember2,1998,follows:
Duringthereauthorizationprocessofthe1965ElementaryandSecondaryEducationAct,the
106thCongresshasahistoricopportunitytochangethecourseofK–12education.Congress
needstoshiftthegoalsoftheESEAfromoneconinedtoinputstoonefocusedonachieve-
ment.Congresscanmakethishappenbysendingmorefederaldollarstotheclassroomin-
steadoftoeducationbureaucracies;empowerparents,teachersandprincipals;boostingthe
qualityofteachers;andallowinglexibilityanddemandingaccountability.Sendingmoneyto
thesameoldfederaleducationprogramswillwastepreciouseducationtaxdollarsandallow
Americanstudentstofallevenfurtherbehindtheircounterpartsinthedevelopedworld.
[Ed. Note: If what Ms. Rees recommends is authorized by the 106th Congress, the course
ofK–12educationwillbemorethanchanged.Itwillbeeliminated,tobereplacedbyK–12
school-to-worktraining,requiredbyNAFTAandGATT,bothofwhicharesupportedbyMs.
Rees’semployer,theHeritageFoundation.Assensibleastheaboverecommendationsmay
appearatirstsight,asonemovescarefullythroughthetextonecanidentifykeywordswhich
428
shouldraiseredlagsforthoseopposedtothephilosophybehindGoals2000andtheSchool-
to-WorkOpportunitiesAct.
WhenMs.Reessays“CongressneedstoshiftthegoalsoftheESEAfromoneconined
toinputstoonefocusedonachievement”shereallymeansshesupportsoutcome-basededu-
cation,sincetheword“achievement”asshehasuseditmeans“outcome.”Shethengoeson
torecommendallthe“nasties”associatedwithMarcTucker’sNationalCenteronEducation
andtheEconomywhicharealsoassociatedwithallrecentrestructuringlegislation,aswellas
withoutcome-basededucation:“empoweringofparents,teachers,andprincipals”;“sending
morefederaldollarstotheclassroom”;“boostingthequalityofteachers”;“allowinglexibility”;
and“demandingaccountability.”
Ofspecialinteresthereisherrecommendationtoboostthe“qualityofteachers.”The
readerisurgedtoturntothe1992entryregardingFillingtheGapsforthenewmillenium
deinitionof“qualityofteachers.”
Notealsohowthisreportusestheword“achievement.”Thisisthealternativetofocusing
on“inputs”—thelegalrequirementofmoststateconstitutionswithregardtotheirresponsibility
tothepublicto“offer,”“makeavailable”or“furnish”educationalopportunitytoallcitizens.
Mostofourstateconstitutions—unlesstheyhavechangedinthelastfewyears—donotrequire
thestatetoberesponsibleforeachstudent’ssuccess,becausethestatecannotensurewhatis
apersonalresponsibility.Statesareresponsiblefortheprovisionofeverythingnecessaryfor
achildorstudenttohavetheopportunitytoachieveacademicsuccess—“inputs.”(Thishas
traditionallybeenknownastheCarnegieUnitrequirement.)Itiswhenthestatebecomesthe
guarantorofsuccess—Ms.Rees’s“achievement”—thatparentshavefeltthestilinghandof
thestateintheareaofprivacyandpersonalfreedom.
Sendingmore“dollarstotheclassroom”maysoundlikereturningtolocalcontrol,but
isinfactthereversesinceitbypassesnotonlystatelegislators—whopresumablyrepresent
theirconstituentsatthestatelevel—butalsolocalschoolboardswhotraditionallyhavemade
decisionsatthecentraloficebuildinglevel—notattheschoolbuildinglevel—onhowtheir
constituents’taxmoneycouldbestbespent.
Muchdamagehasbeendoneovertheyearsundertheguiseof“accountability.”Exactly
towhomdoestheHeritageFoundationwanttheschoolstobeaccountable?Parentsandtax-
payerswhohavehadnosaywhatsoeverinrestructuringplans,ortheinternationalbusiness
communitywhichinitiatedandsupportstherecommendationsspelledoutinmostofHeritage
Foundation’sreports,includingitscallfortheuseofSkinnerianDirectInstruction(DISTAR)as
presentlyimplementedinHouston,TexasatThaddeusLott’sModelWesleyElementarySchool,
andwhichisonarollacrossthenationsincethepassageoftheReadingExcellenceAct?]
CENTERONEDUCATIONANDWORKOFTHEUNIVERSITYOFWISCONSINPUBLISHEDAPAPERin1998
entitled“ChangingAdmissionProceduresinFour-YearCollegestoSupportK–14Reform.”67
Thepaperlistsastheprincipalinvestigators:L.AllenPhelps,UniversityofWisconsin-Madison
andDavidStern,UniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.ChristineMaidlPribbenow,University
ofWisconsin-Madisonislistedasprojectdirector.Thefollowingprojectareasarelistedas:
Postsecondary;competency-basedadmissions;secondary;integratedcurriculum;andperfor-
mance-basedassessment.Excerptsfromtheprojectabstractfollow:
Thisone-year(1998)NationalCenterforResearchinVocationalEducation(NCRVE)project
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998 429
consistsofanumberofspeciicresearchquestionswhichwillbeaddressedthroughthework
ofinvestigatorsatbothU.C.-BerkeleyandU.W.-Madison.Thepurposeofthisprojectisto
reviewexistingresearchonperformance-basedassessmentineducationanddiscusstheuse
oftheseassessmentsincollegeadmissions.Thisreviewwillprovideabroaderunderstanding
ofthewaysinwhichschool-to-workandotherK–14reformsarebeingaccommodatedinthe
highereducationadmissionpoliciesandprocessesbeingadoptedbyinstitutions,particularly
thosewithselectiveadmissionscriteria.
AtU.C.-Berkeley,investigatorswillidentify4–5statesthatarebeginningtodevelop
newprocessesforadmissionandplacementusingperformance-basedassessment.Through
aseriesofsurveys,on-siteandtelephoneinterviews,thefollowingwillbeexamined:[Twoof
iveareasofinteresthavebeenselectedtoillustratetheintent,ed.]...(3)Variousapproaches
takenbyselecthighschoolsinresponsetotheinitiative...and(5)Thealignmentofstate
K–12,K–14,orK–16educationalstandardsandindustryandoccupationalstandardswith
theseassessments.
AtU.W.-Madison,investigatorswillcompletequantitativeandqualitativeanalysesof
theearlyeffortstodevelopperformance-basedadmissionsandtheirinitialeffectsonstudent
experiencesandoutcomesinpostsecondaryeducation....Essentially,thegoalistogener-
ateevidencethatillustratestheinnovativedevelopments,beneitsandlimitationsofusing
performance-basedassessmentsforcollegeadmissionsthatsupportmodelsofcontinuous,
seamless learning focused simultaneously on careers and college. Researchers intend to
conductthefollowingstudies:
• Examinetheeficacy,validityandreliabilityoftheCBAforadmittinghighschool
graduateswithintensive,career-focusedhighschoolexperiences.
• Explorethelinkbetweencollegeexperienceswithearliercareer-relatedlearningas
providedanddocumentedintheCBAprocess.
BoththeU.C.-BerkeleyandU.W.-Madisonresearcherswillusetheirresearchtowrite
aproposalforconsiderationbythegoverningboardsandadministrativeleadersoffour-year
collegesanduniversities,bothpublicandprivate.Ameetingwillthenbeconvenedwith
high-level representatives of four-year colleges and universities to discuss this proposal.
Theinvestigators’indingswillalsobeusedtocompleteareportwhichreviewsresearch
andcurrentpractice,analyzesperformance-basedadmissionefforts,anddiscussesthepro-
posalregardingtheuseofperformance-basedassessment.Finally,oneortwobriefswill
bepublishedwhichsummarizetheindingsand/orproposalinareader-friendlyformatfor
policymakers,universitygoverningboards,universityfacultyandadministrators.
[Ed.Note:Thereadershouldbeawarethattheaboveprojectisjustoneofmanyeffortsto
changethefocusofhigherlearningfromliberalarts,theoreticalandappliedartstoacon-
tinuationoftheschool-to-workfocus.TheNationalCenterforEducationalStatisticspublished
anewhandbookinitsEducationalReportsSeriesin1993whichoutlinedthenew“crosswalks”
ofcoursedescriptionsatthepostsecondaryorcollege/universitylevel.Thesecrosswalksrelect
thetransitiontoperformance-basedcourseworkfromacademic/theoreticalcoursework.The
resultisacompleterefocusingofpostsecondaryeducationtowardbehavioralperformance
ratherthanencouragingthetraditionalemphasisonacademicknowledgeacquisition.]
“AGOVERNORWITHPRINCIPLEWOULDREJECTSCHOOL-TO-WORK”BYPAULMULSHINEwaspub-
lishedintheDecember6,1998issueoftheNewark,NewJerseyStar-Ledger.Excerptsfrom
Mulshine’sarticlefollow:
430
ChristineWhitmanoncewrotethatRepublicansbelievethat“governmentshouldonlydo
whatindividualscan’tdoforthemselvesandthatgovernmentdecisionsshouldbemadeas
closetothepeopletheyaffectaspossible.”
Awonderfulphilosophy.There’saproblem,though:Bythatstandard,ourgovernor
isnotaRepublican....
…Heradministration’slatesttravesty,theSchool-to-Workproposal,isjustthelatestin
alonglineofthoroughlyun-RepublicanconceptsbackedbyWhitman.SinceIwroteabout
theproposallastweek,acoupleofthingshavehappened.AssemblymanScottGarrett,a
RepublicanfromSussexCounty,announcedtheintroductionofabillthatwillprohibitforced
laborinschools.Also,theHomdelBoardofEducationheldameetingWednesdaynightat
whichpeoplecamefromalloverthestatetoraiseobjectionstotheidea.Itwasapivotal
event.Neverinmy22yearsofjournalismhaveIseenaproposalgetknockedaroundbyso
manydifferentpeopleforsomanydifferentreasons.
AfreshmanatHolmdelHighSchoolsaidthatherfriendswereinapanic.Therequire-
mentthatalljuniorsandseniorsspendadayaweekworkingwouldmeanthey’dhaveto
missclasses.Thiswouldharmtheirchancesofgettingintocollege,thegirlsaid.Sheasked
thatmostRepublicanofquestions,“Howcomewehavenosayinthis?”
Aguyinasweatsuitfromanearbytownraisedanotherobjection:“Theschoolisnot
thestate’s.Theschoolismine,andtheytellmeit’snotmine.Ididn’tseethematthebake
sale.”
Aschoolsuperintendentsaidthathe’dledOhiobecauseofasimilarprogramthere
that was destroying the high-achieving schools by turning them into vocational centers.
Severalpeopleobjectedtoarequirementthatstudentschooseacareerinthesophomore
yearofhighschool.
Onecitedastudythatshowedthatthetypicalcollegestudentchangesmajorsthree
timesbeforesettlingonaield....
…ThisisanamazingthingWhitman’speoplehaveinvented:Aconceptthatoffends
practicallyeveryone.Usuallyapoliticalideahasacoreconstituency—bleedingheartliberals,
tightwadconservatives,publicemployeeunions,whatever.Butthisonerilespeopleupacross
theboard.Itdoesmakethebureaucratshappy,though....
…Itwouldbewonderful,justonce,toseeChristieWhitmandenounceabadideanot
becauseofpollresultsbutbecauseofprinciple.Closeyoureyes.TrytoimagineChristie
Whitmanutteringthewords,“Thisiswrong.Trentonshouldnotimposeideaslikethison
thepeopleofNewJersey.”
Youcan’timagineit?Meneither.
ONDECEMBER23,1998MAINE’SCOMMISSIONEROFEDUCATIONJ.DUKEALBANESESENTamemo-
randumtoallsuperintendentsofschoolsrelatedtotheMaineAspirationsBenchmarkingIni-
tiative.Excerptsfromthismemorandum,whichrevealtheextentofMaine’stransformationof
itsschoolsfromacademicstoworkforcetrainingandofitseducationalbureaucracy’sdisregard
forstudentprivacyfollow:
SponsoredbyWebberEnergyFuels,the$300,000initiativeisdirectedbytheUniversityof
Maine/MainePrincipals’AssociationResearchPartnership,incollaborationwiththeNational
CenterforStudentAspirationsandtheMaineDepartmentofEducation.
TheInitiativehasthepotentialofsurveyingtheentirepopulationofstudentsingrades
6through12inMainepublicschools,providinganunparalleleddatabaseportrayingthe
statusofstudentaspirationsinMaineandtheconditionsthatnurture,delayorpreventtheir
431
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1998
development.
TheInitiativeexpandsandelaboratesonthehighlysuccessfulStudentAspirationsSur-
vey.Theapproximately30-minutesurveywillprovideschoolswithinformationandinsight,
fromtheirstudents’perspectives,inareasofthetotallearningenvironment,including:
• aspirations
• conditionsinschools
• challengingbehaviors
• schoolclimate
• parent-schoolinteraction
• parentalsupportandguidance
The Initiative is highly relevant to the Maine Learning Results. While the Learning
Resultsallowthemeasurementofachievement,theBenchmarkingInitiativewillallowthe
measurementofmotivationtoachieve.TheInitiativewillenableschoolstobegintoassess
themselvesasrelatedtotheGuidingPrincipleswhichhavenotyetbeenaddressedincontent
standards.SurveyquestionsstronglyrelatetoGuidingPrinciplesIIandIV—aSelf-Directed
andLife-LongLearner,andaResponsibleandInvolvedCitizen,respectively.TheInitiative
will provide baseline data on career development and help schools and the standard of
careerpreparation....
…SchoolsparticipatingintheInitiativewillreceiveseveralimportantbeneits—allat
no cost: 1) schools will receive detailed informative reports of their students’ responses,
providinganassessmentoftheschooldynamicsandtheireffectonaspirations,motivation,
andlearning;2)broaderreportsbasedonthedatawillprovidetheopportunityforschools
tocomparetheirproilesagainststateandregionalproiles;3)schoolscantakeadvantage
ofresponsiveprogramsandtechnicalassistancetocreateorstrengthenaspirationconditions
inareasofneedidentiiedbyschools;and4)schoolswillreceiveassistanceinmonitoring
theimpactofreformefforts,includingafollow-upsurveytowardtheendoftheprojectto
checkagainstthebaselinedata,animportant,butoftenneglectedstepintheactionresearch
process.
1999
THEFEDERALLYFUNDEDNORTHCENTRALREGIONALEDUCATIONALLABORATORY(NCREL),which
servessevenstatesintheMidwest,published“NewTimesDemandsNewWaysofLearning”
initsWinter-SpringissueofEdTalk.Thisarticle“isintendedtoofferawaytoevaluatethe
effectivenessofvarioustechnologiesandtechnologyprogramsagainstthebackdropofnew
researchonlearning.”Someexcerptsfollow:
“Learning”heredoesnotmeanhowwellstudentsperformonstandardizedtests.That’s
notlearning,asresearchersandeducationalreformersarecomingtounderstandit.There’s
adynamicshiftoccurringinthiscountryaswemovefromtraditionaldeinitionsoflearn-
ingandcoursedesigntomodelsofengagedlearningthatinvolvemorestudentinteraction,
moreconnectionsamongschools,morecollaborationamongteachersandstudents,more
involvementofteachersasfacilitators,andmoreemphasisontechnologyasatoolforlearn-
ing.Itisinthiscontextthatourframeworkoperates;itisthistypeofengagedlearningthat
technologymustsupporttobeeffective....
432
In place of these old assumptions, researchers are positing new ways of looking at
learningthatpromote:
• engaged,meaningfullearningandcollaborationinvolvingchallengingandreal-life
tasks;and
• technology as a toll [requirement] for learning, communication, and collabora-
tion.
Thetraditionallearningmodelisnotrelevanttorealstudentneeds.
These attributes contrast sharply with the discrete, low-level skill, content, and as-
sessmentmethodsthattraditionalwaysoflearningfavor.Thenewworkplacerequirements
forlearningareincompatiblewithinstructionthatassumestheteacheristheinformation
giverandthestudentapassiverecipient.
The new requirements are at odds with testing programs that assess skills that are
usefulonlyinschool.
Technologyinsupportofoutmodededucationalsystemsiscounterproductive.
Therelianceonstandarizedtestsisludicrous.Technologyworksinschoolnotbecause
testsscoresincrease,butbecausetechnologyempowersnewsolutions.
There are no deinitive answers about the effectiveness of technology in boosting
studentlearning,studentreadinessforworkforceskills,teacherproductivity,andcostef-
fectiveness.True,someexamplesoftechnologyhaveshownstrongandconsistentpositive
results.Butevenpowerfulprogramsmightshownoeffectsduetomyriadmethodological
laws.Itwouldbemostunfortunatetorejectthesebecausestandardizedtestsshowedno
signiicantdifferences.Instead,measuresshouldevaluateindividualtechnologiesagainst
speciiclearning,collaboration,andcommunicationgoals.
What is effective learning and how can it be measured?… [Barbara Means of SRI
International]identiiedsevenvariablesthat,whenpresentintheclassroom,indicatethat
effectiveteachingandlearningareoccurring:Theseclassromvariablesare:
• childrenareengagedinauthenticandmultidisciplinarytasks;
• assessmentsarebasedonstudents’performanceofrealtasks;
• studentsparticipateininteractivemodesofinstruction;
• studentsworkcollaboratively;
• studentsaregroupedheterogeneously;
• theteacherisafactilitatorinlearning;and
• studentslearnthroughexploration.
Wetookthesevariablesandreorganizedthemintoasetofeightcategoriesoflearn-
ing:tasks,assessment,instruction,learning,context,grouping,teacherroles,andstudent
roles.
Centralizedsystemsarelikelytoinhibitlearningtotheextentthattheyusethetransfer
modeoflearningandinstruction.Thismodelassumesthatthecentralsourceholdsmostof
theimportantinformationandthatitisthestudent’sjobtotransfertheinformationfrom
thiscentralsourcetohisorherlocationand“learn”it.
[Ed.Note:Theabovetextprovidesanexcellent,ifnotdepressing,overviewofthetransfor-
mationfromeducationtoworkforcetraining.Thetimingofthisarticleisinterestinginlight
ofotherreports,someofwhicharereferredtointhisbook,exposingthelimitsofcomputer
technologyintheteachingoftheimportantbasicacademicskills.Theabovearticlealsoadmits
thelackofsupportiveresearchonthe“effectivenessoftechnologyinboostingstudentlearning,”
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1999 433
butstillinsiststhatthemethodologyshouldnotberejectedjust“becausestandardizedtests
showednosigniicantdifferences.”Instead,theansweristousethisunconirmedtechnology
toaccomplishlimitedlearningtasksinanattempttoconvincethereaderthatthis“new”type
of“education”shouldbeembracedbyall.]
ROSIEAVILA,ASCHOOLBOARDMEMBERINTHESANTAANAUNIFIEDSCHOOLDISTRICT,SantaAna,
California,wroteaninterestingbutfrighteningarticleentitled“ParentReportCards”regarding
theimplicationsofparenteducationprogramswhichwasincludedonaneducationwebsite
ontheInternetJanuary10,1999.Someexcerptsfollow:
AsaschoolboardmemberIhavediscoveredjusthowtheywillimplementtheU.N.Con-
ventionontheRightsoftheChild,thenewglobalparentingcode....
Inoticedeverytimetheytalkedaboutparentinvolvement(agoalofGoals2000)itwas
inthecontextofparenteducation,whatparentsneedtodoathometohelptheirchildren
succeedinschool.Parentsarecalledpartnerswiththeschools....
Federal funding mandates parent education. Every one of our schools has a parent
educationprogram;300–400parentsatatimearegoingthroughthese....Allparentsare
requiredtosignaParentCompact,agreeingtodocertainthingsathome,“provideastudy
space,putthekidstobedontime,readwiththem,”etc.So,parentsaretrained,thenhave
tosignanagreement.
ThenIsawabillpassinSacramentoattheStatelevel.Itwasirstdescribedasa“par-
entreportcard,”butIunderstandtherewasobjectionandsoitwasredeined,butpassed
anyway....IreadanarticleintheBetterHomesandGardensMagazinedescribingthenew
“parentreportcard.”Itsaidstudentswouldgiveinformationtotheirteachers,andparents
[wouldbe]gradedonstudents’grooming,sleephabits,andattendanceatschoolmeetings,
etc.Thearticlesaid,“Studentswouldbeempoweredbysigningoffontheirparents’report
card,”andthat“Childrenknewwhentheirparentswerelunking.”
Ourschooldistrictreceiveda$1.1milliondollargrantunder“safeschools,”another
goalofGoals2000.Itsaidwewouldnothaveanyviolenceordrugsinschoolsinthenew
century and that prevention was the key. Quoting Janet Reno, “Students acted up when
theyhadneglectfulparents”andthatwecouldspotthemintheearlygrades.So,ifaparent
wasdeemedtobeneglectful(failedontheirreportcard,waswhatIigured),theywould
havetogothroughtheSARB(StudentAttendanceReviewBoard)andhaveameetingatthe
policedepartmentwithsomeonefromtheDistrictAttorney,ChildProtectionService,Social
Services,SchoolCounselors,etc.Heretheywouldbegiventheircourt-orderedprogramto
improvetheirparenting.
So,thereitwas.Aglobalparentingcode:theConventionontheRightsoftheChild,
federallyfundedparentingcourseswitharequiredParentCompactthroughChapterOne,a
StateParentReportCard,andalocalpunishmentorcoercionpolicyredeiningtheroleof
theSARBtoincludeneglectfulparents.
TheyhavemostofthesysteminplacehereinCalifornia.Theyjustneedthatratiication
oftheU.N.ConventionontheRightsoftheChild.
[Ed.Note:Theaboveinformationregardingreportcardsforparentsshouldcomeasnosur-
prisegiventhefollowingrecommendationmadebyneo-conservativeChesterE.Finn,Jr.,in
anarticlecondensedfromtheHeritageFoundation’sPolicyReview;Summer1986,No.37,pp.
58–61(reprintedinEducationDigestonJanuary1987,p.4).]
434
6. Parents must be enlisted in the work of the school and in the education of their
children.Alongwithendorsingovertotheschooltheirchild’stuitiongrant,parentsmust
beaskedtoassumecertainelementalresponsibilities,bothforsuchmundanemattersas
disciplineandattendanceandforsuchspeciiconesasprovidingthechildwithaplaceto
dohishomeworkandcheckingeachnighttomakesureitisdone.Justasparentsshould
havetherighttoevaluate—andchooseamong—schools,sotooshouldteachersandprinci-
palshavetherighttoappraiseparents’performancewithrespecttotheeducationoftheir
children.Whataboutasectioninthechild’sreportcardwheretheschoolteamcan“grade”
theparents’performance?
Really,Mr.Finn?Thisseemstobeabizarreapproachto“schoolchoice”—“endorsing
overtotheschooltheirchild’stuitiongrant,parentsmustbeaskedtoassumeelementalre-
sponsibilities.”Ms.Avila’sconcernabouttheliberalinternationalinluenceinpublicschools
seemstohavefounditswayintothe“conservativesolution.”]
ANEDUCATOR’SGUIDETOSCHOOLWIDEREFORM(EDUCATIONALRESEARCHSERVICE:ARlington,
Virginia,1999)waspreparedforpublicationbyAmericanInstitutesforResearchunderthe
directionofRebeccaHermanasprojectdirector.TheGuidewasproducedundercontractto
theAmericanAssociationofSchoolAdministrators,theAmericanFederationofTeachers,the
NationalAssociationofElementarySchoolPrincipals,andtheNationalEducationAssociation.
The“overview”oftheGuidestatesinpart:
Thisguidewaspreparedforeducatorsandotherstousewheninvestigatingdifferentap-
proachestoschoolreform.Itreviewstheresearchon24“whole-school,”“comprehensive,”
“schoolwide”approaches.
THISGUIDEISNOTMEANTTOENDORSE,FAVOR,ORDISCREDITANYOFTHEAP-
PROACHES.Rather,itisdesignedtoassistthosewhowanttocriticallyexaminethemost
widelyavailableschoolwidereformapproaches.Schoolscanimprovetheirperformancein
avarietyofways,notjustbyusingaschoolwideapproach.However,educatorsinterested
intheseapproachesshouldindtheguideuseful.
ThisbookhasrepeatedlydealtwiththeSkinnerian,scientiic,research-basedmethod
ofteachingandlearning,therefore,thewriterlistsbelowonlythefouroutof24programs
recommendedbytheGuidewhichclearlyusethismethod.Theyare:
1.CoalitionofEssentialSchools
2.DirectInstruction
3.ModernRedSchoolhouse
4.SuccessforAll
SincemuchalreadyhasbeenwrittenaboutSiegfriedEngelmann’sDirectInstructionin
thisbook,thewriterwillfocusonRobertSlavin’s“SuccessforAll.”Thefollowingexcerpts
from“Ready,READ!”byNicholasLemann,whichappearedintheNovember1998issueofThe
AtlanticMonthly,givethereaderaclearpictureofhowadirectinstruction/masterylearning
classroommarketedas“SuccessforAll”functions:
SuccessforAll,AcceleratedSchools,andtheSchoolDevelopmentProgram,alldesignedby
universityprofessors—theirsttwohaveeachbeenadoptedbymorethanathousandschools
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1999 435
acrossthecountry,andthethirdby700....
...BytheendofthisschoolyeartheSuccessforAllorganizationwillhaveabudget
of$30millionandwilloperateinmorethan1,100schoolsalloverthecountry.Amongits
customersaretheEdisonProjectwhichisprivate[publiclyfundedcharterschool];thestate
ofNewJersey;andthecitiesofHouston,Memphis,andMiami....
...TheprevailingcriticismofSuccessforAllisthatitisdesignedtoproducehigher
scoresonacoupleoftestschosenbySlavin,forwhichthecontrol-groupschoolsdon’ttrain
theirstudents;thegainsitproduces,accordingtocritics,aresubstantiallylimitedtotheirst
yearoftheprogram.
SuccessforAlltellsschoolspreciselywhattoteachandhowtoteachit—tothepoint
ofscripting,nearlyminutebyminute,everyteacher’sactivityineveryclassroomeveryday
oftheyear.
…TeachersmustuseaseriesofcatchphrasesandhandsignalsdevelopedbySuccess
forAll....AteverylevelSlavin’sprogramsgreatlyreduceteacherautonomy,throughcontrol
ofthecurriculum....PeopleusuallydescribeSuccessforAllwithtermslike“prescriptive,”
“highly structured,” and “teacher-proof”; Slavin likes to use the word “relentless.” One
education researcher I spoke with called it “Taylorism in the classroom,” after Frederick
WinslowTaylor,theearlytwentieth-centuryeficiencyexpertwhoroutinizedeverydetail
offactorywork....
AfewminutesinaSuccessforAllclassroomconveystheParrisIslandfeelingofthe
programbetterthananygeneraldescriptioncould.Itisirstgrade—thepivotalyear.The
studentsreadtheirstpageofthestoryloudly,inunison.Theteachersays,“Okay,next
page.Fingerinplace,ready,read!”Afterafewminutesofthisstudentshaveinishedthe
story.Notmissingabeat,theteachersays,“Closeyourbooks,please.Let’sgetreadyfor
vocabulary.”Shemovestoapostedhandwrittensheetofwordsandpointstoherself.“My
turn.Maze,haze,hazy,lazy.Yourturn.”Shepointstotheclass.Thestudentsshoutoutthe
wordsinunison:“Maze!Haze!Hazy!Lazy!”
Thentheteacherannouncesthatthestudentsaregoingtodo“redwords”—Success
forAlllingoforwordsthatstudentscan’tdecodefromtheirphonemiccomponents.“Okay,
doyourirstword,”shesays.Thestudentscallouttogether,“Only!O(clap)N(clap)L(clap)
Y(clap).Only!”Afterthey’vedonetheredwords,theteachersays,“Nowlet’sgotoour
meaningfulsentences.”Thestudentsreadfromasheetloudlyandinunisonthedeinitions
ofthreewordsandthenthreesentences,eachintotheircooperativelearninggroupstowrite
threesentencesoftheirown,usingeachofthewords.“Ifyouworkright,you’llearnwork
pointsforyourworkteam!Youclear?”Twentyvoicescallout,“Yes!”
Lastyear,whenIwasthere,theschoolwasphasinginuniforms.
[Ed.Note:Brownshirts?]
INALETTERTOTHEEDITORPRINTEDINTHEATHENS(GEORGIA)DAILYNEWS/BANNERHeraldof
January18,1999,PriscillaCarroll,formerelementaryschoolteacher,respondedtoaletter
totheeditorfromProfessorCarlGlickmanoftheUniversityofGeorgia,authorofbookson
schoolreform,whichdealtwithchangesinlocalschoolboardresponsibilitiesasaresultof
theadoptionofblockscheduling,oneofthereformcomponentsresultingfromClarkeCounty
(Athens)SchoolDistrictbeingdesignatedasa“NextGenerationSchool”district.Mrs.Carroll
respondedthat:
SomeoftheNextGenerationSchoolProjectpowerstructurechangesstate:
a)Localboardswillnotmanage,operatenormakedecisionsforrunningschools.
436
b)Localboardswillbeadvisedbycreatedcommunityteamsorcollaboratives.
c)Localboardsmustletgo...presidingoverstudentoremployeegrievancehearing.
d)Grievancehearingswillbedelegatedto“dulyappointedmediationandarbitration
panels.”
e)Localboardswon’tdecideieldtriprequests,studenttransfers,challengestolibrary
books,schoolcalendardecisions,busroutingproblemsandathleticprogramcon-
cerns.
f)Localboardsmust“moveawayfrom...hiring,iringandpromotingemployees.”
g)Localboards“willbefreedofconstraintsandobligationsthatimpedetheirability
toaddresstheglobalissueswhicharemoreworthyoftheirtime.”
h)Localboardsmust“giveuptheroleofkeeperofthepurse”(won’tcontroledu-
cationmoney).
i)Thelocal“appointed”schoolsuperintendents(LSS),aretobetrainedandcontrolled
bythestate.
[Ed.Note:WhenGeorgia’sradical“breakthemold”NextGenerationSchoolProjectproposal
was not accepted as one of the original New American School Development Corporation
(NASDC) design teams, corporate and non-proit “partnership” funding was generated to
accomplishtheProjectwithinthestate.Mrs.Carroll’scommentswereparaphrasedfromthe
“NextGenerationSchoolProject”manual.ProfessorLuvernCunninghamwouldbepleased
toseehowhisrecommendationstogetridofschoolboardsarebeingcarriedoutacrossthe
country.]
“SCHOOLTOWORKGETSPOORGRADEINSTUDY”BYMARKSHRUGANDRICHARDWESTernofthe
UniversityofWisconsinatMilwaukee,professorswhoconductedastudyfortheWisconsin
PolicyResearchInstitute,appearedintheJanuary19,1999issueofTheMilwaukeeJournal
Sentinel.Excerptsfollow:
Morethan$195million,almostallfederalmoney,wasspentfrom1991to1998inWisconsin
onprogramsunderthelabelSchool-to-Work,butithashadalmostnodemonstrableimpacton
thestate’sschoolsoreconomy....Ithashadnoidentiiableimpactontheacademiclearning
ofK–12studentsinWisconsinandithasinvolvedtoofewstudentsinitscore,work-based
learningactivitiestoregisterasigniicantaggregateimpactonWisconsin’sworkforce.
Manyschooldistricts,includingMPS(Milwaukee),generallyhavedroppedtheterm.
Andattention,somesuggest,hasshiftedtodifferentpolicies,particularlyproiciencytesting
andaloomingstatewidetestthatallstudentswillhavetopasstograduate.
ThestudysaysoneofthefewtangibleaccomplishmentsofSchooltoWorkwasthat
347studentshadgraduatedfromapprenticeshipprogramsstatewide.But,thestudysays,
thatwasequalto1/10,000thofthestateworkforcein1996....Thestudysaystherewasno
“reliableevidence”thatSchool-to-Workhadaccomplishedanyofitsmajorgoals.
Grantswereused($30million)forteachertraining,apprenticeships,jobshadowing
andconnectionsbetweenschoolsandindividualbusinesses.
JamesH.Miller,presidentofthepolicyresearchinstitute,said,“Aswithmostbureau-
craticeducationalreforms,School-to-Worksoundsterriic,butinrealityitisallstylewith
absolutelynosubstance.”
[Ed.Note:Let’shopethattheoldadage“Youcanleadahorsetowater,butcan’tmakehim
drink”willplayitselfoutinregardtoschool-to-work.
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1999 437
However,leadershipinthehomeschoolcommunityseemstohaveembracedatleasta
portionoftheschool-to-workproposition.Whileapprenticeshiphasbeenpromotedtohome-
schoolersasanalternativeto“electives”bysomehomeschoolorganizationsandleaders(Bill
Gothard,DougWilsonetal.),nowtheapprenticeshipconceptisbeingembracedatthepost-
highschoollevelbynoneotherthanMichaelFarrisofHomeSchoolLegalDefenseAssociation.
InhisannouncementabouttheforthcomingestablishmentofthePatrickHenryCollegein
Purcellville, Virginia, Farris stated in an interview with Andrea Billups of The Washington
Times(May17,1999):
“IwantedtobreakoutoftheeducationalboxlikeI’vehelpedtodowithK-through-12
education.”…
…Initially,theschoolwillofferaloneundergraduatemajoringovernment,featuring
anapprenticeshipprogramdesignedtogivestudentspracticalexperienceinpublicpolicy
andservice….
Asapartoftheircurriculum,PatrickHenrystudentswillworkonfaculty-supervised
research and writing projects for congressional ofices, state legislators, federal agencies,
thinktanksandadvocacygroups.
“Wearecombiningatraditionalliberalartsmodelwithawhite-collarversionofvo-
cationaltraining,”saidtheschool’sprovostandacademicdean,BradJacob,alawyerand
professorwhoservedastheCEOoftheChristianLegalSociety.“Itallcomesfromtheivory
towerconcerns,wherestudentslearntheorybutdon’tknowbeansabouthowtoworkin
theworkplace….Webelieveinmentoringanddisciplining.”68
ThisshouldcomeasnosurpriseinlightofMr.Farris’spreviouspublicenthusiasmfor
apprenticeshipsexpressedathisorganization’sNationalHomeEducator’sLeadershipCon-
ference in Orlando, Florida in 1995. During a “debate” with William Spady, Farris lauded
theSwisseducationalsystemasa“verysuccessfulnationalmodel.”68TheSwisssystemis
committedtoapprenticeships,with75%ofitsstudentsnevergoingtohighschoolorcollege
butintoapprenticeshipsaftertheeighthgrade.TheirK–8systempreparesstudentstoenter
apprenticeships,certainlylimitingcareeremploymentchoicesandmovement.
Thebottomlineisthis:“apprenticeship”is“workforcetraining.”Skippingovertraditional
academichighschoolandcollegesubjects,orwateringdownaliberalartscollegeeducation
toaccommodateits“application”toaworkplacesetting,constitutethe“deliberatedumbing
down”ofhomeschoolers.Couldschool-to-workatthecollegelevelbethe“camel’snoseunder
thetentforSTWatK–12levelforhomeschoolers?]
THEJANUARY1999ISSUEOFCOMMUNITYUPDATEPUBLISHEDBYTHEU.S.DEPARTMENTOFEdu-
cationprovidedanupdateonactivitiesbeingheldbytheReligionandEducationPartnership
(irstestablishedin1995).Thefollowingexcerptsdescribetheinvolvementof“thechurchin
thestate”and“thestateinthechurch”—somethingheretoforenotspelledoutingovernment
publications.TheU.S.DepartmentofEducationannouncedthat:
Religious leaders, educators, members of the higher education community, and students
cametogetheratSpaldingUniversityinLouisville,KentuckyonDecember11,forthefourth
Religion and Education Summit supported by the Partnership for Family Involvement in
Education....
Morethan500participantsgatheredinLouisvillefromKentucky,Ohio,Indiana,and
438
TennesseetohearU.S.SecretaryofEducationRichardW.Rileyparticipateinatownhall
discussiononthreeimportanttopics:familyinvolvementineducation,schoolsafety,and
preparingyoungpeopleforcollegeandcareers.Programsthatsupporttheseinitiativeswere
presentedinsmallgroupgatheringswhereparticipantscouldspeaktopractitionersfrom
Tampa,Florida;Birmingham,Alabama;andLouisville,Kentucky.Amaterialsfairfeaturing
model programs, community services, information about the public schools in the area,
andmaterialsproducedbythePartnershipforFamilyInvolvementinEducationwasopen
throughoutthesummit.
ThegoaloftheReligionandEducationSummitwastobringtogetherleadershiprepre-
sentingfaithcommunitiesandelementary,secondary,andhighereducationtodiscussissues
ofconcerntothecommunityandtobuildpartnershipstobringaboutchangesneededforthe
beneitofallchildren.PrevioussummitswereheldinLawrence,Massachusetts;Wilmington,
Delaware;andSt.Petersburg,Florida.Partnershipsformedatthesesummitshavecontinued
toworktogethertoimproveeducationandstrengthenfamilyandcommunityinvolvement
inlocalschools.ToobtaininformationonhowtoplanandholdaReligionandEducation
Summit,emailpartner@ed.gov.
[Ed.Note:Thewritersuggeststhatparentsinvolvedinsuchpartnershipsre-read“LittleRed
RidingHood”andretraceLittleRedRidingHood’sstepstoGrandma’shouseinthewoods.Par-
ticularattentionshouldbegiventoRedRidingHood’sindingTheBigBadWolfinGrandma’s
bedwearingGrandma’snightcap!]
SPEAKINGOF“LITTLEREDRIDINGHOOD,”THEJANUARY24,1999ISSUEOFTHEGWINNETTDaily
PostofLawrenceville,GeorgiacontainedanarticlebystaffwriterLauraIngramentitled“Clus-
tersPromoteCommunityGrowth.”Thisarticledescribesasecond-stepphaseofa“systems
change”effortoutlinedinajointpublicationfromtheU.S.DepartmentofEducationandthe
U.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices,TogetherWeCan.Thearticle,whichillustrates
theshiftfromrepresentative(elected)governancetoregional(unelected)governancewithits
“BigBadWolf”useofpartnershipstoaccomplishitsgoals,isincludedinitsentiretybelow:
UniquegroupscalledCommunityClusterCareTeamswerebornlastApril,comprisedof
12Gwinnettcommunities,andhavetakentheirirststepstowardunitingsectionsofthe
countyintoneighborhoods.
“Theentirecommunityneedstogetinvolved,”saidSuzanneBrighton,coordinatorfor
theteams.“Weneedtolookattheenvironmentwe’reraisingourchildrenin.Everybody
hasaresponsibilitytocreateahealthyenvironmentwherechildrencangrow.”
Parents,teachers,seniorcitizens,clergy,businesspeople,schooloficialsandsocial
serviceworkersirstmetthisnewcreationApril15ataconferencecalled“TogetherWeCan,”
sponsoredbytheGwinnettCoalitionforHealthandHumanServicesandBellSouth.
The200participantssplitinto12groupsbasedonhighschoolclustersandcameupwith
particularwaystoimproveeachcluster/community.Buttheydidnotstopatjustasketch.
The12teamscontinuedmeetingthroughouttheyear,drawingmorecommunitymem-
bersandresourcesintotheirgroup,andcreatingstrategicplanstoaccomplishtheirgoals
andshrinkscarystatisticsthatshowchildrenindingtheirwayintodrugs,pregnancyand
violence.
Thisfall,theirimperativetohealandunitetheirneighborhoodstookshapeastree
plantings,youthdialogues,newyouthbasketballteams,grandparentadoptionsandbilingual
services.
MetroUnitedWay’svicepresidentofcommunityinvestments,GeralynSheehan,calls
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1999 439
theteamsapilotprogramfortheentirenation,teachingresidentsthroughoutAmericahow
toreconnectwithotherstobuildahealthiercommunity.
[Ed.Note:TofurtherillustratewhattheU.S.DepartmentofEducationandU.S.Department
ofHealthandHumanServicesbookTogetherWeCan:AGuideforCraftingaProfamilySystem
ofEducationandHumanServices(Contract#RP912060001:PrismDAE,adivisionofDAECor-
poration:ChevyChase,Maryland,1993)outlinedasablueprinttofollowfor“localsystems
change,”thewriterwilloffersomeexcerptsfromthispublication.JointlysignedbySecretary
ofEducationRichardW.RileyandSecretaryofHealthandHumanServicesDonnaE.Shalala,
theforewordtothisbookreads:
Thisbookwasdevelopedjointly...tohelpcommunitiesimprovecoordinationofeducation,
healthandhumanservicesforat-riskchildrenandfamilies.TogetherWeCan:AGuidefor
CraftingaProfamilySystemofEducationandHumanServicesrelectstheworkandexpe-
rienceofastudygroupofresearchersandfront-lineadministratorsandpractitionersworking
withpromisingprogramsthatlinkeducationandhumanservices.TogetherWeCanleadsthe
readerthroughaive-stagecollaborativeprocesswithmilestonesandlandminesportrayed
throughvignettesandcasestudiesdescribingthepersonalexperiencesofthestudygroup
members.
TogetherWeCanisapracticalguidethatcanassistlocalcommunitesinthedificult
processofcreatingamoreresponsiveeducationandhumanservicedeliverysystem.The
guidebookemphasizestheeffectivedeliveryofsupportsforfamilies,acrucialsteptoward
assuringthefuturesuccessofAmerica’schildren.Recognizingthatthecurrentsystemof
programsservingchildrenisfragmented,confusingandineficient,theguidebookadvocates
aradicalchangeintheservicedeliverysystem.Itencouragesaholisticapproachintreating
theproblemsofchildrenandfamilies;easyaccesstocomprehensiveservices;earlydetection
ofproblemsandpreventivehealthcareservices;andlexibilityforeducation,healthand
humanservices.
Webelievethisguideisapracticaltoolforthemanycommunitiesthatareworkingto
createmorecomprehensive,family-focusedservicedeliverysystemsforchildrenandtheir
families.
[Ed.Note:Thisispure,unadulterated“communitarianism,”whichisdeinedas:“communi-
tarian—amemberoradvocateofacommunisticcommunity”(p.288)and“ism”—adoctrine,
theory,system”(p.474)inWebster’sNewWorldDictionaryoftheAmericanLanguage(Wil-
liamColliers—WorldPublishingCo.,Inc.:NewYork,1976.),thesystemwehavebeentold
is“dead.”]
IntheprefacetoTogetherWeCanweindthefollowing:
AcrossAmerica,peoplearerecognizingthatalloftheinstitutionsandagencieswhosemis-
sionistonurtureandstrengthenchildrenandfamiliesmustcollaborate....
The U.S. Department of Education and the U.S. Department of Health and Human
ServiceschargedtheSchool-LinkedIntegratedServicesStudyGroupwithcapturingtheex-
periencesofcollaborativeendeavorsacrossthecountryandcreatingaguideforintegrating
services....
Basictotheguideistheconceptofsystemschange[emphasisinoriginal].Wedeine
systemschangeasarevisionofthewaysthatpeopleandinstitutionsthink,behave,anduse
theirresources....TheStudyGroupbelievescollaborativestrategies[emphasisinoriginal]are
440
thekeytosystemschange....Collaborativestrategies,inwhichpartnersshareavision,estab-
lishcommongoals,andagreetousetheirpowertoachievethemarenecessary;commitment
ofresourcesandwillingnesstoalterexistingpoliciesareavitalpartofsuchstrategies.
Mostimportantly,thechildrenandfamilieswhoparticipateinoureducationandhu-
manservicesystemsareessentialtoitsreinvention.Theyareindispensablepartnerswith
educators,humanserviceprofessionals,businessleaders,civicandreligiousleaders,leaders
ofcommunity-basedorganizations,andothercitizensincreatingtheprofamilysystemthat
theguideenvisions.
TheSchool-LinkedIntegratedServicesStudyGroupconsistedofrepresentativesof:“In-
stituteforEducationalLeadership,Washington,D.C.;FloridaInternationalUniversityHuman
Resource Service Professional Development Center, Miami, Florida; Walbridge Elementary
School,St.Louis,Missouri;NationalCenteronAdultLiteracy,Philadelphia,Pennsylvania;
CenterforCollaborationforChildrenofCaliforniaStateUniversity,Fullerton,California;Prince
GeorgesCountyPublicSchools,Suitland,Maryland;SanDiegoCitySchools,SanDiego,Cali-
fornia;PublicSchool146M,NewYorkCity;Savannah-ChathamCountyYouthFuturesAuthority,
Savannah,Georgia[AnnaCaseygrantrecipientwhichpromotedschool-basedclinics];School
ofEducationatStanfordUniversity,Stanford,California;EarlyChildhoodandFamilyEducation
divisionofNorthCentralRegionalEducationalLaboratory,OakBrook,Illinois;DanforthFoun-
dation,St.Louis,Missouri;CitiesinSchools,Charlotte,NorthCarolina;CommunityEducation
LeadershipProjectoftheInstituteforEducationalLeadership,Washington,D.C.;BetterBoys
Foundation,Chicago,Illinois;NationalCenterforServicesIntegrationofMathtech,Inc.,Falls
Church,Virginia;CommunitySchoolsofRochesterCitySchoolDistrict,Rochester,NewYork;
ClinicServices/FamilyCounselingCenteroftheMassachusettsSocietyforPreventionofCruelty
toChildren,Boston,Massachusetts;LansingSchoolDistrict,Lansing,Michigan;ParentAction,
Baltimore,Maryland;NewJerseyDepartmentofHumanServices,Trenton,NewJersey;School
oftheFutureofElCentroFamiliarOficeoftheFamilyServiceCenter,Houston,Texas;New
York State Department of Education, Brooklyn, New York; Walbridge Caring Communities
Program,St.Louis,Missouri;andapracticingpsychologist.”
Intheinterestoffullyinformingthereaderofjustexactlywhattheseprojectsareabout
andhopetoaccomplish,thewriterisincludinghighlightsofatwo-partappendixwhichareso
totallyinvasiveandfrighteningintheirimplicationsthattheyshouldrelegateGeorgeOrwell’s
1984tothe“lightreading”stacks!
AppendixA
Checklist1
ProcessforCraftingaProfamilySystemofEducationandHumanServices
StageOne:GettingTogether
• Hasasmallgroupdecidedtoact?
• Dotheplayersmeetthefollowingcriteriaformembershipinthecollaborative:
___clout;
___commitment;and
___diversity?
• Aretherightpeopleinvolved…
• Havepartnersrelectedontheirworkandcelebratedtheiraccomplishments?
441
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1999
StageTwo:BuildingTrustandOwnership
• Hasthecollaborativeconductedacomprehensivecommunityassessmentthat...
___producesaproileofchildandfamilywell-beinginthecommunity;...
• Havepartnersdeinedasharedvisionandgoalsforchangingeducationandhuman
services?...
StageThree:DevelopingaStrategicPlan
• Hasthecollaborativenarroweditsfocustoaspeciicneighborhoodforlaunchinga
servicedeliveryprototype?
• Hasthecollaborativeconductedaneighborhoodanalysis...
• Hasthecollaborativedeinedthetargetoutcomes?…
• Isamechanisminplaceforusingprogram-levelintelligencetosuggestsystem-level
changes?...
StageFour:TakingAction
• Isthecollaborativeevaluatingprogressby:
___usingprocessevaluationtechniques;and
___measuringoutcomes?
• Havepartnersrelectedontheirworkandcelebratedtheiraccomplishments?
StageFive:GoingtoScale
• Hasthecollaborativebuiltaformalgovernancestructure?...
• Isthecollaborativepromotingchangeinthefederalgovernment’sroleindelivering
servicesforchildrenandfamilies?
• Isthecollaborativecontinuingtorelectandcelebrateasit“climbsthemountain”
ofsystemschange?
Checklist2
IndicatorsofSystemsChange
Areagencyagreementsinplace?...
Doprogram-levelinformationandintelligencetriggerpolicy-levelchangesacrossmultiple
systems?...
Havepartnersdevelopedsharedinformationsystems?
• Istherereadyaccesstoeachother’srecords?...
• Haveagenciesreplacedseparatein-houseformstogatherthesamekindofinfor-
mationwithacommonformusedbyallmembersorotherorganizationstoestablish
programeligibility?Assesscasemanagementneeds?Developcaseplans?
Havepartneragenciesincorporatedthevisionandvaluesofthecollaborativeattheirad-
ministrativeandstafflevels?
• Havepartnersalteredtheirhiringcriteria,jobdescriptions,andpreserviceorinservice
trainingtoconformtoavisionofcomprehensive,accessible,culturallyappropriate,
family-centered,andoutcome-orientedservices?...
• Areoutcomegoalsclearlyestablished?
• Hasthecollaborativeuseditsdatacollectioncapacitytodocumenthowwellchildren
442
andfamiliesarefaringintheircommunitiesandhowwellagenciesandchild-serving
institutionsaremeetingtheirmandates?...
• Areoutcomesmeasurable?Dotheyspecifywhatdegreeofchangeisexpectedto
occurinthelivesofchildrenandfamiliesduringwhatperiodoftime?
• Issharedaccountabilityapartofoutcomesthatrelecteducation,humanservice,
andcommunitygoalsandobjectives?
Hasthecollaborativedevisedainancingstrategytoensurelong-termfunding?
Hasthecollaborativegainedlegitimacyinthecommunityasakeyvehicleforaddressing
andresolvingcommunityissuesregardingchildrenandfamilies?
• Arethecollaborative’spositionsoncommunityissuessupportedbycommitments
frompublicandprivateserviceproviders,thebusinesscommunity,andthechurch-
andneighborhood-basedorganizationswhosemembersareoftenmostdirectlyaf-
fectedbycollaborativedecisionmaking?
Theaboveactivitiesareadvocatedandcoordinatedthroughacenterwhichwasestablished
withtaxpayers’moneyandisdescribedinthefollowingexplanationofitsactivities:
NationalCenterforServicesIntegration
TheNationalCenterforServicesIntegration(NCSI)wasestablishedinlate1991withfunds
fromtheU.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServicesandprivatefoundationstoimprove
lifeoutcomesforchildrenandfamiliesthroughthecreativeintegrationofeducation,health
and human services. The center itself is a collaboration of six organizations: Mathtech,
Inc.;theChildandFamilyPolicyCenter;NationalCenterforChildreninPoverty;National
Governors’Association,PolicyStudiesAssociates;andtheYaleBushCenter.Italsoreceives
guidancefromdistinguishedadvisorsknowledgeableabouttheissuesandinstitutionscon-
cernedwithserviceintegration.
TheprimarypurposeofNCSIistostimulate,guide,andactivelysupportserviceinte-
grationeffortsthroughouttheentirecountry.Toaccomplishitsmission,NCSIhasundertaken
avarietyofactivitiesthroughitsInformationClearinghouseonServiceIntegrationanda
TechnicalAssistanceNetwork.
TheClearinghouse,whichisoperatedbytheNationalCenteronChildreninPoverty
at Columbia University, collects and disseminates information and materials on service
integrationissuesandrelatedtopics.Theyhavedevelopedacomputerdirectoryofservice
integrationprograms,aseparatedirectoryoforganizations,andanextensiveresearchlibrary
collectionthatcanprovideinformationandsupporttocommunity-basedprograms.Individu-
als,organizations,andlocalitiescanaccessanyoftheClearinghouseservices.…
TheTechnicalAssistanceNetwork,whichisoperatedbyCharlesBruneroftheChildand
FamilyPolicyCenter[KidsCount]andMathtech[governmentcontractorfortheevaluationof
sexeducationprograms],bringstogetherleadingserviceintegrationplanners,practitioners,
administrators,andexpertstoexchangeideasandinformation,todevelopwrittenresource
materialsforcommunitiesandpractitionersandtoconveneworkinggroupscomposedof
personsintheforefrontofparticularissuestodevelopstrategiesforsuccessfullyresolving
someofthechallengesfacingcommunitiesandgovernmentalentitiesinvolvedinservice
integrationefforts.
[Ed.Note:Ifthereaderhasanyquestionsaboutwhyschool-basedclinics,school-to-work,
communityeducationprograms,year-roundschools,one-stoptrainingcenters,andallofthe
other“locallyconceived”programshavecomeintotheircommunitieswithsuchforceand
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1999 443
fundamentalsupport,theabovefederallyfundedandconceivedplansshouldanswerthem.
TogetherWeCanbringstogethernationalandinternationalplansforsocializingallservicesto
ourcitizenry.OneexampleistheInternationalYearoftheChildproposalswhichoriginatedin
1979andareherebyfunded,formatted,andfulilledinTogetherWeCan’s“how-to”instruction
manual.Thesearetheprocessesnecessarytocreatethe“perfecthumanresource”—theglobal
worker.PresidentNixonvetoedthechildandfamilylegislationencompassingalloftheabove
activities(theHumphrey-HawkinsChildandFamilyServicesAct)inthemid–1970s,calling
itthemostsocialisticlegislationhehadeverseen.TheNewYorkTimescarriedanarticleby
EdwardB.Fiskeentitled“EarlySchoolingIsNowtheRage”initsApril13,1986issuewhich
explained:
Mr.Nixonnotonlyvetoedthebill(Humphrey-Hawkins]butalsoiredoffascathingmes-
sagetoCongress,proclaimingthathewouldhavenopartinthe“Sovietizing”ofAmerican
Society.“Goodpublicpolicyrequiresthatweenhanceratherthandiminishbothparental
authorityandparentalinvolvementwithchildren.”
Thiscomprehensiveprogramlinksalmosteveryentryinthisbook,fromcradletograve.
Noneofthiscouldhavebeenaccomplishedwithouttheuseofbehavioristmethodsandchange
agenttacticscarefullydocumentedinthisbook.Americanswouldnothavewillinglyturned
overdecisionmakingintheseareasunlessmanipulatedintodoingso;nooneevervotedto
conductourgovernmentinthismanner.TheMontgomeryCountyBlueprintof1946—ifty-plus
yearsago—spelledoutthisapproach.IntheBlueprintPaulMortpointedoutthatittakesifty
yearstoaccomplish“systemschange.”Hewasrightontarget.]
INHISJANUARY1999STATEOFTHEUNIONSPEECHBEFORETHE106THCONGRESS,PRESIdentBill
Clintonreferredtohis“100,000newcops”legislationandfunding.Possibleusesforthese
new“policeresources”mightbefoundininformationregardingCommunity-OrientedPolicing
(COP)trainingavailablethroughagreementsbetweenlocalpolicedepartmentsandtheU.S.
Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA). The following excerpt is taken
fromCommunity-OrientedPolice(COP)materialspublishedthroughtheauspicesoftheU.S.
DepartmentofJustice:
COMMUNITYPOLICINGWHATISIT?
• Shift in philosophy about police duties vs. community responsibilities to a team
conceptoftotalqualitymanagementofthecommunity.Reidentifyingpoliceroleas
afacilitatorinthecommunity.
• Leaders of the community (law enforcement, government, business, education,
health,civic,non-proit,medical,religious,etc.)collaboratingtoidentifyproblems
inthecommunity,whatthesigniicantimpactonpeoplewillbe,andsuggesting
solutionstothoseproblems
• Identifyingcommonground,whereallfactionsofacommunitycanworktogether
forthecommongoodofthecommunityinabroaderproblem-solvingapproach.
Formingapartnershipbetweenpoliceandtherestofthecommunitywhereeachis
accountabletoeachotherandthecommunityasawhole.
• Raisingcommunityawarenessofprogramsandfunctionsofcommunityagencies
444
andorganizations,tomakeiteasierforcitizenstocontactthecorrectsourceforso-
lutionstotheirproblems,thusreleasingpolicetimetotakecareoflegitimatepolice
business.
ArecentarticleinTheWashingtonTimes(NationalWeeklyEdition)ofMay17–23,1999
entitled“Ahem,aboutthose100,000newcops…”shedssomelightonwhatisalittle-known
butcontroversialprogram.Excerptsfollow:
Whateverhappenedtothose100,000newcopsPresidentClintonpromisedtoputon
thestreetsbackin1994?Moretothepoint,whatbecameofthe$9billionappropriation
tofundthemuch-hypedCommunityOrientedPolicingServicesProgram(COPS)thatwas
supposedtodeliverthem?
AccordingtoanembarrassingnewreportreleasedbytheJusticeDepartment’sOfice
ofInspectorGeneral(IG),themoneyisbeingspentonanythingandeverythingbutnew
policeoficers.
…[T]he IG discovered, during the course of 150 audits of grant recipients, that 78
percentofgranteeschargedunallowablecoststothefederalgovernmentforsuchthings
asovertime,policeuniformsandfringebeneitsnotapprovedinadvance;that41percent
ofgrantrecipientsshowedindicatorsofsimplyhavingusedfederalfundstosupplantlocal
funds,sometimespayingthesalariesofoficersalreadyonboard,andothertimesnotmeet-
ingtheprogram’smatchingfundsrequirements;that58%ofgranteeseitherdidnotdevelop
agoodfaithplantoretainoficerpositionsorsaidtheywouldnotretainthepositionsatthe
conclusionofthegrants.
Alltold,theIGreportidentiied$52millioninquestionablecosts;$71millionthat
couldhavebeenputtobetteruse.
Astohowmanynewpoliceoficersareactuallyonthestreetasaresultofallthis
mannafromWashington,well,that’ssomethingnotyetpinneddown.TheIG’sauditshows
theCOPSprogramhasissuedsome$5billioningrants,enoughtofund92,000oficers,of
whichonly50,000appeartobeonthestreet.
Threeyearsago,IBDnotedthatfederalgrantshavebeengoingtofundstateparks,
naturesanctuariesandotherplacesnotusuallyassociatedwithviolentcrime.InFlorida,
forinstance,thestateDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtectionreceiveda$3.5millionCOPS
granttohire30marinepatroloficerstomonitoranationalmarinesanctuary.(Manatees
canbearealthreattopublicorder,youknow.)
Morethan20criminalinvestigationsofCOPSgranteeshavebeenopenedthusfar,yet
thelucrecontinuestolow.ButtherealproblemwiththeCOPSprogramisthefurtherpo-
liticizationofAmericanlawenforcementatalllevels.Bydanglingbillionsbeforestateand
localdepartments,thefederalgovernmentisteasinglawenforcementintoabiddingwar
andlobbyingcampaign,shiftingtheemphasisfromdealingwithcrimetoworryingabout
howtoscoreahitonthecash-ladenBeltwaypinata.
Notonlyistherereasonforlegitimateconcernoverthe“politicization”ofAmericanlaw
enforcement.TheuseofthemoneyforCOPStopayorganizationslikeCommunityResearch
Associatestotrainpolicedepartmentsintownsacrossthiscountrytoemploytacticssimilar
tothoseusedbyeducationalchangeagentstoaccomplishquestionablere-orientingoflaw
enforcementactivitiescriesoutforaninvestigation.Asampleofsuchsuggestions,takenfrom
U.S.DepartmentofJusticematerials,follows:
MEETING#3...Weaskthatbetweennowandthetimewearrive,youcontacttheseiden-
tiiedindividualsandarrangeforaday-longsession....Thisgroupwillbeexposedtothe
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1999 445
history,elementsandtypesofCOP,aswellasstrategicplanningconceptsnecessarytoCOP
implementation.Thiswillalsoleaveuswithtaskstoperform,shouldthereexistaconsen-
susopiniontoproceedwithPhaseIIoftheCOPinitiative.Werecommendthatmembersof
yourdepartmentholdingtherankofCaptainandaboveattendthismeeting(inuniform)
andthattheybeinstructedpriortothemeetingtodispersethemselvesevenlythroughout
theaudience.
[Ed. Note: Accolades to the police departments and public oficials who understand that
theirlawenforcementresourcesshouldbeappliedtowardfulillingtheirconstitutionallaw
enforcementdutiesratherthantohelpthemengageinpublic/privatepartnershipcommunity
developmentandsocialserviceprogramswhich,duetotheblurringoflinesofresponsibility,
areunaccountabletothepublicandtruly“communitarian”intheirtone.]
“STATE OF EDUCATION CRITICIZED—NONPROFIT ORGANIZATION HIRED AT FORMER Governor’s
UrgingPinpointsWeaknessesWithinOhio’sAcademicSystem”ispublishedintheMarch24,
1999issueoftheAkron,OhioBeaconJournal.Excerptsfromthisarticlefollow:
COLUMBUS—Anationalorganization,hiredtolookatOhio’seducationsystem,issuedareport
cardyesterdayandtheresultswerenotgood.
Thecriticalassessment,presentedtothestate’seducationalpolicyleaders,wassur-
prisingbecausethenonproitorganization,AchieveInc.,washiredattheurgingofformer
Gov.GeorgeVoinovich,whohelpeddevisethefundingsystem.
Theorganizationismadeupofexecutivesfromsomeofthenation’slargestcorpo-
rations—IBM,BoeingandProcter&Gamble—andgovernorsfromNorthCarolina,Michigan,
NevadaandWisconsin.[TheNationalGovernor’sAssociationsetupthisorganizationto
“manage”reform,ed.]…
Amongtheindings:
• Ohio’sacademicgoalsarenotclearlydeined.Accountabilitystandardsareineffective
becausetherearenorewardsorpunishmentsassociatedwithfailureorsuccess.The
emphasisisonholdingkids,notadults,accountable.
• Ifthestateisseriousaboutimprovingacademicsandholdingschoolsaccountable,
itmustprovidedistrictswiththeresourcesandtools—that,ismoremoney—todo
thejob.
• Thestateshouldprovideassistanceindistrictsthatareperformingpoorly,close
schoolsifnoimprovementsaremadeandre-openthemwithnewleaders....
FredBlosser,superintendentofCantonschools,agreedwithAchieve’sassessment.
“Thestate’sacademicgoalsarenotdeined,”hesaid.WhileCantonhasadoptedits
owngoals—graduatingeverychildwiththeabilitytothinkandreason,tohaveconcernfor
othersandtohaveadesiretocontinuetolearn—thestate’sonlyconcernisgettingchildren
toaminimumlevelofknowledge,hesaid.
“AllIamhearingis‘proiciency,proiciency,proiciency—andattendance.’Thereis
moretoeducatingachildthanmeetingminimumproiciency,”Blossersaid.
[Ed.Note:Notethattheemphasisisplacedononlyattaininga“minimum”levelofproi-
ciency.Ifanyonestillhasanydoubtsbynowwhatthefullimplementationofeducationreform
willmeanforthechildren,teachersandschoolsofAmerica,readthearticleagaincarefully.
Reformer(changeagent)DavidHornbeck’soriginalrecommendationsforrewardingorpenal-
446
izingschools,dependingontheresultsofindividualchildren’sproiciencytestscores,isnow
beingwidelyimplementedacrossAmerica.Childrenwillpassorfailbaseduponthesetest
scores.Teacherswillberewardedorpenalizedbasedonthetestscoresofchildrenintheir
classrooms.Schoolswhichdonotfunctionuptoparwillbeshutdownor“managed.”Under
increasingpressure,teacherswillbedevotingmassiveamountsoftimeto“teachtothetest.”
Andtheteachingmethodofchoicewillbedirectinstruction/masterylearningwhichdrillsthe
studentslikerobotsuntiltheycanspoutoutthecorrectanswerwithoutthinking.
OnemightwonderhowOhiostudentsandschoolsfaredwiththeirirstrun-throughof
thesenewtests.TheAkronBeaconJournal,inafollow-uparticle“StateRankingofSchools
SuretoRankle:ManyAreaDistrictsAreScoringVeryPoorlyinStatewideEvaluation(April
6,1999)reported:
About1.8millionreportcardswentintothemailyesterdaytotheparentsofeachof
Ohio’spublicschoolchildren....
Whileshowingthatstudentsingeneralaredoingbetter,especiallyonthestate’sninth-
gradeproiciencytests,mathcontinuestobeaweakspot.
Andmanyschoolsintheareaarefallingshortofacademicgoals,accordingtothe
reports.
Thisyear,only15ofOhio’s611schooldistrictsachievedthehighestratingof“effective.”
Notoneofthe62schooldistrictsinSummit,Stark,Portage,MedinaorWaynecountieswas
inthatelitegroup....
AkronSuperintendentBrianWilliams—whosedistrictmetonlyoneofthe18crite-
ria—preparedtheparentsofhisdistrictforbadnewsbysendingaletterhomelastweek.]
THECONFERENCEBOARD(ONEOFTHEMOSTINFLUENTIALINTERNATIONALGROUPSPROmotingthe
worldmanagement/controlsystemandworkforcetrainingintheschools)advertisedits“1999
StrategicLearningConference:AToolKittoPowerBusinessPerformance”tobeheldMarch
29–30,1999attheMarriottWorldTradeCenter,NewYorkCity.Onthefrontofthebrochure
attheverybottomitstates,“Thecollectivewisdomofexecutivesworldwide.”Inregardto
thesubjectoftheconference,itstates:
TheStrategicLearningModelwasdevelopedbyProfessorWilliamPietersenatColumbia
BusinessSchool.Atthisconference,heandotherleading-edgethinkersandcorporateprac-
titionerswillwalkyouthroughaframework—frombeginningtoend—thatwilldemonstrate
howtocreatesystematiclearninginitiativesthatcanresultinbetterbusinessstrategyand
bottom-lineresults.
“Drystuff,that,”yousay.Notatall.Underthe“MakingorBreakingStrategythrough
Culture”onereads:“Cultureisthekeytosuccess.Thisfundamentaldimensionofyourstra-
tegicdevelopmentcandeterminesuccessorfailure.Findouthowtoensureyoucreateastrong
cultureofsuccess.”CarlosRivero,Ph.D.,directorofresearch,DeltaConsulting,andRobert
Bontempo,professorofexecutiveeducationatColumbiaBusinessSchool,arethepresenters.
The last two highlighted comments in this particular section state in distinctly Skinnerian
termsthefollowing:
WhatGetsMeasuredGetsDone
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1999 447
and
WhatGetsRewardedGetsDoneRepeatedly
[Ed.Note:Thisentrydemonstrateshoweveryfacetofourliveswill,inthefuture,bebased
onProfessorB.F.Skinner’sscientiicandmanipulativephilosophyextensivelydiscussedin
thisbook.]
U.S.SECRETARYOFEDUCATIONRICHARDRILEYDELIVEREDTHESIXTHSTATEOFAMERICANEdu-
cationspeechearlyin1999inLongBeach,California.Forthereaderwhohasarrivedatthis
pointinthisbook,Riley’srecommendationswillcomeasnosurprise.Thereadercouldprob-
ably have written Riley’s speech, since it covers everything painstakingly and consistently
initiatedovertimeusingtheHegelianDialectic,semanticdeceptionandgradualism.Riley’s
proposals—includingthe“communitarian”TogetherWeCan“systemschange”intheJanuary,
1999entry—couldhavebeenliftedoutofthe1946MontgomeryCountyBlueprintdiscussed
intheprefacetothisbook.
In his February 16 speech Riley called for: Community Partnerships, charter schools,
schoolsopenyear-round/morning-to-night,“Schools[ofthefuture]servingascentersofcom-
munities”;focusonreading[referringtothe“landmarkstudybytheAcademyofScience”];
“DemocracyofExcellence”;earlychildhoodinitiatives[ParentsasTeachers,etc.];schooluni-
forms;violence-preventionprograms;“sustainedprogress”[NorthCarolina,Maryland,Texas
andKentuckyas“successes”—thosestateswhichhavebeenstrugglingtokeeptheirheads
abovewaterduringthepasttwenty-iveyears,ed.];teacher“quality”;“optionschools”;“mag-
netschools”;school-to-work“opportunities”;andmorechoices.Obviously,theinterpretation
ofthisinformationdependsonone’sdeinitionofRiley’swords!Astoundingly,basedonno
supportiveevidence,Rileysaid:
Weknowagooddealmoreabouthowtoturnaroundlow-performingschools:fromgiving
teachersmoretimefortrainingandcollaboration;toredesigningthecurriculum;toremoving
aprincipalwhodoesn’tprovideleadership;toissuingschoolreportcardsthatmeasurereal
achievementovertime;toenforcingeffectivedisciplinepolicies.
[Ed.Note:ToassistSecretaryRileyinhisefforttobring“transformation”totheeducation
arena,thewriterisprovidingthereaderwitha“RecipeforEducationalDisaster”whichthe
readerisencouragedtoduplicateandsendtoRiley,otherswhomayholdhispositionata
futuredate,electedoficials,schoolsuperintendents,teachers,andanyoneelsewhocould
beneitfromitssageadvice.Thecreditfortherecipe(whichhasbeen“doctoredup”abit)
willhavetogoto“anonymous,”forthewriterisunabletoidentifyitsauthor,butwhoever
youare—many,manythanks!
RECIPEFOREDUCATIONALDISASTER
Combinethefollowingingredientsforatotaldisasterineducation.
Mixtogether:
1PlumpFederalGovernment(pitsandall)
50StateEducationAgencies
2LiberalTeachersUnions(NEA,AFT)
1NationalDiffusionNetwork
448
Sifttogether:
SeveralSocialistFoundations(Carnegie,Ford,Rockefeller,Danforth,Spencer,Pewand
Kettering)
GraduateSchools
TeachersColleges
TextbookPublishers
FoldIn:
PlannedParenthood
SIECUS(SexInformationEducationCounciloftheUnitedStates)
DrugEducation
Self-EsteemEducation[CharacterEducation]
DeathEducation
School-to-Work“techademics”
(BesuretoremoveallBasicSkills.)
AddtheFollowingFundsforExtraSpice:
TitleI(specialprovisionsfordisadvantagedyoungsters)
TitleII(schoollibraries,textbooks,andinstructionalmaterials,also“educationaltech-
nology”andso-called“basicskillsimprovement”)
TitleIII(“innovativeprograms,”psychologicalexperiments,“exemplary”programs;
additionalguidance,and“special”programsforwonderfulclassesinhealth,popu-
lationandglobaleducation,testingandcounseling)
TitleIV(educationallabsandcenters,libraries,earlychildhoodeducation,moreguid-
ance,testingandcounseling,socialworkersandpsychiatrists)
TitleV(grantsandresourcestothestateeducationagenciesfordatacollectionand
management,personneldevelopment,andhandicapped,migrantchildren,“com-
munityeducation,”ethnicheritageprograms,bilingualeducation,opportunitiesfor
Indianstudents,emergencyaid,etc.)
If none of these ingredients are available in their original form due to “repackaging and
renaming”becauseof“brandname”changes,presentlyavailablesubstitutesworkjustas
well!Potentialsubstituteitems:Educatorsforparents(ParentsasTeachers)orTogetherWe
Can“caringcommunities.”
StrainoutallABSOLUTEvaluesandmorals.
SprinklewithChangeAgents.
Simmerfortwelveyearstofourteenyears.
TOPPING:
Addallfour-year-olds,blendwithyear-roundschoolandHeadStartprograms.
Combinethefollowing(stirringconstantly):
LearnerOutcomes
AccreditationStandards
(Teach-to-the-Testaddslavor,too.)
Pourinsecretive,federal-andstate-mandatedtests(personalityproilespassedoffasaca-
demictests)andreportcardsforparents.
Addahugesupplyofedible“tokens”forimmediategratiicationaftercorrectresponses
blendedintomixture.
BasteuntilALLarecompletelyBRAINWASHED.
ServingSize:Approximately40,000,000children
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1999 449
Serveleftoverstothenextgeneration.(IdealtoservetoStateSenatorsandRepresent-
atives,U.S.CongressmenandSenators,andotherpublicoficialsduringblacktie
dinners.)
DESSERTSUGGESTION:TAXESALAMODE
WiththislastentryIrestmycase.
Thedeliberatedumbingdownhasnowbecometheexcuseforcompletesocialchange,
includingtheprivatizationofeducation(thehandingovertotheunelectedmultinationalcorpo-
rationstheresponsibilityforeducation—actuallytraining—offuturecitizens).Suchatransfer
ofresponsibilitywillbefacilitatedbythecreationofcharter/magnetschoolsandpassageof
legislationprovidingtuitiontaxcredits/vouchers.Theworkforcedevelopmentsystemwill,
ofcourse,beinternational,asisindicatedbymanyquotesinthisbook.Parentswhomaybe
enthusiasticaboutthevariouschoiceproposalsmaychangetheirmindsregarding“choice”
whentheirchildbecomespartofthecorporatefascistquotasystem,beingtrackedintoacareer
chosenforhim/herbyunelectedcorporatemanagerswhosetlaborforcerequirements.
Suchquotaswillbeapartoftheglobalplannedeconomy.Parentswillhavenosayre-
gardingtheirchild’splacementsincetherewillnolongerbeanelectedbody,suchasaschool
board,towhomtheycancomplain.
Onlyadumbed-down,brainwashed,conditionedcitizenrycouldwillinglyacceptwhatis
beingofferedAmericansundertheguiseof“remainingcompetitiveinanincreasinglyglobal
economy,”andrelinquishingoursovereigntyinthenameof“globalunderstandingandpeace.”
ThefollowingquotationsfromEdwardHunter,themanwhocoinedtheterm“brainwashing”
andauthorofBrainwashing:TheMenWhoDeiedIt,69speaktowhatweasAmericanscan
stilldotoreversetheprocess:
Surelytherecannolongerbeatraceofdoubtthatbrainwashingissheerevil.Theight
againstitistheculminatingissueofalltime,inwhicheveryhumanbeingisprotagonist.
Therecanbeneitherescapenorneutralitywheresuchresponsibilitieslie.
Therecanbeneitherfrontnorrear,forthegreatlessonthatcamefromthebrainwashing
chamberswasthatwhileeverymanhasacrackingpoint,everyman’scrackingpointcanbe
immenselystrengthened.Thatisthejobofhome,school,andchurch.Themother,teacher,
andpastorareinthefrontlinesinthisideologicalconlict,andeverywordtheysaytotheir
sonsanddaughtersisimportanttothestruggle,forcharactermorethananythingelsewill
determinetheoutcome.
Truthisthemostimportantserumandintegritythemostdevastatingweaponthatcan
beusedagainstthetotalitarianconcept....Nothingshouldbeallowedtointerferewiththe
taskofgettingthosefactsacrosstothepeoplewhoneedandcanusethem.
Onlyaninformedpeoplecanshouldertheirresponsibilityeffectively.Whenfreemen
knowbothwhattheyareightingagainstandwhattheyareightingtopreserveandenhance,
theyareunbeatable,strongerthananystrategy.
Whatisabsolutelyessentialisthatthefullfactsbegiventoallourpeople,formind
warfareistotalwar.Thisapproachcanmakeourstruggleforthemindthecrusadeitshould
be.Neversincemanreceivedreasonbeyondtheinstinctsofanimalkindhastherebeen
amoreimportantissue.Intheighttogivemanforevertheopportunitytodevelop,every
possibleweaponmustbeutilizedontheieldofbattle,whichiseverywhere.Thereisno
“behindthelines”anylonger.
450
Endnotes:
1TheforegoinginformationwastakenfromAppendixA–1oftheSCANSpublicationWhatWorkRequiresofSchools(U.S.
DepartmentofLabor:Washington,D.C.,1991).
2NationalIssuesinEducation:Goals2000andSchool-to-WorkbyJohnF.Jennings,Ed.(PhiDeltaKappa:Bloomington,Ind.,
andTheInstituteforEducationalLeadership:Washington,D.C.,1995).
3ForthoseinterestedinseeinghowSkinner’sanimaltrainingworkswithteachers,MadelineHunter’sInstructionalTheory
intoPractice:ITIPisacollectionofHunter’sinstructionalmaterialswhichshedevelopedandtaughtthroughouthercareer.
Thismaterialmaybepurchasedfrom:AssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment,1703NorthBeauregardSt.,
Alexandria,VA22311–1714,Ph:1–800–933–2723.
4WorldEducationforAllForumSecretariatislocatedat:UnitedNationsEducational,Scientiic,andCulturalOrganization,7
PlacedeFonteroy,75352ParisO75P,France.
5PolytechnicalEducation:AStepbyRobertH.Beckavailablebycalling1–800–637–7651.
6Orderingaddress:TheBlumenfeldEducationReport,LiteracyUnlimited,Inc.,2527KnoxDrive,Rockford,Illinois61114.
7GlobalAllianceforTransformingEducation,4202AshwoodyTrail,Atlanta,GA30319.
8Numinous:“1:supernatural,mysterious2:illedwithasenseofthepresenceofdivinity;holy3:appealingtothehigheremo-
tionsortotheaestheticsense;spiritual.”(Webster’sSeventhNewCollegeDictionary[G.&C.MerriamCompany:Springield,
MA,1971.])
9Please re-read the 1934 entry regarding Conclusions and Recommendations for the Social Studies funded by the Carnegie
Corporation,thewordingofwhichverycloselyresemblestheGATEentry.
10 EdwardsDemingstatedinaninterviewattheUniversityofPittsburghin1992that“WhatItooktoJapan[TQM]wasnotthe
Americanway.”
11 “Non-hierarchicalprocessofnewleadership”isTotalQualityManagement(TQM).
12 See1991entryconcerningAssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment’seffortsintheEugene,OregonSchool
District4JforfurtherinformationregardingMullerandhiscurriculum.
13 Glavin,MatthewJ.,ReachfortheStars:AProposalforEducationReforminGeorgia.(GeorgiaPublicPolicyFoundation:Atlanta,
GA,1991)
14 In1997MichiganGovernorJohnEnglerfundedandsupportedareportpreparedbyanappointedcommissionwhichrecom-
mendedthatMichigan’sschools—asanexampletothenation—bedivestedofpubliccontrolandturnedinto“corporations.”
These“corporations”wouldgivestocktofamilieswithchildreninthecommunitiesinwhichtheschoolswerelocatedand
toemployeesoftheschools—theemployeeswouldreceivelargersharesthantheparent/citizenstockholders—andtoother
“interestedentities”whichcouldincludebusinessandcorporateinterests.Becauseofthestructureof“corporations,”the
questionwasandcouldbeaskedconcerningthepossibilityofinvestmentbyforeign,orcertainlyinterstate,interests.This
certainlyraisesthespectreof“corporateacademies”beingcreatedoutofourpublicschools.
15 ThoseinterestedinobtainingacopyoftheCarnegieCorporation’sreportANationPrepared:Teachersforthe21stCentury,
publishedintheMay21,1986issueofEducationWeek,candosobywritingto:EducationWeek,Suite775,125523rdStreet,
N.W.,Washington,D.C.20003.
16 TheRussianDeputyMinisterofEducationElenaLenskayawasalsoapresenteratWillardDaggett’sInternationalCenterfor
LeadershipinEducation,Inc.,SecondAnnualModelSchoolsConferenceinAtlanta,Georgiainthesummerof1994.She
madeareturnappearanceinthesummerof1998attheSixthAnnualModelSchoolsConference.
17 The USCEFA’s deinition for “basic learning needs,” as put forth in their literature, is “the essential learning tools—such
asliteracy,oralexpression,numeracy,problem-solvingandbasiclearningcontent—requiredbyallpeopletodeveloptheir
fullcapacitiestoliveandworkindignity,toparticipatefullyindevelopment,toimprovethequalityoftheirlives,tomake
informeddecisions.”
18EducationDevelopmentCenter,Inc.inNewton,Massachusettswasthedeveloperofthecontroversialsocialstudiesprogram
Man:ACourseofStudyorM:ACOS,basedontheworkofB.F.SkinnerandJeromeBruner.
19See1991NewAmericanSchoolsDevelopmentCorporationentry.
20BritishColumbiaTeachers’Federation,100–550West6thAvenue,Vancouver,BCV5Z4P2.
21 FormoreinformationregardingCommunityLearningInformationNetwork,writeCLIN,1776KSt.,N.W.,FifthFloor,Wash-
ington,D.C.20006,Ofice:202–857–2330.
22Thewriterconsidersthispublicationa“MustRead”!Itmaybeorderedbysending$12.00to:BillyLyon,Route#1,Box37,
Edgewood,TX75117.
23ThereadermaywishtoorderMs.Rogers’sirstarticle,“InLocoParentis:TheBraveNewFamilyinMissouri,”aswellasa
completecopyoftheexcerptedarticlefrom:Chronicles,934N.MainStreet,Rockford,IL61103.
24Frompersonalcollectionofthiswriter,providedbyafellowresearcher.
25 Seepreviousreferencetothisconferenceinthe1981entryofthisbookdealingwithcommentsbyMalcolmDavis.
26 See1993entryforM.DonaldThomas’s“APlanforAction,”whichcontainsproposalsfromDr.DonThomasconcerning$50
inesforparentswhorefusetovolunteer.
27 Forfurtherinformationonthissubject,theNAEP,andviolationofprivacy,orderacopyof“WhenJohnnyTakestheTest:
HowYourChildIsIdentiiedandTrackedtotheNationalDataBank—andBeyond”byMelanieFields,AnitaHogeandSarah
Lesliefrom:ConsciencePress,P.O.Box449,Ravenna,Ohio44266,orhttp://www.christianconscience.com.
28 FloridaandTexaswerespeciicallyselectedbecauseoftheiruseinthedatacollectionprojectformigratorychildrenandtheir
families.
29 Videotapefromprivatecollection.
451
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1999
30 FormoreinformationabouttheNTLInstituteservices,oritsapproachtochange,contact:RussellBong,MarketingManager,
NTLInstituteforAppliedBehavioralScience,1240NorthPittSt.,Suite100,Alexandria,VA22314–1403.Phone:1–800–777-
5227;FAX:703–684–1256.
31 Seeentryfor1983quotefrombookbyEugeneMaxwellBoyce,TheComingRevolutioninEducationandtheNewTheoryof
Schooling.
32 “TheTruthBehindOutcome-BasedEducation”wasproducedanddistributedbyCompassandcanbeorderedbycalling:
1–800–977–2177.
33 WilliamE.BrockhasalsoservedasaformerU.S.SecretaryofLaborandaschairmanoftheLaborSecretary’sCommission
onAchievingNecessarySkills(SCANS),appointedbythen-SecretaryofLaborElizabethDole.
34 NationalCenterforEducationStatistics.FinancialAccounting:ClassiicationsandStandardTerminologyforLocalandState
SchoolSystems.(U.S.GovernmentPrintingOfice:Washington,D.C.,1973)DHEWPublicationNo.(OE)73–11800.
35 TheCommissiononSkillsoftheAmericanWorkforceproducedthis1990report.ThecommissionincludedMarcTucker,
whowrotethenow-famouslettertoHillaryClintonfollowingtheelectionofBillClintonasPresident.Itshouldbenotedthat
HillaryClintonwasappointedtothecommissionbyWilliamBennett,then-secretaryofeducation.(See1986entrydealing
withthisstory.)
36 PleaseseeAppendixXI“WhenIsAssessmentReallyAssessment?”andindexreferencesforStichtandOettinger.
37 America2000eventuallybecameGoals2000.
38 ThereportfromtheSecondAnnualConferenceonModelSchoolswaswrittenbyCynthiaWeatherlyandpublishedinthe
January1995issueofTheChristianConscience(Vol.1,No.1).
39 “Voluntary,”forthetimebeing.
40 Thewords“forgottenhalf”aretakenfromthe1988W.T.GrantCo.’slandmarkreportentitledTheForgottenHalf:Pathways
toSuccessforAmerica’sYouthandYoungFamilies.(See1988entryformoreaboutthisreport.)
41 SusanKovalikformedherITIcompanyin1982andhasnowmovedtothestateofWashington.Ifthereaderisinterestedin
accessingKovalik’smaterials,herinternetsiteaddressis:http://www.kovalik.com.Thiswriterinnowayendorsesthework
ofSusanKovalik,butismerelymakingthisinformationavailabletoprovidethereaderwithoriginalresearch.
42 ChallengersforInsight’saddressis:520N.StateRoad135,SuiteM–125,Greenwood,IN46142.
43 FireintheMindsofMen:OriginsoftheRevolutionaryFaith(BasicBooks,Inc.:NewYork,1980)waswrittenbyJamesH.
Billington,librarianoftheU.S.Congressinwhichhewroteinchapter4,“TheOccultOriginsofOrganization,”thefollow-
ing:“Thestoryofthesecretsocieitescanneverbefullyreconstructed,butithasbeenbadlyneglected—evenavoided,one
suspects—becausetheevidencethatisavailablerepeatedlyleadsusintoterritoryequallyuncongenialtomodernhistorians
intheEastandtheWest.…InwhatfollowsIshallattempttoshowthatmodernrevolutionarytraditionasitcametobeinter-
nationalizedunderNapoleonandtheRestorationgrewoutofoccultFreemasonry;thatearlyorganizationalideasoriginated
morefromPythagoreanmysticismthanfrompracticalexperience;andthattherealinnovatorswerenotsomuchpolitical
activistsasliteraryintellectuals,onwhomGermanromanticthoughtingeneral—andBaviarianIlluminisminparticular—ex-
ertedgreatinluence.…”(p.87)Itishelpfulforseriouseducationresearcherswhohaveuncoveredevidencesimilartothat
ofBillington’stohaveanhistorianofhiscaliberconirmingtheinluenceoftheseocculticsocietiesonthestabilityofsociety
ingeneral,andeducationinparticular,overtheages.
44 Formorebackgroundonthehistoryofthe“commongroundmovement”ineducationreform,see“SeparationofSchooland
State:WhyWeCannotSign,”byLynnandSarahLeslie,publishedintheDecember1997issueofTheChristianConscience,
POBox449,Ravenna,OH44266orpostedonthewebathttp://www.christianconscience.com.
45 EducationalTestingServicewascreatedin1946andwaslaunchedbyaninitialendowmentof$750,000fromtheCarnegie
Corporation.
46 ForasummaryreportoftheFormerPascoTeacherSurvey,sendaself-addressedstampedenvelopeto:TFAE,2527W.Ken-
newickAvenue,#350,Kennewick,Washington99336.
47 Ms.Kosieccanbereachedbywriting:BarbaraMcFarlin-Kosiec,635N.Fisher,Kennewick,Washington99336.Sheisalso
availableforspeakingengagements/interviews.
48 OrderNationalIssuesinEducationbycalling1–800–766–1156.Thepriceis$18,plus$3S&H.
49 Anoteatthebottomofthearticlestates:“ThearticlewasapprovedbytheACSIExecutiveBoard.”
50 Ifthereaderisinterestedinreadingthisarticleinitsentirety,pleasewrite:AssociationofChristianSchoolsInternational,
P.O.Box35097,ColoradoSprings,Colorado80935–3509,orcall1–800–367–0798.
51 AmericanFamilyAssociationLawCenter’saddressis:P.O.Drawer2440,Tupelo,Mississippi38803;andtelephone:1–601–
680–3886.
52 LosHorcones’se-mailaddressis:walden@imparcial.comm.mx.
53 JohnNaisbittistheauthorofMegatrendsandMegatrends2000,requiredreadingforformerSpeakeroftheHouseNewt
Gingrich’sseminars.
54ThisiswordingfoundinPPBS/MBOmaterial.
55EstherDysonwasalsoaspeakerandactiveparticipantintheProgressandFreedomFoundation’smeetinginAtlantain1994,
“CyberspaceandtheAmericanDream.”
56Refertothe1984NationalCouncilforEducationalResearchentryforthehistoryofTheReadingExcellenceAct.
57Privateconversationwithteacherwhowishestoremainanonymousduetothepoliticalheatgeneratedbythesereading
discussions.
58 Those interested in the activities of the Frank Porter Graham Child Development Center can access its website at: http:
//www.fpg.unc.edu.
452
59GeorgeSorosischairmanoftheSorosFundManagement.BorninBudapest,Hungary,SorosreceivedhisB.S.degreefrom
theLondonSchoolofEconomicsin1952.MarriedforthesecondtimetoSusanWeberSoros,theyhaveraisedivechildren,
twobornofhisirstwife.MaintaininghomesinManhattan,London,andSouthamptonandBedford,NewYork,hedescribes
himselfasa“inancial,philanthropic,andphilosophicalspeculator.”Investmentfundsbearinghisnamehaveearnedhim
afortuneestimatedat$2.5billion.Hehasnowbecomemorewellknownforgivingmoneyawaythanforamassingit,and
hasestablishedaglobalnetworkofphilanthropicorganizations.Intheearly1980sheusedhiswealthtofosterpolitical
andphilosophicalfreedominEasternEurope.ToovercomecensorshipinhisnativeHungary,Sorosdistributedphotocopi-
ersthroughoutthecountry.Afterbuildingarecordofworldwidegivingwhichtopsover$350millionannually,Soroshas
turnedhisfocusontheUnitedStates,sponsoringcontroversialprojectsdealingwithsocialprograms—includingdrugpolicy
reformandpoverty(VanityFair.November,1997).TheAugust14,1998issueofUSATodaycarriedanarticleentitled“Soros
StirsRubleDebate”whichstates:“Butfewpeopleknowledgeableofinancialmarkets—eventhoseoutsideinancialcircles
whodislikeSorosforhisdonationstoassistedsuicideandthelegalizationofmarijuana—arepreparedtoaccusehimofa
conspiracytocauseaRussianpanic.”
60Refertothe1993entrydealingwithH.R.6.
61 Ms. Fessler can be reached at: 7530 Ross Road, New Carlisle, OH 45344, 937–845–8428, diana@fessler.com or http://
www.fessler.com.
62FormerlyknownastheDrugFreeSchoolsAct.
63NationalCenterforEducationalStatisticswithintheOficeofEducationalResearchandImprovementoftheU.S.Department
ofEducationproducedthesehandbooksforusebystateandlocaleducationagenciesincollectingdataonallaspectsof
school-andcommunity-relatedactivities,arrangedindetailedcollectioncodes.
64ThesehandbooksareacentralpartofthePlanning,Programming,BudgetingandManagementSystem(PPBS)extensively
documentedinthisbook.
65 “EarlyWarningFamilyResponse,”thegovernment’s“ActionPlantoDealwithViolence,”whichillustratestheoppressive
handofgovernmentatwork,canbeobtainedbycalling:1–800–4ED–PUBS(1–800–433–7827)orbye-mailatedpuborders
@aspersys.com.
66 National School Conference Institute (NSCI), P.O. Box 37527, Phoenix, AZ 85069–7527, Toll free: 888–399–8745, http://
www.nscinet.com
67 Formoreinformationonthisproject,contactL.AllenPhelps,CenteronEducationandWork:608–263–3696(Ph.)or608–
262–3063(Fax)oraphelps@soemadison.wisc.edu.
68 FormoreinformationaboutMichaelFarrisandHSLDA,visithttp://www.christianconscience.com.
69 EdwardHunter.Brainwashing:TheMenWhoDeiedIt(VanguardPress,Inc.:NewYork,NewYork,1956),chapter11,“A
MatterofIntegrity.”
TheNoxiousNineties:c.1999 453
AFTERWORD
It is agreed by many Americans that the United States is living on “borrowed time,”
but how many of us are willing to relect seriously on what has happened and how the
situationcanbereversed?In1985thiswriter,inherslimbookletBacktoBasicsorOBE…
SkinnerianInternationalCurriculum?,warned:
WhetherornottheUnitedStatesofAmerica—throughcitizenpreoccupationwithfashion,
TV, sports, gourmet cooking, jogging, making a living, etc., all of which are perfectly
legitimateandworthwhileactivitiesina“freesociety,”coupledwithlackofunderstanding
of the internationalists’ use of gradualism and Hegelian philosophy to attain their
goals—slidesintothetotalitarianblackholeofasocialistoneworldgovernment,withthe
resultinglossoffreedomsourancestorsfoughtanddiedfor,dependsonwhetherYOU,the
reader,areconvincedtheproblemsdescribedinthisbookareseriousenoughforyouto
spendafewminuteswritingtoyourelectedoficials....Ifthepresentsituationcontinues
unchecked,bytheyear1998:childrennowinkindergartenwillhavebeenthroughthirteen
yearsofSkinnerianworldgovernmentbrainwashunderthedeceptiveguiseofthe“New
Basics”;youandImaynolongerbearoundtovote;andthe18-year-oldsmaywellbeon
their way to vote what historians have referred to as the greatest experiment in human
freedomstraightdownthetubes.
Well,thiswriterisstillaround,andfortunately,soaremanyotherconcernedAmericans
whoin1985wereintheirifties.Whatthiswriterpredictedhasforthemostparthappened,
althoughitisdificultfortheaverageAmericantoidentifyortonaildownsincethelossofour
freedomsattheballotbox—andmoreimportantlythroughregionalgovernmentwhichuses
unelectedoficialstomakedecisions—hasbeenintroducedverygradually.
The most serious problem resulting from the “deliberate dumbing down” is that
importantdecisionmakingisincreasinglybeingdelegatedtounelectedAmericans.Citizens
455
456
are being called upon to participate in the political process through communitarian
group management procedures (site-based school management, task forces, blue-ribbon
commissions,townmeetings,groupconsensus,call-intalkshows,polling,etc.)andpublic
policyisbeingmadeusingthe“uninformed”opinionsofthosewhohave,throughnofault
oftheirown,beendumbeddownbybeingeithermis-educatedornoteducatedatallinthe
traditionalsense.ManycannotevenreadanewspaperanddependonTVfortheirknowledge
andunderstandingofcurrentevents.
Partofthesolutiontothisproblemcouldbetoreturnalldecisionmakingtoduly-elected
oficials. That, of course, would not assure that those who are elected would be any
better qualiied to make decisions than those presently calling the shots in Delphi circles
and the numerous unelected decision-making venues at work in our country. However,
accountability would be restored, and citizens could once more, as free individuals—and,
I repeat, individuals—vote these people out of ofice and elect persons who are educated
inthetraditionaldisciplinesofhistoryandgovernment(theU.S.Constitution),economics
andbasicacademics.Eventually,ifthepubliceducationsystemcanberestoredtoitsformer
excellence,ournationwouldbeabletogetbackontrack.
Seldom,ifever,doesonehearthefollowingfairlysimplesolutionsuggestedwhenthe
question is posed regarding how to restore our public education system to its traditional
(pre-1930’s)stateofexcellence:
Elected oficials at the local level have the authority to re-establish public education
accordingtothewishesofthetaxpayersineachlocalcommunity.Teacherswithdegrees
inspeciicsubjectmattercouldbehiredwithoutrequiringthattheyhavestateornational
certiicationwhichsubjectsthemtoseeminglyruinoustrainingcourseswhichdonotdeal
withacademicmaterial.However,thefundingoftheschoolsmustremainlocalifcitizens
wishtore-createtrulyacademicinstitutions.Therecanbenotuitiontaxcredits,vouchers,
charterschools,orlaunderedstatetaxmonies(moniesco-mingledwithfederalmoney)if
citizens wish to be 100% in charge of the education philosophy; i.e., curriculum, hiring
of teachers, teaching methods, etc. Americans forget too easily the old saying, “He who
pays the piper calls the tune.” For those who ind such a solution unworkable due to
thediscrepanciesinlocalcommunitytaxbases,Isayrefertothebeginningofthisbook
regardingtheabilitytoeducateonashoestring.Educationcostslittle:brainwashingand
socialservicesarevery,veryexpensive.
Granted,theabove“solution”maysoundsimplistic,andinthisdayandagewouldnot
beeasytoimplementinurbanareas,wheremanyoftheneedsarethegreatest.However,
when one surveys the urban education landscape as presently constituted, there are few
brightspots.Billionsofdollarsintaxmoney,whichshouldhavegoneintotrueacademics,
havebeensiphonedoffintotheoperationofhugeandunnecessarybureaucracies.Asone
has seen after reading this book, community services and changing students’ values have
beenjudgedmoreessentialthanteachingachildtoread,tounderstandhishistoricalsetting,
theessentialsofscience,andhowtocalculate.Basicacademics,inmostinnercityschools
undertheumbrellaofEffectiveSchoolsResearch,havebeentaughtusingSkinnerianmastery
learningprogramswhichhaveresultedinproducinglowtestscores.Disciplinehasbroken
down to such an extent that the prescription of the drug Ritalin is commonplace, retired
militaryoficersarerunningurbanschools,uniformsaremandatedinmanypublicschools,
andthepolicearebeingcalledupontokeeporderintheformerhallsofacademe.
Afterword 457
There is no question that much careful and sensitive thought must go into planning
fortheurbanschools,keepinginmindatalltimesthatmostoftheproblemsfacingthese
schoolsandcommunitieshavebeenaresultofwhatyouhavereadaboutinthisbookand
thewillingnessofelectedoficialstoacceptthe“carrot”alongwiththebigstick(themoney
withallthefederalandstatecontrolsonhowitistobeused).
It is never too late to see the light at the end of the tunnel. Nothing positive can be
accomplished, regardless of how much money and good will exist, unless we Americans
learn again to stand on our own two feet, as individuals, not as members of the “group”
usingTotalQualityManagement,butasindividualswithGod-givenintellects;asindividuals
whoaccepttheirresponsibilitytobecontributingparticipantsinourconstitutionalrepublic
insteadofbeingobserversinaso-called“participatory”democracywhereonlythosewho
agreewiththestatusquowillbeallowedtohaveavoice.Ournationdidnotbecomegreat
through group action. It became great in every way due to individual Americans thinking
and acting independently, caring for one another and not expecting the government to
care for them or their neighbors, and accepting responsibility for their actions without
blaming the “environment” for all their misdeeds—from broken marriages, smoking and
drinkingtoviolentbehavior.
Torepeatthethemeofthisbook:Wearehumanbeings,notanimals.Wehavefreewill.
Wecanchooseandbuildourfutures,somethinganimalsarenotcapableofdoing.Animals
are justiied in blaming their environment for their behavior! We, as human beings, with
intellect,soulandconscience,donothavesuchjustiication.
Very recent history, being made as this book is written, should serve as a wake-up
call.We,ascitizens,seemincreasinglyunabletomaketheimportantconnectionsbetween
individual personal behavior and its effect on the nation/world as a whole. There can be
nostabilityinourworldifcommondecency(morality)isshuntedasideandconsidereda
“personalmatter”notaffectingtheentirebodypolitic(personalbehaviorvs.publicmorals).
Our children deserve more from those adults who bemoan the sorry state of this nation
while making excuses for public oficials’ immoral conduct, and who are poor examples
of good behavior themselves. How can we expect our children to grow up and become
responsible citizens and future leaders if we sanction immorality at all levels of personal
life and government? How can our children accept our criticisms and correction when
caughtlyingorstealingwhentheyseeusmakingexcusesforsuchbehavioratthehighest
levelsofgovernmentandleadership?
Truly,the“non-absolutistvaluevaccine”(extensivelydocumentedinthisbook)hastaken
andcanbeexpectedtofurthersickenournationintheabsenceofareturntodependenceon
veryclearandsimplemoralstandards,suchastheTenCommandmentswhichusedtohang
onthewallsofeveryschoolandpublicbuildinginthisnation.
OfutmostimportanceforallAmericansatthiscriticaljunctureinAmericaneducation
isforusnottoacceptasolutionthatmayinthelongrunturnouttobemoreharmfulthan
thepresentunsatisfactorystateofAmericanpubliceducation.Somesolutionsbeingloated
around sound good, such as the complete abandonment of public education in favor of a
privatelyoperatedsysteminwhichparentsostensiblycouldchoosetheschooltowhichthey
sendtheirchildren.Itisimportanttotakeaveryhardlookatsuchsolutions.First,whois
goingtorunthoseschools?AreparentsawarethattheNewAmericanSchoolDevelopment
Corporation and its charter schools for workforce training were set up precisely for the
purpose of replacing the deliberately “crashed” public schools? Where would children
458
in the low-income urban areas end up? What private and/or “publicly-funded private”
entities are waiting in the wings to orchestrate and relegate these students into dead-end
workforcetraininginstitutions?
Asexplainedintheprefaceandattheendofthisbook,theglobalworkforcetraining
systemisbeingputinplaceasIwrite.Forexample,onJune28,1999,GeneSperling,the
directorofthePresident’sEconomicCouncil,inaninterviewwithCNN’s“Moneyline”said
thatsomeofthe$100billion“surplus”couldbeusedtomakesure“childrenarereadyto
betheworkersofthenextcentury.”Whatreal“choice”willparentshavewhenitcomesto
where their children will be so-called “educated” (trained) to be the “workers of the next
century”? The powers-that-be must be pretty sure of themselves to so blatantly refer to
education’sprimarygoalascreatinglittleworkers.AreAmericanparentsreallysodumbed
downthattheyindsuchcommentscomingfromthehighestoficeinthelandacceptable?
Even if those operating charter schools had the best of motives, what is going to happen
to the majority of children who come from homes where both parents work, where there
is only one parent, where there are numerous societal problems which would impinge
upon the freedom of parents to be a part of the privately-supported system—sell their
childrenintoserfdom?
“Choice in education” is an appealing concept until put under the microscope of
1990s reality. At this point in time, “true choice” with no strings attached exists only for
homeschoolers and private (independent and religious) schools that have not in any way
compromisedtheirfreedomtodoexactlyastheywish.Bythat,theauthormeansthatsuch
anentityhasnever:(1)acceptedonesinglepennywhichhasatanytime,inanyfashion,
beenasourceofgovernment—atanylevel—revenue(taxmoney;i.e.,vouchers,taxcredits,
orfundingfromprivatesourcessubsidizedinanywaybythegovernment);andor(2)availed
themselvesofanyservicesprovidedbylocal,state,orfederalgovernmentsorprivatesources
subsidized in any way by the government (i.e., extracurricular school activities including
music,art,sports,ieldtrips,computeruse,etc.,orhealthandmentalhealthserviceswhich
mayhavebeenprovidedwhenthestudentwasenrolledinthepublicschoolsystem).“True”
choice is an option for the minority of children whose parents had better be on guard
when offered free computers and software to learn the curriculum required in order to
obtain the certiicate in mastery necessary to obtain a job or be accepted in college.
“True” choice is not an option for the majority of children whose parents are not in a
positiontoavailthemselvesofit.
A massive national effort to restore true local control of our public schools seems
to this writer to be the only “real” long-term solution which will guarantee freedom and
upwardmobilityforallourchildren.Suchasolutionisnomoredificulttoimplementthan
solutionspresentlybeingofferedbythosewhowishto“use”America’syouthfortheirown
proit-seekingmotives-resultinginthelossofeconomicandpoliticalfreedom.
Inorderforsuchasolutiontobeimplemented,electedoficialsmustunderstandfrom
whence came the problems in education. It is for that reason, for the true understanding
of public oficials, that this book was written. The author hopes and prays that the great-
estnumberofelectedoficialswillreadthisbookandtakethenecessarycourageousaction
toreversethesituationwhich,ifleftunattended,representsagravethreattothecontinued
freedomofournation.
—CHARLOTTETHOMSONISERBYT
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
Accountable/Accountability.SeeBehavioristTerminologysectionatendofGlossary.
AffectiveDomain.Theareaoflearningthatdealswithfeelings,beliefs,values,attitudes,and
motives—all those inner factors that determine behavior and responses to stimuli. By
changingormodifyingtheaffectivedomain,educatorscancontrolbehavior,orsothey
believe.(SeeDirectInstruction,MasteryLearning,TaxonomyofEducationalObjec-
tives,andAppendixXIX)
Assessment.Hascometobeacceptedasameansofmeasuringstudentprogresstowardinter-
national,national,andstategoals.Itshouldbenotedthatthereisnodictionarydeinition
whichdeines“assessment”inthisway.Theeducationestablishmenthasco-optedthis
wordovertime.(SeeAuthenticAssessmentandAppendixIVandXI)
At-Risk Student. Any “student who is at risk of not meeting the goals of the educational
program... or not becoming a productive worker” (Iowa State Standards which match
theNationalGoals).ProgramssuchasParentsasTeachers(PAT),21stCenturySchools,
HealthyPeople2000,andothersdeineat-riskcategories.(See1992ParentsasTeachers
articlesbyLauraRogers)
AuthenticAssessment.Measuresastudent’sbehavior;alternativeperformancemeasureof
astudent’sabilitytosolveproblemsandperformtasksundersimulated“reallife”situ-
ations.Itmeasuresstudentresponseswhichdemonstratewhatstudentsthink,do,and
havebecome.Theseoutcomesarerecordedduringnormalclassroominvolvementsuch
asrecess,lunch,ieldtrips,andatotherunexpectedtimes.Teachersmayusehand-held
computerscannersthatscanthestudents’bar-codednamesandresponses,thentransfer
theinformationintoacomputeratalatertime.(SeeAppendixXVI)
BehaviorTheory,BehaviorModiication,Behaviorist,Behaviorism.(RefertoBehaviorist
TerminologysectionoftheGlossaryandAppendixII,III,VandXIX).
Benchmark.Thefollowingdeinitionistakenfrom“AReportfromtheCommitteeonLabor
andHumanResources,SummaryofS.14”andisalsoincludedinAppendixXV:
This act will require States to measure and report annually on bench-
marks—measurableindicatorsoftheprogresstheStatehassetouttoachievein
meetingbroadworkforcedevelopmentgoalsrelatedtoemployment,education,
andearninggains.
Benchmarksrelatedtoemploymentandearninggainsinclude,ataminimum,
placementandretentioninunsubsidizedemploymentforoneyear,andincreased
earningsforparticipants.
Benchmarksrelatedtoeducationinclude,ataminimum,studentmasteryof
certainskills,including:academicknowledgeandworkreadinessskills;occupa-
G–3
G–4
tionalandindustry-recognizedskillsaccordingtoskillproicienciesforstudents
in career preparation programs; placement in, retention in, and completion of
secondaryeducation;placementandretentioninmilitaryservice;andincreased
literacyskills.ItisexpectedthatStateswilldevelopadditionalbenchmarks.
BlockGrants.PartoftheNewFederalismmovementoftheearlyeighties,blockgrantssend
federalassistance,withallitsfederalregulations,directlytothelocallevel,bypassingthe
traditionalconstitutionaloversightofthestatelegislature.Blockgrantsareanecessary
partofunconstitutionalregionalgovernment.Theyaresoldtothecitizensasenhancing
localcontrolwheninfacttheydojusttheoppositebyremovinganimportantelected
oficialcheckatthestatelevel.The105thCongress(1998)Republican-backedDollarsto
theClassroomActisagoodexampleofhowthisstatelegislativebypassiseffected.
Career Transcript. The SCANS 2000 Center at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore has
developed something called a “career transcript,” the purpose of which is to provide
quick,moreaccuratesummariesofapplicants’educationandworkexperiences.Acareer
transcript“canbethoughtofasacertiiedresuméoflifelonglearning,”SCANS2000Chair-
manArnoldPackerwroteinarecentpaperontheproposal.“Theproblemwithacademic
transcripts,”Packersaid,“isthatthey’redesignedforstudentsgoingontootherschools;
theyhavelittlecurrencyintheworkplace.”Thecareertranscript“sortofitsbetween”
resumesandschoolrecords,ScottBrainard,aSCANS/2000programevaluator,said.It
wouldcontainajobapplicant’sscoresonstandardizedtestssuchastheSATortestsfrom
nationalvendorslikeMicrosoft.
Thetranscriptalsowouldincludeanassessmentofworkplaceperformancebasedon
supervisors’evaluations,andanassessmentofschoolperformancebasedonbenchmarked
classroomtasks.Thecommonlanguageofthecareertranscriptwouldbeprovidedby
SCANS(LaborSecretary’sCommissiononAchievingNecessarySkills),a1991panelthat
identiiedskillsworkersneedinsuchareasasplanning,communicating,workingwith
othersandusingtechnology.
[TheaboveinformationwasexcerptedfromareportoftheAssociationforCareer
andTechnicalEducation,whichwasdownloadedfromtheInternet,January24,1999
(http://www.avaonline.org/Weekly.html),ed.]
CarnegieUnit.Asystemdevelopedin1905forstandardizingthehighschoolcurriculum.Tra-
ditionally,studentswererequiredtocompleteacertainnumberofCarnegieUnits(seat
timeinaspeciicsubjectarea)inordertograduate(i.e.,4unitsofEnglish,4ofmath,4of
history,4ofscience,etc.).TherestructuringofAmericaneducationfrominputstooutputs
(outcome-basededucation)requirestheremovaloftheCarnegieUnitasanindicatorof
academicexposureinordertograduate.
CertiicatesofInitialandAdvancedMastery(CIMandCAM).Thesecertiicatesarearesult
ofthe1990reportAmerica’sChoice:HighSkillsorLowWages!producedbyacommis-
sionappointedbytheNationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomy.Thisgroup,led
byMarcS.Tucker,wasco-chairedbyformerU.S.SecretariesofLaborandchairedby
IraC.Magaziner,closefriendandadvisortotheClintons.[MarcTucker’sorganization
holdstrademarkownershipof“CertiicateofInitialMastery”and“CertiicateofAdvanced
Mastery.”Thatbeingthecase,whyarestatesandlocalitiesissuingwhatamountstoa
privatelyvalidateddiploma?ed.]
Glossary G–5
ThefollowingexcerptsregardingSchool-to-Work(STW)andCIMandCAMhave
beentakenfromTheSchool-to-WorkRevolutionbyLynnOlson(PerseusBooks:Reading,
Massachusetts,1997),pp.191–193.[ThewriterrecommendsOlson’sbookforthoseinter-
estedinthehistoryofschool-to-workactivitiesintheUnitedStates,withoutnecessarily
endorsingherviews,ed.]
The report advocated creating an Americanized version of the European
systems,beginningwitharadicalrestructuringoftheAmericanhighschool.All
studentswouldhavetodemonstratethattheyhadmetahighstandardofacademic
achievement during the irst stage of their secondary school education. Those
whodidwouldearnsomethingcalleda“certiicateofinitialmastery,”typically
ataroundage16.[TheCIMalsorequiresmasteryinthevariousattitudesand
citizenshipskillsdeclarednecessaryforemploymentandcitizenship,ed.]During
theupperstageofsecondaryschool,studentscouldeitherentercollegedirectly,
spendadditionaltimepreparingforthemorecompetitivecollegesanduniversi-
ties,orbegintopursueaprofessionalandtechnicalcertiicate,whichmostlikely
wouldrequiresomepostsecondaryeducation.
Atthetime,VeraKatzwasvicechairmanoftheHouseEducationCommittee
inOregonandamemberoftheNationalCenter’sboardofdirectors.Katzsawan
opportunitytoapplytheadagethat“allpoliticsislocal.”FromheroficesinSalem,
shedecidedtoputthecommission’srecommendationstothetest.Thebillthat
shesponsoredintheOregonlegislaturemirroredmanyoftherecommendations
inAmerica’sChoice.Itpassedin1991withlittleoppositionandwiththestrong
backingofboththegovernorandthestate’sbusinesscommunity.
Itcalledforallstudentstoearnacertiicateofinitialmastery[CIM]inthecore
academicsubjectsbygrade10.Afterthat,allstudentswouldpursuea“certiicate
ofadvancedmastery”(orCAM)inoneofsixcareerpathwaysfortheirlasttwo
yearsofhighschool.Withineachpathway(inartsandcommunications,business
andmanagement,healthservices,humanresources,industryandtechnology,and
naturalresources)studentscouldearneitheracollege-preparatoryendorsement
oraprofessional-technicalendorsement,orboth.
Supportersofthenewlawhaileditastheendoftrackinginthehighschools.
Becauseallstudentswouldhavetomeetacommonacademicstandardtoreceive
acertiicateofinitialmastery,allwouldhavetodemonstratecommandofhigh-
levelacademiccontent.
Opponentsofthenewlawdepicteditastrackingwritlarge.Theyclaimed
that because students at the age of 16 would have to select a career pathway
anddecidewhethertheywerepursuingentryinafour-yearcollegeornot,their
opportunitieswouldbelimited.Theyalsoworriedthatthelawwouldencourage
studentstodropoutofhighschooloncetheyhadearnedthecertiicateofinitial
mastery.
TheOregonEducationAssociation,thestate’slargestteachers’union,came
downhardagainstthenewlaw.“Schoolsshouldnotbeforgedasaserviceindustry
forbusiness,norshouldwebemisdirectedbytheassumptionthatoureconomic
illsaresomehowthefaultofthepublicschools,”theunionprotested.
The majority of parents and students surveyed also opposed having to
chooseacareerfocusbythemiddleofhighschool,particularlyifyoungpeople
couldnotchangetheirminds.However,theylikedtheideaofprovidingbothcol-
lege-boundandnon-college-boundstudentswithasenseofhowtheiracademic
coursesappliedtotherealworld,andtheythoughthighschoolsshouldprovide
G–6
studentswithsomecareerpreparation.
ChangeAgent.Atermusedbymanypeople,includingPresidentClinton,leadingeducators,
andsocialengineers,toidentifyindividuals,highlytrainedinthegroupprocessandin
theDelphiTechnique.Thesepeoplearedesignatedtobringaboutcontroversialchange
ineducation,intheoperationofourlocalandstategovernments,andatthefederaland
internationallevels.(SeePrefaceregardingIserbyttrainingtobecomeachangeagent,1947
regardingestablishmentofNationalTrainingLaboratory,1973RonaldHavelockChange
AgentGuide,1993letterfromLawrenceLezotte,andAppendixXIV)
CharacterEducation.Programswhichareofferedunderthefollowinglabelsof:“valueseduca-
tion,”“citizenshipeducation,”“civiceducation,”andsimilartitles.Thepurposeofthese
coursesistoteachstudentsglobal,core,humanist,noright/nowrongvalues.Theprocess
ofidentifyingthecorevaluesinvolvestheentirecommunity,oftenbypassingtheviewsof
electedschoolboards.Theirstattemptatdevisingsuchacurriculumwasmadein1964
whentheAmericanHumanistAssociationbeganitsinvolvementin“ethicaleducation.”
Therootsofhumanisticmoral/charactereducationlieintheUnitedNationsEducational,
Scientiic,andCulturalAssociation(UNESCO).Asaschoolboarddirectortryingtoremove
values clariication from the curriculum in 1977, I was informed by a Congregational
ministeratapublicschoolboardmeetingthatparentsdidnothavearighttodetermine
theirchildren’svalues—thatitwasuptothegovernmentschoolstodoso!
Many well-meaning groups have attempted to implement “character education”
programswiththeintentionofinstillingbiblicallysupportedvalues.Itshouldbenoted
thatattemptingtoinstillBible-basedvirtueswithoutspiritualunderstandingorinstruc-
tion will always result in less-than-successful results. Also, to base “commonly-held”
characterqualitiesonprevailinglawdoesnottakeintoconsiderationpossiblechangesin
thelaw.Anotherimportantconsiderationwithcharactereducationiswhowillteachit.
Schoolboardshavebeenconsistentlyhamstrungbycivilrightsstatuteswhenitcomes
tohiringteacherswhoselifestylesexhibitdesirablecharacterqualitiesandwhoaregood
rolemodelsforstudents.
(See1933HumanistManifestoI,1933OnaleeMcGrawpamphletSecularHuman-
ismintheSchools,1941EducationforDestructionbyPhiladelphia,Pennsylvaniapublic
schoolteacherBessieBurchett,1946BrockChisholmspeech,1964“EthicalEducation”
publishedinFreeMind[thejournaloftheAmericanHumanistAssociation],1970Leonard
S.Kenworthy“BackgroundPaper,”CoreValues/Virtues,andAppendixVandXIX)
CharterSchool.Apublicschoolcreatedbyapartnershipbetweentheprivatesectorandgov-
ernmentforthepurposeofprovidingadditionalacademicandotherchoicesforstudents.
Charterschoolsmustcomplywithfederalandstatelawsinordertoreceivefunding.How-
ever,theseschoolshavenoelectedboard,makingthemanexcellentexampleoftaxation
without representation. Charter Schools are supported by conservative Republicans as
wellasliberalDemocrats,includingPresidentClinton.(See1991NASDCarticle,Magnet
Schools,andAppendixXII)
Choice.Allowingparentstoenrolltheirchildreninanypublicschoolwithinthedistrictor
inter-district,or,dependingonthescopeofthechoiceprogram,providingtaxcreditsthat
canbeappliedtowardtuitioninprivateschools.Allschoolsreceivingfederalfundingmust
adopt“voluntary”nationalstandardswhichforcestudentstoconformtogovernment-
Glossary G–7
deinedanddictatedcorebeliefs,values,andattitudes.“Suchchoicesshouldincludeall
schoolsthatservethepublicandareaccountabletopublicauthority,”assertedAmerica
2000:AnEducationStrategy(U.S.DepartmentofEducation:Washington,D.C.,1991),p.
31,whichwasdevelopedunderSecretaryofEducationLamarAlexander.
Presently,parentshavethechoicetoenrolltheirchildreninpublicschools,private
orreligiouslyafiliatedschools,orhomeschoolthem.Toadopt“choice”solutionswill
bringgovernmentregulationtoallchoicesbecausepublicmoneycannotbeexpendedor
creditedwithoutaccountability;itisillegaltodoso.Therecentmovetosupportprivately
fundedvouchersbygivingtaxdeductionsforthemisabackdoorapproachwhichwill
boomerangbecauseevenataxdeductionhastobeaccountable.Astudyofthegradual-
isminvolvedinregulationofthechildcareindustryisacaseinpoint.Asparentswere
allowedtaxdeductionsforchildcare,regulationsweresuddenlydrawnupandimposed,
inmanycasesforcingthehome-basedchildcareprovidersoutofbusinessorintoan
undergroundoperatingmode.Familymemberswhowereprovidersofchildcarewere
excludedfromtheexemption,etc.Anotherresulthasbeentheregulationofprivateand
governmentchildcareproviderstothepointthateventhefoodtheyofferthechildren
mustmeetastandard.Bewareof“choice”proposals,nomatterwhoisofferingthem.(See
1991VirginiaBirtBaker’s“EducationalChoice—TheEducationVoucher,TaxCredits,and
theNonpublicSchools,”andResourceList)
CitizenshipEducation.Thefollowingdeinitioncomesfrom“School-to-WorkandRalphTyler”
byDeanGotcherinInstitutionforAuthorityResearchNewsletter(April1998):
Educationwhichproducesasocialist(dialectic-minded)citizenwhoisnot
concernedwithunalienablerights(givenbyahigherauthority)butwithhuman
rights(determinedbythegroupinconsensus,guidedbysocialengineers).With
theformer,oneisinnocentuntilprovenguilty,sincefactsdetermineone’sguilt;
withthelatter,oneisguiltyuntilproveninnocent,sincefeelings(personal,social
feltneeds)determineone’sguiltorinnocence.
(SeeCharacterEducation,CitizenshipEducation,andValuesClariication)
Climate.SeeEnvironment.
CognitiveDissonance.Disorganizationofthoughts,mentalconfusion,andemotionaltension
causedbybehaviormodiicationwhichconlictswithone’svalues.Suchmanipulation
causesmanytorethinkandmodifytheirvaluesinordertoconformtoexpectedbehavior.
(See1991“ParadigmChange:MoreMagicthanLogic”byJohnC.Hillary,andAppendix
XIIIandXIX)
CognitiveDomain.(SeeTaxonomyofEducationalObjectivesandAppendixXIX)
CommonGround.Aplaceofcompromise;apleasant-soundingstrategydevelopedbychange
agents for silencing opposing voices and winning community support. The adjective
“bipartisan”isusedmoreandmoreinapositivewayaselectedoficialsaccepttheper-
ceived“need”tocometoconsensusinordertoavoidconlict.(SeeConsensusBuilding,
DelphiTechnique,GroupProcess,Synthesis,andAppendixXXII)
CommunityEducation.Aprocess,notaprogram,bywhichthetotalcommunityisinvolved
in decision making by consensus, using the group process and the Delphi Technique.
G–8
TheoriginalpurposeofCommunityEducationwasandstillistoputallservices(health,
leisure,seniorcitizen,recreation,etc.)undertheumbrellaoftheschooldistrict.Com-
munityEducationliteraturestatesthatthepurposeofCommunityEducationistochange
theattitudesandvaluesofcommunityresidents.CommunityEducationseekstoeliminate
electedoficials,replacingthemwithpoliticallycorrect,unelectedmembersofacom-
munitycouncilwhowillnotchallengecontroversialnewprograms.Governmentoficials
whopromoteCommunityEducationhavelikenedittotheChineseCommunistcommunal
system.“Groupprocess,”“participatorydemocracy,”and“sustainabledevelopment”are
othertermsassociatedwithCommunityEducation.(See1979Octoberarticleonschool-
basedclinics,1994NovemberIserbytarticleinEducationWeekandAppendixI)
Consensus Building. The process by which students, schools, communities, or groups of
peoplelearntogiveupindividualbeliefsandideasinordertoworkfor“commongoals.”
Thesemaybedictatedfromthetopdown(internationaltolocal),yetbepromotedas
grassrootsideologies.Consensusbuildingchangesbeliefsthroughpressuretoconform
togroupthinking.(SeeCommonGround,DelphiTechnique,GroupProcess,Synthesis
andAppendixXXII)
CoreValues/Virtues.ThelateErnestL.Boyer,formerpresidentoftheCarnegieFoundationfor
theAdvancementofTeaching,deined“TheCoreVirtues”inhisbookTheBasicSchool:
ACommunityforLearning—AnIntroductiontotheBasicSchoolas
TheBasicSchoolisconcernedwiththeethicalandmoraldimensionsofa
child’slife.Sevencorevirtues—honesty,respect,responsibility,compassion,self-
discipline,perseverance,andgiving—areemphasizedtoguidetheBasicSchool
asitpromotesexcellenceinliving,aswellasinlearning.
Hegoesontosayunderasectioncalled“LivingwithPurpose”that
The core virtues of the Basic School are taught both by word and deed.
Throughcurriculum,schoolclimate,andservice,studentsareencouragedtoapply
thelessonsoftheclassroomtotheworldaroundthem.
Onfacevalue,whocouldquestiontheabovesevencorevirtues?Aproblemariseswhen
astudentinterjectshisreligion’sdeinitionofanyofthesecorevirtues.Thatiswhen
valueseducationbecomesstickyandwhenthatstudentwillbeputdownwitharetort
fromtheteachersimilarto“That’syourdeinition.”Unlessthecorevirtueshaveasolid
religiousorphilosophicalbasewhichdoesnotallowforsituationalethics,instructionin
thiscontroversialareabecomesuseless,confusing,andawasteoftime.(ForExample:the
cultureoftheNetsilikEskimoTribe,discussedinMan:ACourseofStudy[MACOS],the
controversialB.F.Skinner/JeromeBrunersocialstudiesprogram,consideredtheputting
ofelderlypeopleoutontheicetodiethe“compassionate”and“responsible”thingtodo.
(See1975MACOSentryandAppendixIV,V,andXIX)
CriticalThinking.ProfessorBenjaminBloomdeinesgoodteachingas“challengingstudents’
ixed beliefs.” Critical thinking does exactly that using Bloom’s Taxonomy and values
clariicationtobringaboutattitudinalandvaluechange.(SeeAppendixXIXandXXIII)
DelphiTechnique.Thesocialscientists’labelforacommunicationtechniqueusedtogeta
Glossary G–9
diversegrouptoarriveatapredeterminedconsensuspositionthroughcirculatinginfor-
mationforcommentinseveralrounds,synthesizingtheresponsesuntilallagree.Ifa
participant’sviewcannotbesynthesizedwiththegroup’sviewafterrepeatedrounds,
thenthepremisemustbedeclaredinvalidandabandoned.Morerecently,theforegoing
originaldeinitionhasevolvedintoallowingtheparticipant’sopposingviewtobeaban-
donedinordertoachieveconsensus.(SeeCommonGround,ConsensusBuildingand
GroupProcess)
Dialectic,Hegelian.Commonground,consensus,andcompromise/thesis-antithesis-synthesis.
(SeePreface,CommonGround,ConsensusBuildingandGroupProcess)
DirectInstruction(DI).DevelopedbySiegfriedEngelmanninthe1960sandknownasDISTAR
(DirectInstructionSystemforTeachingandRemediation)orSRA’s“ReadingMastery,”
itwasoneofthemodelsusedinProjectFollowThrough.DirectInstructionisbasedon
Skinnerianoperantconditioningandhastraditionallybeenusedwithspecialeducation
students.DIrequiresteacherstoteachfromascriptandtousehandsignalsandsoundsto
punctuatethe“learning”process.Thefollowingexcerptstakenfromtheresearchofthose
deeplyinvolvedinthedevelopmentandpromotionofDirectInstructionprovideimportant
informationaboutthisSkinnerian“scientiic,research-based”methodofinstruction.
(1)“TheDirectInstructionModelemphasizesgroupface-to-faceinstructionby
teachersandaidesusingcarefullysequencedlessonsinreading,arithmetic,
andlanguage.TheseprogramsweredesignedbySiegfriedEngelmannusing
modernbehavioralprinciplesandadvancedprogrammingstrategies(Becker,
Engelmann,&Thomas,1975),andarepublishedbyScienceResearchAssoci-
atesunderthetradenameDISTAR.”(“SponsorFindingsfromProjectFollow
Through,”WesleyC.BeckerandSiegfriedEngelmann,UniversityofOregon,
EffectiveSchoolPractices,Winter,1996,page33)
(2)“DirectInstruction:Abehavior-basedmodelforcomprehensiveeducational
interventionwiththedisadvantaged.”PaperpresentedattheVIIISymposium
on Behavior Modiication, Caracas, Venezuela, February, 1978. Division of
TeacherEducation,UniversityofOregon,Eugene,Oregon.ReferenceNotesat
theendofthearticleinclude:“AConstructiveLookatFollowThroughResults”
byCarlBereiter,OntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducation,andMidianKurland,
UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign,originallypublishedinInterchange
(Vol.12,Winter,1981),whichwasreprinted,withpermission,inEffectiveSchool
Practices(Winter,1996).
(3)“First,he(Engelmann)hypothesizedthatchildrenwouldgeneralizetheirlearn-
inginnew,untaughtsituations,iftheycouldrespondperfectlytoasmallerset
ofcarefullyengineeredtasks.Healsofavoredarapidinstructionalpaceand
choralgroupresponse,punctuatedbyindividualstudentresponses,believing
thatthiswouldheightenstudentengagementandallowteacherstoperform
regularchecksforstudentmastery,”from“MakingResearchServetheProfes-
sion”byBonnieGrossen,ResearchAssociatewiththeUniversityofOregon’s
NationalCentertoImprovetheToolsofEducators,aprojectfundedbyagrant
from the U.S. Ofice of Special Education, and publisher of Effective School
Practices,publishedintheFall1996issueofAmericanEducator,journalofthe
AmericanFederationofTeachers.
G–10
(SeeEffectiveSchools,MasteryLearning,andAppendixII,III,XVIIandXXI)
EffectiveSchools.Thefollowingdeinitionistakenfromanarticleentitled“EffectiveSchools
forResults”publishedinTheEffectiveSchoolReport(July1984):
Overthepast30yearstherehavebeenthreeprimaryprogramsrelatedtothe
designandimplementationofEffectiveSchoolsandsuccessfullearningresults.
Each effort focused on different aspects: behavioral change and application of
learningtheorytoproducesuccessfullearningresults;identiicationofsociologi-
calfactorsoperatinginEffectiveSchools;teachingstrategiestoeffectlearning;
andthecombinationofthesevariablesandpracticesinasystematicapproachto
achievelearningandmanagementresults.Theresultsoftheseresearchprograms
offerprovenpracticeswhich,whencombinedinaninterdisciplinaryapproach,
candeliver“predictableexcellence”ineducationalresults,theultimatecriterion
ofanEffectiveSchoolprogram.
Thefollowingprofessionalsandgroupshavebeeninvolvedinthisresearch
anddevelopment:WilburBrookover,RonEdmonds,EffectiveSchoolsResearch
Movement;B.F.Skinner,NormanCrowder,RobertE.andBettyO.Corrigan(1950–
1984),MasteryLearningPractices;R.E.Corrigan,B.O.Corrigan,WardCorrigan,
andRogerA.Kaufman(1960–1984);Projectentitled“ASystematicApproachfor
Effectiveness(SAFE)forDistrict-wideInstallationofEffectiveSchools.”
(SeeJuly1984EffectiveSchoolReportandAppendixVIandXXVI)
Environment.Akeytermusedinbehaviormodiication.Changingone’senvironmentcanbe
utilizedtobringaboutbehavioralchange.Theterm“psychologicallyfacilitativeclimate”
meansthesamethingas“positiveschoolclimate.”
Facilitate,Facilitator.Achangeagentwhochairshandpickedcommitteesorgroupstodirect
discussiontowardthe“right,”predeterminedconclusionsorconsensus.Thisprocessis
called“managedchange.”Facilitatorsarehighlytrainedtodealwith“resisters,”those
opposedtothepredeterminedchange.(SeeChangeAgentandAppendixXIV)
GlobalEducation.Educationforthepurposeofcreating“globalcitizens.”Alsoknownas“world
class”education,“holistic”educationorthe“transformation”ofeducation.Apilotglobal
educationcurriculuminIowa(CatalogueofGlobalEducationClassroomActivities,Lesson
Plans,andResources,1991)emphasizedtopicssuchasenvironmentalism,vegetarianism,
pantheism, paciism, population control and global government. In holistic fashion, it
wasdesignedtobe“integrated”and“infused”throughouttheacademiccurriculum.The
GlobalAllianceforTransformingEducation(GATE)inEducation2000:AHolisticPerspec-
tive(1991)deinesholistic(global)educationasfollows:
Wecallforwholenessintheeducationalprocess,andforthetransformation
of educational institutions and policies required to attain this aim. Wholeness
impliesthateachacademicdisciplineprovidesmerelyadifferentperspectiveon
therich,complex,integratedphenomenonoflife.Holisticeducationcelebrates
andmakesconstructiveuseofevolving,alternativeviewsofrealityandmultiple
waysofknowing.Itisnotonlytheintellectualandvocationalaspectsofhuman
develpment that need guidance and nurturance, but also the physical, social,
moral,aesthetic,creative,andinanonsectariansense—spiritualaspects.Holistic
Glossary G–11
educationtakesintoaccountthenuminousmysteryoflifeandtheuniversein
additiontotheexperientialreality.
(See1991GlobalAllianceforTransformingEducation,SustainableDevelopment,
WorldClassEducation,andAppendixXXVII.)
Gradualism.“Twostepsforward,onestepback.”Thispoliticalprocessallowschangeagents
tointroducemajorsocialchangeinbitsandpieces,ratherthaninsweepingproposals.
Oftensemanticdeceptionisusedtointroducethesechanges,focusingattentiononthe
“trees” (the bits and pieces) rather than the “forest.” Gradualism keeps the common
threadofchangeoutofviewwhiletheprocessofchangecontinues—unnoticedbythe
generalpublic.(SeePreface)
GroupProcess.Thegroupprocessusessensitivitytrainingandotherpsychologicaltechniques
tostriptheindividualofhisindividualityandtomanipulatehimintoconformitywith
politicallycorrectgroupvaluesandgoals.(See1947NationalTrainingLaboratory,Con-
sensusBuildingandAppendixXXII)
HigherOrderThinkingSkills(HOTS).Psychologicalmanipulationusing“application,analy-
sis,synthesis,andevaluation”(thehigherlevelsofBloom’sTaxonomy)withoutthefac-
tualknowledgeneededforrationalandobjectivethinking.Thestudentisdrawntoward
makingconclusionsbasedonbiased,politicallycorrectinformationanddisinformation.
(SeeCriticalThinkingandAppendixXIXandXXIII)
Holistic(Wholistic)Education.Involvingthewholeperson—”body,soulandspirit.”Itinte-
gratesallsubjectsandinfuseseverythingwithapantheistic,monisticspirituality.(See1991
SustainableDevelopment/GATEentry,GlobalEducation,AppendixXXVII,andResource
ListBraveNewSchoolsinformation)
HumanCapitalorResource.Thenewlabelforallchildrenandadultswhoarebeingshaped/
moldedtomatchthesupposedneedsoftheglobaleconomy.Thetrainedworkforceproduct
ofglobal/nationalschooling.(SeeAppendixXI,XII,XV,andXVIII)
Humanism(Secular).Abeliefsystembasedontheself-determinationofman.Recognized
asareligionintheUnitedStates.(See1933entryonHumanistManifestoIandOnalee
McGrawpamphletandCharacterEducation)
IndividualEducationPlan(IEP).Aplandrawnuptoaccommodatetheneedsofindividual
childrenwhotraditionallyhavebeenlabeled“specialeducation.”IEPswill,inthefuture,
beusedforallchildrenduetothemovefromtraditionalcompetitiveeducationtonon-
competitive,teach-to-the-testoutcome-basededucation/masterylearning/directinstruction
andworkforcetraining(STW)whichnecessarilyuseindividuallyprescribedinstruction.
IEPsoftencallfortheuseofbehaviormodiicationtechniques,includingSkinnerianoperant
conditioning.TitleISpecialEducationregulationscontainaparentalconsentwiththeright
torefuserequirementbeforedevelopingIEPsorusingbehaviormodiicationtechniques,a
protectionnotpresentlyavailabletonon-specialeducationstudents.Itisimportantthat
inthefutureallstudentswhohaveIEPsbecoveredbythisconsentrequirementandthat
relevantlanguage,i.e.,languagecoveringallsuchstudentsandalltypesof“plans”related
tobehaviordisorders,academics,careertraining,etc.,beincludedinthereauthorization
oftheElementaryandSecondaryEducationActof1965.Thetransformationofschools
G–12
fromacademicstoOBEandSTWwillrequireIEPsforallstudents.(See1982–1983Proiles
inExcellence:SecondarySchoolRecognitionProgram)
IndividuallyPrescribedInstruction(IPI)orIndividualizedEducation.Developedintheearly
1960sattheUniversityofPittsburgh’sLearningResearchandDevelopmentCenterandat
thefederallyfundedlaboratoryResearchforBetterSchoolsinPhiladelphia,PA,Individu-
allyPrescribedInstruction’sdevelopmentcoincidedwiththeGreatSociety’saccountability
movementinthesixtieswhichhadasitsfocusequalopportunityandwouldincreasingly
dealwithoutcomesattheindividualstudentlevel.Performance-basededucation(IPI)
callsformasterylearning/directinstruction,whichhasbeengraduallyimplementedover
thepastthirtyyears,initiallyasaresultoftheemergenceofcomputertechnologywhich
permittedthestudenttoworkathisownpacewithprogrammedlearning.Computer-
assisted-instructionusingOBE/masterylearning/directinstructionenablestheplanners
topredictablyachievetheir“outcomes”;i.e.,tobringaboutbehaviorchangeaswellas
traininginskillsnecessaryfortheglobalworkforceandtocollectandstoredatainsuch
detailastoincludeinformationontheindividualstudent/adult,necessaryfor“recycling”
andremediationpurposes.(SeeAppendixII,III,VIIandVIII)
Life Skills, Life Role Competencies, Lifelong Learning. Preparation for all life roles. The
totaldevelopmentofthechild—body,mind,andspiritasalearner,worker,consumer,
familymember,andcitizen.Whatthestudentwillbelieve,think,anddotomeettheexit
outcomes.UNESCOcoinedthephrase“lifelonglearning”andidentiiedthelifeskills/life
rolecompetencieswhicharebeingimplementedworldwide.Outcome-basededucation,
masterylearning,anddirectinstructionlendthemselvesto“lifelonglearning”sinceone
can take as long as one wants or needs—forever, if need be—to master whatever the
controllerswanthimto“master.”(SeeAppendixIV)
Literacy,Functional.Basicliteracyskills,suchasreadingabusschedule,neededto“function.”
Professor Oettinger of Harvard, who supports functional literacy, says “in the modern
contextoffunctionalism,comicbooksmaynotbeallthatbad.”(See1975Commissioner
of Education T.H. Bell comments, 1979 “K-12 Competency-Based Education Comes to
Pennsylvania,”1981ProfessorOettingerspeech,and1983“FunctionalLiteracyandthe
Workplace”)
LocalControl.Aeuphemismtopacifycriticsoffederalcontrol,sinceallcontrolinthe1990s
restswiththosewhodeterminethenationalstandardsandassessmentandprovidethe
moneytoimplementtherestructuring.Localeducatorsarefreeonlytoindwaystomeet
thosenationalstandards.Iflocalschoolsdonotmeetthestandards(perform),theywill
bepenalized.Taxpayersshouldbeawareofthefactthatstateinterventioninlocalschools
doesnotalwaysmeanthatyourschoolisnotdoingwellacademically.Itmaymeanjust
theopposite:thereisstillresistancefromgoodeducatorswhorefusetoparticipateinthe
“teachtothetestdumbingdown”whichispartofperformance-basedteaching,OBE,
masterylearninganddirectinstruction.Sometimescalled“localizedcontrol”andoften
incorrectlyassociatedwithblockgrantswhichcircumventelectedoficialsatthestate
level,therebylesseningtruelocalcontrol.
The1994AssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopmentYearbook:The
GovernanceofCurriculumstated:“...[I]ndeed,localcontrolhasbeen,andcontinuestobe,
themostdurablemyth,oroperatingprinciple,ofeducationalgovernanceintheUnited
Glossary G–13
States.”FromCommunitiesandTheirSchoolsbyDonDavies,Ed.(McGraw-Hill:NewYork,
1981),MiriamClasby,longtimeCommunityEducator,makesthestatement:“...Unless
considerationsofschoolingareplacedwithinthecontextsof...worldsociety,theyrun
thedangerofunwittinglyafirmingapastthatnolongerexists.”
Lower-OrderSkills.Theseincludeknowledge,comprehension,andmemorization,thecor-
nerstones of traditional education. HR 6—the 1993 reauthorization of the Elementary
andSecondaryEducationActof1965—recommendedtheabandonmentoftheso-called
“lower-order skills,” to be replaced by ones which engage students in more “complex
tasks.”(See1993HR6)
MagnetSchools.Apublicschoolfocusedonaspecializedareaoflearning,ofteninpartnership
withaprivateorganization.Theywereoriginallypromotedasawaytobringaboutracial
integration.Inthecontextofasocialistfullemployment,plannedeconomy,magnetschools
havetraditionallybeenassociatedwiththeSovietpolytechsystemanditsquotasforengi-
neers,balletdancers,etc.Charterschoolscanalsoservethesamepurposebyproviding
specializedtraining.(See1991NASDCarticle,CharterSchoolsandAppendixXII)
MasteryLearning(ML).ProponentsofMLbelievethatalmostallchildrencanlearnifgiven
enoughtime,adequateresourcesgearedtotheindividuallearningstyleofthestudent,
andacurriculumalignedtotestitems.MasterylearninganddirectinstructionuseSkin-
nerianmethodology(operantconditioning)inordertoobtain“predictable”results.The
criticalteacherbehaviorsfoundtocorrelatedirectlywithhighlevelsofachievementare:
specifyinglearningobjectives,settinghighstandardsformastery,modeling,practicing,
eliciting responses from all students, reinforcing correct responses, setting up systems
forfrequentandconsistentrewards,andtimeontask.BenjaminBloom,thefatherof
ML,says“thepurposeofeducationistochangethethoughts,actions,andfeelingsof
students,”andhedevelopedhismasterylearningtodoexactlythat.(See1968Mastery
Learningentry,DirectInstruction,EffectiveSchoolResearch,IndividuallyPrescribed
Education,Outcome-basedEducation,AppendixVIandXIX)
NationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP).“TheNation’sReportCard”which
measuresstudentprogressbytestingdifferentsubjectareasinalternateyears,carried
outfrom1965to1981bytheEducationCommissionoftheStatesandsince1983bythe
EducationalTestingServiceundercontracttotheU.S.DepartmentofEducation’sNational
CenterforEducationalStatistics.Alsogatherspersonaldataonchildrenandfamiliesin
ordertoilloutlongitudinalproilesthatincludeinformationonstudents’andparents’
attitudes,values,andbeliefs.(SeeAppendixIVandXI)
NationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomy(NCEE).FoundedbyMarcTucker,NCEE
conceivedtheCIMandCAMina1990reportcalledAmerica’sChoice:HighSkillsorLow
Wages![Note:NCEE’ssubsidiary,theNationalAllianceforRestructuringEducation,has
been renamed “America’s Choice for School Design.”] (See Certiicates of Initial and
AdvancedMastery,NewStandardsProjectandAppendixXVandXVIII)
NationalSkillsStandardBoard(NSSB).NSSB,anindependentauthorityactingunderthe
auspicesoftheU.S.DepartmentofLabor,hasauthoritytoidentifyoccupationclustersand
deinethestudentskilllevelrequiredforcertiicationtoworkwithintheseclusters.Both
schoolsandbusinesseswouldbeexpectedtofollowgovernmentguidelinesandadopt
G–14
thesestandards.Inotherwords,studentswillhavetomeetthegovernmentstandardsin
ordertobecertiiedforvariouskindsofjobs.(SeeSCANS)
NewAmericanSchoolsDevelopmentCorporation(NASDC).NASDCwasformedin1991
when President George Bush requested that the business community raise funds to
supportdevelopmentof“radical,breakthemold”schools—oneineachCongressional
district.AnnMcLaughlinwasCEOandPresidentofNASDC.TheRequestforProposals
stated:“Thedesignmayentailmajorchangesincommunitygovernance...community
structuresandfunctionsofotherinstitutionssuchaspublichealthagenciesandwelfare
departments.”(See1991NASDC)
New Standards Project (NSP). A partnership formed by Marc Tucker (head of NCEE) and
LaurenResnick,co-directorwithRobertGlaseroftheUniversityofPittsburgh’sLearning
ResearchandDevelopmentCenter,toestablisha“worldclass”systemofstandardsand
assessmentthatrelectsinternationalstandardsandculminateswiththeCIMandCAM.
(SeeCertiicatesofInitialandAdvancedMastery)
Outcome-basedEducation(OBE).ThefollowingdeinitioncomesfromExcellenceinInstruc-
tionalDeliverySystems:ResearchandDisseminationofExemplaryOutcome-BasedPrograms,
agrantapplicationsubmittedtotheUnitedStatesDepartmentofEducationforfunding
in1984byWilliamSpady,Director,FarWestLaboratoryforEducationalResearchand
Development:
TheconceptofOutcome-BasedEducationemergedfromthesynthesisoftwo
broadareasofinstructionaldesignandimprovement.OneisknownwidelyasMas-
teryLearningandisidentiiedwiththepioneeringworkofBenjaminBloom(1968,
1976),JamesBlock(1971,1974),BlockandLorinAnderson(1975),andBlockand
RobertBurns(1977).TheotherisknownasCompetency-BasedEducation(notto
beconfusedwithMinimumCompetencyTesting)andwasdeinedconceptually
andoperationallybySpady(1977)andbySpadyandMitchell(1977).
Theterm“Outcome-BasedEducation”representsasynthesisofthesetwo
approachesandtookforminthewinterof1980withtheformationofanorgani-
zationknownastheNetworkforOutcome-BasedSchools.OBEisbasedonthe
followingphilosophicalpremises:
1.Almostallstudentsarecapableofachievingexcellenceinlearningtheessentials
offormalschooling.
2. Success inluences self-concept; self-concept inluences learning and behav-
ior.
3.Theinstructionalprocesscanbechangedtoimprovelearning.
4.Schoolscanmaximizethelearningconditionsforallstudentsby
a. Establishing a school climatewhich continually afirms the worth and
diversityofallstudents
b.Specifyingexpectedlearningoutcomes
c.Expectingthatallstudentsperformathighlevelsoflearning
d.Ensuringthatallstudentsexperienceopportunitiesforpersonalsuccess
e.Varyingthetimeforlearningaccordingtotheneedsofeachstudentand
thecomplexityofthetask
f.Havingstaffandstudentsbothtakeresponsibilityforsuccessfullearning
outcomes
g.Determininginstructionalassignmentsdirectlythroughcontinuousassess-
Glossary G–15
mentofstudentlearning
h.Certifyingeducationalprogresswheneverdemonstratedmasteryisassessed
andvalidated.
(SeeAppendixXXVI)
Outcomes.BasedonProf.BenjaminBloom’sTaxonomyofEducationalObjectives,theoutcomes
ofeducationinthe1990sandinthe21stcenturydeine“Whatstudentsmustknow,be
abletodo,andbelike.”Determinedatthenationalandinternationallevel,theymustbe
metlocally.Called“learninggoals,”“performanceobjectives,”“standards,”“competen-
cies,”or“capacities,”allrequirestudentstoembrace“newthinking,newstrategies,new
behavior, and new beliefs” (Lee Droegemueller, Commissioner of Education, “Assess-
ment:KansasQualityPerformanceAccreditation[QPA],”KansasStateBoardofEducation,
Topeka,KS,January1992).
(See1991“outcomes”recommendedatJomtien,Thailand“WorldConferenceon
EducationforAll”andConferenceofU.S.CoalitiononEducationforAll,and1994“U.S.
CoalitionforAll:AHistory”)
Ownership.Encouragingparentstoparticipateinschoolactivitiesinorderforthemtofeela
partofrestructuring—tohaveafeelingofownershipwhichwillresultinparentalsupport
forradicalchange.
Paradigm.Aworldview;amentalframeworkforthinking,fororganizinginformation,andfor
understandingandexplainingreality.Aparadigmshiftoccurswhenoneturnsthetradi-
tionalwayofdoingthingsonitshead,asisthecasewithcorporatefascistpublic-private
partnerships,theuseofunelectedboardsfordecisionmaking,School-to-Work,etc.(See
1991JohnC.Hillary’s“ParadigmChange;MoreMagicthanLogic”)
ParentReportCard.Reportcardissuedbytheschoolthatgradesparentsonhowtheybringup
theirchildren,especiallyconcerningschool-relatedareas.TheStateofCaliforniarecently
passedalawrequiringparentreportcards.(See1993TotalQualityforSchoolsbyJoseph
C.Fields,and1999JanuaryRosemarieAvilaarticle)
ParentsasTeachers(PAT).Afederallyfundedprogramwhichbringsthestateeducatorinto
homestomakesureeachchildstartsschool“readytolearn”and“abletolearn.”The
childisgivenapersonalcomputercodenumber,andacomputerrecordisinitiatedthat
willenablethenationaldatasystemtotrackeachchildfortherestofhislife.Parentsas
wellaschildrenareevaluated.(See1992LauraRogers’sarticlesandAt-RiskStudents)
ParticipatoryDemocracy.Oppositeofrepublican,representative,constitutionalformofgov-
ernment.ParticipatoryDemocracyusespolls,unelectedcouncils,andtaskforcesinwhich
thevoiceofthepeoplebecomesmoreimportantthanthevoiceofelectedrepresentatives.
Example:1998–1999investigationofPresidentClintonandtheusebytheU.S.Senateof
pollsratherthanprinciplestodeterminewhetherthePresidentisittoremaininofice.
Formofgovernmentsupportedbysocialistsandcommunists.(See1984Aprilletterto
PresidentReaganfromWillardW.Garvey,ExecutiveDirectoroftheNationalCenterfor
Privatization,whichsaidinpart“Privatizationisnowanideawhosetimehascome....
Theknowledge,communication,andcomputerindustrycanmakepoliticalrepresenta-
tivesobsolete.”)
G–16
Partnership.Usuallyreferstoanewconceptofgovernancewhichcallsforamergerofthe
publicandprivatesectors,commonlyknownascorporatefascismorsocialism.Partnerships
betweengovernmentandtheprivatesectorresultinabreakdownoftherepresentativeform
ofgovernmentandalesseningofaccountabilitytothetaxpayer.(See1981“President’s
TaskForceonPrivateSectorInitiatives,”1984WashingtonPostarticle“IndustrialPolicy
UrgedforGOP”andParticipatoryDemocracy)
Planning, Programming, Budgeting, Management System (PPBS) and Management by
Objectives(MBO).Asystemusedforplanningandaccountingwhichcallsfor:1)estab-
lishing a goal; 2) setting forth plans to achieve it; 3) funding the effort; 4) evaluating
successorfailureattheendofthefundingcycle;and5)adjustingplanstoachievethe
goal,includingfunding,andstartingoveragainwithmoreprecisefocus.Thefollowing
backgroundinformationistakenfromGoals2000:RestructuringOurSchools...Restructuring
OurSocietybyKathieFinnegan(HearthstonePublishing,Ltd.:OklahomaCity,Oklahoma,
1996),pp.306–307:
...Originallydevelopedin1961byRobertMcNamarawhenhewasSecretary
of Defense in cooperation with the Rand Corporation. PPBS is the vehicle for
achievingpredeterminedgoalsingovernment.
In1961,followingsuggestionsoftheRandCorporation,PresidentKennedy
launchedPPBSintheDepartmentofDefense(DOD)underRobertStrangeMcNa-
mara.AlthoughPPBSwasclumsy,costly,andineffective(andnomoresuccessful
inindustrythanitwasinmanagingtheVietnamWar),PresidentJohnsoninitiated
PPBSin1965throughouttheentirelegislativebranchduetoitsadministrative
effectiveness.Lateritwasputintoallbranchesofthefederalgovernment.
AkeypointaboutrunningthegovernmentbyPPBSisthatitisgovernment
byappointed—notelected—oficials.In1972theInternationalInstituteofApplied
SystemsAnalysis(anothernameforPPBS)wasestablishedinAustriawithtwelve
nationsparticipating,includingtheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion.PPBSunder
manynameshasbecomethedominantorganization/restructuring/re-engineering
modelformostofcorporateAmericaandmanyinstitutionsandorganizations.
PPBShasbeendescribedasappliedscientiicsocialism.Itisusedtocontrolwhat
peopleproduce,whattheyconsume,howtheyspendtheirworkandleisuretime,
whattheythink,andhowtheyreacttovariousstimuli.
Theconceptappliedtoeducationworksthisway:ifyouknowwhatyouhave
tostartwith(young,impressionablechildren)andyouknowwhatyouwantto
endupwith(citizen-workersforacentrallyplannedglobaleconomy),itispos-
sibletodesignasystemthatwillachievethat“outcome.”PPBSisacontinuous
loop,renewable/reviewed/re-fundedeverythree,ive,orsevenyearssothatbasic
assumptionsandgoalscanbere-calibrated.
(See1967PPBSinCalifornia,1972June11thspeechbyMaryThompson,Systems,
andAppendixIXandXXII)
Privatization.Transferringpolicy-makingandimplementationfromthepublictax-supported
domainintotheprivateorbusinesssectors,whereeducationalleadersandelectedboards
becomeaccountabletowealthyfunders(suchastheCarnegie,Ford,Danforth,Pew,Rock-
efeller,Spencer,orAnnenbergfoundations,tonameafew),multinationalcorporations,
andnon-proitorganizations,ratherthantoconcernedparentsandtaxpayers.(See1981
Glossary G–17
President’sTaskForceonPrivateSectorInitiatives)
PsychologicalApproach.“1.Amethodofteachinginwhichnewsubjectmatterandideas
arepresentedinamannerappropriatetothewayinwhichthepupillearnsandthrough
situationsthataremeaningfultohim”isthedeinitiongivenbytheDictionaryofEduca-
tion,3rdEditionbyCarterV.Good,Ed.(McGraw-Hill:NewYork,1973),publishedunder
theauspicesofPhiDeltaKappa.ItisalsocalledaChild-ExperienceApproach,Functional
Approach.Contrastwithlogicalmethod.
PsychomotorDomain.(SeeTaxonomyofEducationalObjectivesandAppendixXIX)
Quality. The following deinition is provided in Filling the Gaps: An Overview of Data on
EducationinGradesK–12(NationalCenterforEducationalStatistics(NCES),Oficeof
EducationalResearchandImprovement[ID:NCES92–132]:Washington,D.C.,1992).In
thesectioncalled“Teachers”onpage5weind:
Beginning in the 1980s NCES collected detailed information on the char-
acteristicsandqualiicationsofteachers.Informationcollectedincludesyearsof
full-andpart-timeteachers’experienceinpublicandprivateschools,majorand
minordegreeieldsforallearneddegrees(fromAssociatedegreetoPh.D.),type
ofcertiicateinteachingassignmentields,collegecourseworkinmathematics
andscience,and,toalimitedextent,participationinin-serviceeducation.The
inclusionofthesemeasuresinSASS[SchoolsandStafingSurvey]allowsforan
assessmentofthequaliicationsofthecurrentteachingforce.
Buttheterm“qualiications”isnotsynonymouswith“quality.”Thecharac-
teristicsthatcontributetogoodteachingaremany,andnosingleconigurationof
traits,qualiications,orbehaviorsunvaryinglyproducesoptimalstudentoutcomes
inallsituations.NCESteachersurveyshaveconcentratedoncollectingdataon
“qualiications,” rather than trying to deine “quality.” In order to deine and
measure“quality,”characteristicsandqualiicationsofteachersmustberelated
togrowthinstudentachievement.
[Ed.Note:ThisdeinitionforcesteacherstocomplywithGoals2000criteriaandtoteach
tothetest.](See1992FillingtheGaps)
RegionalEducationLaboratories.ThefollowingdeinitioncomesfromGoals2000:Restructur-
ingOurSchools...RestructuringOurSocietybyKathyFinnegan(ibid.),pp.306–307.
TheU.S.DepartmentofEducationmaintainstenRELs(“labs”)inscattered
geographicareas—allunderthejurisdictionofOERI[theOficeofEducational
Research and Improvement]. The labs function as ield ofices of OERI, assist-
ingthestatesundertheirjurisdictioninindingandimplementingeducational
resources(suchasthe“validated”programsoftheNDN[NationalDiffusionNet-
work])suitedtotheirneeds.Theyalsogenerateandoverseeresearchprojects,
printpublications,andprovidetrainingprogramstoteachersandadministrators.
Eachlabputsoutacatalogofitspublications.UnderGoals2000theregionallabs
arechargedwithdesigningappropriatematerialsfortheirclientsifsuitableones
cannotbefound.Thetenregionsare:
1.TheNortheasternRegion(Maine,NewHampshire,Vermont,Massachusetts,
RhodeIsland,Connecticut,NewYork,andPuertoRicoandtheVirginIslands)
servedbytheEducationAllianceforEquityandExcellenceatBrownUniversity
G–18
inProvidence,RhodeIsland.
2.TheMid-AtlanticRegion(NewJersey,Pennsylvania,Delaware,Maryland,and
Washington,D.C.)servedbytheCenterforResearchinHumanDevelopment
andEducationatTempleUniversityinPhiladelphia.
3.TheAppalachianRegion(Virginia,WestVirginia,Kentucky,andTennessee)
servedbytheAppalachiaEducationalLaboratory(AEL)inCharleston,West
Virginia.
4. The Southeastern Region (North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida,
Alabama, and Mississippi) served by the Southeastern Regional Vision for
Education(SERVE)inGreensboro,NorthCarolina.
5.TheSouthwesternRegion(Arkansas,Louisiana,Oklahoma,Texas,andNew
Mexico)servedbytheSouthwestEducationalDevelopmentLaboratory(SEDL)
inAustin,Texas.
6.TheCentralRegion(NorthDakota,SouthDakota,Nebraska,Kansas,Missouri,
Colorado,andWyoming)servedbytheMid-ContinentRegionalEducational
Laboratory(McREL)inAurora,Colorado.
7.TheMidwesternRegion(Minnesota,Wisconsin,Michigan,Ohio,Indiana,Illi-
nois,andIowa)servedbytheNorthCentralRegionalEducationalLaboratory
(NCREL)inOakBrook,Illinois.
8.TheNorthwesternRegion(Alaska,Washington,Oregon,Idaho,andMontana)
servedbytheNorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory(NWREL)inPort-
land,Oregon.
9. The Western Region (California, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona) served by the
FarWestLaboratoryforEducationalResearchandDevelopment(FWL)inSan
Francisco,California.
10.ThePaciicRegion(Hawaii,AmericanSamoa,CommonwealthoftheNorthern
MarianaIslands,FederatedStatesofMicronesia,Kosrae,Pohnpei,Chuukand
Yap,Guam,RepublicoftheMarshallIslands,andtheRepublicofPalau)served
bythePaciicRegionalEducationalLaboratory(PREL)inHonolulu,Hawaii.
Restructuring.Asystemicorsystem-widemovementtochangetheentireeducationmodelin
ordertoachievethenewnationalgoals;alsoknownas“transformation.”Thislifelong,
revolutionary,never-endingchangesystem(paradigmshift)includesmasterylearning,
directinstruction,outcome-basededucation,TotalQualityManagement,andpartnerships
withbusinessandcommunityleaders,churches,andparents.Restructuringcallsforthe
involvementofcarefullyselected,politicallycorrectunelectedmembersofthecommunity
inthedecisionmakingprocess.(See1991Hillary’s“ParadigmChange:MoreMagicthan
Logic,”Paradigm,SchoolReform,SystemicChangeandAppendixXII)
SCANS(TheSecretary’sCommissiononAchievingNecessarySkills).SCANSwascreated
underElizabethDoleasSecretaryofLabor.ItlinkseducationtotheDepartmentofLabor
inajointefforttocreateaworkforcethatmeetsthefutureneedsforaglobalworkforce
andproducesstudentswhoarecompetentinprescribedworkskillsincludingattitudes
andgroupthinking.Itcandirectstudentsintospeciictraining,limittheiroptions,and
bringintrusivegovernmentinluencesintoallaspectsoflife.(See1990SCANSarticle,
CertiicatesofInitialMasteryandAdvancedMastery,andAppendixXVandXVIII)
School-Based Decision Making. A form of school governance that replaces elected school
boardsand/orcentralschoolsystemadministratorswithaschoolsitecouncilconsisting
ofunelectedprincipals,teachers,andselectedparentswhosupporttheradicalchanges
Glossary G–19
calledforbyrestructuring.Designedtoimplementthechangeswithminimalhindrance,
itisnotaccountabletoelectedoficials,dissentingparents,orthetaxpayers.Itisalso
knownas“site-basedmanagement.”Itcouldbereferredtoas“taxationwithoutrepre-
sentation.”(See1977NationalSchoolBoardAssociation[NSBA]President’sWarningsat
NSBAConference)
School-to-WorkorSchool-to-Career.Legislativeinitiativewhichchangesfocusofeducationto
workforcetraininginsteadofinformation-basedacademiclearning.Thelinkorpartner-
shipbetweentheschoolsandbusinessesestablishedthroughtheSCANScompetencies
whichprovideacriterionbothfortestingandtrainingtheglobalworkforce,alsoknown
as“limitedlearningforlifelonglabor.”(SeeSCANSandAppendixXVandXVIII)
SemanticDeception.Theusebychangeagentsofwordsandtermswhichmeanonethingto
theaverage,normal,commonsenseAmericanbuthaveanentirelydifferentmeaningfor
thechangeagentwhoisattemptingtorestructuretheschoolsorimplementcontroversial
programs.Someexamplesare:higherorderthinkingskills(HOTS),criticalthinking,basic
skills,corevalues,directinstruction,health,etc.PartofAppendixXXVIsays:“...[P]olicy
analystssometimesusetheritualsofresearchtoconfoundandweakenpoliticalorscien-
tiicopponents,aformofresearchthatappearssimilartothe‘black’magicofwitches.”
(See1972MaryThompsonpaperonPPBS,andAppendixXIandXXVI)
SkillStandards.ThefollowingexcerptshavebeentakenfromTheSchool-to-WorkRevolution
byLynnOlson(ibid.),pp.178–179.[ThewriterrecommendsOlsen’sbookforthoseinter-
estedinthehistoryofschool-to-workactivitiesintheUnitedStates,withoutnecessarily
endorsingherviews,ed.]
Skillstandardsspelloutwhatworkerswithinanindustryorclusterofoccu-
pationsshouldknowandbeabletodotosucceedonthejob.Theyindicateto
employerstheskillsofjobapplicantsandprovideworkerswithawidelyrecog-
nizedcredential.Theycouldimprovethequalityofcareerinformationavailable
toschools,employers,andyoungpeople.Forexample,theycouldhelpimprove
thematchbetweenwhatislearnedinschoolandwhatisnecessaryonthejob.
In1992thefederalgovernmentfunded22pilotprojectstotestwhetherindus-
triesintheUnitedStatescoulddevelopvoluntaryskillstandards.Theprojects
coveredindustriesrangingfromprinting,metalworking,andelectronicstoretail,
hospitality,andtourism.Ofthe22pilotprojectsfundedsofar,thevastmajority
areledbytradeassociationsorindustrygroups.In1994theCongresscreateda
NationalSkillStandardsBoardtohelppromotethedevelopmentofsuchvoluntary
efforts.TheBoardischargedwithclusteringoccupationsorindustriesintobroad
groupsthatwouldcovermostoftheworkforceintheUnitedStates.Inaddition,
itissupposedtodevelopacommonnationalframeworkinwhichskillstandards
couldbedeveloped.
(See1990SCANSarticleandAppendixXVandXVIII)
SpecialEducation.Plannedforallchildren“atrisk”ofnotmeetingthenationalstandards.
SpecialEducationhastraditionallyrequiredIndividualEducationPlans(IEPs)foreco-
nomically disadvantaged, learning disabled, and gifted and talented students. Special
EducationIEPsareanecessarycomponentofOBE/ML/DIandschool-to-workprograms.
G–20
(SeeAt-RiskStudents)
SustainableDevelopment.“WorldClassSchoolsandtheSocialStudies”fromSocialStudies
HorizonsbyDr.CordellSvengalis(IowaDept.ofEducation:DesMoines,Iowa,Vol.3,
No.1,Fall1990)saysinpart:
...aWorldClasseducationprogramwouldhaveasoneofitsmajorobjec-
tivesthedevelopmentofskillsandunderstandingsgroundedinanethical/moral
context.Thisethical/moralcontextwouldbebasedontheideaofassuminga
sense of responsibility toward our interrelated planetary future.... Perhaps the
mostcompellingvisionofourtimeisthatofa“sustainablesociety”[emphasis
inoriginal].Ourglobalsociety,intermsoftheenvironmentaldegradation,explo-
sivepopulationgrowthintheThirdWorld,energyshortages,pollution,conlict,
crime,drugs,poverty,andjustsheercomplexity,isnotsustainableintothe21st
century....StudentsneedtounderstandthesethingsaspartoftheirWorldClass
education.
(See1991GATEentry,GlobalEducation,ResourceList,andAppendixXXVII)
Synthesis.Oneofthehigher-orderthinkingskillsinBloom’sTaxonomy.Usestheprinciples
ofHegeliandialecticstojointhebeliefsorideas(theses)ofindividualstudentsintoa
newjointbelief—thecompromisesolutionorsynthesis.(SeeTaxonomyofEducational
ObjectivesandAppendixXIX)
SystemicChangeorSchoolReform.Totalholistictransformation:topdown,system-wide,
internationalaswellasnational.“Systemic”meansoneminddirectingonebodywith
manyparts.Itincludespreschools,publicelementaryandhighschools,privateschools,
colleges, universities, health clinics, and every other kind of community partner. The
planneddeadlineisschoolyear2000–2001.(SeeGlobalEducationandRestructuring)
Systems,SystemsDesign,SystemsApproach.ThefollowingdeinitioncomesfromAppendix
VIII:
When scientiic and experimental methods are applied in an orderly and
comprehensivewaytotheplanningofinstructionaltasks,ortoentireprograms,
thisprocessissometimesknownas“systemsdesign,”orthe“systemsapproach
to instructional development.” Implicit in the systems approach is the use of
clearlystatedobjectives,experimentallyderiveddatatoevaluatetheresultsof
thesystem,andfeedbackloopswhichallowthesystemtoimproveitselfbased
onevaluation.
Asystematicapproachusuallyinvolvesneedsassessment(todeterminewhat
theproblemreallyis);asolutionselection(tomeettheneeds);developmentof
instructionalobjectives(ifaninstructionalsolutionisindeedneeded);ananalysis
oftasksandcontenttomeettheobjectives;selectionofinstructionalstrategies;
sequencing of instructional events; selection of media; developing or locating
thenecessaryresources;tryout/evaluationoftheeffectivenessoftheresources;
revisionofresourcesuntiltheyareeffective;andrecyclingcontinuouslythrough
thewholeprocess.Thesystemsapproachisbasictoeducationaltechnology.Indi-
viduallearningrequiressystematicplanningbecauseitmayoperatewithlittleor
nodirectinterventionbytheteacher.
Glossary G–21
(SeePPBS)
TaxonomyofEducationalObjectives.FromthebooktitledTaxonomyofEducationalObjec-
tives:TheClassiicationofEducationalGoalsbyDavidKrathwohl,BenjaminBloom,and
Bertram Massie (Longman, Inc.: New York, 1956). Bloom explains the purpose of the
taxonomywhenhedeinesgoodteachingas“challengingthestudents’ixedbeliefs.”
Healsosaysthat“Thepurposeofeducationandtheschoolsistochangethethoughts,
actions,andfeelingsofstudents.”ItisimportanttorememberthatBloomisthefatherof
OBE/masterylearning/directinstructionwhicharebasedonPavlovandSkinner’sexperi-
mentswithanimals(operantconditioning).Rememberalsothatmasterylearningand
directinstructionhavebeendesignedtoimplementBloom’staxonomyinthecognitive,
affective(values)andpsychomotordomains.
ThesixlevelsofBloom’staxonomythroughwhichachildmusttravelinorderto
havehisworldviewreorganized—hisvalueschanged—areKnowledge(list,match,name,
deine,state),Comprehension(explain,paraphrase,summarize,describe),Application
(relate,solve,use,show,classify),Analysis(support,differentiate,generalize),Synthesis
(design,produce,predict),andEvaluation(conclude,assess,critique).
The taxonomy has been used by teachers, curriculum builders, and educational
researchworkersasonedevicetoattacktheproblemofspecifyingindetailtheexpected
outcomesofthelearningprocess.Wheneducationalobjectivesarestatedinoperationaland
detailedform,itispossibletomakeappropriateevaluationinstrumentsandtodetermine
withsomeprecisionwhichlearningexperiencesarelikelytobeofvalueinpromotingthe
developmentoftheobjectiveandwhicharelikelytobeoflittleornovalue.Bloom,in
attemptingtodoresearchonwhatmightbecalled“peaklearningexperiences,”produced
evidencewhichsuggestedthat“asinglehourofclassroomactivityundercertaincondi-
tionsmaybringaboutamajorreorganizationincognitiveaswellasaffectivebehaviors.”
(SeeAppendixXIX)
TeacherTenure.Apolicywhichtraditionallyprotectedincompetentteachersfrombeingired.
Retentionofteachertenurebecomesmoreandmoreattractiveascompetentacademi-
cally-orientedteachershavetheirjobsthreatenedonlytobereplacedbynon-academically
orientedteacherstrainedinTQMwhoseexpertiseliesinthefacilitationoflearning(using
Pavlovian/Skinnerian“BestPractices,”providingthetechnologicalresourcesnecessaryto
bringaboutchangeofbehavior,predictableresults,andtraininginworkforceskills).
TotalQualityManagement(TQM).Asocialiststrategyformanagingcontinualimprovement
throughstatisticaltoolsanddecision-makingtechniques.Administeredthroughsite-based
management(school-baseddecisionmaking),itemphasizesthe“customer”or“stake-
holder”includingeveryonebuttheconcernedparent.TQMissimplyareinedversionof
Planning,Programming,BudgetSystems(PPBS)andManagementbyObjectives(MBO)
andhasmuchincommonwiththeprinciplesunderlyingcontinuousprogressmastery
learning.EdwardsW.Deming,thephysicistwhooriginallyintroducedTQMtotheJapa-
neseasamanufacturingmanagementprocesstouseduringtheirindustrialrebuilding
afterWorldWarII,saidinaninterviewattheUniversityofPittsburgh:“WhatItookto
JapanwasnottheAmericanway.”(SeeAppendixXXII)
UNESCO(UnitedNationsEducational,Scientiic,andCulturalOrganization).Aspecialized
agencyoftheUnitedNations,headquarteredinParis,France.UNESCObeganin1946
G–22
withtwentymemberstatesandnowhas171members.Inabrochurecalled“Whatis
UNESCO?”weind:“UNESCO’sConstitutionsaysthat‘sincewarsbegininthemindsof
men,itisinthemindsofmenthatthedefensesofpeacemustbeconstructed.’Building
thesedefensesthroughinternationalcooperationremainsUNESCO’stoppriority.”
UniversalValues.Honesty,integrity,tolerance,andothervaluesbelievedtobecommonto
allthepeopleandtheworld’scultures.Thisbeliefiscountertothefactsofhistory.(See
CoreValues/Virtues)
U.S.-SovietEducationAgreements.PresidentEisenhowersignedtheirstU.S.-SovietEduca-
tionAgreementin1958.ItwasjustoneofmanyagreementsnegotiatedwiththeSoviets
whichdealtwithspace,medicine,culture,andotherareas.Thepurposeoftheeducation
agreementwastoinitiateexchangesofteachersfrombothcountriesandtostudyone
another’scurriculumandtextbooks,butnottoengageinthedevelopmentofcurriculum.
In1985theReaganAdministrationandtheCarnegieCorporationdepartedfromthisless
controversialagendawhentheynegotiatedagreementswiththeSovietUnionwhichdealt
notonlywithteacherandstudentexchangesbutalsowithcooperationincurriculum
development,including“jointresearchontheapplicationofcomputersinearlyelementary
education,focusingespeciallyontheteachingofhigherlevelskillsandcomplexsubjects
toyoungerchildren.”ThisaspectpavedthewayforRussianteacherstovisitandwork
inAmericanschoolsincludingthosespecializinginschool-to-workactivities.(See1991
articles“CopSwap,”“WeekintheSubway,”1994“SchoolExams…RussianOrigin,”1995
“RussianTeacherReviewWorksinSAD53,Maine,”andAppendixXXIII)
ValuesClariication(VC).Astrategyforchangingastudent’svalues,usually,butnotalways,
associatedwiththeworkofSidneySimon.VCprodsstudentstoexaminetheirownvalues
inlightoftheirupbringingandiftheyindthattheirvaluesarearesultoftheirparents’
direction,theyaretoldthattheirvaluesarenotvalid.Inorderforvaluestobevalidthey
mustbechosenfreelybythestudentwithoutanyinluencefromchurchorfamily.The
VCprocessusuallytakesplaceinthegroupwithexercisesandgameswhichcreatedepen-
dencyamongstmembersofthegroupandwhichcontributetogroupconsensusonwhat
isrightandwrong,basedonsituationalethics.(SeeCharacterEducation,Citizenship
Education,andSynthesis)
Vouchers.Vouchersandtuitiontaxcreditsareusedbyparentstopayforchildren’seducation
inprivateschoolsoftheirchoice.Avoucherisadirectmethodofpaymenttoaprivate
schoolofacertainamountoftaxmoneyprovidedbyapublicmunicipality,whereasa
tuitiontaxcreditisaformofdelayedreimbursementbydeductionofacertainportion
ofone’staxesrelatedtothecostofprivateschooltuition.Thedangersofsuchchoice
measuresforparentsarebestexpressedintheoldadage“Hewhopaysthepipercallsthe
tune.”(See1982entry“PublicService,PublicSupport,PublicAccountability”byChester
Finn,formerAssistantSecretary,OficeofEducationalResearchandImprovement[OERI],
U.S.DepartmentofEducation,underSecretaryWilliamBennett,andChoice)
Work-BasedLearning.Programsdesignedtoteacholderstudents(grades7andup)work
skillsonthejobsite,therebyassuringthatthestudentcanperformthetasksneededby
localemployerswhenthestudentgraduatesfrompublicschool.(See1976May21starticle
“CubanChildrenCombineStudies,Work”fromTheLosAngelesTimes)
Glossary G–23
WorldClassEducation.Atermlooselybandiedaboutbygovernmentandcorporatechange
agents.ItsimplymeansThirdWorld-classacademiceducationandirst-classschool-to-
work/school-to-careerSoviet/German(Socialist)polytecheducation.Itisanon-competitive
systembasedonnationalstandardsandbenchmarksthatmatchinternationalstandards.
Studentsmustembraceacommonsetofuniversalbeliefsandvaluesinpreparationforthe
nextcentury.Thisprocessusestechnology(computers,robotics,etc.),masterylearning,
continuousprogress,andindividualeducationplanswhichallowforlifelonglearningas
promotedbytheUnitedNations.(SeeGlobalEducation)
BehavioristTerminology
Thefollowinglistincludeswords,terms,andphrasesusedbyeducatorsandbehavioral
psychologists,scientists,sociologists,etc.,intheireducationalresearchandliteratureaswell
asinbackgroundpapersforelectedoficials.Thislistshouldbeofusetotheaverageparent
who may not be familiar with these terms, thereby not being alert to their real meaning,
allowingtheirchildrentobesubjectedtoexperimentalbehaviormodiicationprogramswhich
arefoundinallareasofcurriculumfromsocialstudiestoreadinginstructiontoworkforce
training.Althoughsomeofthesewordscanalsobeusedinanon-behavioristcontext,most
ofthemspeciicallyrelatetotheieldofbehavioralpsychologywhichholdstheevolutionary
worldviewthatmanisananimal,withoutsoul,conscience,intellect,creativity,andfreewill.
Ifparents,electedoficials,andothersarefamiliarwiththesewords—notnecessarilyhaving
tothoroughlyunderstandtheirdeinitions—theywillbeabletoidentifyprogramswhichmay
notbeinthebestinterestoftheirchildrenortheirconstituents.Onecanpointtoabarrageof
educationprogramsandlegislationvotedonduringthepastthirty-fouryearsatthelocal,state,
andfederallevelswhichmightnothavebeenapprovedorpassedhadourelectedoficialsand
theirconstituentsrecognizedandunderstoodthemeaningofthewordsonthislist.
ThereadershouldalsorefertotheirowndictionaryorWebster’sNewWorldDictionary
oftheAmericanLanguage,2ndCollegeEdition(WilliamCollins&TheWorldPublishingCo.,
Inc.:Cleveland,Ohio,1974)fromwhichseveralofthefollowingdeinitionsweretaken,orthis
book’sGlossaryand/orIndextoinddeinitionsforsomeofthewordsandthelocationinthis
bookofinstanceswherethemajorityofthemareused.Forinstance,appendicesII,III,Vand
VIIdealextensivelywiththesubjectofbehavioralterminology.
accountable,accountabilityAllsortsofmischiefhasbeencarriedout“inthenameofaccount-
ability,”fromtheimplementationofindividualizededucation—outcome-basededucation
andallitstentacles—tothecollectionofpersonalandprivatedata,tothejustiicationof
biggerbudgetsforeducation,usingPPBS,etc.Traditionally,accountabilitymeantbeing
legallyresponsiblefortaxpayers’money;makingsurestudentshadadequateresources,
teachers, etc., in order to learn. The state was responsible for offering an educational
experience for all children—input—not for assuring that every individual child would
learnwhathewastaught.Childrenwereallowedtoreceivelessthanperfectgradesfor
theireffortsandnotallchildrengotwhatweusedtocall“themost”fromtheireducational
experience.However,thestate’slegalresponsibilityhadbeenfulilled.
Accountabilityincreasinglymeansthatthegovernmentschoolsmustbeaccountable
G–24
forpredeterminedresults(results,performance,outcome-basededucation).Legislationis
intheworkstoholdteachersaccountableforstudentresultswhichmeansstudentsare
nolongerheldresponsiblefortheirworkorlackofwork.Inordertoimplementsuchan
accountabilitysystem,systematic,scientiic,research-basededucation(basedonbehav-
ioristprinciples)isbeingimplemented.Sucheducationwhichteachestothetest,using
Skinnerianoperantconditioning,haspredictableandmeasurable,ifnarrow,resultsand
servesthelimitedlearningneedsoftheschool-to-workagenda.Theresultsofsuchnarrow
education are measurable data which must be collected at the individual student and
teacherlevel,abletobestoredinthecomputerforrecyclingandremediationpurposes.
Theuseofsuchanarrow,rigidmethodoftrainingassurespredictableresultswhich
carryouttherequirementsofthenewdeinitionofaccountability.ThatiswhyOBE,ML
DI,andEffectiveSchoolResearchallclaimthat“almostallchildrencanlearn.”Skinner
said,“Youwillteachyourstudentashewantstobetaught,butneverforgetthatitis
withinyourpowertomakehimwantwhatyouwanthimtowant.”Thereisvirtuallyno
wayastudentcanavoid“learning”exactlywhattheplannerswanthimtolearnunless
heactuallyrebelsagainstthemethod/systemwhichconsidershimnothingmorethana
machine/animaltobeconditioned/trained.(SeeAppendixXXIV)
affective(Feelings,emotions)
alignment(Allteachertrainingandcurriculumresourcesarealignedwithtests,assessments,
etc.;i.e.,teachtothetest)
animal,animalpsychology(Usedtodevelopoperantconditioningprograms)
assessment,assessmentstrategies,authenticassessment(SeeGlossary)
attitude,attitudinal(Pointofview;dealingwithattitudes,values,beliefs)
automaticity(Leveloftrainingatwhichbehaviorbecomesautomatic[“kneejerk”relex])
BehaviorAnalysis(OneoftwentydifferentinterventionstrategiesthatwasusedinProject
FollowThrough)
ThefollowingfourbehavioristdeinitionsaretakenfromDictionaryofEducation,3rd
EditionbyCarterV.Good,Ed.(McGraw-Hill;NewYork,1973),publishedundertheauspices
ofPhiDeltaKappa:
behaviormodiication:(Techniquesfordealingwithmaladaptivebehavioreitherthroughclas-
sicalconditioning[forexample,avoidinganxietyinaspeciiedsituationbyconditioning
aresponseincompatiblewithanxiety]orthroughoperantconditioning[asbyarranging
and managing reinforcement contingencies so that desired behaviors are increased in
frequencyandmaintainedandundesiredbehaviorsaredecreasedinfrequencyand/or
removed].Whenusedwiththenonfunctioningordisruptiveschoolchild,behaviorchanges
are measurable by continuous assessment and graphic means; behavior management,
thoughusingmanyofthesametechniques,isalessprecisemethod.)
behaviorshaping:(Theprocessbywhichatargetresponseorseriesofresponsesisdeveloped
throughtheuseofstrategicallyplacedreinforcers;atermusedprimarilybythosewho
identifythemselveswithB.F.Skinner’soperantconditioning.)
Glossary G–25
behaviortheory:(Aviewwhichregardshumanbehaviorasprimarilyrootedintheexperien-
tialhistoryoftheorganism,ashavingbeenlearned,andassusceptibletomodiication
bypsychologicalmeans;emphasisisonthenatureofthelearningprocessesthatunder-
liebehavioralchange,andtheseprocessesareregardedasessentiallyidenticaltothose
involvedinanyotherkindofcomplexhumanlearning.)
behaviorism: (A systematic approach to or school of psychology, which regards objective,
observablemanifestationssuchasmotorandglandularresponsesasthekeytoanunder-
standingofhumanbehavior;consciousness,feeling,andothersubjectivephenomenaare
rejectedasunnecessary;placesmuchrelianceonthestudyofbehaviorofanimalsunder
controlledconditions;originatedwiththeworkofM.F.Meyer,A.P.Weiss,andJ.B.Watson
duringtheirsttwodecadesofthepresentcentury;themostwidelyknowncontemporary
exponentwasB.F.Skinner.)
BestPractices(Termoftenusedinperformance-basededucationalteachertrainingmaterial
whichreferstobehavioristic,scientiic,research-basedteachingpractices)
climate(Environment)
clinicalpractice(Diagnoseandprescribe)
coaching(Toinstructandtrain)
competent(Adequate)
computer-assistedinstruction(C-A-I:programmedlearning)
conditioned(Havingdevelopedaconditionedrelexorbehaviorpattern)
conditionedresponse(Conditionedrelexinwhichtheresponse—e.g.,secretionofsalivaina
dog—isoccasionedbyasecondarystimulus—e.g.,theringingofabellrepeatedly—associ-
atedwiththeprimarystimulus—e.g.,thesightofmeat)
criterion-referencedtesting(Testingwhichdoesnotcomparestudent’sscoreswiththoseof
thegroup,butwhichhasthestudentworkingathisownpaceandincompetitionwithno
onebuthimself;suchtestingisnecessaryforindividuallyprescribedinstruction,mastery
learning,anddirectinstruction,allofwhichteachtothetest.Traditionaleducationdoes
notteachtothetest,therebyexposingthestudenttoamuchwiderandrichknowledge
base,someofwhichheisnevertestedon,butwhichbecomesanimportantpartofhis
understandingoftheworldaroundhim.)
criticalthinking(SeeGlossary)
cue(Asecondarystimulusthatguidesbehavior,oftenwithoutenteringconsciousness)
directinstructionorDirectInstruction(SRA’sDISTAR:DirectInstructionSystemforTeaching
andRemediation,alsoknownas“ReadingMastery”oranyprogrammedlearningbased
ontheprinciplesofSkinnerianoperantconditioning)
education(Thefollowingdeinitionofeducationistakenfroma1972speechgivenbyMary
ThompsononthesubjectofPPBSineducation:“Theobjectiveofeducationistomea-
sureanddiagnosethechildinordertoprescribeaprogramtodevelophisfeelingsand
emotions,valuesandloyaltiestowardpredeterminedbehavioralobjectives.Drawingit
G–26
rightdowntobasics,wearetalkingaboutconditionedresponseinhumanterms.Pavlov
experimentedondogs.”)
effective,effectiveschoolresearch,effectiveschools(Internationalschoolrestructuringmove-
mentwhichseekstoleveltheplayingieldforallchildren,therebydumbingdownthe
particularlybrightandaveragestudents;aformofredistributionofbrains,intelligence.
[SeeGlossaryandAppendixXXVI])
elicit(Usedinrelationtoaspeciicbehavior:todrawforth,evoke,causetoberevealed)
enabling(Tomakepossibleoreffective)
environment,environmental(Climate—”psychologicallyfacilitative”whenappliedtoeduca-
tion)
exceptional(Teacherswhoaretrainedtouseoperantconditioning.Also,masterteachers)
experimental(Usedinrelationtoresearchconductedonteachersandstudents,usuallywith-
outtheir“informed”consent.Legislationisonthebookswhichprotectsprisonersfrom
suchexperimentalresearch.)
extinguish(Stopcertainbehavior)
fade(Asbehaviorreaches“automaticity”level,useofoperantconditioningisgraduallyreduced
tozerolevel)
guiding(Helpingstudenttomodel[copy]teacher’sbehavior)
incentives(Motivators,rewards,specialtreatmenttoassurecorrectbehavior)
indicators(Specifywhatstudentsmustknowandbeabletodo)
individualizededucation,individualizededucationplans/programs(IEPS)(SeeGlossary
forMasteryLearning,DirectInstruction)
instructionaldesigntechnology(Theuseofsuchtechnologycanbecomparedtoassembly-
linetypeofteachingwhichrequiresteachertoperforminasystematic,exactmanner,so
thatthestudent’severyaction[behavior]canbescientiicallymeasuredandreplicated;
toshapeandmoldthechildasonewouldshapeandmoldapieceofclay)
intensive,systematicphonicsoranyother“scientiic”research-basedinstruction(Asimple
way to teach which uses operant conditioning; a method which must be understood
andrejectedifteachingistoremain“teaching”andnotbecomebehaviormodiication
and“training.”Someexcellenttraditionalphonicsprogramsareincorrectlydescribedas
“intensiveandsystematicdirectinstructionofphonics”wheninfacttheyarenot,since
theydonotuseoperantconditioning.)
knowandbeabletodo(SeeGlossaryforTaxonomyofEducationalObjectives)
latentperiod(Intervalbetweenstimulationandresponse)
managementskills(RelatedtoTQM[SeeGlossaryforQuality])
mastery,masterylearning(BasedonSkinnerianoperantconditioning;sameasdirectinstruc-
tion[SeeGlossary])
Glossary G–27
measurement(CriticalcomponentofSkinnerianoperantconditioning)
measurementbyobjectives(Ineducation,meansonlythepreparedscriptwillbetaughtand
tested,orteachtothetest[SeeGlossaryforQuality])
meritpay(Tiedtoteacherperformance,effectiveness;whetherperformanceresultsinstudent
achievement[SeeGlossaryforQuality])
modeling(Performingbehaviorteacherwantsstudentstocopy)
monitoring(Observingbehaviorofstudentandteacher;teacherbehaviormustbemonitored
dailyandweeklytomakesureteacherdoingpreparedscriptcorrectly,likeanactorper-
formingbeforehisaudience)
neurological(Responsewhichstrictlydealswiththenervoussystem;ineducation,relatedto
operantconditioningwhichbypassesthebrain;oftenreferredtoas“knee-jerk”)
observe,observation(Ofstudentandteacher[Seemonitoringabove])
operantconditioning,behaviormodiication(Ateverystep,immediatefeedbackorreward
desirable,immediaterepetitionandelaborationofthecorrectresponseused)
outcome-basededucation(KnownasOBE;formerlyknownasmasterylearningcombined
withCompetency-BasedEducation)
outcomes(Results,performance,competencies,standards,achievement)
overtresponse(Canbemeasuredandtimed;veryimportantinDirectInstruction,DISTAR/
ECRI-typeprogramssinceSkinnersaidaresponsemustbeoral;whychildrenarerequired
torespondinunisonandorally)
penalize(Mostlyinregardtoteacherswho“justdon’tgetit”;cuttheirclassroomsupplies,
givethembadperformancerating,etc.,getridofthembyanymeans[earlyretirement,
etc.]andhireteacherstrainedinTQM)
penalizefailure(Schooldoesn’t“produce”desiredresults,usingthe“systemsdesign/approach”;
statedepartmentsofeducationwillknowteachersaren’tteachingthescript,aren’tteach-
ingtothetest,aren’tusingprogrammedlearning,operantconditioning;schoolwillbe
punishedinordertogettheresultsrequiredbyGoals2000andSchooltoWork.)
performance-based(Outcome,result,achievement,standards,competency-based,necessary
forworkforcetraining)
precise(Exact,abletobe“measured”)
predictable(Abletobeaccuratelypredictedbecausedependentonmeasurementandissci-
entiicallybased;doesnotallowforfreewill)
predictableresponse(Ifoperantconditioningisused,onecanpredicttheresponse;itisvirtu-
allya“sure”thing;automaticresponsewhichbypassesthebrain)
programmedlearning(Independentlearningbyapupil,whoadvanceslittlebylittle,through
aseriesofquestions,theanswerstowhicharegivenelsewhereintheprogrammedtext-
bookorcomputersoftwareprogram;computer-assisted-instruction)
G–28
prompt(Wordusedtodescribeactiontoremindorhelpsomeonerememberaline,asforan
actor;oftenreferredtoasacue)
psychologicalclimate(Thecarefulandsystematicarrangementofthestudent’senvironment
tofacilitatewhateverbehaviorisdesiredbytheteacher)
psychology(Themodernversionofpsychologyrelatestonothingbutbehavior)
qualityteaching(Characteristicsandqualiicationsofteachersrelatedtogrowthinstudent
outcomes,results,performance,achievement;theoppositeoftraditionaleducationwhere
“inputs”[resources,books,teachers,sciencelabs,etc.]werelegallyrequiredforeduca-
tion,butnotstudent“results”whichwereconsideredtheresponsibilityofthestudent.
Obviously,thebehavioristsconsiderstudentsasmachines,nothumanbeings,sincethey
don’ttakeintoaccountthefactthathumanbeingshavefreewillandmayjustnotwant
tolearnwhenandwhatthebehavioristswantthemtolearn.Suchadeinitionofqual-
ityteaching,whichputsthe100%onusontheteacher,issuretocauseanexodusfrom
publiceducationofournation’sinestteachers.)
rate(Speedofreaction;Skinnermethoddemandsahigh,quick,fastrateofresponse;otherwise
studentwillhavetimetorelectonwhathe/sheisdoing;highrateofresponseassures
thatthesubjectwillrespondwithoutthinking)
relect(Givebackanimageof;thinkcriticallyaboutyourpractice[teachers];recommended
forteacherswhenmonitoredbyperformanceraters)
relex(Neurologicalreaction;i.e.,aswhenoneautomaticallywithdrawshishandfromahot
stove)
reinforce,reinforcement(Toincreasetheprobabilityofaresponsetoastimulusbygivinga
rewardorendingapainfulstimulus)
replicate (Repetition of an experiment under controlled conditions so that a speciic result
maybeobserved)
research-based(“Scientiic,research-basedinstructionalpractices”hascometomeanteaching/
trainingbasedonaworldviewthatconsidersmanananimalwithoutasoul,conscience,
creativity,orfreewillwhosebehaviorcanbechangedusingoperantconditioningand
othermanipulativepsychologicaltechniqueswithouthisknowledgeor“informed”consent.
Governmentresearchisnecessarily“scientiic,research-based”sincegovernment’sworld
viewisbasedonevolutionandSkinner.Privateresearchisanothermattersinceitisnot
requiredtobebasedonanyparticularworldview,butoftenrelectsthesameviewpoint.
Unfortunately,manyreligiousandprivateschoolsareusingmethodsandprogramsbased
on“scientiic”research.)
response(Reaction,reply)
script(TeachersusingSkinnerianoperantconditioningmustteachfromapreparedcurriculum
format;theyarenotallowedtodeviatefromthatscript)
sociology(Thescienceofhumansocietyandofsocialrelations,organization,andchange;
speciically,thestudyofthebeliefs,values,interrelationships,etc.,ofsocietalgroupsand
oftheprinciplesorprocessesgoverningsocialphenomena.Ofinteresthereisthatmany
Glossary G–29
of the principal promoters of outcome-based education, Spady et al., which includes
Skinnerian operant conditioning and effective schools research, are for the most part
sociologists,noteducators.)
stimulus(Anyactionoragentwhichcausesachangeinactivityinanorganism,organ,orpart,
assomethingthatexcitesanendorgan,startsanerveimpulse,activatesamuscle,etc.)
succeed,success(Meettherequiredcriteria)
systems,systematic,systemstheory(Basisforcurrentrestructuringofeducation.[SeeGlos-
sary for Planning, Programming and Budgeting Systems, Systems, Systems Design
andSystemsApproach])
taxonomy(SeeGlossaryforTaxonomyofEducationalObjectives)
teachingpractice(Teacherperformance,notnecessarilyacademicorknowledge-based)
technology(Anyformofinstructionalmedia)
theoryintopractice(ThelateMadelineHunter’sMasteryTeaching:InstructionalTheoryinto
Practice(ITIP).Translatingintopracticeintheclassroomthetheoryteacherhaslearned;
experimentationonthestudents)
threshold(Baseline,inoperantterms,wheresubjectcanbeconditioned)
TotalQualityManagement(Managementtechniquewhichusesbehaviormodiication[See
GlossaryforSystemsandTotalQualityManagement])
APPENDICES
APPENDICES
I ExcerptsfromCommunity-CenteredSchools A–5
II ExcerptsfromTeachingMachinesandProgrammedLearning A–7
III ExcerptsfromProgrammedLearning A–11
IV ExcerptsfromAPlanforEvaluatingtheQualityofEducational A–17
ProgramsinPennsylvania
V CommentsonandExcerptsfromBehavioralScience A–23
TeacherEducationProgram(BSTEP)
VI ExcerptsfromEducationforResults A–27
VIIExcerptsfromPerformance-basedTeacherEducation A–32
VIII Excerptsfrom“TheFieldofEducationalTechnology” A–35
IX ExcerptsfromAPerformanceAccountabilitySystem A–39
X Excerptsfrom“TheNextStep:TheMinnesotaPlan”A–42
XI “WhenIsAssessmentREALLYAssessment?” A–44
XII Excerptsfrom“TheNationalAllianceforRestructuringEducation: A–52
Schools—andSystems—forthe21stCentury”
A–3
XIII “Psychology’sBestKeptSecrets” A–57
XIV AlertonNationalEducationGoalsPanelCommunityActionToolKitA–65
XV “WillRepublicansBetrayAmericaByVotingForMarcTucker’s A–72
HumanResourcesDevelopmentSystem:H.R.1617andS.143?”
XVI “TotalitarianData-GatheringSystem A–81
PreparedbyU.S.DepartmentofEducation”
XVII MemosonDirectInstruction A–90
XVIII “AHumanResourcesDevelopmentPlanfortheUnitedStates”A–96
XIX “Taxonomy” A–113
XX “The‘Skinner-Box’School” A–122
XXI “StatusofInternationalizationofEducation” A–126
XXII “TheThiefofAmericanIndividualism: A–132
TotalQualityManagementandSchool-to-Work”
XXIII “SovietsintheClassroom:America’sLatestEducationFad” A–136
XXIV “OurChildren:TheDrones” A–143
XXV (1)“TheTruthaboutHowWeAllHaveBeenHad” A–150
(2)“TheDifferencebetweenTraditionalEducationand
DirectInstruction”
XXVI “ShamanisticRitualsinEffectiveSchools*” A–159
XXVII “BigBadCowsandCars: A–167
GreenUtopianism&EnvironmentalOutcomes”
A–4
AppendixI
ExcerptsfromCommunity-CenteredSchools
Community-Centered Schools: The Blueprint, Montgomery County, Maryland Schools, as
proposed by Dr. Nicholaus L. Englehardt and Associates, Consultants, and written by Dr.
Walter D. Cocking (New York City: April 1, 1946). This was probably the most important
blueprint for the nation, although The Hawaii Master Plan [see 1969] certainly follows in
itsfootsteps.Dr.PaulMort’sstatementbelowisrightontarget.Ittookexactlyiftyyearsto
implement“TheBlueprint”ineveryschoolofthenation.Letteroftransmittalstates:
[The]programshouldbeputintooperationgradually…andDr.PaulMortandothershave
accumulatedevidencewhichshowsaperiodofalmostiftyyearsbetweentheestablishment
ofneed(needassessment,etc.)andtheschoolprogramsgearedtomeetit.
If the school as an agency of society is to justify itself for the period ahead of us,
it must be accepted that its fundamental function is to serve the people of the entire
community,theveryyoungchildren,thechildrenofmiddleyears,earlyadolescentyouth,
olderyouthandtheadultsaswell.
Thetaskoftheteacherofthefutureisagreatlydifferenttaskthanthatwhichteachers
usually performed in the past. The fundamental equipment expected of the teacher of
yesterday was knowledge of the subject he taught. Modern education demands teachers
whoareacquaintedbyexperienceaswellasbystudywithourdemocraticsocietyandwho
participateactivelyinthelifeofthecommunity.
They have a broad cultural background and an understanding of world conditions.
Teacher educational institutions have not prepared teachers to do these things. Prior
emphasishasbeenuponsubjectmatterandmethod.
TheBlueprintgoesontolistthemajorpurposesofatotalinstructionalprogram“ofbeneitto
theentirecommunity.”Under“TheEducationalProgram”oneinds:
continuingandimprovingtheteachingoftheculturesofthepast;
developingtheabilitytocommunicateeffectively;
developingtheabilitytothink;
developingdesirablepersonalityandcharactertraits;
A–5
A–6
discoveringanddevelopingworthwhileinterests;
developingrespectforothers,orinterculturalrelations;
protectingandpromotinghealth;
developingwholesomehomeandfamilylife(Otheragenciesmustacceptatleastsomeof
the responsibilities formerly borne by the family. The school must study the problem
intensively.Itmustexperiment.);
developingwholesomehabitsandunderstandingofwork;
goodmembersofsocietycannotbedevelopediftheyareignorantofworkandwhatgoes
intoit.Intheyearswhichlieahead,itwouldappearthattheschoolistheonlyagency
whichsocietyhaswhichcanbeexpectedtoacceptthisresponsibility.
ITMUSTBEDONE.[emphasisintheoriginal]
developing understanding of economic principles and forces (Emphasis must be placed
upon the economic principles and forces which are operating at that time rather
thanuponthoseofthepast.);
developing consumer competence… schools of the future must do much about such
things;
developingvocationalcompetence;
developing social and civic competence—understand obligations as a member of the
group;…andtogivewholeheartedlyandunselishlyservicetohislocal,state,national
andworldgovernment;
developingunderstandingof,andskillin,thedemocraticwayoflife;
developingknowledge,understandingof,andskillin,thecreativearts;
developingunderstandingof,andskillin,wholesomeandworthwhileleisureactivities(Much
dependsuponpeoplediscoveringandpracticingworthwhileleisurepursuits.);
developingawell-roundedemotionallifewithparticularattentiontomoralandspiritual
needs. (A well-balanced emotional life is the inal test of a well-educated person.
It is our belief that all people are religious, that religion inds expression in many
different ways. We do not believe in America that they should teach any particular
kindortypeofreligion.)
Under“TheServiceProgram”oneindsHealthandMedicalServices.(Intheschoolofthe
future,provisionmustbemadenotonlyforchildrenenrolledbuttoallpeople,youngand
old.)Thelistisendlessandincludesthefollowingcradle-through-graveservices:recreational,
library, guidance and counseling, child care, demonstration and experimental services,
planning and research, employment, audiovisual, social welfare, group meeting place,
character-buildingservices.ThePlan[Blueprint]statesfurther:
The end results are that the school makes itself indispensable to all phases of
community life. In the future development of school programs, the service program will
receiveincreasingemphasisuntiltheschoolbecomesinfacttheagencytowhichallthe
peopleinthecommunityturnforassistance.
AppendixII
ExcerptsfromTeachingMachinesandProgrammedLearning
Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning: A Source Book, edited by A.A. Lumsdaine,
Program Director, American Institute for Research, Professor of Education, University of
California,LosAngelesandRobertGlaser,ProfessorofPsychology,UniversityofPittsburgh,
ResearchAdvisor,AmericanInstituteforResearch(DepartmentofAudio-VisualInstruction,
NationalEducationAssociation,Washington,D.C.,1960).
The original studies reported by contributors to this volume also received direct support
fromtheOficeoftheAirResearchandDevelopmentCommandoftheU.S.AirForce,the
U.S.OficeofEducation,andanumberofotheragenciesincludingHumRRO(Department
oftheArmy),theFordFoundationandtheFundfortheAdvancementofEducation,and
severalindustrialorganizations.Acknowledgmentshouldalsobemadeofthesupportand
encouragementprovidedonseveraloftheseprojectsbytheUniversityofPittsburgh,Harvard
University,andanumberofotheracademicinstitutions.[Preface]
From“TeachingMachines:AnIntroductoryOverview,”A.A.Lumsdaine:
Despite great variation in complexity and special features, all of the devices that are
currently called “teaching machines” represent some form of variation on what can be
called the tutorial or Socratic method of teaching. That is, they present the individual
studentwithprogramsofquestionsandanswers,problemstobesolved,orexercisestobe
performed. In addition, however, they always provide some type of automatic feedback
orcorrectiontothestudentsothatheisimmediatelyinformedofhisprogressateachstep
andgivenabasisforcorrectinghiserrors.Theythusdifferfromilms,TVandmostother
audio-visual media as ordinarily utilized, because of three important properties. First,
continuous active student response is required, providing explicit practice and testing of
eachstepofwhatistobelearned.Second,abasisisprovidedforinformingthestudent
with minimal delay whether each response he makes is correct, leading him directly or
indirectly to correction of his errors. Third, the student proceeds on an individual basis
athisownrate—fasterstudentsrompingthroughaninstructionalsequenceveryrapidly,
slower students being tutored as slowly as necessary, with indeinite [sic] patience to
A–7
A–8
meettheirspecialneeds.(p.5)
From “Results of Use of Machines for Testing and for Drill upon Learning in Educational
Psychology,”JamesKennethLittle:
Previousinvestigationsofcollegeinstructionalproblemshad(thewriterfelt)emphasized
thefollowingrelevantpoints:(a)themotivatingeffectuponthelearnerofknowledgeof
standing and progress; (b) the value, both for motivation and for guidance in learning,
of informing students speciically and immediately of their errors and their successes in
theirwork;(c)thevalueintheabove(andother)connectionsofthefrequentshorttest,
as contrasted with less frequent longer tests or examinations; (d) the great importance
of continuous adjustment to individual differences not only in capacity but also in
error pattern and dificulty; (e) the value, in all of these connections, of a consistent
useofthemake-uptest.(p.59)
FromPartIII:“Skinner’sTeachingMachinesandProgrammingConcepts”:
AcomprehensivereportoftheworkatHarvardonteachingmachinesandtheprogramming
of materials used within them was prepared in 1958 as a report to the Fund for the
AdvancementofEducation.Skinnersummarizedtheirstpartofthisreportinasymposium
paperatthe1958meetingsoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationandshortlythereafter
publisheditinScience[October23,1958issue].Thismajorarticle,reproducedinfullasthe
thirdpaperinPartIII,attractedwideattentiontothepotentialitiesof“teachingmachines.”
It also focused attention on the “programming” of detailed, carefully ordered learning
sequences by which complex behavioral repertoires could be shaped through successive
approximations.(p.96)[emphasisinoriginal]
From“TheScienceofLearningandtheArtofTeaching,”B.F.Skinner:
Recentimprovementsintheconditionswhichcontrolbehaviorintheieldoflearningare
oftwoprincipalsorts.The“lawofeffect”hasbeentakenseriously;wehavemadesurethat
effects do occur and that they occur under conditions which are optimal for producing
the changes called learning. Once we have arranged the particular type of consequence
called reinforcement, our techniques permit us to shape the behavior of an organism
almostatwill.Ithasbecomearoutineexercisetodemonstratethisinclassesinelementary
psychologybyconditioningsuchanorganismasapigeon.(pp.99–100)
In all this work, the species of the organism has made surprisingly little difference. It is
truethattheorganismsstudiedhaveallbeenvertebrates,buttheystillcoverawiderange.
Comparableresultshavebeenobtainedwithrats,pigeons,dogs,monkeys,humanchildren,
andmostrecently—bytheauthorincollaborationwithOgdenR.Lindsley—withhuman
psychotic subjects. In spite of great phylogenetic differences, all these organisms show
amazinglysimilarpropertiesofthelearningprocess.Itshouldbeemphasizedthatthishas
beenachievedbyanalyzingtheeffectsofreinforcementandbydesigningtechniqueswhich
manipulatereinforcementwithconsiderableprecision.Onlyinthiswaycanthebehavior
oftheindividualorganismbebroughtundersuchprecisecontrol.Itisalsoimportantto
notethatthroughagradualadvancetocomplexinterrelationsamongresponses,thesame
degreeofrigorisbeingextendedtobehaviorwhichwouldusuallybeassignedtosuchields
asperception,thinking,andpersonalitydynamics.(p.103)
AppendixII A–9
Theserequirementsarenotexcessive,buttheyareprobablyincompatiblewiththecurrent
realitiesoftheclassroom.Intheexperimentalstudyoflearningithasbeenfoundthatthe
contingenciesofreinforcementwhicharemosteficientincontrollingtheorganismcannot
bearrangedthroughthepersonalmediationoftheexperimenter.Anorganismisaffected
bysubtledetailsofcontingencieswhicharebeyondthecapacityofthehumanorganism
to arrange. Mechanical and electrical devices must be used. Mechanical help is also
demandedbythesheernumberofcontingencieswhichmaybeusedeficientlyinasingle
experimentalsession.Wehaverecordedmanymillionsofresponsesfromasingleorganism
during thousands of experimental hours. Personal arrangement of the contingencies and
personalobservationoftheresultsarequiteunthinkable.Now,thehumanorganismis,if
anything,moresensitivetoprecisecontingenciesthantheotherorganismswehavestudied.
Wehaveeveryreasontoexpect,therefore,thatthemosteffectivecontrolofhumanlearning
will require instrumental aid. The simple fact is that, as a mere reinforcing mechanism,
theteacherisoutofdate.Thiswouldbetrueevenifasingleteacherdevotedallhertimetoa
singlechild,butherinadequacyismultipliedmany-foldwhenshemustserveasareinforcing
devicetomanychildrenatonce.Iftheteacheristotakeadvantageofrecentadvancesinthe
studyoflearning,shemusthavethehelpofmechanicaldevices.(p.109)
The important features of the device are these: Reinforcement for the right answer is
immediate. The mere manipulation of the device will probably be reinforcing enough to
keeptheaveragepupilatworkforasuitableperiodeachday,providedtracesofearlier
aversivecontrolcanbewipedout.Ateachermaysuperviseanentireclassatworkonsuch
devicesatthesametime,yeteachchildmayprogressathisownrate,completingasmany
problems as possible within the class period. If forced to be away from school, he may
return to pick up where he left off. The gifted child will advance rapidly but can be
kept from getting too far ahead either by being excused from arithmetic for a time or
by being given special sets of problems which take him into some of the interesting
by-pathsofmathematics.(p.110)
Someobjectionstotheuseofsuchdevicesintheclassroomcaneasilybeforeseen.Thecry
willberaisedthatthechildisbeingtreatedasamereanimalandthatanessentiallyhuman
intellectual achievement is being analyzed in unduly mechanistic terms. Mathematical
behavior is usually regarded not as a repertoire of responses involving numbers and
numericaloperations,butasevidenceofmathematicalabilityortheexerciseofthepower
ofreason.Itistruethatthetechniqueswhichareemergingfromtheexperimentalstudyof
learningarenotdesignedto“developthemind”ortofurthersomevague“understanding”
of mathematical relationships. They are designed, on the contrary, to establish the very
behaviorswhicharetakentobetheevidencesofsuchmentalstatesorprocesses.Thisis
only a special case of the general change which is under way in the interpretation of
human affairs. An advancing science continues to offer more and more convincing
alternatives to traditional formulations. The behavior in terms of which human thinking
must eventually be deined is worth treating in its own right as the substantial goal
foreducation.(p.111)
From Part V: “Some Recent Work,” article entitled “Teaching Machines and Human
Beings,”JohnW.Blyth:
Thereisanotherlessobviousbutnolessimportantadvantagetobegainedinexploitingthe
teachingmachine.Themachinemakesitpossibletoprovidesomeoftheconditionsthat
wehavelongknowntobenecessaryforeffectivelearning.Asavageinstructinghissonin
A–10
theuseofthebowandarrowknewthatthesonneededplentyofpracticeandthathehad
toseewherethearrowwentoneachshotifhewastomakeanyimprovementonthenext.
TheimportanceofthisimmediatefeedbackwasformulatedyearsagobyThorndikeasthe
“lawofeffect.”Accordingtothislawoflearning,anactionwhichleadstoasatisfactory
resulttendstoberepeated.InthecontemporaryterminologyofB.F.Skinner,ofHarvard
University, immediate reinforcement or reward is important in the learning process. As
farastheapplicationofthisprincipleisconcerned,wedoamuchbetterjobofteaching
rats,pigeons,andfootballplayersthanwedointeachingmathematiciansandphysicists.
Teachingmachinesdesignedforindividualusemakeitpossibletoprovidethisimmediate
reinforcementforeverystudent….Laboratoryexperimentshavedemonstratedthattheuse
ofimmediatereinforcementtechniquesisaveryeficientwayoftraininganimalstomake
adiscriminativeresponsetoselectedstimuli.Ratsandpigeonscanbetrainedtoperforma
wholeseriesofsuchresponsesinsequence.Theiractionsthenformacomplicated“chain”
ofevents....Theonlyreasonaratshouldturntotherightratherthantheleftatacertain
pointisthatitisthatturnwhichleadstoreinforcement.(p.402)
AppendixIII
ExcerptsfromProgrammedLearning
ProgrammedLearning:EvolvingPrinciplesandIndustrialApplications,JeromeP.Lysaught,Ed.
(FoundationforResearchonHumanBehavior:AnnArbor,Michigan,1961).
Business organizations, as well as educational institutions, have an increasing demand
for training, improved skills and more effective teaching methods. In October 1960,
businessmen and social scientists met together to discuss programmed learning, some
of its current applications in business, and the outlook for the future. This is the
reportoftheirmeeting.
AboutThisReport
…Theincreaseddemandfortraining,improvedskillsandbettereducationinindustry
has stimulated some business organizations to explore the possibilities of programmed
learningwiththeaidofdeviceswhichincludeautomatedteachingmachines.Theearliest
teaching machines, developed several decades ago by S.J. Pressey who was the irst
psychologist to see “the coming industrial revolution in education” were designed for
self-scoring,notforprogrammedinstructioninthepresentsense.Theappropriatecurrent
emphasis, relected in the seminar, is on the concepts and principles of programmed
learning, and on the translation of learning theory into the programming of instruction
orteaching.Mechanicaldevicesusedshouldthusrelectthedesiredmethodsofteaching
andlearning,notdeterminethem….
InplanningtheseminarheldinOctober,1960,EastmanKodakandIBMrepresentatives
agreedtopresentanddevelopanduseprogrammedinstructionintheirtrainingprograms.
TheysharedtheFoundation’sconvictionthatamajoremphasisonprogrammingprinciples,
learningtheoryandresearch,ratherthanonteachingmachinesthemselves,wouldprovide
themostpracticalguidelinestoothercompaniesandtoeducationalinstitutionsinterestedin
exploringprogrammedlearningtoincreasetheeffectivenessoftheirtrainingandeducation.
Consequently,inadditiontothetwoindustryexperiences,alargeportionoftheseminar
wasdevotedtotheory,principles,andtheresultsofexperimentalstudiesinuniversities.
The three social scientists from academic institutions who led these discussions at the
A–11
A–12
seminar are pioneers and distinguished leaders in this ield. It became very clear that
programmedlearningisanareainwhichtheresearchandexperienceofpractitionersin
universitiesandinindustrycanbeofgreatmutualbeneit.Thespeakersanddiscussion
leadersattheseminarincludedthefollowing:
Dr.B.F.Skinner,ProfessorofPsychology,HarvardUniversity
Dr. Arthur A. Lumsdaine, Professor of Education, University of California, Los
Angeles, and Research Advisor for Education Media to the American Institute
forResearch
Dr. Robert Glaser, Professor of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, and Research
Advisor,AmericanInstituteforResearch
…TheseminarwaspartoftheFoundation’scontinuingprogramtobringtheresultsof
socialscienceresearchtothebusinessmenwhocanusethem.
Fromthe“Introduction,”byThomasH.Miller:
Inrecentmonthstheprofessionaljournalsandsomepopularpublicationshavehad
much to say about research on teaching machines and programmed learning. Because
most of this research has been limited to a few speciic experiments and because ield
applicationhasgenerallybeeninelementaryandsecondaryschools,verylittlehasbeen
saidofapplicationstoadultlearning.Itwasourfeeling,andthisiswhywearesopleased
tocooperatewiththeFoundationintheholdingofthisseminar,thatmoreofusshould
beexploringmorefullytherelevanceandimportanceofprogrammedinstructiontoadult
learningingeneral,andtobusinessandindustrialeducationinparticular.
First,IshouldemphasizethatwehereatKodakarequiteseriousaboutthismatterof
programmedlearning.Weattempttokeepabreastofsigniicantdevelopmentsinlearning
theory and education because we are responsible for seeing that each one of our men
and women receives the best possible training for his work in the company. We are
conident that programmed learning will have great implications for our future efforts,
and we look forward to providing better, more individualized instruction for our people
asaresultofthisdevelopment.
Secondly,Iwanttoexplainthatourfeelingsaboutprogrammedlearningresultfrom
two factors: the result of our own initial efforts at instructing by means of this system,
and the inherent characteristics of programmed learning which will give strength to any
industrialtrainingexperience.Withprogrammedlearningwecanadaptinstructiontothe
individualityofeachstudent.Eachstudentworksathisownpersonalspeedthroughout
the learning experience. Each student is constantly active, interacting with the program,
concentratingonthetaskoflearning.Eachstudentcantracehisownprogress,andreceive
timely,individualreinforcementforcorrectwork.
Tointroducethesubject,wewouldliketohaveeachofyouworkthroughtheirst
lesson of Dr. B.F. Skinner’s course in psychology. We would hope, incidentally, that a
portionofthematerialissomewhatnewtoyousothatsomelearningwillactuallytake
place in your encounter with the subject matter. Further, we hope it will demonstrate
certainphenomenathatwillbespokenofrepeatedlytoday,suchaseffectivereinforcement
ofthelearnerandprogressattheindividualrate.
Imagine yourself to be a freshman student at Harvard. You are taking, for the
irst time, a college course in psychology. This is your irst day in that course. Your
introduction to the course consists of the presentation of the programmed learning
sequenceonthenextpages.
A–13
AppendixIII
Thedirectionsaresimple.Youshouldreadtheirststimulusitem,S-1,considerit,and
thenconstructinyourownwordsthebestpossibleanswer.Assoonasyouhavedonethis,
turnthepageandcompareyouranswerwiththeanswerlistedatR-1,theirstresponse
item.Proceedthroughtheprogram,goingontoS-2onthenextpage,turningthepageto
R-2andcomparingyourresponse;proceedingtoS-3below,turnbackapagetocompare
your response to R-3, and so on. You will be reading back and forth, turning a page
eachtimetoindtheresponseitem.
FIRSTLESSONINPSYCHOLOGY
S-1. A doctor taps your knee (patellar tendon) with a rubber hammer to test your
“_____.”
R-4.Hammer(ormallet)
S-5. The stimulus which elicits a knee jerk is the _____ delivered by the so-called
“stimulusobject”orhammer.
R-8.Elicits
S-9.Toavoidunwantednuancesofmeaninginpopularwords,wedonotsaythatastimulus
“triggers,”“stimulates,”or“causes”aresponsebutthatit_____aresponse.
R-12.Latency
S-13.Theweakeststimulussuficienttoelicitaresponsemarksthe“threshold”oftherelex.
Ataponthekneewillnotelicitakickifitisbelowthe_____.
R-16.Latency
S-17.Aforcefultapelicitsastrongkick;atapbarelyabovethethresholdelicitsaweakkick.
Magnitudeofresponsethusdependsontheintensityofthe_____.
R-20.(1)Response(2)Stimulus(3)Relex
S-21. If a sip of very weak lemonade does not cause salivation, the stimulus is said
tobebelow_____.
Thefollowingresponsesareontheturnedpage:
R-1.Relexes
S-4.Thestimulatingobjectusedbythedoctortoelicitakneejerkisa(n)_____.
R-5.Tap(orblow)
S-8. Technically speaking, a reflex involves a process called elicitation: A stimulus
_____aresponse.
R-9.Elicits
S-12. The time which elapses between the onset of the stimulus and the onset of the
response is called the “latency.” Thus the time between tap and kick is the _____
ofthekneejerkrelex.
R-13.Threshold
S-16. The fraction of a second which elapses between “brushing the eye” and “blink”
isthe_____oftherelex.
R-17.Stimulus(tap)
S-20. When a person is startled by a loud noise, his sudden movement is his (1)_____
to the noise, which has acted as a (2)_____. The two together are called a(n)
(3)_____.
R-21.Threshold
From“PrinciplesofProgramming”byRobertGlaser:
A–14
(ThisarticlewaspreparedunderU.S.OficeofEducationResearchContractSAE–8417#691.
Thisisapreliminaryversionofaforthcomingbookchapter.)
Yesterday,October16,wastheoficialpublicationdateofthebookTeachingMachines
andProgrammedLearningwhichDr.LumsdaineandIhaveedited,andwhichyouhave
receivedforthisseminar.Itisindeedtruethatthisbookwouldneverhavebeenconceived
withoutthewell-knownandperhapsundyingworkofProfessorSkinner,andIwouldlike
totakethisopportunity—whatIconsidertobearathermomentousoccasionforbothArt
Lumsdaineandmyself—topresentFredwithacopyofthebookatthistime.Itislargely
throughProfessorSkinner’sworkthatallthistheoryandexcitementaboutteachingmachines
andprogrammedlearninghascomeabout.(PresentationtoProfessorSkinner).
Mostrecently,andactuallyinthecourseofpreparingthisvolume,Ihavecompletedor
compiledwhatappearstometobethemajorideasbeingexpressedintheieldofteaching
machinesandprogrammedlearning.Thebasicnotionshavebeendevelopedfromresearch
indings in the experimental study of learning and have been expressed by a number of
men in the ield, and to a large extent by the speakers at this platform. However, since
the use of teaching machines is in its Kitty Hawk stage, and since the application of
the science of learning to the development of a technology of training and education is
alsoinitschildhood,Ishouldliketosetthesenotionsdownforyourconsiderationand
discusseachpointratherbriely....
EvokingSpeciicBehavior
Theessentialtaskinvolvedistoevokethespeciicformsofbehaviorfromthestudentand
throughappropriatereinforcementbringthemunderthecontrolofspeciicsubjectmatter
stimuli.Asastudentgoesthroughalearningprogram,certainofhisresponsesmustbe
strengthened and shaped from initial unskilled behavior to subject matter competence.
Programmingrulesareconcernedwithhowonegoesaboutdoingthis.
Ourpresentknowledgeofthelearningprocesspointsoutthatthroughtheprocessof
reinforcement,newformsofbehaviorcanbecreatedwithagreatdegreeofsubtlety.The
centralfeatureofthisprocessismakingthereinforcementcontingentuponperformancesof
thelearner.(Oftentheword“reward”isusedtorefertooneclassofreinforcingevents.)By
differentiallyapplyingreinforcementtorelativelyminutebehavioralchanges,itispossible
toprogressfromtheinitialbehaviorofthelearnerinsmallstepsthroughthedevelopmentof
morecomplexbehaviors.Thisprogressioncantakeplacebysmallenoughstepssothatthe
student’sprogressandmotivationisnotjeopardizedbyfrequentfailures.
Sinceagreatdealofteachingandlearningisneededforacquiringcomplexbehavioral
repertoires,suchasanewlanguageorcalculusoperation,thenumberofreinforcements
and the subtleties of reinforcements required to establish such complicated behavior
over-taxestheskillofthemosteficientinstructor,especiallywithinthelimitsofhistime
andusualclassroomorganization.
…The term “programming” refers to the process of constructing sequences of
instructionalmaterialinawaythatmaximizestherateofacquisitionandretention,and
enhancesthemotivationofthestudent....
DeiningtheDesiredBehavior
…Theirststepinprogrammingistodeinetheield.Thismeansthattheprogrammermust
outlinepreciselythebehaviorhewantsthestudenttoperformattheendoftheprogram
andmustspecifythekindsofstimulusmaterialthatastudentwillhaveavailableinthe
courseofthisperformance.Aprimarypurposeofinstructionistoprovidethestudentwith
abehavioralrepertoirecalledknowledgeofthesubjectmatter....
AppendixIII
A–15
ReinforcementaCentralProcess
Acentralprocessfortheacquisitionofbehaviorisreinforcement.Behaviorisacquiredasa
resultofacontingentrelationshipbetweentheresponseofanorganismandaconsequent
event.Inorderforthesecontingenciesofreinforcementtobeeffective,certainconditions
mustbemet.Reinforcementmustfollowtheoccurrenceofthebehaviorbeingtaught.If
thisisnotthecase,differentandperhapsunwantedbehaviorwillbelearned.Inaddition,
a suficient number of reinforcements must be given so that the desired behavior is
strengthenedanditsprobabilityofoccurrenceforaparticularstudentishighinappropriate
situations. As has been said, in progressing from the initial repertoire to the terminal
repertoire, the student is reinforced for minute changes in behavior which bring him
closerandclosertoskilledperformance.Andtheseminutechangesarebroughtaboutby
successivestepsintheprogram.Inmostinstructionalprograms,thereinforcingagentfor
thestudentsis“knowledgeofresults,”thatis,knowledgeaboutwhetherornottheresponse
heperformsistheresultconsideredcorrect.Failuretoprovideadequatereinforcementand
hencefailuretostrengthenthebehaviorofthestudentwithrespecttothesubjectmatter
oftenresultsinthestudentshowingalackofinterest.Thismeansthathisinterestisshifted
tootheractivitiesforwhichsuficientreinforcementisprovided....
ThePrincipleofGradualProgression
Mythirdpointisgradualprogressiontoestablishcomplexrepertoires.Ingettingthestudent
fromhisinitialrepertoiretotheterminalrepertoire,ithasbeenindicatedthatanimportant
principleisthatofgradualprogression.Wedonotwaitforthestudenttoemitcomplex
behaviorinthecourseoftrialanderrorandthenreinforcecorrectperformance.Infact,he
mayneveremittheskillfulbehaviorwerequire.Whendevelopingcomplexperformancewe
irstreinforceanyavailablebehaviorwhichistheslightestapproximationtotheterminal
behavior.Laterweusethisbehaviorinthenextsteptoreinforceasmallchangewhichisin
thedirectionoftheterminalrepertoire.Theprogrammovesingradedstepsworkingfrom
simpletohigherandhigherlevelsofcomplexity.
The principle of gradual progression serves to make the student correct as often
as possible and is also the fastest way to develop a complex repertoire. It is dificult
to see how complex behavior can appear except through the speciic reinforcement of
members of a graded series. It seems that this is an important principle in the rapid
creationofnewpatternsofbehavior.
Ateachstep,theprogrammermustaskwhatbehaviormustastudenthavebeforehe
cantakethisstep.Hemustaskwhatprinciplesorinterverbalrelationshipswillfacilitate
this sequence of steps that form a progression from initially assumed knowledge to the
speciied inal repertoire. No step should be encountered before the student can take it
withahighprobabilityofsuccess....
ElicitingAvailableResponsesandControllingError
The next point that I want to make is called “emitted behavior and prompting”. This
concernsmakingthedesiredbehaviormoreprobable.Astudentisassumed,asIhavesaid,
topossesssomeinitialrelatedbehaviorinthesubjectmatterbeforehestartsthecourse.
The behavior available must be speciied, and the programmer can, at the beginning,
appealonlytothoseavailableresponses.Howthendowegetthestudentstoemitthese
available responses? Before behavior is reinforced, it must be emitted and instructional
materialmustbedesignedtoelicitthecorrectandappropriatebehaviorwhichcanthen
beappropriatelyreinforced.Amajorportionofwhatwecalltherulesofprogrammingis
concernedwithevokingbehavior,thatis,concernedwithtechniquesforgettingthestudents
toemitneworlowstrengthresponseswithaminimumoferrors.
A–16
Theoccurrenceofbehaviorinaprogramismademoreprobableifthematerialsare
designedsothateachframemakesthecorrectanswersinthenextframemorelikely.The
probabilityofsuccessisincreasedbytheuseofformalhintingandcoachingtechniques
baseduponwhatweknowaboutverbalbehavior....
PuttingtheStudentonHisOwn
The next point is called “fading or vanishing.” Thus far it has been indicated that
programmingtechniquesutilizetheprincipleofreinforcement,theprincipleofprompting.
Thenextonewecometoistheprincipleoffadingorvanishing.Thisprincipleinvolves
thegradualremovalofpromptsorcues,sothatbythetimethestudenthascompletedthe
lesson,heisrespondingonlytothestimulusmaterialwhichhewillactuallyhaveavailable
whenheperformsthe“realtask.”Heisonhisown,sotospeak,andlearningcrutches
havebeeneliminated.Fadingcanthenbedeinedasthegradualwithdrawalofstimulus
support.Thesystematicprogressionofprogrammedlearningiswellsetuptoaccomplish
this. It is always to be kept in mind that these principles are quite in contrast to “rote
learning”ordrill.Inrotelearning,manywrongresponsesarepermittedtooccur,andthe
studenteventuallylearnstodevelophisownpromptsoftentoarelativelyunrelatedseries
ofstimuli.Programmedlearning,ontheotherhand,isdesignedtotakeadvantageofthe
inherentorganizationofthesubjectmatterorofthebehaviorofthesubjectinrelationtothe
subjectmatterinshapingupthestudent’slearning.[allemphasesinoriginal]
[Ed.Note:Thecomputerin1999isasophisticatedversionoftheteachingmachinereferred
toin1960.]
AppendixIV
ExcerptsfromAPlanforEvaluatingtheQualityofEducational
ProgramsinPennsylvania
APlanforEvaluatingtheQualityofEducationalProgramsinPennsylvania:Highlightsofa
ReportfromEducationalTestingServices(Princeton,NJ)totheStateBoardofEducationof
theCommonwealthofPennsylvania,June30,1965.
BACKGROUND
The planning project reported in this document had its inception in a mandate from
the General Assembly of Pennsylvania. The mandate is to be found in Section 290.1
of the Act of August 8, 1963, P.L. 564 (Act 299, The School District Reorganization Act
of1963).Itreadsasfollows:
Educational Performance Standards—To implement the purpose of this
subdivision,theStateBoardofEducation,assoonaspossibleandinanyevent
nolaterthanJuly1,1965,shalldeveloporcausetobedevelopedanevaluation
proceduredesignedtomeasureobjectivelytheadequacyandeficiencyofthe
educational programs offered by the public schools of the Commonwealth.
The evaluation procedure to be developed shall include tests measuring the
achievementsandperformanceofstudentspursuingallofthevarioussubjects
and courses comprising the curricula. The evaluation procedure shall be so
constructed and developed as to provide each school district with relevant
comparativedatatoenabledirectorsandadministratorstomorereadilyappraise
theeducationalperformanceandeffectuatewithoutdelaythestrengtheningof
thedistrict’seducationalprogram.Testsdevelopedundertheauthorityofthis
sectiontobeadministeredtopupilsshallbeusedforthepurposeofprovidinga
uniformevaluationofeachschooldistrictandtheotherpurposessetforthinthis
subdivision.TheStateBoardofEducationshalldeviseperformancestandards
uponcompletionoftheevaluationprocedurerequiredbythissection.
ThiscommitteeonQualityEducationsoughttheadviceofexpertsinthebehavioral
sciences.TheseexpertsconstitutedaStandingAdvisoryCommitteefortheproject.…It[the
Committee]concludedthataneducationalprogramistoberegardedasadequateonlyifit
A–17
A–18
canbeshowntocontributetothetotaldevelopmentofpupils....TheCommitteerecognizes
that many of the desirable qualities that schools should help pupils acquire are dificult
to deine and even more dificult to measure. It feels, nevertheless, that any evaluation
procedurethatleavesthesequalitiesoutofaccountisdeicientasabasisfordetermining
whethertheprogramofanyschooldistrictiseducationallyadequate.Havinginmindthis
view of education and its evaluation, the Committee requested the Educational Testing
Service [Note: federally-funded, ed.] of Princeton, N.J. to assist in the development of
a plan for the implementation of Act 299…. What follows gives the highlights of the
three-volume report entitled A Plan for Evaluating the Quality of Educational Programs
inPennsylvania.
PROPOSEDGOALSOFEDUCATION
Theirststepinjudgingthequalityofeducationalprogramsistodecideonthepurposesof
education.Whatshouldchildrenbeanddoandknowasaconsequenceofhavinggoneto
school?Whatarethegoalsoftheschools?Thesequestionshavebeenhighontheagendaof
theCommitteeonQualityEducation.Itsmemberswantedasetofgoalsthatwouldrelect
the problems society faces in the world today…. Available measures of the factors are
unevenintheirdevelopment.Someofthemeasuresareconsiderablymorevalid,precise,
and interpretable than others. Measures of conventional academic achievement, for
instance, are at a more advanced stage of development than measures of attitude and
values. This unevenness poses a dificult, but not an insoluble, problem in designing
anevaluationprogramofthekindweareproposing,Inanutshell,thecurrentsituation
isasfollows:
1.Allofthetengoalsofeducationstatedabovearetoberegardedofprimeimportance
in education of high quality. Any educational program that neglects any of the
goals is to be regarded as less than adequate. [The Ten Quality Goals are listed
below under California’s Plan which lists Pennsylvania’s Ten Quality Goals as
thosetobeusedbyCalifornia,ed.]
2.Measuresofprogresstowardthetengoalsareunequallydeveloped.Somearemore
dependable and valid than others. For example, tests of reading comprehension
are relatively well developed and reasonably well understood, while tests of
such qualities as self-understanding and tolerance are less well developed and
poorlyunderstood.
3.Nevertheless,theevaluationofpupilperformanceinallareasiscriticallyimportant
asameansofkeepingeducationalprogramsinbalance.
4.Work should therefore begin on evaluating progress toward all ten goals to the
extentthatthisispossible.
5.Where the available measures are clearly inadequate, intensive research and
developmentshouldbeundertakenimmediatelytobringthemtothepointwhere
theycanhavefulleffectintheevaluationprogram.
6.Where the available measures are adequate, studies should be undertaken
immediately to use these measures in the development of appropriate criteria
forassessingschoolprograms.
ILLUSTRATIVESTUDIES
During the past year, we conducted two studies involving ive school systems for the
following purposes: (1) to identify speciically the practical problems that would be
encountered in studies to develop performance criteria for school programs, (2) to see
whatusablemeasuresmightbeobtainedformeasuringthekindsofoutputcalledforby
AppendixIV A–19
thetenproposedgoalsofeducation,(3)toseewhatusablemeasuresmightbeavailablefor
measuringinputandthevariablesthatconditionoutput,(4)toseehowtheseveralmeasures
mightberelatedandcombinedtoproducethenecessaryperformancecriteria.
The outcomes of these studies suggest (1) that good cooperation can be expected
fromtheschoolsystemsinconductingsuchstudiesinthefuture,(2)thatreliablemeasures
of some aspect of each of the ten kinds of output implied by the ten goals is possible,
(3) that the validity of many of the available measures, however, is open to question,
(4) that there are many measures still to be developed if all the most important aspects
of educational output are to be effectively appraised, (5) that it is feasible to express
performancecriteriainaformwhichtakesintoaccountconditionsunderwhichschools
work and which at the same time constitute a challenge to the majority of schools to
improvetheirprograms.
THEDEVELOPMENTANDAPPLICATIONOFPERFORMANCECRITERIA
Outoftheworkofthetwoillustrativestudiesadesignforastudytodevelopperformance
criteriahasemerged.Ithasivecharacteristicsasfollows:
1.Itwouldprovidemultipleperformanceobjectivesforschoolsofanygiventype.
2.Itassumesthatpupilsatsevendifferentgradelevelswillbetestedtwice,twoyears
apart,irst,toestablishlevelsofinputandsecond,toestablishlevelsofoutput.
[Thiswas,formanyyears,theNAEPschedule,ed.]
3.It envisages a testing program which consists of a core program made up of
tests which have already been proved to be dependable and an experimental
program made up of tests to be developed to a state of dependability in the
courseofthestudy.
4.ItwouldbecarriedoutonatenpercentsampleoftheschoolsoftheCommonwealth
andwouldprobablyinvolveabout7,000classroomsand200,000pupils.[Thisis
theNAEPsamplingmethodusedformanyyears,ed.]
SUPPORTINGRESEARCH
At all stages of this planning study it has become increasingly apparent to us that any
programtoevaluatethequalityofeducationinPennsylvaniawhichwasunaccompaniedby
astrongprogramofresearchwouldbesterile.Twokindsofresearchareessential:
• Researchspeciallydesignedtoinvent,develop,andvalidatethemeasuresneeded
bytheevaluationprogram—especiallymeasuresofthekindsofeducationaloutput
assumedbysuchgoalsasself-understanding,tolerance,citizenship,attitudetoward
schoolandlearning,andcreativity.
• Researchtoidentifythoseeducationalprocessesandthosemodiiableconditions
oflearningthatholdthegreatestpossibilitiesforimprovingtheeducationaloutput
inschoolsofvaryingtypes.
…The four studies were concerned (a) with measures of the ways children think
andsolveproblems,(b)withthetest-takingmotivationofstudentsinculturallydeprived
areas, (c) with the measurement of creativity, and (d) with the attitudes of primary
schoolpupilstowardschool.
Whathavethestudiesshown?
• Theyhaveshownthatordinaryachievementtestsleaveuntouchedmanyimportant
intellectualqualitiesofstudents,butthatwithaconcentratedprogramofresearch
itshouldbepossibletodevelopmeasuresofthesequalities.
A–20
• They have shown that youngsters from disadvantaged backgrounds do not
usually try as hard on tests as their more favored classmates, but that they can
bemotivatedtodoso.
• They have shown that it is possible to get a rough measure of the degree to
which students bring a creative approach to the arts, the sciences, and the
problemsofhumanrelations.
• Theyhaveshownhowtheattitudesofprimaryschoolchildrentowardtheirteachers,
theirschool,theirclassmatesmaybedevelopingandhavesuggestedhowimportant
theseattitudescanbeinconditioningthechildren’sfurthereducation.
Finally, these studies have shown that much more research needs to be done on
howtoassesstheoutputoftheschoolsandhowtodevelopproceduresforstrengthening
theirprograms.Weareconvincedbyourworkthisyearthatsuchresearchwillbefruitful
andshouldbeenergeticallypursued.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1.Generalpolicies:
1.2. The evaluation program should avoid any suggestion of a policing operation
to see where schools are meeting minimum regulations. It should encourage,
not inhibit, experimentation with (a) new curricula, (b) new administrative
arrangements,(c)newapproachestoinstruction….
1.3. The State Board of Education should rely upon the Superintendent of Public
Instruction for developing and executing the evaluation program, it being
understood, however, that where appropriate he may delegate parts of the
work to universities or to other competent agencies outside the Department
ofPublicInstruction….
2.Procedures. The following procedures are recommended as constituting the
essentialsofaneducationalevaluationprogramfortheCommonwealth….
2.2. A General Panel of Review consisting of educators, behavioral scientists, and
representativesofthegeneralpublicshouldbeappointedtoreviewthesystemof
testsandmeasurestobeusedtoascertainhowwellpupilsareprogressingtoward
theeducationalgoalsandtoadviseonresearchanddevelopmentleadingtonew
andimprovedmeansofassessingprogresstowardthegoals.
2.3. For each of several areas of educational output, there should be a Sub-Panel
of Examiners drawn from the General Panel of Review, with additional numbers
drawnfromamongappropriatespecialistsineducationandthebehavioralsciences,
to consider in detail the tests and measures related to the area of their concern
andtoadvisetheGeneralPanelofReviewregardingthequalityofthetestsand
measuresandthemeansfortheirimprovement.
2.4. Abroadprogramofresearchshouldbeinitiatedforthwithforthepurposeof(a)
improvingtheeducationaloutput,especiallythosethathavetodowiththepersonal
andsocialqualitiesofpupilsandforwhichinmanycasesnosatisfactorymeasures
now exist, and (b) discovering those processes of education and conditions of
learning that will maximize the quality of educational output under a variety
of circumstances. This program of research should take full advantage of the
outcomes of similar research being done elsewhere by adapting these outcomes
totheneedsofPennsylvania.
2.5. In those cases where a school system, after applying the appropriate criteria,
is dissatisied with the level of performance of its pupils, such school systems
shouldhavetheadviceandassistanceoftheDepartmentofPublicInstructionin
determining what changes in educational processes and/or in the conditions of
AppendixIV A–21
learningwouldbemostlikelytobringaboutimprovement.
ProofthatPennsylvania’sgoalswerethemodelforthenationisfoundintheCalifornia
StatePlan,TitleIIIoftheElementaryandSecondaryEducationAct,P.L.89–10,asAmended
byP.L.90–247,1970,whichstatesonpage2,(6/9/69revised):
These Ten Goals were generated in the Study of Quality Education initiated by the
Pennsylvania State Board of Education in response to a mandate from the Pennsylvania
GeneralAssembly.TheTenGoalsprovidedaclassiicationsystemsimpleenough(interms
of the number of categories) to work with and yet comprehensive enough in scope to
include almost any educational objective, whether cognitive, affective [attitudes, values,
ed.]orpsychomotor.TheseTenGoalsarelistedbelow:
1.Quality education should help every child acquire the greatest possible
understanding of himself and appreciation of his worthiness as a member of
society(Self-Understanding).
2.Qualityeducationshouldhelpeverychildacquireunderstandingandappreciation
of persons belonging to social, cultural, and ethnic groups different from his
own(ToleranceofOthers).
3.Qualityeducationshouldhelpeverychildacquiretothefullestextentpossiblefor
himmasteryofthebasicskillsintheuseofwordsandnumbers(BasicSkills).
4.Qualityeducationshouldhelpeverychildacquireapositiveattitudetowardschool
andtowardthelearningprocess(AttitudeTowardSchool).
5.Qualityeducationshouldhelpeverychildacquirethehabitsandattitudesassociated
withresponsiblecitizenship(Citizenship).
6.Quality education should help every child acquire good health habits and an
understanding of the conditions necessary for the maintenance of physical and
emotionalwellbeing(Health).
7.Quality education should give every child opportunities in one or more ields
ofendeavor(Creativity).
8.Quality education should help every child understand the opportunities open to
himforpreparinghimselfforaproductivelifeandshouldenablehimtotakefull
advantageoftheseopportunities(VocationalPreparation).
9.Qualityeducationshouldhelpeverychildtounderstandandappreciateasmuch
ashecanofhumanachievementinthenaturalsciences,thesocialsciences,the
humanities,andthearts(IntellectualAchievement).
10.Qualityeducationshouldhelpeverychildprepareforaworldofrapidchanges
and unforeseeable demands in which continuing education throughout his adult
lifeshouldbeanormalexpectation(Life-LongLearning).
[Ed. Note: Anita Hoge’s successful complaint against the Pennsylvania Department of
Education’s Educational Quality Assessment (EQA), iled under the federal Protection of
Pupil Rights Amendment, exposed the extent of federal involvement in curricula, testing
andevaluationprimarilydesignedtochangechildren’sattitudes,values,andbeliefs.These
aretheareastowhichparentsmostvociferouslyobject.Inthemid-1970sthePennsylvania
chapter of the liberal American Civil Liberties Union sided with parents regarding their
objections;i.e.,invasionofprivacy,etc.
Allstateandlocalschooldistrictgoals,standards,competencies,outcomes,results,etc.,
developedfromthistimeonacrossthenationwerebasedprimarilyonthesePennsylvania
A–22
goals.Itisinterestingtonotethattheplansfornationalassessmentwereinprogressseveral
years prior to passage of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. This Act
signiiedtheendoflocalcontrolduetoitscallfortheinstallationofanaccountabilitysystem
ineachofthestatedepartmentsofeducationapplyingforfederalassistance.
ItshouldbenotedthatincludedontheStandingAdvisoryCommitteeanditspoolof
“experts”inthebehavioralscienceswere:DavidR.Krathwohl(co-authorwithBenjaminBloom
ofTheTaxonomyofEducationalObjectives:AffectiveDomain)oftheCollegeofEducation
atMichiganStateUniversity;UrieBonfenbrenneroftheDepartmentofSociologyatCornell
University;andRalphW.TyleroftheCenterforAdvancedStudyintheBehavioralSciences
atPaloAlto,California.]
AppendixV
CommentsonandExcerptsfromBehavioralScience
TeacherEducationProgram(BSTEP)
Behavioral Science Teacher Education Program (BSTEP), 1965–1969, funded by the U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, was initiated at Michigan State University.
Itspurposewastochangetheteacherfromatransmitterofknowledge/contenttoasocial
change agent/facilitator/clinician. Traditional public school administrators were appalled
at this new role for teachers. Long-time education researcher Bettye Lewis provided a
capsule description and critique of BSTEP in 1984. Her comments and verbatim quotes
fromBSTEPfollow:
ObjectivesofBSTEParestatedasfollows:
Threemajorgoals:
1.Developmentofanewkindofelementaryschoolteacherwhoisbasicallywell
educated,engagesinteachingasclinicalpractice,isaneffectivestudentofthe
capacitiesandenvironmentalcharacteristicsofhumanlearning,andfunctions
asaresponsibleagentofsocialchange.
2.Systematicuseofresearchandclinicalexperienceindecision-makingprocesses
atalllevels.
3.Anewlaboratoryandclinicalbase,fromthebehavioralsciences,onwhichto
found undergraduate and in-service teacher education programs, and recycle
evaluationsofteachingtoolsandperformance.
…The BSTEP teacher is expected to learn from experience through a
cyclical style of describing, analyzing, hypothesizing, prescribing, treating,
andobservingconsequences(inparticular—theconsequencesofthetreatment
administered)….
TheprogramisdesignedtofocustheskillsandknowledgeofBehavioral
A–23
A–24
Scientistsoneducationproblems,translatingresearchintoviableprogramsfor
preserviceandin-serviceteachers.Thetraditionalconceptofresearchastheory
isnotdiscarded,buttheemphasisisshiftedtoaformofpracticalaction-research
inclassroomsandlaboratory.
The humanities are designed to promote an understanding of human
behavior in humanistic terms…. Students are to be exposed to non-western
thought and values in order to sensitize them to their own backgrounds and
inherentculturalbiases....Skillsinitiatinganddirectingrole-playingaredeveloped
toincreasesensitivityandperception.Simulationgamesareincludedfortraining
incommunicationskillsasleadersoragentsofsocialchange.(p.1)
Lewis’s comments regarding “Systematic Analysis of Future Society,” taken from p.
237ofBSTEP:
B.F. Skinner’s behavioral philosophy is quite apparent in this BSTEP Design
whichstates
Calculationsofthefutureandhowtomodifyitarenolongerconsidered
obscure academic pursuits. Instead, they are the business of many who
are concerned about and responsible for devising various modes of social
change.
One can’t help but wonder—who gave the educators the “responsibility” or the
“right”todevisemodesofsocialchange,touseteachersasthe“changeagents,”andtouse
thechildrenastheguineapigsthroughwhichsocietyistobechanged?Onerealizesthe
extenttowhichthis“futuresocietyplanning”hasalreadygoneafterreadingthroughthe
followinglengthylistoforganizationsinvolvedinthisbehavioraldesigning:
1. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare—Exploring Possibilities of a Social
State-of-the-Union
2.AmericanAcademyofArtsandSciences—CommissionoftheYear2000
3.AmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience
4.UnitedNationsFuture-PlanningOperationinGeneva,Switzerland
5.WorldFutureSocietyofWashington,D.C.
6.GeneralElectricCompany—TechnicalManagementPlanningOrganization
7.TheAirForceandRandCorporation[designerofPPBS,ed.]
8. The Hudson Institute [See 1992 entry regarding approval by business/corporation-
funded New American School Development Corporation of the Hudson Institute’s
“Modern Red School House” proposal. The Design Team was headed by former
SecretaryofEducationWilliamJ.BennettandincludesChesterFinn,formerAssistant
SecretarytoEducationSecretary,andformerGovernorLamarAlexanderandauthor
ofAmerica2000(PresidentClinton’sGoals2000),ed.]
9. Ford Foundation’s Resources for the Future and Les Futuribles—a combination
offutureandpossible
10. University of Illinois, Southern Illinois University, Stanford University, Syracuse
University,etc.
11.IBM(InternationalBusinessMachines)
This section of the report concludes with: “We are getting closer to developing
effective methods for shaping the future and are advancing in fundamental social and
AppendixV A–25
individualevolution.”
From the section entitled “Futurism as a Social Tool and Decision-Making by an Elite”
(p.248)Lewisquotes:
Thecomplexityofthesocietyandrapidityofchangewillrequirethatcomprehensive
long-rangeplanningbecometherule,inorderthatcarefullydevelopedplanswillbeready
before changes occur.... Long-range planning and implementation of plans will be made
byatechnological-scientiicelite.Politicaldemocracy,intheAmericanideologicalsense,
will be limited to broad social policy; even there, issues, alternatives, and means will
be so complex that the elite will be inluential to a degree which will arouse the fear
andanimosityofothers.Thiswillstrainthedemocraticfabrictoarippingpoint….[The
reader should refer to the 1972 entry entitled “People Control Blueprint” from the May
issueofTheNationalEducator,ed.]
“AControllingElite”
…TheProtestantEthicwillatrophyasmoreandmoreenjoyvariedleisureandguaranteed
sustenance.Workasthemeansandendoflivingwilldiminish....Nomajorsourceofa
senseofworthanddignitywillreplacetheProtestantEthic.Mostpeoplewilltendtobe
hedonistic,andadominantelitewillprovide“breadandcircuses”tokeepsocialdissension
and disruption at a minimum. A small elite will carry society’s burdens. The resulting
impersonal manipulation of most people’s lifestyles will be softened by provisions for
pleasure-seekingandguaranteedphysicalnecessities.(p.255)
“SystemsApproachandCybernetics”
…The use of the systems approach to problem solving and of cybernetics to manage
automationwillremoldthenation.Theywillincreaseeficiencyanddepersonalization....
Most of the population will seek meaning through other means or devote themselves to
pleasure seeking. The controlling elite will engage in power plays largely without the
involvement of most of the people.... The society will be a leisurely one. People will
study, play, and travel; some will be in various stages of the drug-induced experiences.
(p.259)
“CommunicationsCapabilitiesandPotentialitiesforOpinionControl”
…Each individual will receive at birth a multipurpose identiication which will have,
among other things, extensive communications uses. None will be out of touch with
those authorized to reach him. Each will be able to receive instant updating of ideas
and information on topics previously identiied. Routine jobs to be done in any setting
can be initiated automatically by those responsible for the task; all will be in constant
communicationwiththeiremployers,orothercontrollers,andthusexposedtodirectand
subliminalinluence.Massmediatransmissionwillbeinstantaneoustowhereverpeople
areinformssuitedtotheirparticularneedsandroles.Eachindividualwillbesaturated
withideasandinformation.Somewillbeself-selected;otherkindswillbeimposedovertly
by those who assume responsibility for others’ actions (for example: employers); still
otherkindswillbeimposedcovertlybyvariousagencies,organizations,andenterprises.
Relativelyfewindividualswillbeabletomaintaincontrolovertheiropinions.Mostwillbe
pawnsofcompetingopinionmolders.(p.261)
Lewiscommentsfurther:
A–26
Inordertoimplementthistrainingandtomakesurethatfutureelementaryteachers
acceptthe“rightattitudes”and“behavioralobjectives,”theuseofcomputersandthecol-
lectionofinformationarestressed.The“CentralProcessor”orthecomputerprogrammed
toacceptorrejectonthebasisofbehavioralobjectives,willbethe“judgeandthejury”as
towhowillandwhowillnotbethefutureteachers.Foranyonewholovesindividualfree-
dom,whodesiresitfortheirownchildren,andpraysforafutureAmericawithindividual
freedomheldsacred—BSTEPhastobeamostfrighteninganddevastatingplan.Itisindeed
the“world”ofOrwell’s1984,theIdentitySociety,andtheWaldenIIofB.F.Skinner.Inrefer-
encetothelatter,itisindeedBeyondFreedomandDignity,thetitleofaB.F.Skinnerbook.
Itisa“nightmare”createdbytheBehavioristsandHumanistswhoarefastbecomingthe
MajorDirectorsofPublicEducation.
AppendixVI
ExcerptsfromEducationforResults
Education for Results: In Response to A Nation At Risk, Vol.1: Guaranteeing Effective
Performance by Our Schools by Robert E. Corrigan, Ph.D., and Betty O. Corrigan (SAFE
LearningSystems,Inc.:Anaheim,CA,1983).Thisparticularpaperwaspublishedin1983for
theReaganAdministration’suse,andactuallyservedasaspringboardforimplementingOBE.
Most of the experimentation history (pilot OBE/ML/DI) programs, including one in Korea
discussedinthispaper,wereimplementedinthe1960sand1970s.
The Education for Results Project, which basically called for using Corrigan’s Model
(mastery learning/outcome-based education/management information systems) had the
supportofthefollowingtwentykeyeducationchangeagents:
DR.LEONLESSINGER,Superintendent,BeverlyHillsSchoolDistrict,BeverlyHills,CA;DR.
JACKWARD,AssociateSuperintendent,MendocinoCounty,CA;DR.ROBERTKANE,Consultant,
TeacherPreparation&LicensingCommittee,StateofCalifornia;DR.NOLANESTES,Professor
ofEducation,UniversityofTexas;DR.JAMESMCPHAIL,Chairman,DepartmentofEducational
Administration & Supervision, University of Southern Mississippi; DR. HOSEA GRISHAM,
Superintendent,NorthPanolaCountySchool,Mississippi,President,MississippiAssociation
of School Administrators; DR. HINES CRONIN, Superintendent, Moss Point School District,
MossPoint,MS;DR.MELBUCKLEY,Superintendent,NewtonPublicSchool,Newton,MS;DR.
ROBERTMORGAN,Director,LearningSystemsInstitute,FloridaStateUniversity,Tallahassee,
FL; DR. ROGER A. KAUFMAN, Professor of Education, Florida State University, Tallahassee,
FL; DR. HOMER COKER, Teacher Corps Program, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA; DR.
ANNETTE KEARNEY, Assistant Director, National Council for Negro Women, New York City;
DR. JOHN PICTON, Beaverton, OR; DR. LOUIS ZEYEN, Deputy Executive Director, American
AssociationofSchoolAdministrators;DR.WILLIAMSPADY,Director,CenterfortheImprovement
ofLearning,Arlington,VA;DR.GENEGEISERT,ProfessorofEducation,St.John’sUniversity,
Jamaica,NY;DR.ALHOYE,MinneapolisUniiedSchoolDistrict,MN;DR.WILFREDLANDRUS,
ChapmanCollege,ProfessorofEducation,Orange,CA;DR.ROBERTCORRIGAN,Corriganand
Associates,Anaheim,CA;andMRS.BETTYCORRIGAN,CorriganandAssociates,Anaheim,CA.
Lessinger,Estes,Kaufman,Coker,SpadyandtheCorrigansareamongthekeyproponents
A–27
A–28
of OBE/ML and have been involved for many years. The following are excerpts from
EducationforResults:
PROLOGUE:CommittingtotheFeasibleDeliveryofEffectiveEducationalResults,byNolan
Estes,priorU.S.CommissionerofEducation,UniversityofTexas,Austin….OnApril26,
1983,theNationalCommissionforExcellenceinEducationpresentedtoPresidentRonald
ReaganANationatRisk,areportonthestatusofqualityeducationintheUnitedStates.
This commission was formed by Secretary of Education Dr. Terrel Bell, in August 1981,
to evaluate the current status of our national educational system in terms of its overall
performanceeffectiveness;and,whereappropriate,toproposechangesinpolicy,practices,
andprogramstoincreasetheeffectivenessofourschools….
Thebeginningofthisreporteddeclineintheperformanceeffectivenessbeganinthe
1960’s. As a Commissioner of Education (1965–1969), along with other Commissioners,
we made substantial investments in grants and programs to develop more effective
professionalpracticestoreplacethosetheninoperation.Weconcentratedourinvestments
intwomajorprograms,namely:
A.Toincreaselearningeffectiveness(masteryscores)foralllearners;and
B. To increase the management effectiveness of the delivery system to increase the
measuredsuccessforlearners.
Several major multi-million dollar programs were initiated in the 1960’s consistent
withtheachievementofthegoalsstatedabove.Themajorfocusondevelopmentofmore
effective management-for-results practices and application was Operation PEP, State of
California. This was a multi-year program involving several hundred senior educational
administratorsacrossthestate.Dr.RobertE.Corrigan,asdirectorofthetrainingprograms,
offered to these administrators skills in management-for-results practices encompassed
inhis“SystematicApproachforEffectiveness”(SAFE).Theacceptanceofthesepractices
by these senior educational practitioners is evidenced by the fact that they were applied
by Title III management centers across the state of California after the federal funds
wereremoved.
AsecondkeythrustbytheDepartmentofEducation(1965–1968)wastosupportthe
developmentofnewteachingpracticeswhichwouldprovemoreeffectiveinthedelivery
of success for learners. A major program was funded for the installation of a Teacher
FellowshipProgramatChapmanCollege,Orange,California.Thisprogramwasheadedby
Dr.RobertE.CorrigantodevelopaMastersDegreeinInstructionalSystemsDesign(ISD).
This developing program focused on the design of a new learning-centered technology
developed by the Corrigans to assure predictable mastery by all learners of all relevant
skillsandknowledgeinthecurriculaofferedinourschools.
…In these two volumes presented herein by the Corrigans, you are offered the
PROOF of these most effective results-focused practices by many school districts both
large and small, both urban and rural, in a variety of areas across our country over a
periodof22+years(1960–1983).
Since the 1960s, these effective management-for-results practices have expanded
to include the required use of micro computer management systems to control for
the delivery of cost-effective results for learners, for the educational practitioners,
andthetaxpayers.
These publications (Volumes I and II) offer to all educational partners (including
teachers,learners,administrators,boardsofeducation,parents,andthecommunityatlarge)
provenwaysandmeanstodelivereffectiveperformancebyourschools—a“business-like”
AppendixVI A–29
approachtomanagetheachievementofestablishedprioritiesforactionandtheinstallation
ofthesesuccessfuleducationalpracticesintheschoolsofAmerica.
…We are required NOW to make only the necessary minimal investments in time
and/or money by each member of the educational partnership in order to turn our
currently reported mediocre performance effectiveness as presented by the Commission
on Excellence into a shining success story for all concerned, in particular for the
future citizens of this nation and the survival and growth of our nation as a whole.
[allemphasesinoriginal]
From Chapter 13: “Instructional Systems Development in Korean Educational Reform”
byRobertM.Morgan:
ASystemsCenterStudyofKoreanEducation—1970
TheaimofthisstudywasanattemptbytheRepublicofKoreatodetermineifitmight
be able to organize its educational resources in ways that would make its educational
programs more responsive to the nation’s needs and, simultaneously, function more
eficiently.TheKoreanGovernmentinvitedtheFloridaStateUniversitytoassistwiththe
projectandaninterdisciplinarystudyteamwasassembled.Intheplanningphaseofthe
project it was judged that a “systems approach” to the analysis of Korea’s educational
sectorwouldbesuitable.
The study team spent three months in Korea in 1970 gathering information about
the educational system, the economy, the nation’s needs and wants for its educational
programs,andtheresourcesavailableforpotentialimprovementofthesystem.Members
of the study team visited schools at all levels throughout Korea and talked to hundreds
of teachers, administrators and students. The team also worked with several Korean
governmentministries.
…The data was analyzed in terms of future manpower needs and educational
output, estimated cost beneits, strategies for appropriate introduction of innovation
andtechnologyintothesystem.
[Ed.Note:Whilereadingthefollowing,pleasekeepinmindeducationalrestructuringinthe
UnitedStatestomeetthedemandsoftheglobaleconomy—theshiftfromacademiceducation
toworkforcetraining,usingOutcome-BasedEducation/ML/DIandTQM.]
EconomicFactors
FollowingtheKoreanWartheKoreaneconomyexperiencedremarkableindustrialprogress
andgrowthwhichwaspredictedtocontinueintotheforeseeablefuture.Thelaborforcewas
increasingsteadilyandtherateofunemployment,decreasing.However,amajorproblem
wasanticipatedfromlackofcongruencebetweenthenation’smanpowerrequirementsand
theprojectedsupplyofskilledtechnicallabor.Theonlylong-rangesolutiontotheseproblems
wasareorderingoftheeducationalprioritiesintheschoolsofKorea.
TheContemporaryKoreanSchoolSystem
TheeducationalgoalsthatcharacterizedtheKoreanelementaryandmiddleschools
in 1970 were... restricted to the conventional academic domain. The student learning
outcomesattheselevelsfellalmostexclusivelyintotheinformationalandskillcategoriesof
educationandwascharacterizedbyrotememorizationofclassicallyacademicsubjectswith
the overriding objective of preparing students for the national competitive examinations
whichwereusedtoselectthosestudentsforentrytothenextlevelofeducation.
TheexistingcurriculumwasnotasrelevanttopreparingKoreanchildrentoliveand
A–30
prosperasadultsasitcouldandshouldhavebeen.Whilethestudyteamdidnotattempt
tospecifyeducationalobjectives,itbelievedthecurriculumcouldbebroadenedtoinclude
theteachingofinquiryskillsandproblem-solvingapproachesandgenerallyattendmoreto
processobjectives—andthattheseshouldnotonlybelearningoutcomesbutalsoserveas
effectiveinstructionalmeans.Itwasalsosuggestedthatpre-occupationaltrainingwouldadd
tothegraduates’employability,retrainabilityandoccupationalmobility.
AProposedNewEducationalModel—1971
Thestudyteamsuggestedthatanine-year,freeandcompulsoryeducationalprogram
was necessary to support Korea’s continuing economic expansion. (Systems Analysis
for Educational Change: The Republic of Korea by Morgan, Robert M. and Chadwick,
C.B. [University of Florida Press: Gainesville, FL, 1971]). The vocational high schools of
Koreawerenoteffectivelyservingthepurposesforwhichtheywereformed.Basedupon
assumptions about potential for improved academic accomplishment at the elementary-
middleschoollevel,thestudyteamrecommendedthatthistrainingbedirectedexclusively
to preparing people for speciic jobs. The job training programs would be of variable
duration, would be operated only as long as there were known manpower needs
for the jobs in question, and would be open to qualified citizens of any age level.
[emphasisadded]
…Thenewschoolproposedbythestudyteaminvolvedanumberofchangesfromthe
existingsystem.Theseincludedchangingthebasicinstructionalunitfromitspresentclass
sizetoalargergrouping,introducingindividualizedinstructionalconceptsandassociated
materials, modifying the role of the teaching staff, increasing the ratio of students to
teachers,andusingprogrammedinstructionaltelevisionandradio.
…A middle school… moved to a system of individualized instruction… would be
performancebased,permitstudentstomoveattheirownlearningrate,andwouldplace
a larger measure of responsibility on the students for self-direction of their learning
experiences. It would also reduce reliance on direct teacher-to-student instruction. The
basicinstructionalresourceforthatportionofthecurriculumtobeindividualizedwould
bea“student-learningunit”preparedinmodularformandpackagedforeaseofstorage
andretrievalbystudents.TheseunitswouldbedevelopedusingtheInstructionalSystems
Design(ISD)approach.Thestudent-learningunitwouldcontainthebehavioralobjectives
for the unit, critical instructional materials, directions to other learning resources, and
criterion-referencedtestitemswhichwouldpermitthestudenttoassesshisownprogress
through the unit. The principles of programmed instruction would be employed in
the development of these units even though most of the instructional materials were
not programmed instruction per se.... The teaching team would operate under the
directionofamasterteacherwhosemainjobwouldbethemanagementofthelearning
environment....
…Itwasestimatedthatafunctionalnationaleducationaltelevisionsystemcouldbe
built which would be an integral component of the system of instructional resources….
Itwouldbeaformofprogrammedinstructiondevelopedtoteachspeciicbehaviorsand
would call for active responses from the student. Auxiliary printed materials would be
developed to go with the ITV programs in which the students would write responses,
solve problems and record reactions and questions. Student learning would be closely
monitored and the teacher would be furnished supportive and supplementary materials
to help her work individually with any students who experience dificulty or who fall
behindinthetelevisedinstruction.
…Thestudyteamproposedanorganization,whichitlabeledtheKoreanEducational
DevelopmentInstitute(KEDI),todesignandtryoutthesystemanditscomponents.KEDI
AppendixVI A–31
wouldreappraisetheeducationalgoalsandobjectivesfortheelementary-middle[E-M,ed.]
schools. It would develop deinitions of desired learning outcomes at the various levels
and then design and build the instructional programs to achieve these outcomes....
Estimates were that it would take approximately four to ive years to build and test the
newsystem.Thecostofdevelopmentandinstallationonanationalscalewasestimated
tobeapproximately$17,000,000.
…Duringthelastquarterof1971theKEDIstafffocusedontwomajoractivities.These
were:(1)anintensiveseriesofmeetingswithKoreaneducatorsontheE-Mproject,and(2)
thewritingoftheInternationalLoanAgreement.Theirstoftheseactivitieswasessential
tobroadenthebaseofsupportandtorespondtoquestionsorcriticismsandtosecurethe
cooperationofeducatorsthroughoutthenation....
…KEDIwasthebeginningofacompetency-basedprogramofstudentlearning.
…In the several tryouts since 1973—four small scale and four large scale—the
achievement levels have generally been higher for the demonstration students than
forthecomparisongroup.
…In1978,thePresidentoftheRepublicappointedanexternalcommissiontoconduct
an independent evaluation of the new E-M program. This group assessed student and
teacherattitudestowardthenewprogramaswellascommunityreaction.Theyalsoselected
18 schools and directed that the new KEDI system be implemented in these schools for
ivemonthsinsixbasicsubjectareas,andidentiiedagroupoftraditionalschoolstoserve
asthecontrol.Theyfoundthatmeanachievementacrossallsubjectareaswas24percent
higher in the experimental group than in the control group, and that 30 percent more
of the experimental students achieved subject mastery. The commission recommended
an orderly implementation of the new E-M program in all of Korea’s schools. [all
emphasesinoriginal]
[Ed.Note:Thereisnowayavaliddeterminationcanbemadeonthebasisofinstructionover
aive-monthperiod.WastheexperimentalgrouptaughttothetestasinOBE/ML/DI?Hasthe
educationministryfollowedthesestudentstoseeiftheirsuperiorachievementhasheldover
time?Onewouldhavetolookatlongitudinaldataaswellastheexaminationsusedtocometo
anysortofvalidconclusionregardingthesuperiorityofOBEoverthetraditionalKoreanform
ofeducation.Also,whatkindsofresultsweretheylookingfor—academicoroccupational?]
AppendixVII
ExcerptsfromPerformance-basedTeacherEducation
Performance-basedTeacherEducation:WhatIstheStateoftheArt?,StanleyElam,Ed.(Phi
Delta Kappan Publications: Washington, D.C., 1971). Paper prepared for the Committee
on Performance-based Teacher Education of the American Association of Colleges for
Teacher Education pursuant to a contract with the U.S. Ofice of Education through the
TexasEducationAgency,Austin,Texas.
TheAssociationispleasedtooffertotheteachereducationcommunitytheCommittee’s
irststate-of-the-artpaper.Inperformance-basedprogramsperformancegoalsarespeciied,
and agreed to, in rigorous detail in advance of instruction. The student must either be
able to demonstrate his ability to promote desirable learning or exhibit behavior known
topromoteit.Heisheldaccountable,notforpassinggrades,butforattainingageneral
level of competency in performing the essential tasks of teaching…. Emphasis is on
demonstratedproductoroutput.Acceptanceofthisbasicprinciplehasprogramimplications
thataretrulyrevolutionary.
ProbablytherootsofPBTE[Performance-basedTeacherEducation,ed.]lieingeneral
societal conditions and the institutional responses to them characteristic of the Sixties.
Forexample,therealizationthatlittleornoprogresswasbeingmadeinnarrowingwide
inequalitygapsledtoincreasinggovernmentalattentiontoracial,ethnic,andsocioeconomic
minorityneeds,particularlyeducationalones.
The claim that traditional teacher education programs were not producing people
equippedtoteachminoritygroupchildrenandyoutheffectivelyhaspointeddirectlytothe
needforreforminteachereducation.
Moreover,theclaimofminoritygroupyouththatthereshouldbealternativeroutes
to professional status has raised serious questions about the suitability of generally
recognizedteachereducationprograms.
Confronted with the ultimate question of the meaning of life in American society,
youthshavepressedforgreaterrelevanceintheireducationandavoiceindeterminingwhat
itsgoalsshouldbe.ThusPBTEusuallyincludesameansofshareddecision-makingpower...
[T]he student’s rate of progress through the program is determined by demonstrated
competencyratherthanbytimeorcoursecompletion....Instructionisindividualizedand
A–32
AppendixVII A–33
personalized....Becausetimeisavariable,notaconstant,andbecausestudentsmayenter
withwidelydifferingbackgroundsandpurposes,instructionislikelytobehighlyperson-
andsituation-speciic....Thelearningexperienceoftheindividualsisguidedbyfeedback....
[T]eachingcompetenciestobedemonstratedarerole-derived,speciiedinbehavioralterms,
and made public; assessment criteria are competency-based, specify mastery levels, and
madepublic;assessmentrequiresperformanceasprimeevidence,takesstudentknowledge
intoaccount;student’sprogressratedependsondemonstratedcompetency;instructional
programfacilitatesdevelopmentandevaluationofspeciiccompetencies....Theapplication
ofsuchasystematicstrategytoanyhumanprocessiscalledthesystemsapproach....We
cannot be sure that measurement techniques essential both to objectivity and to valid
assessmentofaffectiveandcomplexcognitiveobjectiveswillbedevelopedrapidlyenough
forthenewexitrequirementstobeanybetterthantheconventionallettergradesofthe
past.Unlessheroiceffortsaremadeonboththeknowledgeandmeasurementfronts,then
PBTEmaywellhaveastuntedgrowth....Torecapitulate,thepromiseofperformance-based
teachereducationliesprimarilyin:1)thefactthatitsfocusonobjectivesanditsemphasis
uponthesharingprocessbywhichthoseobjectivesareformulatedinadvancearemade
explicitandusedasthebasisforevaluatingperformance;2)thefactthatalargeshareof
theresponsibilityforlearningisshiftedfromteachertostudent;3)thefactthatitincreases
eficiency through systematic use of feedback, motivating and guiding learning efforts
of prospective teachers; 4) the fact that greater attention is given to variation among
individualabilities,needs,andinterests;5)thefactthatlearningistiedmoredirectlytothe
objectivestobeachievedthantothelearningresourcesutilizedtoattainthem;6)thefact
thatprospectiveteachersaretaughtinthewaytheyareexpectedtoteach;7)thefactthat
PBTEisconsistentwithdemocraticprinciples;8)thefactthatitisconsistentwithwhat
weknowaboutthepsychologyoflearning;9)thefactthatitpermitseffectiveintegration
of theory and practice; 10) the fact that it provides better bases for designing research
about teaching performance. These advantages would seem suficient to warrant and
ensureastrongandviablemovement.
From“TheScopeofPBTE”:
Among the most difficult questions asked about the viability of performance-based
instructionasthebasisforsubstantialchangeinteacherpreparatoryprogramsarethese:
Will it tend to produce technicians, paraprofessionals, teacher aides, etc., rather than
professionals?… These questions derive from the fact that while performance-based
instruction eliminates waste in the learning process through clarity in definition of
goods, it can be applied only to learning in which the objectives sought are susceptible
of deinition in advance in behavioral terms. Thus it is dificult to apply when the
outcomes sought are complex and subtle, and particularly when they are affective or
attitudinalincharacter.
From“PhilosophicUnderpinning”:
SomeauthoritieshaveexpressedthefactthatPBTEhasaninadequatephilosophicbase,
pointing out that any performance-based system rests on particular values, and the
most important of which are expressed in the competencies chosen and in the design
ofthelearningactivities.
From“PoliticalandManagementDificulties”:
A–34
...4)Therearepoliticalaspectstothequestionofhowfartheprofessor’sacademicfreedom
andthestudent’srighttochoosewhathewishestolearnextendinPBTE.5)…Themere
adoption of a PBTE program will eliminate some prospective students because they do
not ind it appealing. The question remains: Will these be the students who should be
eliminated?… 6) The PBTE movement could deteriorate into a power struggle over who
controls what. 7) PBTE removes students regularly from the campus into ield settings
andemphasizesindividualstudyandprogressratherthanclass-courseorganization,thus
tends to isolate the people involved. We live in a period when such isolation is not a
popularsocialconcept,andsincemanyaspectsofthePBTEapproachcouldbeconceived
as Skinnerian, dehumanizing etc., it is important that programs be managed in such a
wayastominimizeisolation?…9)Finally,thereisaneedtoovercometheapathy,threat,
anxiety,administrativeresistance,andotherbarriersthatstandinthewayofmovingtoward
PBTEandtowardperformance-basedteachingintheschools.
[Ed.Note:Overtheyearsonehasseenthedepartureofmanytalentedteacherswhohaveleft
theprofessionduetoSkinnerianPerformance-basedTeacherEducation.]
AppendixVIII
Excerptsfrom“TheFieldofEducationalTechnology”
“The Field of Educational Technology: A Statement of Deinition,” by Donald P. Ely, Ed.
PublishedinAudiovisualInstruction(AssociationofEducationalComputingandTechnology:
Washington,D.C.),October1972(pp.36ff).
There is no single author of this statement since the deinition process involved
severalhundredpeopleovertheperiodofoneyear.KennethSilberspentmoretimethan
any other person and provided continuity through several drafts. Other writers included
Kenneth Norberg, Geoffrey Squires, and Gerald Torkelson. Signiicant contributions were
made by Robert Heinich, Charles F. Hoban, Jr., Wesley Meierhenry, and Robert Wagner
throughdiscussionpaperspreparedearlyintheprocess.Reactionsfromrelatedieldswere
helpful—Desmond Cook (Educational Psychology), Keith Mielke (Telecommunications),
andRobertTaylor(LibraryandInformationScience).Eachreviewedanearlierdraftofthe
manuscriptandmettodiscussit.Finally,creditshouldgotothemorethan100membersof
the Association of Educational Computing and Technology [AECT, spin-off of the NEA,
ed.]whoparticipatedattheopenhearingsheldduringtheMinneapolisconvention.And
now, the process must go on with each reader. May I have your reactions? Signed by
DonaldP.Ely,Editor,Chairman,DeinitionandTerminologyCommittee,AECT,Branchof
theNationalEducationAssociation.…
Whenscientiicandexperimentalmethodsareappliedinanorderlyandcomprehensive
waytotheplanningofinstructionaltasks,ortoentireprograms,thisprocessissometimes
known as “systems design,” or the “systems approach to instructional development.”
Implicit in the systems approach is the use of clearly stated objectives, experimentally
derived, data to evaluate the results of the system, and feedback loops which allow the
systemtoimproveitselfbasedonevaluation.
A systematic approach usually involves: needs assessment (to determine what the
problem really is); solution selection (to meet the needs); development of instructional
objectives (if an instructional solution is indeed needed); analysis of tasks and content
needed to meet the objectives; selection of instructional strategies; sequencing of
instructional events; selection of media; developing or locating the necessary resources;
A–35
A–36
tryout/evaluationoftheeffectivenessoftheresources;revisionofresourcesuntiltheyare
effective; and recycling continuously through the whole process. The systems approach
isbasictoeducationaltechnology.
Individualizedlearningrequiressystematicplanningbecauseitmayoperatewithlittle
ornodirectinterventionbytheteacher.Ifthebeneitsofindividualizedandpersonalized
learning are to succeed, it will be necessary to make full use of appropriate technical
resources,toshiftmoneysavedbythisapproachintothedevelopmentofmoreeffective
resources,andtomakeconsistentandexpandeduseofexperimentalstudyandevaluation
techniques.Alloftheserequiretheuseofthesystemsapproachtosucceed.
The rationale for a unique ield of educational technology is its synthesis of three
concepts:providingabroadrangeoflearningresources,individualizingandpersonalizing
learning as a focus, and using the systems approach as an intellectual and operational
approachtothefacilitationoflearning.Thecombinationoftheseconceptsinthebroader
context of education and society yields synergistic outcomes—behaviors which are not
predictable on the parts alone—but outcomes with extra energy which is created by the
uniqueinterrelationshipoftheparts….
Withinthecontextofsociety,thepurposesandmeansoftheeducationaltechnologist
create two value questions: are the means used by the educational technologist neutral,
or do they have ends and values built in? Does a person concerned with the means of
educationalsohavetobeconcernedwiththeends?…Thesequestionsandissuesandtheir
resolutionbyeachpersonintheieldisasmuchapartofthedeinitionoftheieldasthe
functionsthepeopleintheieldperform.
Istechnologyneutral?
Theoretically, technology in the “pure” state is neutral in its operation, simply the
powerfulandfaithfulservantofthesocietyitservesbutdoesnotaffect.
Butinstitutionalizedtechnologyintherealworldisneverthatpure.Onceembedded
in socioeconomic systems, it tends to become self-justifying and self-perpetuating and
doesindeedaffectthesocietyitserves.
Technology neatly separates ends from means, and attempts to become neutral by
divorcing itself from value-laden ends. However, if technology is independent of means,
thenitsworthmustbemeasuredbythedegreeofsuccessandtheeficiencywithwhich
itachievesthegoalssetbeforeit.Thus,thetechnologicalthrustinmodernsocietyisto
continuallyreineandstrengthenthemeanswhateverthegoal.
Thenetresult,whichhasbeenpointedoutbymanyscholarsoftechnology,isthat
the means tend to become the ends. The means which sometimes serve as the end of
technologyareNOTneutral.Asmostcriticsoftechnologyhavepointedout,thesemeans
haveeffects—effectswhicharenotneutralatall.Whethertheeffectsarepositiveornegative
isaquestionfordebate,butneutralityisachoicewhichdoesnotexist.
Forexample,itisclearthattechnologyhaseffectsonman,butwhatarethey?One
positionisthattechnologyexertsasubtleforcetoreducehumanbeingstostandardized
components which can readily be assimilated to whatever system is being served. It
absorbsthemintoman-machinesystemsbyrobbingthemoftheirhumanityandmaking
themhumanmachines.
The opposing position states that technology makes humaneness and difference
possible. It creates the options we need for true freedom, and creates a world which
allowsdivergentvaluesystems.
The opposite of the neutral technician is what we might call the concentrated
professional. This person realizes that the means make the ends possible, and that
cooperationorhindrancemakesendspossibleorimpossible.Theconcernedprofessional
hasapointofviewabouttheendsandthendecideswhetherornottheworkbeingdone
AppendixVIII A–37
willmakepossiblepositiveornegativeends.
Ifitisdecidedtheworkwillbringaboutnegativeends,theconcernedprofessional
refusestoperformit.
The scientist working on genetic selection and manipulation because “it can help
eliminatediseasefromthehumanrace”andthosewhohavequitworkingonitbecause
it will “lead to totalitarian domination by a master race” are examples of concerned
professionals.Regardlessoftheirposition,theyhaveconsideredtheendsoftheirworkand
madeadecisiontoworkornotbasedonhowtheyviewedthoseends.
Itshouldbeclearthattheconcernedprofessionaldoesnothavetobea“liberal”or
a“conservative.”Theconcernedprofessionalmusthowever,showmoralsensitivitytothe
effectofwhatheorshedoes.[emphasisinoriginal]
It does not matter what position an individual comes to as long as it is not “I’ll
doitbecauseitcanbedone.”
We believe that in the American society of the 1970s and beyond the educational
technologist cannot afford to be a neutral technician. The field calls for concerned
professionals. Some very hard questions must be raised about everything this person is
calledontodo.Theconcernedprofessionalmustaskhowtheresourcesproducedorused
affectallofsociety,aswellasthescientist’sownlife.
Theconcernedspecialistmustaskwhattodoifhe/shedisagreeswiththemessages
oftheresources.
It is less important how an educational technologist answers these questions than
itisthattheyareasked,andthatthereisconcernwiththerealendofthemeans....The
educationaltechnologistisnottheonlypersonmakingdecisionsaboutthefacilitationof
learningthroughtheidentiication,development,organization,andutilizationoflearning
resources. The teacher, curriculum specialist, administrator, content specialist, librarian
andthestudentareinvolvedintheprocess,too....Itis,therefore,importantfortheieldof
educationaltechnologytorecognizethe“otherpeople”contextinwhichitoperates.
Further, it is essential to ascertain what the relationship of the ield of educational
technologywiththeseotherieldswillbe.Inapracticalsense,theworkrelationshipmeans
“whowillgettomaketheultimatedecisionsaboutfacilitatinglearningandhowitisdone?”
Thereareatleastivetypesofalternativesforthefacilitationoflearning.Theydifferalong
thedimensionofformality,basedonthecompulsorynatureoftheinstitution,onthedegree
ofauthorityofthoseincharge,andontherangeofresourcesavailable.
The effects of technology cannot, therefore, be overlooked. They create serious
concernsforsocietyasawhole.Theyareparticularlyimportanttoapersoninvolvedina
ieldlikeeducationaltechnology,sinceitseffectshelptoshapehumanminds.
What are the effects of packaged learning [OBE/ML/DI, ed.], etc., on a person for
18 years? Are we moving too fast technologically for people to cope with the changes?
Howdofeelingandspontaneityitintoatechnologically-basedsystem?Arewetryingto
programallconnectionsbetweenpeople?
The educational technologist, as a concerned professional, must study the
philosophical, psychological and sociological implications of how the technologist
canfacilitatelearning.
[Ed.Note:ThispaperwasanattachmenttoanAECTproposaltodevelopHandbookXof
theEducationalRecordsandReportsSeriesfortheNationalCenterforEducationalStatistics.
AECTalsoreceivedtheProjectBEST(BetterEducationSkillsthroughTechnology)contract
from the U.S. Department of Education in 1982. The excerpts are very important as they
relatetotheconcernsofleadingeducatorsintheieldoftechnologyregardingethicaland
privacy issues surrounding the use of programmed learning (OBE/ML/DI) in conjunction
A–38
with technology in the schools of the United States. Donald Ely (Editor and Chairman
of the Deinition and Terminology Committee, AECT) was also involved in Project BEST
in 1982. Also listed as members of BEST’s Advisory Board were Dr. Shirley McCune of
the Midcontinental Regional Education Laboratory and William Spady of the American
AssociationofSchoolAdministrators—bothofwhomarecloselyassociatedwithoutcome-
based education/mastery learning, the purpose of which is to “restructure” not only the
schools,butAmericaitselfthroughchangingtheattitudes,values,andbeliefsofstudentsto
accept citizenship in a one-world socialist government. These excerpts should be brought
totheattentionofEly,Spady,andMcCunewiththequestion:“Doyousharetheconcerns
of your associates who contributed to the writing of this paper?” If so, why do you have
such a hard time understanding why parents and taxpayers are opposed to Skinnerian
outcome-basededucation?]
AppendixIX
ExcerptsfromAPerformanceAccountabilitySystem
APerformanceAccountabilitySystemforSchoolAdministratorsbyT.H.Bell(ParkerPublish-
ingCo.:NewYork,1974).T.H.BellservedasSecretaryofEducationduringPresidentRonald
Reagan’sirstterminofice,1981–1985,andalsoservedasCommissionerofEducationinthe
U.S.OficeofEducationduringtheFordAdministration.Excerptsfromthebookfollow:
TheNeedforaManagementSystem
Underthepressureofthefree-enterprisesystemandtheunremittingdemandthatlargecorpora-
tionsearnproitsandpaydividendstostockholders,managementeficiencythroughorienta-
tiontoresultshasledtodevelopmentofmanagementsystemssuchastheonedescribedin
thisbook.MostofthesuccessfulcorporationsintheUnitedStatesnowuseannuallyadopted
objectivesasameansoffocusingtheenergiesandeffortsofmanagersontheattainmentof
goalsthatarewidelyknownandbroadlyaccepted.Althoughtheproblemsofeducational
managementareobviouslyquitedifferentfromthoseoftheprivatesector,thereismuchto
belearnedfromindustry’ssystemsapproachingainingmoreeficiencyineducationalman-
agement.Theoutcomesarequitesimilar.(p.21)
WhyNeedsAssessments?
Asapeople,Americanshaveturnedfromapreoccupationwithproductionandplentytoa
concernforthequalityofhumanlifeinthisnation.Wehavemovedbeyondthepointwhere
productionofthenecessitiesforexistenceisaconcern.Wewantarichandmeaningfullife
andwewantequalityofopportunityforallcitizens.
Drugabuse,juveniledelinquency,lackofrespectforlawandorder,copingwithenvi-
ronmentaldamageareallproblemswithwhicheducationmustbeconcernedinthisnewera
ofsocialawarenessandpublicconcernforthesuccessandhappinessofall.Theseenormous
demandscallforsystematicattentiontotheperformanceoutcomesoftheschoolsandcol-
legesofthenation.Sincewehavesomanyproblemsandsinceourresourcesarelimited,it
isessentialthatwelookattheperformanceofoureducationalinstitutionsandestablisha
hierarchyofpriorities….Weshouldseektosolvetheproblemsthatarecausingthegreatest
amountofdificultyandunrestacrossthenation.Weshouldseektosolvetheproblemswhose
solutionswillbothstimulatetheeconomyandfreethepublicfromtheburdenofsupporting
A–39
A–40
citizenswhoareunabletosupportthemselves.Wemust,inshort,assessoureducational
needsbeforeestablishingourobjectivesandsettingintoactionleadershipandmanagement
plans.(pp.32–32)
UseofTestsinNeedsAssessments
Theeconomic,sociological,psychologicalandphysicalaspectsofstudentsmustbetakeninto
accountaswelookattheireducationalneedsandaccomplishments,andfortunatelythere
areanumberofattitudeandinventoryscalesthatcanbeusedtoassesstheseadmittedly
dificulttomeasureoutcomes….
Mostoftheseeffortstomanageeducationtrytocenterinoneplaceaninformation
centerthatreceivesreportsandmakesavailabletoallmembersofthemanagementteam
varioustypesofinformationusefultomanagers….
Schoolmanagementbyobjectivesdemandsmoreuseofeducationaltestsandmeasures
(pp.33–35).
TheStudentandStaffPersonnelProile
Adepartmentalorschoolstudentandstaffpersonnelproile,constructedfromneedsassess-
mentinformation,willprovideinformationingreaterdepththanistypicallyfoundinmost
schoolorcollegeoperations.Thecharacteristicsofthestudentpopulationsbeingservedand
thesocial,economic,racial,andethnicmake-upofthecommunityorneighborhoodmust
beweighedinmakingassumptionsonperformanceexpectations.Anobjective,expressedin
anticipatedperformanceresults,musttakeintoaccountthecharacteristicsofthestudents,
theneighborhoodandcommunity.(p.42)
HumanizingEducation
Manyofourcurrentproblemsofalienationanddepersonalizationareatleastpartlytraceable
toouremphasisinourschoolsupongivingandgettinginformationandourneglectofthe
discoveryofmeaningandhumanization.Thecommitteewritingthe1962ASCDYearbook
listedcommonschoolpracticesthathavedepersonalizingandalienatingeffects:
• Theemphasisonfactinsteadoffeelings
• Thebeliefthatintelligenceisixedandimmutable
• Thecontinualemphasisupongrades,artiicialreasonsinsteadofrealonesforlearn-
ing
• Conformityandpreoccupationwithorderandneatness
• Authority,supportandevidence
• Solitarylearning
• Cookbookapproaches
• Adultconceptsconsideredastheonlyonesofvalue
• Emphasisoncompetition
• Lockstepprogression
• Force,threatandcoercion
• Woodenrulesandregulations
• Theage-oldideathatifit’shardit’sgoodforthem
Untilnowwehavebeenschoolingtoita“norm”ofsociety.It’stimetobeginthink-
ing of an education for every man. As deined by Carl R. Rogers, “The only man who is
AppendixIX
A–41
educatedisthemanwhohaslearnedhowtolearn;themanwhohaslearnedhowtoadapt
andchange;themanwhohasrealizedthatnoknowledgeissecure,thatonlytheprocessof
seekingknowledgegivesabasisforsecurity.”
Thisclearlyinvalidatesourconceptionofasuccessfulstudentasonewhosimplygradu-
ateswithadegreeandahighgradepointaverage—amolded,shapedigurereadytoslipaway
fromlifeandlearningintothesplit-levelsandstationwagonsofsuburbia.(p.161)
[Ed. Note: There is no question in this writer’s mind that this one man bears much of the
responsibilityforthedeliberatedumbingdownofourschools.Hesetthestageforoutcome-
basededucationthroughhisearlysupportforsystemsmanagement,managementbyobjectives
(MBO),andPlanningProgrammingBudgetingSystem(PPBS).Thesesystemslaterevolvedinto
full-blownTotalQualityManagement/OBE,havinggonethroughtheinitialstageofProfessor
BenjaminBloom’smasterylearningandendingupasWilliamSpady’stransformationalOBE.
Outcome-basedorresults/performance/competency-basededucationrequiresmasterylearn-
ing,individualizedinstruction,systemsmanagement,andcomputertechnology.Bell’searlier
activitiesintheseventiesasU.S.CommissionerofEducation—includinghisroleinsupporting
dumbed-downliferolecompetenciesforK–12(See1975AdultPerformanceLevelStudyand
1983Delkerarticle)andBell’stestimonybeforeCongressinfavorofaU.S.DepartmentofEdu-
cation—shouldhavekepthisnameoffanylistofpotentialnomineespresentedtoPresident
Reagan.ConcernsregardingthisnominationexpressedbyReagansupporterswereprovenwell
foundedwhenBell,in1984,fundedWilliamSpady’sinfamousUtahOBEgrantwhichpromised
to(anddid)putOBE“inallschoolsofthenation”;spearheadedthetechnologyinitiativein
the1980s;predictedthatschoolswouldbebooklessbytheyear2000;recommendedthatall
studentshavecomputers;andiredEdwardCurran,theDirectoroftheNationalInstituteof
Education,whenCurranrecommendedtoPresidentReaganthatCurran’sofice,theNIE,be
abolished.
AccordingtoaformermemberoftheUtahEducationAssociation,whowasacloseassoci-
ateofBell’sintheearly1970s,iftheSenateCommitteethatconirmedT.H.BellasSecretary
ofEducationhadreadBell’sAPerformanceAccountabilitySystemforSchoolAdministrators,it
isunlikelyBellwouldhavebeenconirmed.]
AppendixX
Excerptsfrom“TheNextStep:TheMinnesotaPlan”
“TheNextStep:TheMinnesotaPlan”byPaulBerman,ExecutiveDirector,CenterforPolicy
Alternatives,andPresidentofBWAssociates,aconsultingirmspecializinginpolicyresearch
andanalysisinBerkeley,California(PhiDeltaKappan:Washington,D.C.)November1985,p.
40.
ElementaryandsecondaryeducationinAmericaareinneedofmorethanjustrepairand
maintenance;thechallengeistomoveto“anewplateauoflearning.”Thenecessarystruc-
turalreformsforsuchamoveappeartobeunderwayinMinnesota....AlthoughMinnesota’s
schoolsareamongthebestinthenation,theevidenceshowsthattheyhavebeenunableto
keeppacewiththerapidlyincreasingneedformorestudentstolearnmore….Variousgroups
inthestate,aswellasreform-mindedlegislaturesandstateoficials,havebeenaskingbasic
questionsaboutthefutureofeducationinMinnesota.OnesuchgroupistheMinnesotaBusi-
nessPartnershipwhichcontractedwithmeandmyassociatestoexamineK–12education
andsuggestreforms,ifnecessary....TheresultwasTheMinnesotaPlan,adocumentthat
hasalteredthenatureofthedebateinMinnesota.Gov.RudyPerpichandRuthRandall,his
superintendentofpublicinstruction,usedthePlan,aswellastheworkofotherswhenthey
proposedtothestatelegislaturereformmeasuresbasedonconceptsinthePlan.
Under“RestructuringSchooling”:
...[T]heusualsixyearsofcomprehensivesecondaryeducationinjuniorandseniorhigh
schools,withtheirmultiplicityofcoursesandstudenttracking,shouldbephasedout.Instead,
allstudentsshouldattendafour-yearsecondaryschoolthatconcentratesoncoreacademic
subjects.Thentheyshouldhaveopportunitiestospecializefortwoyears.
ThoughtheMinnesotaPlanhasmanyuniqueelements,ithasderivedspeciicreforms
from three sources. First, various state-level proposals over the past few years inluenced
whatwentintothePlanaswellaswhatwasomitted.Myexperienceindevelopingreforms
forwhatbecameCalifornia’somnibuseducationreformlegislation(S.B.813)wasparticularly
valuable.Second,recentandearlierliteratureonschoolingwasextremelyhelpful,particularly
theworkofBenjaminBloom,JohnGoodlad,andTheodoreSizer….
A–42
AppendixX A–43
Trackinghasbeenjustiiedasawayforschoolstomeetthelegitimateconcernthat
studentsshouldbepreparedfordifferentcareers.Thecomprehensivehighschool,withits
bewilderingarrayofcourses,alsoevolvedinparttosatisfythisneed.Forexample,moststates,
includingMinnesota,imposeseat-timeorgraduationrequirementsunderwhicheachstudent
musttakeacertainnumberofunitsofhighschoolmathematics….
ThechallengeforAmericaneducationistoprovideacommonandequivalenteducational
experienceforallstudentsandtopreparethemfordifferentcareers.Thecomprehensivehigh
schoolhasnotandcannot...meeteithergoaladequately....Therestructuring…offersadif-
ferentapproachtorealizingthesedualobjectivesofAmericaneducation.Allstudentswould
concentrateonacoreacademicprogramingrades7through10andthen,ingrades11and
12,choosefurthereducationthatmatchestheircareeraspirations.
ResearchandpracticeinthousandsofclassroomsbothintheU.S.andabroadindicate
thatinstructionalstrategiesusingthisassumption,suchasmasterylearningorcooperative
learningtechniques,canresultinmorestudentslearningdramaticallymoreinbothbasic
andhigher-orderskills.TheMinnesotaPlancallsfortheseapproachestobetaughttosenior
teacherswhocanthentrainotherteacherstoshifttheirexpectationsandinstructiontoenable
allstudentstolearn.Masterylearningiscontroversial.However,thebulkoftheevidence
showsthatlargegainsinstudentlearningoccurifteachershavethetrainingandsupportto
implementmasterylearningeffectively.Toooften,masterylearninghasbeenintroducedas
a“topdown”innovation.TheMinnesotaPlan,bycontrast,proposesagrassrootsapproach
toimplementation….
Apubliclyelectedschool-levelboard,operatinginconcertwithaschool-sitemanage-
mentcouncil,woulddecidewhichcoursestoofferattheschoolandwhichcoursesmightbe
offeredbyotherpublicschoolsorbyotherpublicorprivateproviders.Schoolswouldhave
the authority to “contract out” or “contract in” for teaching services.... This restructuring
would take advantage of strength in the best European systems.... Deregulate curriculum
andinstruction.Educatorsshouldbefreetodesigncurriculumandinstructionthattheyfeel
meetsstatestandardsandcommunityneeds.Statesshouldsetbasicgoals;educatorsshould
beresponsibletothecommunityforhelpingstudentstomeetthesegoals.
Arestructuringofschoolingcouldnotrealizeitsfullpromisewithoutjettisoningthe
anachronistic system of employing course-unit/seat-time requirements as the criterion for
studentpromotionandgraduation.Advancementshouldbebasedondemonstratedachieve-
ment....State-mandatedcourseandgraduationrequirementswouldbeeliminatedinfavorof
astatementbythestateofthecompetenciesstudentsareexpectedtomasterandtwostate
tests,whichwouldberequiredofallstudentsbeforetheyleavethesixthandtenthgrades.
[Ed.Note:PaulBermanisawellknownandhighlypaidconsultant/changeagent.Bermanhas
beenassociatedwithRANDCorporation,amajorpolicydevelopmentthinktankwhichhelped
developthePlanning,ProgrammingandBudgetingSystem(PPBS).]
AppendixXI
“WhenIsAssessmentREALLYAssessment?”
“WhenIsAssessmentREALLYAssessment?”byCynthiaWeatherly,publishedinTheChris-
tianConscience(Vol.1,No.9,1995,pp.28–32,50).ItcanbefoundontheInternetathttp:
//www.christianconscience.com.
Whyarethenew-fangledtestscalled“assessments”?Theanswerisshocking!
During preparation for a workshop on educational policy in 1982, I was asked by the
hostorganizationtoprepareaglossaryoftermspertainingtomypresentation.Thatrequest
seemedsimpleenoughandareasonableone,soIsetaboutcompilingtermsrelatedtoCom-
petency-BasedEducation(CBE,forerunnerofOutcome-BasedEducationandpromulgatedby
thesameman—BillSpady),ourfad-of-the-momentineducationalreformationtowardilliteracy
inGeorgia.
AsIsaid,thetaskseemedsimpleenough.However,whilestillintheA’softhealphabet,I
developedanoverwhelmingrespectforprofessionalcompilersofglossaries.Theirstwordblock
Iencounteredwasassessment.Sureitwasfamiliar;weallknewitmeant“test,”butthelonger
IstruggledtoapplythatdeinitiontoCBEthemoreelusiveassessment’sdeinitionbecame.
Thelatestwordfor“test”was“instrument”andthatprovedeasytoexplain.Butassess-
mentwasabroaderterm.Assessmentwasthenounformoftheverb“assess.”Whatdidassess
actuallymean?TheNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP)hadbeeninusesince
itsdevelopmentinthelatter1960s.HadweoverlookedachangeinemphasisbytheFederal
levelofeducationimpliedbytheuseofthewordassessmentthatcouldbesigniicant?
Receivingnohelpfrommysmallhillofaccumulatedstatedepartmentofeducationmate-
rialsrelatingtoassessment,Idecidedtoreadtheinstructionmanual:Webster’sNewWorld
Dictionary.Webster’sclearlystated:
assess:1.tosetanestimatedvalueon(property,etc.)fortaxation2.Tosettheamount
of(atax,ine,damages,etc.)3.Toimposeaine,tax,orspecialpaymenton(apersonor
property)4.Toimpose(anamount)asaine,tax,etc.5.Toestimateordeterminethesig-
A–44
AppendixXI A–45
niicance,importance,orvalueof,evaluate.
assessment:1.Theactofassessing2.Theamountassessed.
Thisdeinitiondisturbedmealittle.Ihadassumedthatassessmentwasjustthelatest
educationeseforabroad-basedtest.HadImissedsomethingsomewhere?
Toaccomplishthetaskathand—theglossary—Icraftedadeinitionthatreadlikethis:
Assessment:anestimation;determinationofthesigniicanceorvalueof.Asusedin
education,ageneraltermformeasuringstudentprogress.Conlictindeinitionoccurswhen
consideringthatthisisameasurementprocessusedtodeterminethevalueorsigniicance
ofaparticularoutcomeineducationalperformance.Therefore,itisnotatruemeasurement,
butaprocessofassigningvaluetospeciictasks,creatingacumulativescoreforperformance
insteadofanaccuratemeasurementagainstastandard.
Itsoundedgoodatthetimeandspoketothequestionof“whatarewetesting?”which
wasagrowingconcernduetothenatureofCompetency-BasedEducation’sliferoleskillscom-
petencies,whichweregoingtodictateoureducationalgoals—justlikeOBEdoestoday.Even
thoughsatisiedtohaveintroducedtheideathattheremaybeaconlictwithinthedeinition
ofassessmentasaneducationalterm,IwasbotheredthatIcouldindnodeinitionsinother
dictionaries,includinglegalones,whichdidnothaveprimarymeaningsrelatedtoassigning
avaluefortaxpurposes.Assessmentisprimarilyalegalterm;infact,theuseoftheword
“instrument”couldcarryalegalconnotationaswell.Disturbing.
TheFederalAccountingProcess
InMarchof1984Ihadtheprivilegeofgivingtestimonysupportingstringentregulationsfor
thePupilPrivacyAct(theHatchAmendment)whichamendedtheGeneralEducationProvisions
Acttoofferprotectionfromintrusivequestioning,programs,andtherecord-keepingforparents
andstudents.Again,preparationforthattestimonycausedmetoreviewthenationalCenter
forEducationalStatistics’handbookseriesknownastheStateEducationalRecordsandReport
Series.Speciically,HandbookIIR,theFinancialAccountingHandbook,alludedtoa“uniied
accounting system” based on the process known as Planning, Programming and Budgeting
System(PPBS)whichwastobeusedbyallschoolsystems.PPBSinvolvesmandatedgoalsand
constantadjustmentofresourcestoensurethatgoalsaremet—thesystemthatisstillinuse
today.Intestifying,Idrewaprojectedconclusion:
Ifourinancialresourcereportingisgoingtobeuniiedbysuchasystem,thenarewe
notbutastepawayfromuniiedgoalsforoureducationaloutcomes?Thisisassuredlya
steptowardmandatednationalcurriculumandinterstateandinterregionaltaxandinancial
managementrevisions….Willwenotsoonbesharingtaxresourcesfromregiontoregionas
neededto“equalize”educationalopportunitiesandprogramsdeemed“exemplary”orinthe
“nationalinterest”toproduceglobal-mindedcitizens?
ThelongerIthoughtofassessmentbeingthe“valuedeterminedfortaxpurposes”and
thepossibilityofcross-regional/statesharingoftaxresources,themoreconcernedIbecame
overtheideathattherecord-keepingandinformation-compilingmightbecomesotiedtothe
individualstudentthatassessmentmighthaveamoremalignantpotential.Weweretalking
aboutourchildrenhere.
A–46
Atthatpointintimetherewasagrowingemphasisonchoiceandvouchers/tuitiontax
creditsineducation.Sincewiththemoneylowsthecontrol,couldthisbepartoftheassessment
picture?Thatwouldtieanindividualstudentmovingaboutinthe“choicemarket”directlytoa
federalaccountingprocessbothinanciallyandeducationallyduetonationalstandardsbeing
proposed.Nooneseemedtobetooworriedaboutitinthe1980s,butitstillbotheredme.
OveraperiodoftimeIsharedmyconcernwithcloseassociates—ifassesswasto“assign
avaluefortaxpurposes,”thenwhywereweassessingchildren?Atheorybegantotakeroot
andgrowinmymind:somehowweweregoingtoallowchildren’spotentialworthtosociety
tobemeasured,andtheirfutureliferoleswouldsomehowbemeasured,andtheirfuturelife
roleswouldsomehowbeprojected,andtheywouldbelimitedbythatassignedworth.What
athought!CouldthisbepossibleintheUnitedStates?
HumanCapitalDeined
LatersomeonesentmepagesfromabookentitledHumanCapitalandAmerica’sFuture,edited
byDavidW.HornbeckandLesterM.Salamon.Thetitleitselfsetoffalarmbellsbecauseofthe
connectiontoeducationsharedbymanyofthecontributors,especiallyHornbeck.Itwasnow
theearly1990sandmanydisturbingthingswerehappening.DavidHornbeckwasahighly
visiblechangeagentresponsibleformanyradicaleducationreformsinstatesfromKentucky
toIowaandhadbeenconsultanttomanymore.WhywasHornbeckfocusingonhumancapi-
tal?Thattermhadbeenprimarilyusedineconomicandcommercialliterature.Hornbeckwas
alsoidentiiedwithchangesinassessmentintheschoolsystemswithwhichheconsultedand
worked.
The book was published by Johns Hopkins University Press in 1991 and contains an
enlighteninglistofcontributorsinadditiontoHornbeck:ErnestBoyer,NancyBarrett,Anthony
Carnavale,SheldonDanziger,MarianWrightEdelman,ScottFosler,DanielGreenberg,Jason
Jaffras,ArnoldPacker,IsabelSawhill,MarionPines,DonaldStewart,andLesterSalamon.The
socialandpoliticalviewsofHumanCapital’scontributorscouldbethebasisofanotherwhole
article,butsuficeittosaythatmostoftheradicalchangestowardamanagedpopulousin
thiscountrycanberelectedamongthisgroupofindividuals.Weren’tsomeoftheminvolved
indis-establishingtheU.S.DepartmentofHealth,EducationandWelfare(HEW)andturning
itintotheDepartmentofEducation?
Whilereferencestohumancapitalhavebeenthefareofbusinesspublicationsforsome
time,ithasonlybeeninthelastfewyearsthatthistermhasbeenappliedtoschoolchildren.
InHornbeck’schapter“NewParadigmforAction,”heoutlinedthesystemicchangewhichmust
occurtoproducetheworkforceforthefutureandfulillournation’shumancapitalneeds.
Hornbeck’s“newparadigmofaction”lookedalotlikeoldOBE—settingspeciicperformance
standardsandinvokingpenaltiesforschools,teachersandstudentsnotmeetingthem:
Ifthenewcomprehensivesystemistobeoutcome-based,carefulattentionmustbepaidto
assessmentstrategies.Theselectionofoutcomeindicatorswillbeinformedbytheavailability
ofsoundassessmentinstruments.[emphasisadded]
NowherewasHornbeckusingassessmentandinstrumenttogetherinsteadofasubstitute
foroneortheother—andhehadselectedthetwotermswhichcarriedlegalusagedeinitions.
HornbeckassertedthatwhiletheNAEPmightbeuniversallyavailable,andportfolioassessments
(noticetheuseofbothwordstogether)wouldbecomepopular,“theEducationalTestingService
A–47
AppendixXI
(ETS)isinvestingtimeandfundsindevelopingnewapproachestoassessment.”Hefurther
statedthatmostofthepresentassessmentobservationsare“relatedtoacademicobjectives”:
Similarsensitivityisrequiredincarefullydeiningappropriateassessmenttoolsinotherareas
aswell.Incitizenship,amethodshouldbedevelopedforexpressingqualitativeaspectsof
participationactivities....[A]differentvaluecouldbeplacedoncommunityservice....Physical
andmentalitness…problemsariseasweconfrontlegalandevenconstitutionalissues(self-
incrimination,searchandseizure)....Perhapsaschoolsystemshouldplantohaveallstudents
undergoaphysicalexaminthefourth,eighth,andtwelfthgradesasahealthcounterpartto
theacademictestingprogram.Again,theemphasismustbeoncarefullydeterminingassess-
mentstrategiesthatmeasuretheoutcomestobeachieved.[emphasisadded]
Allofthisisstructuredbecause“incrementalchangeisinsuficient.Systemsmustberadically
alteredtoproducewhatthenation’seconomydemandsinaworkforce.”
Weren’twesupposedtobeconcernedabouttheeducationofschoolchildren?Thissounded
alotlikeliteraturewhichproposed“fullemployment”policies,muchlikethebillboardsand
signsplasteredonpublictransportationandpublicbuildingsinGrenada—”Workforeveryone:
everyoneworking!”—beforetheU.S.invasiontooverthrowtheirCommunistgovernmentin
1983.
Was this why the Council of Chief State School Oficers accepted a contract from the
NationalCenterforEducationalStatisticstodevelopwhatisknownastheSPEEDEExPRESS
(theExchangeofPermanentRecordsElectronicallyofStudentsandSchools)?Thiselectronic
informationtrackcancarrythemostdiverseandextensiveinformationonastudent,deliver-
ingittofutureemployers,placesofhighereducation,trainingcenters,healthproviders(con-
traceptivehistorieswillbeincluded),themilitary,andanumberofotherrecipientsyettobe
designated.Thenifemployers,government,andothershaveinputintowhatshouldbethe
outcomeofeducationinthiscountry—insteadofeducationbeingacademicallyandinforma-
tion-based—thenthisconceptof“assessmentasassigningavalue”toachildtakesonpropor-
tionsthatarecertainlyOrwellian.
Whatifyourchild’sassessedworthdoesn’tmeetanyone’sprojectedgoal?Proponentsof
theCertiicateofInitialMastery(CIM)andtheCertiicateofAdvancedMastery(CAM)are,in
truth,leshingouttheskeletonofassigningavaluetoaperson.WithouttheCIM/CAMinthose
statesadoptingtheconcept,youngpersonswillnotbeabletoapplyforajob,driveacar,or
domanyotherthingswhichhaveneverbeforebeenpredicatedongovernment’sconferringa
valueonaperson’sworthtosociety.ThePeople’sRepublicofChina,aCommunistcountry,
uses“noconformity—nojob”policiestoenforceits“onechild”policy.
Haveweunderstoodthedirectionofthesechanges?Isthisconstitutionalormoral?
AssessingHumanValue
Thenextpiecetothepuzzleofassessmentfellintoplacewhenmysuspicionswereconirmed
thatwereallywereassessing“value”.TheAugust1993issueofVisions,thenewsletterofthe
EducationforFutureInitiativesponsoredbyPaciicTelesisFoundation,wasgivenoutataleg-
islativecommitteemeetingaspartofapacketofinformationontechnologyintheclassroom
andschool-to-worktransitionactivities.Theleadarticlewas“BeyondtheBubble”withablurb
reading:“Educatorsareindingthatnewwaysofteachingrequirenewformsofassessment.”
On page three there was a column entitled “Authentic Deinitions.” Finally, I thought,
Ihavefoundaneducationalpublicationthatwilldeinethiswordandallaymyfears.Sure
A–48
enough,therewastheword:
Assessment—The act or result of judging the worth or value of something or someone.
[emphasisadded]
The worth or value of something or someone?! This was conirmation that educational
testinghadtakenanextremeleftturn.Itwasnotcomfortingtorealizethatourchildrenwere
goingtobeassignedavaluebasedon“acceptableperformancebehaviorsinlife-roleapplica-
tions”asproposedinPaciicTelesisFoundation’s“AuthenticDeinitions.”
Knowingthat:
1.ourchildrenwouldbetrackedandthatextensivelydetailedileswouldbeelectronically
compiledandtransmittedtoselectusers;
2.informationwouldincludeorbebasedonavaluelevelassignedtothemcontingent
uponperformance—asachild—ofliferolecompetencies;
3.valuelevelscouldrelectthescaleofachievementoutlinedintheUnitedStatesLabor
Department’s1993Secretary’sCommissiononAchievingNecessarySkills(SCANS)publications
whichencompassespersonalitytraitsandprivatepreferences,and
4. the purpose of education had documentably been diverted into workforce training,
ledme,ultimately,totheconclusionthatindeedthefutureholdsalessthanbrightprospect
forouryoungpeople.Tobeformallyassigneda“worth”tosocietybasedonyourabilityasa
childtodemonstratethatyoucanperforman“essentialskill”shouldbeaforeignconceptina
constitutionalrepublicliketheoneinwhichwelive—theseUnitedStatesofAmerica.
Anexampleofhowtheseeffortsatassessmenthavebeenpervertedtotheendsoutlined
above is given in Crucial issues In Testing, edited by Ralph W. Tyler and Richard M. Wolf.
ThisbookisoneinaseriespreparedundertheauspicesoftheNationalSocietyfortheStudy
ofEducation,whichin1974includednameslikeWilliamSpady,JohnGoodlad,andRobert
Havighurstonitsgoverningcommittee.Onpage98,withinanarticlebyCarmenJ.Finley(of
theAmericanInstituteforResearch)isasectionentitled“DeiningGoalsVersusComparison
withanAverage”:
IntheNationalAssessmentprogramspeciicobjectivesorgoalsaredeinedandexercises
arewrittenwhichdeterminehowwellthesegoalsarebeingmet.Forexample,incitizenship
amajorobjectiveisto“SupportRightsandFreedomsofAllIndividuals.”Onespeciicwayin
whichapersonmightmeetthisgoalistodefendtherightofapersonwithveryunpopular
viewstoexpresshisopinionandsupporttherightof“extreme”(politicalorreligious)groups
toexpresstheirviewsinpublic.
Oneexercisewhichwaswrittentotrytotellwhetherornotthisobjectivewasbeingmetisas
follows:
Belowarethreestatementswhichmakesomepeopleangry.Markeachstatementasto
whetheryouthinkapersononradioorTVshouldorshouldnotbeallowedtomakethese
statements:
• RussiaisbetterthantheUnitedStates.
• Someracesofpeoplearebetterthanothers.
• ItisnotnecessarytobelieveinGod.
Thisisthegoal-orientedapproach.Theobjectivesorgoalsrepresentakindofstandard
AppendixXI
A–49
whichisconsidereddesirabletoachieve.Theexercises,iftheyaregoodmeasures,tellto
whatextentthegoalsarebeingachieved.Thisapproachtellsveryspeciicallywhataperson
knowsorcando.
Isubmitthatthegoals-oriented/performance-based/OBEassessmentapproachjustoutlined
tellsmorethanwhatachildknowsorcando.Thisapproachveryspeciicallyrevealswhata
childfeelsandbelieves.Rememberthatassessmentsmeasurepredeterminedoutcomes.Those
outcomesrepresentthejudged“worth”or“value”ofyourchildrenandmine!
Withthelastelectioncycle,hopesweptthecountrythatsinceaconservativemajority
hadexerteditself,changeswouldbemade.Asacountrywe’dbesnatchedfromthebrinkof
economicsocialismandpotentialcorporatefascism,andsanitywouldberestoredtothehalls
ofgovernment.Right?
WhenRightIsLeft
ItjusthappensthattheOctober1992editionofVisions(PacTelesisFoundationnewsletter)
containedanarticleentitled“WhyTechnology?”Itbegan
AlvinTofler,theauthorofsuchinluentialbooksasFutureShockandTheThirdWave,
haswrittenthatthespreadofpersonalcomputersisthesinglemostimportantchangeinthe
ieldofknowledgesincetheinventionofmovabletypeinthe15thcentury.Hegoesontostate
thatknowledgeisthekeytopowerinthe21stcentury—notmineralrightsormilitaryforce.
Thiswasthesamepublicationthatcarriedthedeinitivedeinitionofassessment.And
wasn’tthisthesameAlvinToflerwhowroteCreatingaNewAmericanCivilization,which
heraldsthecoming“ThirdWave”ofglobalculture,publishedbytheProgressandFreedom
Foundationandintroducedattheir“CyberspaceandtheNewAmericanDream”conference
inAtlantalastyear?
NewtGingrich,thenewSpeakeroftheHouse,introducedToflerashislongtimefriend
andthensatquietlybytohearToflersaythatnationalsovereigntywasathingofthepastand
thathewasanavowedsecularist.Thesearethestripesofournew“conservative”future?
AtthesameCyberspaceconference,anarrayofprofessionalsfrommanyareasofcultural
lifeparadedtheircontributionstoleadershiptowardthemuch-touted“ThirdWave”.Thespokes-
personforeducationinProgressandFreedomFoundation’slineupwas—andstillis—LewisJ.
Perelman,authorofSchool’sOut:ARadicalNewFormulafortheRevitalizationofAmerica’s
EducationalSystem.Perelmanadvocateswhathecallsjust-in-timelearning,privatizedpublic
schools,TotalQualityapplications,hyperlearning,andmanyothercatchyconceptswhichare
now,ofcourse,gettingmuchattentioninthepolicydebates.
ItshouldbenotedthatintheprefacetohisbookPerelmancitesWassilyLeontiefandB.F.
SkinneramongthosefromwhomheparticularlybeneitedduringhisyearsatHarvardinthe
1970s.Mostinteresting,sinceLeontiefistheacknowledgedexpertonmanagementbyobjec-
tives(MBO)—theforerunnerandcompaniontoPPBS.AndSkinnerwastheAmericanfatherof
behavioralpsychologyandmasterylearning/operantconditioning—thefoundationforOBE.
TheserelationshipsofPerelman’sareimportantbecausehesuppliedtheconnectingpiece
tocompletethepuzzlepictureofourchildren’sfuture.Perelmanstatesonpage316that
…Nostalgicmythologyabout“localcontrol”shouldnotmasktherealitythatthestate
governmentshavetheconstitutionalauthority,calltheshots,andpaymostofthebillfor
A–50
education.Butgovernment,localorotherwise,nolongerneedstoownandoperateschool
systemsoracademicinstitutions.
TaxingHumanWorth
NowtotheheartofPerelman’salternativeproposalwhichformsthefutureof“conservative”
educationalpolicyandexpressesassessment’sfutureuse:
…Onepossibilitywouldbeahumancapitaltax[emphasisadded].Thehumancapital
taxmightbesimplythesameasapersonalincometax,ormightbecalculatedorear-marked
inamorelimitedway.Technicalitiesaside,it’slogicalthatifthegovernmentisgoingtohelp
fundinvestmentsinthedevelopmentofthecommunity’shumancapital,takingbackashare
oftheresultinggainsisagoodwaytopayforit.Ineffect,eachgenerationofbeneiciaries
ofsuchinvestmentpaysbacksomeofthebeneitsitreceivedtothenextgeneration[value-
addedtax,ed.].(p.317)
Weshoulddealwithparentswhoarestarvingtheirchildren’smindswiththesamelegal
remediesweusetodealwithparentswhoarestarvingtheirchildren’sbodies.Themedia
throughwhichamicrochoice[voucher]systemisprovidedwillgivepublicauthoritiesmore
accurateinformationonwhatindividualfamiliesandkidsaredoingthaniscurrentlyavailable,
makingiteasiertoidentifyinstancesofnegligenceormisuse.[emphasisadded](p.318)
…[T]here’snogoodreasonwhythelearnershouldnotbeabletopurchaseservicesorproducts
fromanyprovider—whetherpublicorprivate,in-stateorout-of-state.(p.319)
AValue-AddedTaxForHumanWorth
Thereistheframework.Avalue-addedtaxprocessthatwilldeductfromaservices/education
super-voucherataxforeverylevelofachievement/skillastudentachieves—trueassessment.
Standardswillberigidandpenaltiesfornon-achievementwillbeenforceableagainstthestudent,
hisparents,andprovidersofeducationalservicesinordertoachieveatrainedworkforce.
TheimplicationsforfamiliesbeingdisruptedbyaccusationsandprosecutionsforPerel-
man’simpliedabuseandneglectover“parentalstarvingofchildren’sminds”arestartlingin
theirlagrancy.
Anelaborateandaccuratesystemwilltrackfamiliesandstudents,leavingprivacyand
conidentialityinthedust.Thetax/voucherwillfollowthestudentacrossstateandregional
boundaries,necessitatingareformulationoftaxbases;thiscouldevenbeextendedtoforeign
sources—facilitatedbychoiceandcharterschoolinitiatives.(RememberToflerassertsthat
nationalsovereigntyis,orwillsoonbe,athingofthepast.AndwhataboutGATT’seducation
provision?)
TheWorldBankhasjustannounced(AssociatedPress,TheDesMoinesRegister,9/15/95)
itsnewformulaforestimatinganation’sworth.IsmaelSerageldin,WorldBankVicePresident
forEnvironmentallySustainableDevelopment,statedinMonitoringEnvironmentalProgress:
AReportonWorkinProgressthatthesystem“fortheirsttimefoldsacountry’speopleandits
naturalresourcesintoitsoverallbalancesheet.”WhiletheWorldBankprojectsthatitsnew
systemofmeasuringwealthwhich“attemptstogobeyondtraditionalgauges”andlists“Human
Resources:valuerepresentedbypeople’sproductivecapacity”(e.g.education,nutrition)will
takeyearstoperfect,Isubmitthatourprocessofassessmentisagiantstepinthatdirection.
IamremindedthatinMayof1984theWashingtonPostpublishedanarticleentitled“Indus-
trialPolicyUrgedforGOP.”TheInstituteforContemporaryStudies,“foundedbyEdwinMeese,
A–51
AppendixXI
CasparWeinberger,andotherReagansupporters,”issuedareportthatadvocated“Republicans
shedsomeoftheirdeep-rootedantipathytoaplannedeconomy.”Allsignalsseemtopointto
thefactthatthishasindeedhappened.
Somewhereinallofthisislosttheabilitytocommunicateourcultureinanorganizedway
andtoteachbasicskillsthatcanbeusedwhethercyberspacetechnologyisavailableornot.
Didn’tweusedtocallthis“education”?Didn’twebelievethatourchildrenhadsomechoice
intheirfutures?
Whenisassessmentreallyassessment?ErnestBoyer,formerDirectoroftheOficeofEdu-
cationandCarnegieFoundationdirector,oncesaid,“Tobefullyhumanonemustserve.”In
thefuturetobefullyassessedmaymeanourchildren’sworthasaservantofthestatewillbe
“assignedavaluefortaxpurposes”—assessment.
America,whereareyou?
Eph.6:10-20
AppendixXII
Excerptsfrom“TheNationalAllianceforRestructuringEducation:
Schools—andSystems—forthe21stCentury”
AProposaltotheNewAmericanSchoolsDevelopmentCorporation
bythe
NationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomy
Attn.:MarcTucker,President
39StateStreet,Suite500,Rochester(MonroeCounty),NY14614
Phone:(716)546-7620andFAX:(716)546-3145
anditsPartners:
StateofArkansas LearningResearchandDevelopmentCenteratthe
AppleComputer,Inc. UniversityofPittsburgh
StateofKentucky SanDiego,CA
CenterfortheStudyofSocialPolicy StateofVermont
StateofNewYork NationalAllianceofBusiness
Commission on the Skills of the American StateofWashington
Workforce National Board for Professional Teaching Stan-
Pittsburgh,PA dards
HarvardProjectonEffectiveServices WhitePlains,NY
Rochester,NY NewStandardsProject
XeroxCorporation
Brandonisasmall,ruralvillageintheGreenMountainsanhoursouthofBurlington
onVermontHighway7.Thepeopleherearepoor,andtheuglywhite-bricktwo-storybuilding
looksmorelikeaweather-beatenindustrialplantthanaschool.But,ontheinside,OtterValley
UnionHighSchoolhasbecomeahighoutputacademicsettingthatproducesthestate’sdebate
champions,itsownliterarymagazineandachoirthatperformedMozartatCarnegieHall.
Buckingbureaucraticrulesandwinningstatewaiversfromregulations,thefacultyat
OtterValleyrestructuredtheirschooloverthepastsixyears.Theyworkedwiththecommunity
A–52
AppendixXII A–53
tosetambitiousgoals.Theycreatedinterdisciplinaryteamsofteacherstoimproveinstruction.
Theymovedtocooperativelearningandheterogeneousgrouping.Arotatingtroikaofteach-
ersassumedtheroleofprincipal.Theystarted“measuring”[emphasisinoriginal]learning
throughportfoliosofthestudents’workinmath,English,socialstudiesandscience.They
foughtfortimeandmoneytogetthetrainingforthemselvesthatallowedthistransformation.
Thestudentsresponded.(p.2)
Now,imagineforthemomentwherewemightbeifstatesanddistrictsroutinely[empha-
sisinoriginal]gavebirthtoschoolslikeOtterValleyinVermont.Imaginesystemsthatprovide
assistanceandencouragementtoschoolsto“breakthemold”insteadofinlexiblerulesthat
onlyhardenit.(p.3)
OurobjectistomakeschoolslikeOtterValley…thenormeverywhere.By1995weplan
tohave243schoolsinsevenstates—enrollingastudentbodyrepresentativeoftheAmerican
people—castinmoldstheysetthemselvesandperformingaswellasanyintheworld.These
schoolswillbethevanguardofafarlargernumberinmanymorestatesthatwillmeetthe
samestandardiniveyears.
Reachingthisgoalwillrequireatransformationinvirtuallyeveryimportantaspectofthe
Americansystemofeducation,featuresthathaveremainedessentiallyunchangedfornearly
70years,fromgraduationstandardstoincentivesthatmotivatestudents,fromcurriculumto
budgeting,fromassessmentsystemstoteachingcareers.(page4)
Promotingand—especially—sustainingthesechangesintheschoolswillrequirecomple-
mentaryandequallyradicalchangesintheorganizationofschooldistrictsandthestructure
andadministrationofeducationpolicyatthestatelevel.Itwillalsorequirethoughtfuland
sustained communication with the citizens of these states to build the public consensus
needed to support those revolutionary changes. Designing and implementing this kind of
fundamentaltransformationnotjustinafewschools,butinschools,districtsandstatesin
manypartsofthecountryatonceisanunprecedentedundertaking.Pullingitoffwillrequire
thecoordinatedactionofhundredsofthemosttalented,committededucatorsandspecialists
frommanywalksofAmericanlifebeyondeducation.TheNationalAllianceforRestructuring
hasassembledsuchateamandhasdevisedaplanthatwillenableustoworktogetherto
getthejobdone.ThestatesanddistrictsthatareourPartnersareutterlycommittedtothis
transformation.(p.4)
Under“America’sSchoolsandSystems:Castina1920’sMold,”thereportsays:
“Breakingthemold”meansbreakingthissystem,rootandbranch.(p.6)
Theirstdesigntask,then,istodeinewhatoutcomesarewantedandcreatequality
measuresofprogresstowardthoseoutcomes.
AllthestatesanddistrictsinourconsortiumaremembersoftheNewStandardsProject,
whichisitselfaPartnerinourconsortium.Wearecommittedtodevelopingstandardsand
developinganexaminationsysteminallthecontentareascoveredbyGoals3and4ofthe
NationalEducationGoalsaswellasworkskillsatthe4th,8thand10thgradelevels.Itwill
setaworld-classstandardofperformanceforallstudents,thoughweplantoaccommodate
manydifferentexaminations.Theseexamswillemphasizetheabilitytothinkwell,demon-
strateanunderstandingofsubjectsstudiedandapplywhatoneknowstothekindofcomplex
problemsencounteredinreallife.(pp.8–9)
The New Standards Project is developing a mastery-based examination with known
standards….TheNewStandardsProject’sexaminationsystemwillemployadvancedformsof
A–54
performanceexaminationsaswellasassessmentsofthequalityofstudents’workasrevealed
throughportfolios,exhibitionsandprojects.Butthisisnotouronlyresourceforthisproposal.
Manyofthestatesanddistrictsinourconsortiumarethemselvesleadersinthenationalmove-
menttocreatehighstandardsandnewformsofstudentperformanceassessment.Vermont,for
example,ispioneeringthedevelopmentofportfolioassessment.Pittsburghdevelopedoneof
theirstandwidelyadmiredsystemsforassessinghigherorderthinkingskills.AndKentucky
isinvesting$29millioninthedevelopmentofawholenewsystemofstudentperformance
assessmentthatwilladvancethestateoftheart.
Theapproachweplantouseforassessmentwillprovideapowerfultoolforthispurpose.
Atitsheartistheideaofsettingtasksforstudentstodo.Itistheperformanceofstudentson
thesetasksthatwillbeassessedbythesystem.Toasigniicantextent,thetasks,bydeining
students’work,willdeinetheircurriculum.(p.9–10)
Along with the Alliance states and school districts, it is committed to developing…
outcomestandardsthatwillenableourPartnerstocreateperformance-orientedsystemsfor
thedeliveryofhealthandhumanservicesthatwillparallelwhatweproposeforschools.(p.
14)
Changing the district and state systems from rule-driven, input-oriented systems to
output-driven,performance-orientedsystemswillbeashardtoachieveasthechangeswe
describedforschoolsandjustasnecessary.Itisoneofthemostdificultdesignchallengeswe
face....Webelievethat,atitscore,thisisbestthoughtofasaprobleminthedesignofavery
largestaffdevelopmenteffort,anefforttoenablethousandsofpeopletodeveloptheskills,
attitudesandvaluestotransformschoolsandcommunitiesallovertheUnitedStates....For
years,moststaffdevelopmenthasbeenbasedonlearningfromtheorythatisdivorcedfrom
practice.Weenvisionlearningbyparticipationinacommunityofpractitioners,acommunity
thatincludespeopleateverylevelofmastery.
Howcanwecreatesuchasystemfortheteachersandothersinoursites?Intheclassic
modeloflearningthroughpractice,thenewcomerjoinstheworkenvironmentofamaster,
learningbyparticipatinginalloftheactivitiesofthatenvironment.Thisworkswhennewcom-
ersaretobesocializedintoestablishedandwell-functioningcommunitiesofpractice.Butour
problemishowsimultaneouslytocreateanewsystemandsocializeeducatorstofunction
withinit.Therearefew,ifany,schoolsthatarealreadyeffectivelycarryingoutanintegrated
programoftransformedlearningandteachingmeetingworld-classstandards,joinedwitha
socialserviceprogramandengagingparentsandthecommunityintheprocess.Neverthe-
less,webelieveitispossibletodesignacontinuingprofessionaldevelopmentprogramthat
includestheessentialelements.Thereareivesuchelements:
• Observationandmodeling.Newcomersspendasigniicantamountoftimeobserving
mentorsatwork.Fromthisobservation,theylearnedtodiscriminategoodfrompoor
practiceandacceptablefromunacceptableoutcomes.Observationisnothaphazard.
Itismediatedbyconversationsinwhichcriticalfeaturesoftheworkarepointedout
andprocessesareanalyzed.Ourdevelopmentprogrammustprovideopportunities
forthiskindofsupportedobservationandanalysisoftheworkof“masters.”
• Activepractice.Thisistheheartofit;thosewhoaredevelopingtheirskillswork
atthejobtheyarelearning,ratherthanlearningaboutthejob.Eitherintheirown
schoolsorinthoseinwhichtheirmentorsteach,teacherswillactivelypracticethe
newkindsofteachingforwhichweaim.
• Scaffolding.Butbydeinition,theydon’tyetknowhowtodothesetasks—theyare
stilllearning.Howcantheymanagethispracticethen?Theanswerisscaffolding.
AppendixXII A–55
Theylearnbyworkingside-by-sidewithanexpert.Butbeginnerscanalsoscaffold
oneanotherbysharingadificulttaskthatneithermightbeabletodoalone.Within
our professional development design, we will need to provide scaffolding for our
teachers’earlyeffortsinnewformsofteaching,eitherfromexpertteachersorfrom
othersgoingthroughthesameskilldevelopmentprocess.
• Coaching.Successalsodependsontheavailabilityofcoachingbyasupportiveexpert
whoobservesandcommentsonthelearner’sefforts.Coachingisnotaone-timeaffair,
butcontinuous,spreadoutoverthemanymonthsoryearsthatittakestobecomea
full-ledgedexpert.Wewillhavetoprovideforextendedcoachingforourteachers,
bothinthesitesinwhichtheyareinterning,whichwecallmastersites,andintheir
ownschools.
• GuidedRelection.Wewillneedtoprovideforrelectionbythosedevelopingtheir
skills.Justpracticingthenewformsofteaching,justdoingit,evenwell,willnotpre-
pareteachersforthelexibilitythatwillbenecessaryastheycontinueworkingover
theyearswithnewgroupsofstudents,withnewaspectsofcurriculum.Successful
teachingmustbearelectivepractice,oneinwhichindividualsarecontinuallycon-
sidering,evaluatingandimprovingontheirownwork.Thiscapacityanddisposition
needstobecultivatedduringthedevelopmentperiod,andsupportedindeinitely.It
isnotjustamatteroftimeforrelection—althoughthatiscrucial—butalsoacom-
munityofotherstoengagewithinarelectiveprocess.(page22–23)
Ourdesignproblemistobuildadevelopmentprogramthatwillcontaineachofthe
aboveelementswithintheconstraintsofasituationinwhichtheteachersengaginginthis
developmentprocessremainpartofateamresponsibleforeducatingchildrenattheirhome
school. Furthermore, we must ind a way to quickly scale up the number of schools and
teachersparticipating.
Whatareourresources?Fundamentally,people,schoolpracticeenvironments,informa-
tionandeducationalmaterials,timeandcommunicationresources.
People:Weneedmasterpractitioners,teachersalreadyteachingwellinthenewways
wearehopingwillspreadthroughoursystem.Weneedexpertconsultantswhocanconnect
ourteacherstothebestresearchandotherknowledgeaboutinstructionandlearning.We
needpeoplewhocanfunctionason-sitecoaches—whoaremasterpractitionersofteaching,
butwhohaveenoughfreedomfromdailyteachingresponsibilitythattheycantraveltothe
schoolsinwhichourteacher-apprenticesareworkingtoobserve,supportandcritique.
Attheoutset,weare,bydeinition,shortonmasterpractitioners.Butthereareteach-
ers,bothwithinourPartnersitesandelsewhere,whoaredoingsuperbworkonsomepart
ofthecurriculum.Ourplandrawsinsomeofthesepeopleasmasterpractitioners.Working
throughLearningResearchDevelopmentCenter[Pittsburgh,ed.],wewillbeabletoputour
schoolprofessionalsintouchwiththebestresearchknowledgeintheworldonquestionsof
curriculumandinstruction.
Inourprojectedcascadedesign,describedbelow,teachersandotherpractitionerswho
becomeexpertswillserveinsubsequentyearsasmasterpractitioners.Asystemofcertiica-
tionformasterpractitionerswillbedesignedtoinsureagainstthelossofidelitythatchar-
acteristicallyplaguescascadedesigns.Itwillalsoserveasanincentive(throughrecognition
and,possibly,additionalpay)fortheextraworkthatteacherswillneedtobecomemaster
practitioners.WewillworkwiththeNationalBoardforProfessionalTeachingStandardson
designingthiscertiicationprocess.(pp.21–24)
HowWePlantoDoIt
...Gettingtherewillrequiremorethannewpoliciesanddifferentpractices.Itwillrequirea
A–56
changeintheprevailingculture—theattitudes,values,normsandacceptedwaysofdoing
things—thatdeinestheenvironmentthatdetermineswhetherindividualschoolssucceed
orfailinthetransformationprocess.Wewillknowthatwehavesucceededwhenthereare
enoughtransformedschoolsinanyonearea,andenoughdistrictsdesignedandmanagedto
supportsuchschools,thattheirapproachtoeducationsetsthenorms,framestheattitudes
anddeinestheacceptedwaysofdoingthingsinthatpartoftheworld.Thentherewillbe
noturningback.(p.33)
BearinmindthatwehaveselectedoursitePartnersbecausetheirrestructuringplans
arealreadyamongthemostadvancedinthecountry.Eachofthestatesinwhichwewill
initiallyconcentrate—Vermont,NewYorkandKentucky—havedevelopedsweepingstrategic
plansofaction.(p.36)
Hornbeck, Tucker, Cohen and Gloria Frazier will visit all of the sites at least once a
month,providingsupportandtechnicalassistance.(p.43)
[Ed.Note:Todatetherehavebeennoreportsfromstates,cities,schoolsorschooldistricts
listed as “Partners” which show academic improvement as a result of their involvement in
MarcTucker’sproject.Rochester,NYinparticular,wasadisastercase,withaNationalPublic
BroadcastingSystemreportinmid-Aprilof1993“accusingthecityschooldistrictoflunking
theonce-heraldedmovementtoreformitsschools.”Vermont’seffortshaveproventobeless
thansuccessfulandKentucky’ssystemofstudentperformanceassessmenthadtobescrapped
afterenormouscontroversyoverfaultydevelopmentbythedesigners.]
AppendixXIII
“Psychology’sBestKeptSecrets”
“Psychology’sBestKeptSecrets,”theentireChapter9fromTheWholeLanguageOBEFraud,
bySamuelBlumenfeld(ParadigmCompany:Boise,ID,1996)pp.77–89,isreproducedhere.
Itismorethanalittlecuriousthatinanationwheresomuchresearchhasbeendoneby
psychologistsonthenatureofhumancognition—howchildrenlearn—thatthesesamepsy-
chologistshaveshownvirtuallynointerestinthegreatestlearningproblemplaguingAmerican
education:theteachingofreading.Itistruethatthereismuchinterestindiagnosingreading
disabilityandexploring“dyslexia,”butnointerestintheinstructionalcauseofreadingdisability,
despitethefactthatDr.SamuelT.Ortonirstdrewattentiontotheproblembackin1929.
WhichbringsustotheCenterforCognitiveStudieswhereFrankSmithallegedlyabsorbed
thewisdomofNoamChomskyetal.ThechiefarchitectoftheCenterwasJeromeBrunerwho
tellsusinhisautobiography,InSearchofMind,thatcognitivepsychologywasbornin1956at
asymposiumonthecognitivesciencesheldattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.Two
ofthekeypersonswhoparticipatedinthatsymposiumwereHarvardbehavioralpsychologist
GeorgeMillerandlinguistNoamChomsky.
ItwasthatsymposiumthatconvincedMillertoleaveB.F.Skinner’sbehavioristcampat
HarvardandjoinJeromeBrunerindevelopingcognitivepsychology.Millerwrites:
IwentawayfromtheSymposiumwithastrongconviction,moreimitativethanrational,
thatexperimentalpsychology,theoreticallinguistics,andthecomputersimulationofcognitive
processeswereallpiecesfromalargerwhole,andthatthefuturewouldseeaprogressive
elaborationandcoordinationoftheirsharedconcerns.(Bruner,p.122)
Threeyearslater,in1959,Chomskywastogivethecoupdegracetothebehavioristtheory
aboutlanguagebyadevastatingreviewofB.F.Skinner’sbook,VerbalBehavior(1957).Skin-
nerhadsoughttoexplainlanguagedevelopmentinhumansasaformofconditionedstimu-
lus-responsebehaviorsimilartothewaythatanimalsinpsychlabscouldbetrainedthrough
A–57
A–58
conditioningtechniques.Pavlov’sfamousexperimentsondogsinRussiawerethebestknown
exampleofsuchexperiments,theresultsofwhichweretopermitpsychologiststodevisetech-
niquesthatcouldbeappliedinchangingandmoldinghumanbehavior.
J.B.Watson,thefatherofAmericanbehaviorism,hadwrittenin1924:
Behaviorism…holds that the subject matter of human psychology is the behavior of
thehumanbeing.Behaviorismclaimsthatconsciousnessisneitheradeinitenorausable
concept....(p.2)
Thebehavioristasks:Whydon’twemakewhatwecanobservetherealieldofpsychol-
ogy?Letuslimitourselvestothingsthatcanbeobservedandformulatelawsconcerningonly
thosethings.Nowwhatcanweobserve?Wecanobservebehavior—whattheorganismdoes
orsays.Andletuspointoutatoncethatsayingisdoing—thatis,behaving.(p.6)
Chomskydemonstratedthatthebehaviorists’attemptstoexplainlanguageinthelimited
termsofstimulus-responsebehaviorwerefundamentallylawed.Hearguedthat“ourinter-
pretationoftheworldisbasedonrepresentationalsystemsthatderivefromthestructureof
theminditselfanddonotmirrorinanydirectwaytheformoftheexternalworld.”Inother
words,thehumanchildisbornwithabrainthatalreadycontainscertaininnateknowledge
thatpermitsthechildtolearnlanguagerapidly,withoutdirectinstructionfromanyone.Butthe
mysteryisthatthestructureoftheminddoesindeedmirrortheformoftheexternalworld,for
functionoflanguageistonametheexternalworld.Thechild’sabilitytomasterthephonologi-
calstructureofthelanguage,theabstractionsofsoundsymbols,aswellassyntaxsorapidly
andeffortlesslysuggestedtoChomskythatman’sgeneticmakeupprovidedhimwithahighly
developedlanguagecapability.
WhatisironicinallofthisisthatdespitethefactthatChomskyisaradicalsocialistand
believesinevolution,hisviewsaboutinnateknowledgearequitecompatiblewithandeven
stronglyconirmstheBiblicalviewofmanbeingcreatedwiththeabilitytouselanguage.God
gaveAdamtheabilitytospeakbecauseHewantedAdamtobeabletoconversewithHim.In
otherwords,Adamwasgiventhepowerofthewordforthespeciicpurposeofbeingableto
knowGod.ThesecondpurposeoflanguagewastoenableAdamtoknowtheworldforGod
gaveAdamthetaskofestablishingdominionoveralllivingcreatures,whichmeantnaming
themandclassifyingthem.Inotherwords,GodmadeAdamanobserver,ascientist.Afterthe
creationofEve,thethirdfunctionoflanguagebecameapparent:toknowothers.Andsince
languageisthetoolofthought,thefourthfunctionoflanguagewastobeabletothinkand
therebyknowoneself.
In1960MillerandBrunergotanunrestrictedgrantofaquarter-milliondollarsfromthe
CarnegieCorporationofNewYorktosetuptheirCenterforCognitiveStudiesatHarvard.Miller
broughtideasaboutcommunicationtheory,computation,andlinguisticstotheCenterwhereas
Brunerbroughtideasaboutsocialpsychology,developmentalpsychology,andanthropologyto
themix.Itwasobviousthatthenewinterestinthemindhadbeenspurredbythenewcom-
putertechnology.For,asBrunerwrites,“Youcannotproperlyconceiveofmanagingacomplex
worldofinformationwithoutaworkableconceptofmind.”TheresultisthattheCenterbrought
togethertheideasandtheoriesofscholarsandscientistsworkinginmanyassociatedieldsand
drewgraduatestudentsfromM.I.T.,Harvard,andelsewhere.
Bruner concentrated on early childhood mental development which brought him into
contactwiththeworkoftheSwisspsychologistJeanPiagetwhosepioneeringworkintheield
AppendixXIII A–59
hadcontributedgreatlytoanunderstandingofhowthechild’smindgrows.Piagetsawthe
childasanegocentricindividual,graduallymodifyinghisegocentrismasheadaptedhimself
totherealityofothers.
ButBruner,asocialist,wasnotentirelysatisiedwiththePiagetianviewwhichseemed
tofavorthedevelopmentofindividualism.“Piaget’schildren,”writesBruner,“arelittleintel-
lectuals,detachedfromthehurly-burlyofthehumancondition.”Hewasfarmoreattractedto
theworkofLevSemyonovichVygotsky(1896–1934),theSovietcognitivepsychologist.Bruner
writes:
Vygotsky’sworldwasanutterlydifferentplace,almosttheworldofagreatRussian
novel....Growingupinitisfullofachievingconsciousnessandvoluntarycontrol,oflearning
tospeakandthenindingoutwhatitmeans,ofclumsilytakingovertheformsandtoolsof
thecultureandlearninghowtousethemappropriately….(p.138)
VygotskypublishedlittleandvirtuallynothingthatappearedinEnglishbefore1960;
indeed,untilthelate1950s,mostofwhathewroteinRussianwassuppressedandhadbeen
bannedafterthe1936purge.Sicklyandbrilliant,hediedoftuberculosisinhisthirties....He
wasaRussianandaJew,deeplyinterestedintheartsandinlanguage....Hisobjectivewas
toexplorehowhumansocietyprovidedinstrumentstoempowertheindividualmind.He
wasaseriousintellectualMarxist,whenMarxismwasastarchyanddogmaticsubject.This
washisundoingatthetimeoftheStalinistpurges….ThoughIknewPiagetandneverknew
Vygotsky,IfeelIknowVygotskybetterasaperson.(p.137)
ThemanwhointroducedBrunertoVygotskywasAlexanderLuria,theSovietpsychologist
whosebook,TheNatureofHumanConlicts,hadbeentranslatedintoEnglishandpublished
intheUnitedStatesin1932.Luriawroteinhispreface:
Theresearchesdescribedherearetheresultsoftheexperimentalpsychologicalinvestiga-
tionscarriedonattheStateInstituteofExperimentalPsychology,Moscow,duringtheperiod
of1923–1930.Thechiefproblemsoftheauthorwereanobjectiveandmaterialisticdescrip-
tionofthemechanismslyingatthebasisofthedisorganisationofhumanbehaviourandan
experimentalapproachtothelawsofitsregulation….Toaccomplishthisitwasnecessary
tocreateartiiciallyaffectsandmodelsofexperimentalneuroseswhichmadepossiblean
analysisofthelawslyingatthebasisofthedisintegrationofbehavior.(p.xi)
Pavlovhimself,Luria’smentor,hadproudlysummeduptheresultsofhisfamousexperi-
mentsinabook,TwentyYearsofObjectiveStudy,publishedin1935.Theseexperimentson
animalshadenormousimplicationsforexperimentsonhumanbeings.Pavlovwrote:
Thepowerofourknowledgeoverthenervoussystemwill,ofcourse,appeartomuch
greateradvantageifwelearnnotonlytoinjurethenervoussystembutalsotorestoreitatwill.
Itwillthenhavebeenreallyprovedthatwehavemasteredtheprocessesandarecontrolling
them.Indeed,thisisso.Inmanycaseswearenotonlycausingdisease,butareeliminating
itwithgreatexactitude,onemightsay,toorder.(p.690)
Thus,Pavlovhadalreadydoneconsiderableexperimentationonthecausesofbehavioral
disorganization.Luriawrites(p.2):
Pavlovobtainedverydeiniteaffective“breaks,”anacutedisorganisationofbehaviour,
A–60
eachtimethattheconditionedrelexescollided,whentheanimalwasunabletoreacttotwo
mutuallyexclusivetendencies,orwasincapableofadequatelyrespondingtoanyimperative
problem.
Apparently,thereweremanypsychologistsatthattimeworkingonthesameproblem.
Luriawrites(p[p].206–207):
We are not the irst of those who have artiicially created disorganisation of human
behaviour.Alargenumberoffactspertainingtothisproblemhasbeencontributedbycon-
temporaryphysiologists,aswellasbypsychologists.
I.P.Pavlovwastheirstinvestigatorwho,withthehelpofexceedinglyboldworkers,
succeeded experimentally in creating neuroses with experimental animals. Working with
conditionedrelexesindogs,Pavlovcametotheconclusionthateverytimeanelaborated
relex came into conlict with the unconditional relex, the behavior of the dog markedly
changed….
Although,intheexperimentswiththecollisionoftheconditionedrelexesinanimals,
itisfairlyeasytoobtainacuteformsofartiicialaffect,itismuchmoredificulttogetthose
resultsinhumanexperiments….
K.Lewin,inouropinion,hasbeenoneofthemostprominentpsychologiststoelucidate
thisquestionoftheartiicialproductionofaffectandoftheexperimentaldisorganisationof
behaviour.Themethodofhisprocedure—theintroductionofanemotionalsettingintothe
experienceofahuman,theinterestofthesubjectintheexperiment—helpedhimtoobtainan
artiicialdisruptionoftheaffectofconsiderablestrength....Herethefundamentalconception
ofLewinisveryclosetoours.
WhowasK.Lewin?WhyhewastheverysameKurtLewinwhocametotheUnitedStates
in1933,foundedtheResearchCenterforGroupDynamicsatM.I.T.(whichlatermovedtothe
UniversityofMichigan),andinvented“sensitivitytraining.”Shortlybeforehisdeathin1947,
LewinfoundedtheNationalTrainingLaboratorywhichestablisheditscampusatBethel,Maine,
underthesponsorshipoftheNationalEducationAssociation.Theirteacherswereinstructedin
thetechniquesofsensitivitytrainingandhowtobecomeeffectivechangeagents.
AfterLewin’sdeath,hiscolleaguescontinuedtodevelophissensitivity-trainingsessions
whichbecameknownast-groups(tfortraining).Thet-groupbecamethebasisoftheencounter
movementinwhichparticipantsgetintouchwiththeirfeelings.
CarlRogers,oneofthechiefpractitionersofthet-group,consideredsensitivitytraining
tobe“perhapsthemostsigniicantsocialinventionofthiscentury.”Allofthisspurredthe
developmentofhumanist“ThirdForce”psychologybyRogers,AbrahamMaslowandothers,
whichhashadanenormousinluenceontheaffectivecurriculumofpubliceducation.
LewinhadstartedhiscareerasasocialpsychologistinBerlinwhereheorganizeda“col-
lective”inwhichheandhisstudentspursuedtheexperimentswhichLurialaterrecognizedas
highlyeffective.SomeofLewin’sstudentswereRussianswhostudiedunderhimintheearly
1920sandreturnedtotheSovietUniontoteachandcontinuetheirresearchattheUniversity
ofMoscow.In1929LewinattendedtheNinthInternationalCongressofPsychologistsatYale
where,accordingtoHarvardpsychologistGordonAllport,hiswork“wasdecisiveinforcing
someAmericanpsychologiststorevisetheirowntheoriesofthenatureofintelligentbehavior
andoflearning.”
AppendixXIII A–61
In1932,LewisM.Terman,headofthepsychologydepartmentatStanford,invitedLewin
to spend six months as a visiting professor at Stanford. Lewin had been recommended by
EdwinG.Boring,directorofthePsychLabatHarvard,whohadbeengreatlyimpressedwith
LewinattheYaleconference.AfterthestintatStanford,LewindecidedtoreturntoGermany
viathePaciicandtheTrans-Siberianrailroad.InMoscowhewasabletoconferwithhisfellow
psychologists,includingLuria.HitlerhadjustcometopowerinGermany,andinAugust1933,
LewinleftGermanyforgood.
TheimportanceofLewininthisstoryisthatherepresentedthecollectivistmentalityinthe
psychologicalcommunitywhichhaditsownsocio-politicalagenda.Certainly,thepsychologists
whowereexperimentingwithartiiciallyinducedbehavioraldisorganizationintheirlaboratories
inGermany,theSovietUnion,andtheUnitedStateshadareasonfortheirexperiments.And
Lewinwasconsideredhighlyskilledinsuchexperimentswithhumanbeingswhichgreatly
interestedAmericanpsychologists.Lewin’sbiographer,AlfredJ.Marrow,writes:
Studentsofprogressiveeducationalsosawtheneedforstudiesofgroupbehavior.This
wasstimulatedbytheeducationalphilosophyofJohnDewey.TocarryoutDewey’stheory
of“learningbydoing,”teachersorganizedsuchgroupprojectsasstudentself-government
andhobby-clubactivities.Thiscalledforthedevelopmentofleadershipskillsandcollective
settingofgroupgoals....Lewin’spioneeringresearchingroupbehaviorthusdrewuponthe
experienceofeducatorsindecidinguponanddevelopingtopicsforresearchandinestablish-
ingastronginterestamongsocialpsychologistsandteachers.(p.167)
OneofLewin’smostsigniicantexperimentswasaimedatdeterminingthebehavioral
effectsoffrustrationonchildrenandhowtheseeffectsareproduced.Marrowwrites:
Theexperimentindicatedthatinfrustrationthechildrentendedtoregresstoasurpris-
ingdegree.Theytendedtobecomebabyish.Intellectually,childrenoffour-and-a-halfyears
tendedtowardthebehaviorofathree-year-old.Thedegreeofintellectualregressionvaried
directlywiththestrengthofthefrustration.Changeinemotionalbehaviorwasalsorecorded.
Therewaslesssmilingandsingingandmorethumbsucking,noisiness,andrestlessactions.
Aggressivenessalsoincreasedandsomechildrenwentsofarastohit,kick,andbreakobjects.
Therewasa30percentriseinthenumberofhostileactionstowardtheexperimenteranda
34percentdecreaseinfriendlyapproaches….
Theauthorssummarizedtheirmainindingsasfollows:“Frustrationasitoperatedin
theseexperimentsresultedinanaverageregressioninthelevelofintellectualfunctioning,in
increasedunhappiness,restlessness,anddestructiveness,inincreasedultra-groupunity,and
inincreasedout-groupaggression.Theamountsofincreaseinnegativeemotionalitywere
positivelyrelatedtostrengthoffrustration.”(p.122)
Inotherwords,Lewinandhiscolleagueshadprovenbeyondashadowofadoubtthat
frustrationcouldcausethesamesymptomsofbehavioraldisorganizationinchildrenthatPavlov,
Luriaandassociateshadproducedintheirlaboratorieswithanimals.Onthematterofteaching
reading,Lewinfavoredthelook-say,whole-wordmethod.Marrowwrites:
Lewin’sstudentshadunusuallywidelatitudeinchoosingtheirparticularieldofstudy.
SaraForrer,forexample,decidedtoinvestigateOvidDecroly’smethodofteachingretarded
childrentoread….TheBelgianteacherhadpostulatedthatchildrenretainsentencesmore
A–62
easilythansinglewordsandwordsmoreeasilythansingleletters.Lewinstated,inreferring
toForrer’sexperiment,that“theindingsconirmthemarkedadvantageofthe‘global’method
ofreadingandwriting.Toachildtakingnojoyinlearningtowriteanalphabet,achangeof
valence(attractiveness)occursmorequicklywhenheisallowedassoonaspossibletowrite
meaningfulcommunicationsinsentenceform.”(p.258)
WhatisinterestinginallofthisisthatClaraSchmittin1914(seechap.12)hadshown
inheranalysisoftheerrorsmadebymentallydefectiveandnormalchildrenthatthementally
defectivehadproblemslearningtoreadphonetically.Andevenwhentheyweretaughttoread
phonetically,theymadethekindsoferrorsthatnormalchildrenmakewhentaughttoreadby
thelook-saymethod.Decrolywasobviouslyconirmingthatthe“global,”orwholelanguage
method, was easier for retarded children than the more abstract alphabetic system. But to
assumethattheglobal(i.e.,wholelanguage)methodwasalsobetterfornormalchildrenwas
eitheraseriouserroronLewin’spart,oradeliberateefforttopromotelook-say.Hemusthave
knownthattheCentralCommitteeoftheCommunistPartyintheSovietUnionhadrejectedthe
whole-wordmethodin1933mainlythroughtheworkofhiscolleagues,LuriaandVygotsky.
LewinobviouslybelievedintheMarxistdoctrinethattheendjustiiesthemeans.Inhis
book,ResolvingSocialConlicts,publishedin1948,hewrote:
Inregardtoachangetowarddemocracythisparadoxofdemocraticleadershipisstill
morepointed.Inanexperimentalchange,forinstance,fromindividualisticfreedom(laissez
faire)todemocracy,theincomingdemocraticleadercouldnottellthegroupmembersexactly
whattheyshoulddobecausethatwouldleadtoautocracy.Stillsomemanipulationsofthe
situationhavetobemadetoleadthegroupintothedirectionofdemocracy….
To investigate change toward democracy a situation has to be created for a certain
periodwheretheleaderissuficientlyincontroltoruleoutinluencehedoesnotwantand
tomanipulatethesituationtoasuficientdegree.Thegoalofthedemocraticleaderinthis
transitionperiodwillhavetobethesameasthatofanygoodteacher,namely,tomakehimself
superluous,tobereplacedbyindigenousleadersfromthegroup.(p.39)
Inotherwords,duringthetransitionperiodfromindividualismto“democracy”(i.e.,col-
lectivism)theendcanjustifythemeans,becausethe“end”isthegreatergood.Thelook-say
methodmaybeneededduringthetransitionperiodinordertomakeAmericanslessliterate
andtherebylessindependentasindividuals.Thiswouldindeedbeanecessarystrategyfor
movingthenationtowardasocialist,collectivistsociety.And,ofcourse,itwasinkeepingwith
Dewey’sownviewsonreadinginstructiongiveninhisessay,“ThePrimarySchoolFetich,”
publishedin1898.
Vygotskydiedin1934andLewindiedin1947,butLuria,whoknewthemboth,continued
hiswork.DuringWorldWarIIhedidpainstakingresearchonbrain-injuredpeople,discover-
ingmanyfacetsofhowthebrainworks.HehadworkedcloselywithVygotskyfrom1924to
1934,theperiodinwhichtheyhadworkedonearlychildhooddevelopmentandtheartiicial
meansofcreatingbehavioraldisorganization.DuringthatperiodVygotskyalsoworkedonthe
problemsofSovieteducation,applyingpsychologytotheproblemsofmassiveilliteracywhich,
accordingtoJamesWertsch,“hasbeenalmostcompletelyovercometoday.”
How were the Soviets able to achieve this? By using an alphabetic-phonics method of
teachingreading!
AppendixXIII A–63
TheBruner-Luriaconnectionwasaverycloseone.Brunerattendedpsychologicalconfer-
encesinMoscow,and,in1960,LuriavisitedtheCenterforCognitiveStudies.Brunerwrites:
LuriaandIbecamefastfriendsalmostimmediately.Wewerecompatibletemperamen-
tallyandverymuchinagreementaboutpsychologicalmatters….(p.145)
IntheifteenorsoyearsthatIknewhimwell,Idonotthinkthattwomonthseverwent
bywithoutaletterfromhim,anewbookortranslationofhis....HewastheczarofRussian
psychology,butamorebenignczarwouldbehardtoimagine!(p.144)
Whyweretheysocompatible?Well,asastudentBrunernotonlysympathizedwithcom-
munism,butinhissenioryearatDuke,hebecameamemberoftheCommunistParty.He
writes:
ThatlastyearatDukewas1938,thebitterwindingdownoftheSpanishCivilWar.My
roommate,IrvDunston,andIwereinvitedtobecomemembersofaMarxist“studygroup”
heldatthehomeofagiftedyoungmathematicsprofessor.Eachweekwewouldprepareby
readingsomethingofMarxorLenin.Ilikedtheslogans—thatproductionwasforusenot
forproit,toeachaccordingtohiseffort,andsoon—buttheturgidargumentsofMarxist
“thinkers”repelledme….
Myfondnessfortheslogansmusthavebeenenough,forwewereaskedeventuallyto
joina“cell”oftheCommunistPartyinDurham,“withrealworking-classpeople.”Aftera
late-into-the-nightdiscussion,wedecidedthatthiswasourduty….
Thecellmeetings,inthatdingyapartmentneartherailroadstationinDurham,were
the intrinsic, the conspiratorial appeal—our code names included.... My “duties” were to
takeanactivepartoncampusintheAmericanStudentUnion,toputthe“right”candidates
intoofice….
Theyearended;IdepartedDurham.IneverevenhadtoresignfromtheParty.Iwas
givennonamesorcontacts,buttoldsimplythatIwouldsoonknowwhoandhow.Iguess
Ididn’tmakeit.(pp.29–30)
ThusendedBruner’sformalrelationshipwiththeCommunistParty.Butnowhereinhis
autobiographydoesBrunerindicateanylossofbeliefinsocialismorMarxism.Thefactthat
hefeltsocompatiblewithLuriaandpreferredVygotskytoPiagetwouldleadonetobelieve
thatBrunerhasremainedsympathetictocommunismthroughouthisprofessionallife.Heand
hisfellowpsychologiststhoughtnothingofattendingpsychologicalconferencesinMoscow
during the height of the Cold War while American soldiers were dying in Vietnam ighting
communism.
On matters of education, Bruner was instrumental in creating in 1965 the famous—or
infamous,dependingonyourpointofview—socialstudiescurriculumforten-year-olds,Man:
ACourseofStudy,betterknownasMACOS.Brunerwrites:
[A]fterayearortwoofveryfavorablenotices…andwidespreadadoptions,thecourse
cameunderattackfromtheextremeright-wingJohnBirch[Society]inleaguewithnewly
emerging“creationists,”opposedtotheteachingofevolution.Betweenthemtheymounted
thenowfamiliarright-wingharassmentofanyschooldistrictproposingtousethecourse....
A–64
GovernorReaganofCalifornia,whosestateshelteredthecoreoftheJohnBirch,cameout
squarelyagainstthecourse....AndsosymbolichadthecoursebecomefortheextremeRight
thattheymanagedtopassontheir“literature”aboutittoaright-winggroupinAustralia,
theninoppositiontothewidespreadadoptionofthecoursethere.(p.194)
OnewouldhavetoconcludefromtheabovethattheCenterforCognitiveStudieswasnot
exactlyahotbedofconservative,anti-communistthinking.Anditisinterestingtonotethat
whenFrankSmithlefttheCenterwithhisnewlyacquiredPh.D.,heembarkedonhiscareer
asaphonics-basherparexcellenceandwassooncatapultedintothepositionof“expert”on
readingandliteracybythelook-sayestablishment.
AppendixXIV
AlertonNationalEducationGoalsPanelCommunityActionToolKit
October6,1994
TO:ConcernedCitizens
FROM:CharlotteIserbyt,FormerSeniorPolicyAdvisor,
U.S.DepartmentofEducation,OficeofEducationalResearch
andImprovement,fromwhichallcomponentsofeducational
restructuring(OBE/ML/Goals2000)emanated.
SUBJECT:NationalEducationGoalsPanelCommunityActionToolKit;
Do-It-YourselfKitforEducationRenewal,Community
OrganizingGuide,September1994.ACTIONALERT.
Ordertheabove-mentionedmaterialsfromtheGovernmentPrintingOfice,202–512–1800.
TheStockNo.fororderingis065–000–00680–4.Thepriceis$37.Itisimportanttoconfront
yourelectedoficialsIMMEDIATELYwiththeproofbeforeeducatorsreceiveprojectandmove
aheadwithitinyourcommunity.
Concernedparents,teachers,plaintaxpayers,etc.arefortunatethatwewereabletoobtain
acopyoftheseincrediblematerialswhichinanutshellspelloutclearlyhowtomanipulateall
segmentsofthecommunityintoaccepting/supportingGOALS2000(therestructuringofour
schools,i.e.,“nation,”accordingtoaspeechdeliveredbyShirleyMcCuneoftheMidcontinent
RegionalEducationLaboratoryattheGovernor’sConference,Wichita,Kansas,1989).Explicit
strategiesarepresentedinmanipulationofthecommunityintoacceptingtheoretical,unproven
curricula.Theguideprovidesclearandampledirectiontocensuredissentingvoicescriticalof
therestructuring.Thesedirectionsincludedeliberatelymisleadingofthemedia,formulation
ofcoregroupstoisolateandstiledissenters,contriveddatacollectionamongotheroffensive
activities.Theaimisnottoreachconsensusbuttoobfuscatetherealissuesinordertopush
forwardaone-sidedagenda.Amostdisturbingreferenceismadetowardcontrollingbyname
aparticularreligiousgroup.
Foryearseducationresearchershavereferredtothechangeagents’bible: TheChange
A–65
A–66
Agents’GuidetoInnovationinEducationbyRonaldG.Havelock,ProgramDirector,Center
forResearchonUtilizationofScientiicKnowledge,InstituteforSocialResearch,University
ofMichigan,portionsofwhichwereoriginallydevelopedaspartofContractNo.OEC–0–8–
080603–4535(010)withtheOficeofEducation,U.S.DepartmentofHealth,Education,and
Welfare,underthetitle“DiffusionofUtilizationResearchtoKnowledgeLinkersinEducation.”
Thecopyrightis1973(EducationalTechnologyPublications,Inc.:EnglewoodCliffs,NJ),LC
72–87317.TheGuidecontainsauthenticcasestudiesofhowchangeagentsmanipulatetheir
communitiesintoacceptingcontroversialcurricula,methods,etc.Somefreedom-lovingeducation
researchershavetakenthecourseonhowtobringaboutchangeandhowto“identifyresisters,”
etc.(themselves!).RonaldHavelockhasstrongconnectionstoUNESCO(UnitedNations).
ThattheNationalGoalsPanel,whichincludeselectedoficials(governors,legislators,etc.),
couldcondonetheuseofmanipulativechangeagenttactics(theabovedescribedNationalGoals
PanelCommunityActionKitreadslikeRonaldHavelockwastheProjectDirector)isdificult
tofathom.DotheyknowwhatisinthisKit?Dotheyfeelthattherestructuringofournationa
laShirleyMcCuneandNaisbett,i.e.,thechangingofourpolitical/economicsystemfromfree
enterprise/capitalisttocorporatefascist/plannedeconomy(mergerofpublicandprivatesector)
andfromaconstitutionalrepresentativerepublictoaparticipatorydemocracy(forproofsee
federally-fundededucationrestructuringprojectsimplementedinmanystatesduringpastten
years)issoimportantthattotalitarianmethodsmustbeusedtoreachconsensusandapproval?
Don’tcitizenshavetherighttomakesuchimportantdecisionsrelatedtothefutureoftheir
childrenandnationattheballotbox,ratherthanhavingthemselvessubjectedtoatax-funded
manipulativebrainwashinordertocometophonyconsensus?
Opposition to OBE, Goals 2000 has been so intensive and effective that the education
bureaucracy,incollusionwithmultinationalcorporations,hasopenlysunktothisincredibly
totalitarianlevelinordertogetacceptanceatthelocallevelofitsinternationalsocialistlifelong
dumbdowneducation/jobtrainingagenda.
The Do-It-Yourself Kit for Education Renewal consists of four parts: (1) “Community
OrganizingGuide”—57pages;(2)“GuidetoGettingOutYourMessage”[bettertitled“Howto
ManipulatetheMediaandtheTaxpayers,”ed.]—74pages;(3)“ResourceGuide”—66pages;
and(4)“GuidetoGoalsandStandards”—38pages.
CALL NATIONAL GOALS PANEL AT 202-632-0952 TO REGISTER YOUR CONCERN
OVERTHECONTENTS/METHODSRECOMMENDEDINTHEPANEL’SCOMMUNITYACTION
TOOLKIT.TELLTHEMYOUWILLASKYOURELECTEDREPRESENTATIVESTOCALLFOR
ANINVESTIGATIONOFTHEU.S.DEPARTMENTOFEDUCATION’SACTIVITIESWHICHARE
WORKINGAGAINSTTHEBESTINTERESTSOFAMERICANCITIZENS,USINGPSYCHOLOGI-
CALMANIPULATION(DELPHITECHNIQUE,GROUPPROCESSBRAINWASHMETHODS,ETC.)
TOGETCOMMUNITYAPPROVALOFGOALS2000.ASKTHEMTOSTOPDISTRIBUTIONOF
THEACTIONTOOLKITUNTILCONGRESSHASHADANOPPORTUNITYTOEXAMINEITS
CONTENTS.ASKFORAWRITTENRESPONSETOYOURCONCERNS.CALLORWRITEYOUR
ELECTED OFFICIALS REQUESTING A CONGRESSIONAL INVESTIGATION OF THE GOAL
PANEL’STOOLKITDEVELOPEDWITHYOURTAXMONIES.
Excerpts(verbatimquotesfromtheToolKit)follow:
…Step3:DescribeAlliesandOpponents;IdentifyChangeAgents….
Step1:IdentifyaLeadershipTeam.Thissectionprovidessuggestionsonhowtoind
AppendixXIV A–67
theleadersinyourcommunity.Italsoincludesachecklistoflikelycandidates—partnersfor
youreffort.
Troubleshooting.Evenasyouareexpandingthebaseofsupport,itwillbeimportanttobe
awareoftheopposition.Keepaneyeoutforyouropponents,respecttheiropinions,andtry
toexplainyours.Understandtheprocessofinclusion.
Step1:IdentifyaLeadershipTeam.Thepeoplewholeadthecommunitycampaignto
reformeducationwillgiveitinspiration,drive,andmomentum.Theywillsetthegroundwork
foralong-termreformstrategy.Thisisataskthatrequiresnumbersofcommittedpeople,
butitmuststartwithacoreteam….Therearelikelycandidatesforleadership…members
ofPTA,presidentofChamberofCommerce,presidentoflocalteachers’union,membersof
socialactioncommitteeofalocalchurchorsynagogue.
Step2:DevelopaCommonVision.“Ittakesawholevillagetoeducateachild”;assess-
ingcurrentstrengthsandweaknessesandbuildingastrongaccountabilitysystemtoregularly
measureandreportonprogresstowardsthegoalsovertime;identifyingthebarrierstoand
opportunitiesforgoalattainmentinmanysystemsthatsupportteachingandlearning;creat-
ingandmountingstrategiestoovercomebarriers….
Objectives: Schools… in implementing comprehensive parent involvement programs, will
offermoreadultliteracy,parenttrainingandlifelonglearningopportunitiestoimprovethe
tiesbetweenhomeandschoolandenhanceparents’workandhomelives….
HoldingCommunityMeetings.IdentifyingParticipants:Itmaybeusefultoinviteleaders
fromkeyorganizationstoactasspokespersonsortoleadsmalldiscussiongroups….Havea
designatednumberofpeoplepersonallyresponsibleforbringingotherstothemeeting….
DevelopinganAgenda:Theagendaforyourcommunitygoalsmeetingshouldbeconstructed
inawaythatgalvanizessupportforyourmissionandreinesitwherenecessary.Makesure
toinvolvethecoregroupofleadersindevelopingtheagenda….
Choosing a Facilitator: An organized discussion about education reform will not happen
spontaneously.Itwillbenecessarytohaveafacilitatortohelpdirectdiscussionaroundthe
issuesrelatedtothegoalsandthewaystheyapplytothecommunity.Thefacilitatorwill
needtoencourageaudienceparticipation.Heorshewillneedtoensurethatnosingleperson
monopolizesthediscussionandthatshypeopleareencouragedtospeak.Thefacilitatorwill
bringdiscussionstoacloseandguidetheaudiencetodecisionsaboutactionsthatneedto
betaken….
Community Review of Goals in Small Groups. The group will divide into smaller sec-
tions—oneforeachofthegoalsidentiiedinthepreviousdiscussion.Itmaybehelpfulto
appointleadersforeachsmallgroup.Thegroupsshouldrelectdiversity.Theyshouldmake
any necessary revisions in the goal and then brainstorm about how the community can
accomplishtheneedsidentiiedineachgoal.Emergingfromthegroupsessionswillbethe
beginningsofacommunityactionplanandthemethodsformeasuringprogresstowardthe
communityeducationgoals….
• CaseStudyofAlleghenyPolicyCouncil.Participantswereaskedforinputwhich
wouldleaddirectlytoaregionalplanforfocusingourresourcestoimprovemathand
science.Theresultingplanwillguideregionalaction.Itwillbeusedtoindicateregional
consensustosecurenationalfundingandtoguidelocalallocationofresources.…
A–68
ConductingSurveys.Inaddition,theindingsofasurveycanhelpformulateandbolster
positionsofthecampaign….
Develop a Useful Questionnaire. Biased wording also invalidates results, so emotionally
loadedorslantedquestionsshouldbestrictlyavoided.Itmaybedificulttoaskneutralques-
tions—especiallywhenyouhavestrongfeelingsonthetopic—butthatistheonlywaytoget
validinformation….
CASESTUDY:Omaha2000.
Initiativesweresomuchmoreeasilyacceptedbecausepeoplefeltthatthesurveymadethem
apartofthedecision-makingprocess.[Afewsurveyquestionsfollow,ed.]
• Parentingeducationprogramsshouldbeavailableforallparents?
• Ourcommunityshouldappreciateandembracethegrowthofdiversity?
• Everycitizenshouldberesponsibletoassiststudentsandsupporteducation?
• Allchildrenshouldhaveapersonalmentoravailabletoassistthem?…
Develop a Strategy. Evaluate Context for Change; describe allies and opponents; identify
changeagents.
Formanyissuestherewillbesigniicantinstitutionalbarrierstoanychangeyouhope
toinitiate….
ElementsofSystematicReform.
Creatingacoordinatededucationandtrainingsystem….Aretheseprogramsbuiltarounda
multi-yearsequenceoflearningatworksitesandatschool—learningthatisconnectedand
coordinated?
DescribeAlliesandOpponents.
Ontheotherhand,theremaybepeopleororganizationsinthecommunitywhowillopposethe
reformsyouareattemptingtoinstitute.Someoftheseopponentssimplymaynotunderstand
thegoalsofthecampaign.Otherswillpersistintheiropposition.Beforeyourorganization
takesanyaction,youwillneedtoanticipatethepotentialreactionofopponents.Listyour
opponentsandwhatyoursuccessmightmeantothem.RefertotheTroubleshootingsection
forsuggestionsonhowtodealwithopposition.
IdentifyChangeAgents.
OnechangeagentcouldbetheSuperintendentofschoolsbecausesheorhehasthepower
toinstituteadistrict-widepolicytoincludecommunitymembersinthestandards-develop-
mentprocess.
[“Power”ismentionedmanytimesinthissection,ed.]
Resistance.Thiswillbethemostdificultstage.Thepublicwillbereluctanttofacethetrade-
offsthatcomefromchoosingaspeciicplanofaction.
Todescribeopponentsanswerthesequestions:_____
Listtheresourcesofyouropponents.
CouncilStrategyChart.
GetthepresidentofHewlettPackardtowritethechairoftheschoolboardalettersupporting
theproposal.[Strategytogetcalculatorsforschool,ed.]
AppendixXIV A–69
CommunityOrganizingTips.
Surveys can do more than help you gather information. They can also build community
ownershipofreform.
BusinessandLaborLeaders’Checklist.
Businessandlaborcanmakethegoalsworkbybuildingcommunitysupport,helpingtomea-
sureeffectiveness,anddeiningrequiredworkforceskillsthatcouldbematchedtoacademic
achievementtargets.
OtherSourcesofSupport
Potentialalliesforyoureffortareeverywhere….Consulttheresourcedirectory….Also,do
notoverlookothergoals-andstandards-basedreformcampaignsasasourceofinformation
andsupport.SchooloficialsandcommunityleadersinEdmonds,Washington;SanAntonio,
Texas;Omaha,Nebraska;Bangor,Maine;andhundredsofothermunicipalities.
IdentifyingFinancialResources.
Asyoubeginyoursearchforfunding,rememberthefederalgovernment.Withitspassageof
thecomprehensiveGoals2000:EducateAmericaAct,Congresshasmadeiteasierforcom-
munitiestorestructureeducation….What’smore,thelegislationtakesabig-pictureviewof
educationthatgoesbeyondthetraditionalK–12focusofpastadministrations.Educationis
deinedasaprocessthatbeginsinearlychildhoodandcontinuestoadulthoodthroughlifelong
learningsituations.Itemphasizestheconnectionsbetweenpreschool,school,andwork.
Troubleshooting.
Youarelikelytofaceoppositionanytimeyoutrytointroducechangeintoacommunity….
Theirconcernsmaybebasedonconfusionoverwhatgoalsandstandardsare…ortheymay
besatisiedwithcurrentstateoflearninginyourcommunity.
FollowingaretipsonhowtoexplainNationalEducationGoalsandStandards....Fora
fullerdescriptionoftherelevanceofnationalgoalsandstandards-basedreformmovement…
pleasesee“GuidetoGoalsandStandards”bookletinToolKit.
KnowtheFacts.
Fordeinitionsofmanyoftheothertermsofthedebate,see“GlossaryofTerms”atendof
“ResourceDirectory.”
GiveEveryoneaRole.
Noteverybodyhastoshareyourviews.Besensitivetoconcernsofyouropponents.Talk
aboutwhatoffendsthemandaddresstheirissues.
AvoidLoadedWordsandPhrases.
Wordsandphraseslike“outcomes,”“outcome-basededucation,”“self-esteem,”and“attitudes”
maymeandifferentthingstocertaingroups….Remember,ifyousticktoclear,concreteterms
thateveryonecomprehends,notonlywillyoubebetterunderstood,youmayalsoavoidseri-
ousconlictdowntheroad.
KeepyourPerspective.
Oppositionmaycomefromasmallpartofthecommunity.Balancetheirconcernsappropri-
atelyandreinforcethefactthattheNationalGoalshavewidespreadsupport.Youmightthink
ofinvitingopponentsintotheschoolstoletthemseeforthemselveshowyourcommunity
actionplanisimprovingeducation.
A–70
BewareofTheOne-Size-Fits-AllArgument.
ReassureyouroppositionthattheNationalEducationGoals,theframeworkforyourcommu-
nity’seducationreformeffort,arenottryingtoestablishanationalcurriculumforallschools.
[Thisisabald-facedlie.AccordingtoEducationWeek,Jan.25,1989,“ChesterE.Finn,Jr.
formerheadoftheEducationDepartment’sresearchbranch,toldbusinessleadersherelast
weekthathefavoredthedevelopmentofa‘nationalcurriculum.’”,ed.]
Remembertheequityissue.
Every student will be expected to meet higher standards. No students will be denied the
opportunitytolearn[ThisisSpady’setalterminologyforoutcome-basededucation,effective
schools,masterylearning,ed.]
AskforHelp.SeeResourceDirectory…CaseStudyofEdmonds,Washington:SylviaSoholt,
whoworksinEdmonds’planningandcommunityrelationsdivision,saystheydeliberately
choseaprocessinvolvingmultipledraftsofeachphasebecause“itgivesthemessagethat
youareopentochange.”
Thetextwasnotpresentedasawritfromtheschooldistrict,butratheras“thisiswhat
yourneighborssaidstudentsshouldlearnandbeabletodo.”
Bysendingthedrafttoeverybodyinthecommunity,theschooldistrictwasabletodelect
chargesofbeingexclusive.Districtoficialscarefullydocumentedtheoriginatorofeachidea
todemonstratethattheplanwasdevelopedbythecommunity,notbyschooloficials.
Inameetingtodiscusstheirstdraft,someraisedreligiousdoubtsaboutthereform
effort.Theysaidtheyfearedtheschoolswouldtakechargeofrearingchildren,teachingnon-
Christianvaluesinsteadofimprovingacademicskills.Somesuggestedthatcomputerswould
monitorandmoldchildrenintoautomatons.
Facedwiththeseobjections,thesuperintendent,BrianL.Benzel,knewhecouldnot
justdismissthecriticismsasmisguided.Hefeltthattheschooldistrictneededtoclarifythe
purposebehindthereformeffortbeforereleasingaseconddraftofthedocument.Benzel
approachedEdmonds’ministersandinvitedthemtoameetingoneducationreformefforts.
Atthemeeting,thesuperintendentaddressedtheexpressedfearsandexplainedwhat
thereformmovementwasreallytryingtodo.Hesaidhebelievedthattheymisunderstood
the district’s intentions, but thought their concerns were important. He let the ministers
talkabouteducation.Theyallagreedthateducationneededtobeimprovedandthatitwas
importanttodeinestudentskills.
Inthecourseoftheconversation,itbecameclearthatthereligiouscommunitywas
notwalkinglock-stepagainstreform.Reformmeantsomethingdifferenttoeachminister.It
appearedthattheministerssimplywantedtobepartofthedebate.Asaresultofthispositive
meeting,theycarriedthemessagebacktotheircongregations,thattheschoolreformerswere
willingtolistenandbeinclusive.
Followingthesemeetingstheschooldistrictmaderevisionsthatincorporatedtheobjec-
tionsandrelectedtheconcernsofthewholecommunity.Thedistrictremovedconfusing
jargonfromthedraft.Forexample,peoplehadobjectedtodeining“criticalthinking”asa
skill—theybelieveditsuggestedthatchildrenshouldbetaughttobecriticaloftheirparents.
Sotheseconddraftdeined“thinkingandproblem-solving”astheabilityto“thinkcreatively
anddevelopinnovativeideasandsolutions”andto“thinkcriticallyandmakeindependent
judgments.”
Toaddresstheconcernthatthedistrictwasstressingsomeskillsoverothers,itdeveloped
aposterdepictingtheskillsandabilitiesastudentneedsasa“tapestryoflearning,”where
alltheelementshaveequalimportanceandarewoventogether.
Theschooldistrictisnowmovingtothenextstep.Theyarecreatingassessmenttools
AppendixXIV A–71
to measure the standard they have developed, using the same strategy of full community
involvement.[Supt.BrianBenzel,Chairman,Governor’sTaskForceonSchoolsforthe21st
Century,islistedasapartner(WAState)inMarcTucker’sNationalAllianceforRestructuring
EducationSchools—andSystems—forthe21stCentury.SeeAppendixXII.Inotherwords,
thecitizensandministersinEdmonds,Washingtonweremanipulatedbyaveryimportant
andrecognized“changeagent,”ed.]
TheimportanceoforderingtheentireKitcannotbeoveremphasized.Wehavedealtonly
withonesection,“TheCommunityOrganizingGuide.”
Pleasefaxmeinforegardingactionyouandmembersofyourcommunityintendtotake
toexposethisincrediblefederalinitiative.
Thanksverymuch.
AppendixXV
“WillRepublicansBetrayAmericaByVotingForMarcTucker’s
HumanResourcesDevelopmentSystem:H.R.1617andS.143?”
“WillRepublicansBetrayAmericaByVotingForMarcTucker’sHumanResourcesDevelopment
System:H.R.1617andS.143?”bySamuelBlumenfeldistakenfromtheTheBlumenfeldEduca-
tionLetter,May1996(Vol.11,No.5,Letter#116).
ThereisnodoubtthatH.R.1617(knownasthe“ConsolidatedandReformedEducation,
Employment,andRehabilitationSystem’sAct”or“CAREERSAct”),whichpassedtheHousein
September1995byavoteof345to79,andS.143(theWorkforceDevelopmentActof1995),
whichpassedtheSenateinOctoberby95to2,willdomoretoleadAmericaintosocialist-fascist
totalitarianismthananyotherpiecesoflegislationbeforethepresentRepublican-dominated
Congress.
Bothbills,whenreconciledinconferencecommittee,willenactintolawMarcTucker’s
infamous Human Resources Development System, outlined in Tucker’s exuberant letter of
November11,1992toHillaryClinton,amemberoftheboardoftrusteesofTucker’sNational
CenteronEducationandtheEconomy.Hewrote:
Istillcannotbelieveyouwon.Bututterdelightthatyoudidpervadesallthecirclesin
whichImove.ImetlastWednesdayinDavidRockefeller’soficewithhim,JohnSculley,
DaveBarramandDavidHaselkorn.Itwasagreatcelebration.BothJohnandDavidR.were
moreexpansivethanIhaveeverseenthem—literallyradiatinghappiness….
ThesubjectwewerediscussingwaswhatyouandBillshoulddonowabouteducation,
training,andlabormarketpolicy.Followingthatmeeting,IchairedanotherinWashington
onthesametopic….
OurpurposeinthesemeetingswastoproposeconcreteactionsthattheClintonadmin-
istrationcouldtake—betweennowandtheinauguration,intheirst100daysandbeyond.
Theresult,fromwhereIsit,wasreallyexciting.Wetookaverylargeleapforwardinterms
A–72
AppendixXV A–73
ofhowtoadvancetheagendaonwhichyouandwehaveallbeenworking—apracticalplan
forputtingallthemajorcomponentsofthesysteminplacewithinfouryears,bythetime
Billhastorunagain.
ThatHillaryClintonhadbeenworkingwithTuckerandassociatestodevelopthisfascist
educationsystemisconirmedbythefactthatTuckerpaidHillary$102,000in1991forherwork
asaconsultanttotheNCEE.Obviously,theletterofNovember‘92wasmeanttohelpprepare
theClintonstogettheTuckerplanpassedintolawandimplementedbytheiftystates.Init
Tuckeroutlinedhis“vision”ofahumanresourcesdevelopmentsystem:
Whatisessentialisthatwecreateaseamlesswebofopportunitiestodevelopone’s
skillsthatliterallyextendsfromcradletograveandisthesamesystemforeveryone—young
andold,poorandrich,workerandfull-timestudent.Itneedstobeasystemdrivenbyclient
needs(notagencyregulationsortheneedsoftheorganizationsprovidingtheservices),guided
byclearstandardsthatdeinethestagesofthesystemforthepeoplewhoprogressthrough
it,andregulatedonthebasisofoutcomesthatprovidersproducefortheirclients,notinputs
intothesystem.
OneshouldbeawarethatTucker’splantorestructureAmericaneducationgoesbackto
his1986reportonteaching,ANationPrepared:Teachersforthe21stCentury,producedwhen
he was executive director of the Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy. In 1987,
NewYorkGov.CuomoandtheleadersofRochester,N.Y.,invitedTuckertosetuphisNational
CenteronEducationandtheEconomy(NCEE)inthatcity.TheideawasthattheCenter,with
thehelpofaninitialsubsidyof$1millionfromGov.Cuomo,wouldhelpRochesterimplement
Tucker’sbasicrestructuringideasinthatcity’sschoolsystem.
GOALS2000
In1989theNCEEissueditsirstreport,ToSecureOurFuture:TheFederalRoleinEducation,
whichbecamethebasisforGoals2000.Thereportbasicallyframedtheissuesandshapedthe
agreementsthatweremadeatPresidentBush’sfamousEducationSummitattheUniversityof
Virginia,Charlottesville,inthefallof1989.Afterthesummit,inwhichGov.ClintonofArkan-
saswasanactiveparticipant,theNationalGovernors’AssociationaskedtheNCEEtoassistin
thedevelopmentofnationalgoalsforeducation.Thesegoalsweresubsequentlypromotedby
PresidentBushinhis1990StateoftheUnionaddress.Apparently,aRepublicanpresidentwas
willingtoaccepttheeducationreformplanoftheultra-liberalNCEEratherthancallupona
conservativethinktanktocomeupwithaconservativereformplan.
In1989,Tucker’sgroupcreatedtheCommissionontheSkillsoftheAmericanWorkforce
whichcompiledareportentitledAmerica’sChoice:HighSkillsorLowWages!Thereport,issued
inJune1990,isthebasicblueprintforTucker’sHumanResourcesDevelopmentSystemwhich
movesAmericaneducationfromitstraditionalemphasisonacademicsandknowledgetoa
Soviet-styleworkforcetrainingandcertiicationprogram.
BothH.R.1617andS.143representtheculminationofTucker’seffortstogetCongressto
imposehissystemonAmerica.ThatRepublicansshouldbeintheforefrontofpromotingthese
billsmakesonewonderiftheRepublicanPartyisbecomingthenewfascistpartyofAmerica.
IntheTuckersystem,thegovernmentwillplanyourlifeforyou,trackyoufrombirthtodeath
onitsmammothdata-gatheringcomputer,andregulateemploymentandeventuallytheentire
economy.
A–74
HenryHydeOpposes
TheonlyRepublicancongressmantoopenlyopposethislegislationisRep.HenryHydeof
Illinois,whoaddressedalettertohiscolleaguesinMarchofthisyearstatingwhyheopposes
theTuckerplanandthelegislationthatmakesitlaw.Hewrote:
DearColleague:
PresidentClinton’splanforanationalworkforceofskilledlaborersisbeingachieved
throughtheGoals2000EducateAmericaAct(HR1804),School-to-WorkOpportunitiesAct
(SWO)(HR2884),andImprovingAmerica’sSchoolsAct(IASA)(HR6),allofwhichwere
passedandsignedintolawbyPresidentClintonin1994.
I’lltellyouwhyitissoimportanttorepealtheselaws.TheplanforGoals2000was
developedbyBillClinton,HillaryClinton,IraMagaziner,andMarcTucker,Presidentofthe
NationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomy(fundedbytheCarnegieFoundation),priorto
Clinton’selection.Itisaconceptfordumbing-downourschoolsandchangingthecharacter
ofthenationthroughbehaviormodiication(avitalpartofthisplan).Itmovesawayfroman
academicallyintensivecurriculumtoonethatisintegratedwithvocationaltraining,produc-
ingskilledmanpowerforthelabormarket.Theeconomywillbecontrolledbythefederal
governmentbycontrollingourworkforceandourschools.I’menclosingan18-pageletterto
HillaryClintonfromMarcTuckerwhichincludestheframeworkforGoals2000….
Twootherbills,stillpending,aredesignedtoadvancetheSchool-to-WorkphaseofGoals
2000.TheCareersAct(HR1617)andtheWorkforceDevelopmentAct(S143)willsupporta
nationwideworkforcedevelopmentsystem,statebystate.Fundingisprovidedfor“onestop
career”employmentagenciesunderthesupervisionofthefederalgovernment.Please,let’s
notletthesebillsbecomelaw.
Ataneducationsummitin1989,then-GovernorBillClintonchairedaGovernors’meet-
ingtoestablishnationalperformancegoalstomakeAmericainternationallycompetitive.The
governorsadoptedsixoftheNationalEducationGoalswhicharenowincludedinthe8goals
inGoals2000.TheothertwocamefromgoalsadoptedataWorldConferencesponsoredby
theUnitedNationsandtheWorldBankinMarch,1990….
Behaviormodiicationisasigniicantpartofrestructuringourschools.Schoolchildren
willbetrainedtobe“politicallycorrect,”tobeunbiased,tounderstanddiversity,toaccept
alternativefamilylifestyles,tocontributetothecommunitythroughmandatorycommunity
service,torespectandprotecttheenvironment,tobecomeacollaborativecontributoranda
qualityproducer.InMarcTucker’slettertoMrs.Clinton,layingouttheplanforGoals2000
hestates,“Radicalchangesinattitudes,valuesandbeliefsarerequiredtomoveanycombi-
nationoftheseagendas.”
Dumbing-downeducationisaprimecomponentincreatingawillingworkforce.Higher
educationisnotconducivetoacceptingskilledlabortrainingforacareerthatitsintothe
federalgovernment’splannedlaborforce.Goals2000abandonstheAmericancompetitive
trackingsystem.Itisreplacedbynewnationalachievementstandardswhichassessstudents’
behaviorandattitude….
A computer tracking system will track teachers’ training and performance, school
performance, and students from pre-kindergarten through technical training and into the
workforce. All information will be made available to interested government oficials and
prospectiveemployers.
Pre-school,healthclinics,dailymeals,andparentalassistance(theyhavethegallto
instructparentsonhowtoreartheirchildren,includinghowstudents’freetimeshouldbe
AppendixXV A–75
spent) are in this all-inclusive “cradle to grave” plan to control our children’s minds and
careers….
Thisconcepthasbeenaroundsinceatleastthe1960sandperhapsasfarbackasthe
1930s.Ithasbeentriedinmanyschoolsoverthepast20–30years,tothedetrimentofour
children.Inthe’70s,itwascalled“MasteryLearning”underthesupervisionofProfessor
BenjaminBloomandnowisknownas“OBE.”Stateschoolsuperintendentshavelearnedto
callOBEbyothernamesbecauseofitsbadreputationwhichprecedesitbuttheconcepts
areallthesame.
IaskyoutopleaseinvestigateGoals2000yourself.Ithinkyouwillcometothesamecon-
clusion.Goals2000mustberejected,andthesoonerthebetter—forourchildren’ssake.
WhathasbeentheresponsetoRep.Hyde’sverystrongletter?Sofar,theonlyresponse
weknowofisa4-pageletterdatedMarch28fromWilliamGoodling,RepublicanfromPenn-
sylvania,ChairmanoftheCommitteeonEconomicandEducationalOpportunities,andHoward
P.“Buck”McKeon,ChairmanoftheSubcommitteeonPostsecondaryEducation,Trainingand
Life-longLearning.Goodling,servinghis10thterminCongress,wasaschoolsuperintendent
beforebecomingaCongressman.McKeon,aRepublicanfromCalifornia,isairst-termfresh-
man who seems neither to understand the signiicance of the bill he is promoting nor the
subcommitteeheheads.Attachedtotheirletterwasasix-pagecompendiumofexplanations
“developedtorespondtosimilarconcernsandmisunderstandingsthathavebeenexpressed
overtheCAREERSbillinrecentmonths.”GoodlingandMcKeonwrite:
Werecentlyreceiveda“dearcolleague”fromyouentitled“Clinton’sNationalWork-
forceandEducationPlan,”inwhichyouexpressconcernsoverH.R.1617,theHouse-passed
CAREERSAct….
InyourletteryoudescribetheCAREERSlegislation,andtheSenate’sWorkforceDevelop-
mentActas“designedtoadvancetheSchooltoWorkphaseofGoals2000,”tyingtheroots
ofthislegislationtotheworkoftheClintonAdministration,IraMagaziner,andMarcTucker.
Infact,CAREERSistheproductofeffortsbyRepublicansgoingbacktotheReaganandBush
Administrations, and incorporates suggestions by a bipartisan coalition of reform-minded
colleagues,includingmanyleadingRepublicanGovernors.
Atlast,twohonestRepublicansadmittingthatitistheRepublicanswhoarecreatingthe
educationalfoundationsforatotalitariansysteminAmerica!WhoarethesefascistRepublicans?
ChesterFinn,DennisDoyle,BillBennett,TerrelBell?ItwasBellwhoin1984awardedBillSpady
thegranttocontinueworkonimplementingOutcome-BasedEducationinalloftheschoolsin
America.ConcerningChesterFinn,Bellwritesinhismemoir,TheThirteenthMan:
DavidStockman,directoroftheOficeofManagementandBudget,suggestedthatthe
verycompetentChesterFinnbeappointeddeputyundersecretaryforplanningandbudget
inED.FinnhadservedintheNixonWhiteHouse.IhadknownhimfrommyNixon-Ford
years, and I knew that I could work with him. Given Stockman’s support, I was hopeful
thathewouldbetheirstonetobreakthelogjam.Butdespitethisendorsement,Finnwas
promptlyrejectedbyWhiteHousePersonnelbecausehewascurrentlyservingonthestaff
ofDemocraticSenatorPatMoynihan.[StockmanandFinnhadbothbeenclosetoMoynihan
duringtheirHarvarddays.]
A–76
Now we know why Chester Finn can’t be trusted! In his book, Bell bemoans the fact
thatPresidentReagandidnotwantthefederalgovernmenttoassumearoleofleadershipin
education.Infact,ReaganwantedtoabolishtheEducationDepartmentbutwasunabletoget
thesupportneededinCongress.Nevertheless,inthebowelsoftheeducationalbureaucracy
planswerewellunderwaybytheNationalCenterforEducationStatisticstocreateitsmas-
sivecomputerizeddata-collectionsystem.Itseemsasifthegovernmentworksontwotiers:
thereisthevisibletierofpoliticiansintheWhiteHouseandCongresswhichthepublicisvery
muchawareof;andthereistheinvisibletiermadeupofbureaucrats,laboratories,andvarious
foundation-supportedcommissionsthatquietlyadvancetheliberal-socialistagendanomatter
whooccupiestheWhiteHouseorcontrolsCongress.Fundingfortheinvisibletierisalways
forthcomingintheBudget,eventhoughthepoliticiansmaynothavethefoggiestideawhat
themoneyisbeingspenton.
IserbytBlowstheWhistle
ItwasCharlotteIserbyt,formerseniorstaffmemberattheEducationDepartment,who
sawwhatwasgoingonamongthesocialist-fascistplannersintheinvisibletieranddecided
toletthepublicknow.Herlittlebook,BacktoBasicsReformOr…SkinnerianInternational
Curriculum?,publishedin1985,revealedwhattheinvisibletierwasdoingtoprepareAmerica
forasocialistone-worldgovernmentscheduledfortheearlyyearsofthetwenty-irstcentury.
Shewrote:
Thisbookdealswiththesocialengineers’continuingefforts,paidforwithinternational,
federal,state,andtax-exemptfoundationfunding,tomanipulateandcontrolAmericansfrom
birthtodeathusingtheeducationalsystemastheprimaryvehicleforbringingaboutplanned
social,political,andeconomicchange.(Themajorchangeinoureconomicsystemwillbethe
determinationbyindustryandgovernmentofwhowillbeselectedtoperformthenecessary
tasksinoursociety—quotasforengineers,doctors,serviceworkers,etc.tobringaboutthe
socialistconceptoffullemployment.)
That’s a virtual description of Marc Tucker’s Human Resources Development system.
Charlottewasiredforherpatriotism.Butthecatwasoutofthebag,andnowasmallgroup
ofconservativeactivistswasabletotrackthedoingsoftheinvisibles.InherbookCharlotte
wasabletodocumentTerrelBell’scomplicitywithBillSpadyinthedevelopmentofOutcome-
BasedEducation.ShealsosoundedthealarmonSkinnerianmasterylearning,thetechnique
tobeusedintheschoolstochangethevalues,beliefsandbehaviorofAmericanchildren.
Buttomanyofus,itwasMarcTucker’slettertoHillaryClintonthatprovedtobethegreat
eyeopener.Whatwassoshockingwasthecleartotalitariannatureofwhatwasbeingplanned
bytheseAmericansocialengineers.AndforRepublicansinCongresstoevencontemplateusing
anycomponentofthisplanasameansofreformingAmericaneducationistorevealtheutter
bankruptcyoftheRepublicanpartywhenitcomestoeducation.ForGoodlingtopromoteany
componentsofthisplanistobetrayfundamentalRepublicanprinciplesindefenseoffreedom.
ButperhapstheRepublicansnolongeradheretotheseprinciplesandhaveindeedbecomethe
newAmericanfascists.InhislettertoRep.Hyde,Goodlingwrites:
Inexchangeforbillionsofdollarsinfederalfundingforjobtrainingandemployment
assistance,theCAREERSbilldoesaskStatesandlocalcommunitiestoestablishwhatwe
callintegratedcareercentersystems,wherethereareeasilyaccessible,singlepointsofentry
AppendixXV A–77
intolocalemploymentandtrainingprograms,forpeopleinneedofemploymentassistance
orjobtraining,andforemployersinneedofworkers.Theactualdesignforsuchsystems
isleftentirelytotheStateandlocalcommunity.Co-locatedCareercenters(somecallthem
one-stops)areencouraged,notrequired.Andtheyarelocally-designed,appointedandman-
aged—notfederallyrunorcontrolled.
Apparently,GoodlingisunawarethatfederalcontrolisnotneededtoputtheTuckerplanin
placeineverystate.Theonlythingthatisneededisfederalmoney.Tucker’schangeagents
willdesignthelocalsystemssothattheyconformwiththeoverallnational—notfederal—plan.
Thesocialengineersdesperatelyneedthefederalmoneytoimplementthistotalitarianplan,
andGoodlingiswillingtogiveittothem.
AsfortheSenatebill,S.143,itismuchmoreinlinewithjustabouteverythingMarcTucker
wants.AndtheprimepromoterofthatbillisSen.NancyKassebaumofKansaswhoshouldbe
designatedasRepublicantraitornumberone.Itishardtobelievethataso-calledRepublican
canbesoblindtothetotalitariannatureoftheWorkforceDevelopmentActof1995.AReport
fromtheCommitteeonLaborandHumanResources,summarizesS.143asfollows:
TITLEI
StateSystems—Statewideworkforcedevelopmentsystemsareestablishedthrougha
singleallotmentoffundstoeachState.Aminimumof25percentofthefundsareforwork
forceemploymentactivities,suchascreatingone-stopcareercentersorprovidingjobtraining.
Workforceemploymentactivitiesaretobeplannedandadministeredundertheauthorityof
theGovernor.Aminimumof25percentofthefundsareforworkforceeducationactivities,
includingvocationalandadulteducation.Workforceeducationactivitiesaretobeplanned
andadministeredundertheauthorityoftheStateEducationalAgency.
Theremaining50percentofthefundsaretobeusedforanyworkforceemployment
oreducationactivitiesasaStatedecides....Thedecisiontoallocatefundsfromthis“lex
account”ismadethroughacollaborativeprocessinvolving,amongothers,theGovernor,the
Stateeducationalagency,andtheprivatesector….
Stategoalsandbenchmarksareestablishedintheplan,aswellashowtheStatewill
useitsfundstomeetthosegoalsandbenchmarks.
Inaddition,theplanincludeshowtheStatewillestablishsystemsforone-stopcareer
centers,labormarketinformation,andaccountabilityforjobplacement,asdescribedinthe
bill….
TheGovernormustenterintoagreementswithlocalcommunitiesforthedeliveryof
workforceemployment,school-to-work,oreconomicdevelopmentactivities,whereappro-
priate….
TITLEII
JobCorpsremainsasaresidentialprogramforat-riskyouth,butisintegratedwiththe
statewideworkforcedevelopmentsystem.PrimaryresponsibilityfortheoperationofJob
CorpscentersistransferredtotheStates,andeachcentermustbelinkedintotheone-stop
careercentersystemandotherlocaltrainingandeducationefforts.
TITLEIII
AFederalpartnershipisestablishedtoadministerallFederalresponsibilities,including
approval,oftheStateplans,negotiationofbenchmarkswitheachState,anddissemination
A–78
ofbestpractices.
Agoverningboard,composedof13members,willmanagethepartnership.Theboard
iscomposedofamajorityofrepresentativesfrombusinessandindustry,andrepresentatives
oflabor,educationandGovernors….
Final authority for the approval of State plans and disbursement of funds, however,
remainswiththeSecretaryofEducationandtheSecretaryofLabor.
Othernationalactivitiesincludenationalassessmentsofvocationaleducation,anational
labormarketinformationsystem,andestablishmentofanationalcenterforresearchinedu-
cationandworkforcedevelopment….
TheWorkforceDevelopmentActof1995promotesthedevelopmentofanewandcoher-
entsysteminwhichallsegmentsoftheworkforcecanobtaintheskillsnecessarytoearn
wagessuficienttomaintainahighqualityoflivingandinwhichaskilledworkforcecan
meetthelabormarketneedsofthebusinessesofeachState.
Notehowthisplanignoresstatelegislaturesorlocalschoolboards.Thegovernorruns
everything.Thisis,forallintentsandpurposes,acoupd’etatthatoverthrowstherepresentative
formofgovernmentandlocalschoolboardsthataresupposedtogoverneducation.
ResearchGalore
Also,thecallfortheestablishmentofanationalcenterforresearchineducationandwork
forcedevelopmentisbasedonthealreadyexistingNationalCenterforResearchinVocational
EducationattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.Anewcenterwillbeestablishedbythe
GoverningBoard.Itsareasoffocusaretoinclude:
(1)combiningacademicandvocationaleducation;(2)connectingclassroominstructionwith
work-basedlearning;(3)creatingacontinuumofeducationalprogramswhichprovidemul-
tipleexitpointsforemployment;(4)establishinghigh-qualitysupportservicesforstudents;
(5)developingnewmodelsforremediationofbasicacademicskills;(6)identifyingwaysto
establishlinksamongeducationalandjobtrainingprogramsatStateandlocallevels;(7)
creatingnewmodelsforcareerguidance,counseling,andinformation;(8)evaluatingeco-
nomicandlabormarketchangesthatwillaffectworkforceneeds;(9)preparingteachers
and professionals; (10) obtaining information on practices in other countries that may be
adaptedforuseintheUnitedStates;(11)providingassistancetoStatesandlocalentitiesin
developingandusingsystemsofperformancemeasuresandstandards;and(12)maintaining
aclearinghousetoprovideinformationabouttheconditionsofsystemsandprogramsfunded
underthisact.
Obviously,thisnationalcenterwillprovidealotofgoodjobsatgoodwagesforalotof
liberaluniversitygraduates.Theywillneeddirectors,assistantdirectors,researchers,statisti-
cians,consultants,secretaries,andstaffersproducinganendlessnumberofreportstobedis-
tributedtoeverymemberofCongress,everyGovernor,everyschooladministrator.Thinkof
allthetreesthatwillhavetobecutdowntomakepaperforallofthereports,andthinkofall
thecomputers,modems,wordprocessors,copymachines,phonesandfaxesthatwillhaveto
bebought.Whoknows,thenationalcentermayballoontothesizeofthePentagonifitisto
servicethenation’sentireworkforcedevelopmentsystem.
ForRepublicanswhobelieveinlessgovernment,thewordlessnowapparentlymeans
AppendixXV A–79
more!
GoverningBoard
And according to this Kassebaum-Tucker plan all power over American education will
resideintheGoverningBoard.Thecommitteereportsays:
TheWorkForceDevelopmentPartnershipwillbeheadedbyaGoverningBoardcomposed
of13members,including7representativesofbusinessandindustry,2representativesoflabor
andworkers,1representativeofadulteducationproviders,1representativeofvocationaledu-
cationproviders,and2Governors,appointedbythePresidentwiththeadviceandconsentof
theSenate.TheGoverningBoardshallbeappointednotlaterthanSeptember30,1996.
ThedutiesoftheGoverningBoardinclude:(1)Overseeingthedevelopmentofanational
labormarketinformationsystemandjobplacementaccountabilitysystem.(2)Establishing
modelbenchmarks,takingintoaccountexistingworkforcedevelopmentbenchmarkefforts
attheStatelevel.(3)NegotiatingbenchmarkswiththeStates.(4)Reviewingandapproving
Stateplans.(5)ReviewingreportsontheStates’progresstowardtheirbenchmarks.(6)Pre-
paringandsubmittinganannualreporttoCongressontheabsoluteandrelativeperformance
ofStates’progresstowardtheirbenchmarks.(7)Awardingincentivegrants.(8)Issuingsanc-
tions.(9)Disseminatinginformationonbestpractices.(10)Performingthedutiesrelatingto
theJobCorps.(11)Reviewingotherfederallyfundedworkforcedevelopmentprograms.(12)
ReviewingandapprovingthetransitionworkplansubmittedtotheSecretariesofLaborand
Education.(13)OverseeingallactivitiesoftheFederalpartnership.
BenchmarksEqualOutcomes
Whatare“benchmarks,”aboutwhichtheGoverningBoardwillbesoconcerned?Bench-
markisthenewwordforoutcome.SincethelawmakersareconcernedthattheAmericanpeople
mightindoutthattheTuckerplanissimplyanotherversionofOutcome-BasedEducation,
they’vedecidedtoeliminateanyterminologywhichmightproducewidespreadparentaland
conservativeopposition.Here’showthelawmakersdeinebenchmarks:
ThisactwillrequireStatestomeasureandreportannuallyonbenchmarks—measur-
ableindicatorsoftheprogresstheStatehassetouttoachieveinmeetingbroadworkforce
developmentgoalsrelatedtoemployment,education,andearninggains.
Benchmarksrelatedtoemploymentandearninggainsinclude,ataminimum,place-
ment and retention in unsubsidized employment for one year, and increased earnings for
participants.Benchmarksrelatedtoeducationinclude,ataminimum,studentmasteryof
certainskills,including:academicknowledgeandworkreadinessskills;occupationaland
industry-recognizedskillsaccordingtoskillproicienciesforstudentsincareerpreparation
programs; placement in, retention in, and completion of secondary education; placement
andretentioninmilitaryservice;andincreasedliteracyskills.ItisexpectedthatStateswill
developadditionalbenchmarks.
IfanyfurtherproofwereneededtoindictNancyKassebaumastheRepublicanParty’s
leadingsocialist-fascist,oneneednotseekfurtherthantheMay20,1996issueofForbesmaga-
zineinwhichSteveForbeswrites:
Advocatesofnationalizedhealthcareareonthevergeofastunningachievementwith
thepassageoftheSenate’sKennedy-Kassebaumbill.Thislegislationisportrayedasabenign
A–80
wayofmakingiteasierforpeopletokeephealthinsurancewhentheychangejobsortobuy
insuranceiftheyareinless-than-perfecthealth.Actually,ifthisbecomeslaw,itwillputus
onafasttracktoHillarycare.Yetfewfoesofhersocializedmonstrosityareightingwhatone
opponenthasrightlycalleda“Trojanpony.”
TheFirstLadymustbebeaming.Theenforcementlanguageisliftedalmostdirectly
fromClintoncare.FerociouspenaltieslittertheHouseversionofthislegislation.Forinstance,
doctorsfaceheavyinesiftheyaredeemedtohavedelivered“unnecessary”healthcareser-
vices.Andwhodetermineswhatisunnecessary?Youguessedit—federalbureaucrats,not
physicians….
TheSenatebilliswritteninawaythatguaranteestheeventualimpositionoffederal
pricecontrols.Rightnow,therearenocapsonpremiums—whichwillrisebig-timebecause
ofthebill’smandatesonwhoiseligibleforinsurance.WashingtonState,forexample,has
Kennedy-Kassebaum-likeguarantees.Premiumsforindividualpolicyholdershaveskyrocketed.
Aspricesgoup,young,healthypeoplewon’tbothertobuyinsurance.Thewholeprocesswill
thencreateirresistiblepressureforfederalcontrols“tomakeinsuranceaffordable.”Thereare
otherlawshere.Thebillblithelyguaranteesthatmentalhealthcoveragewillequalcoverage
forphysicalailments;thisisanopeninvitationformassiveabuse.Rules,mandatesandcaps
willproliferate.
TheSenateversiondoesn’tevencontainaprovisionforMedicalSavingsAccounts,the
onlyhopeforrestoringtruefreedomandconsumerismtothehealthcareield.
IsthiswhatvoterselectedaRepublicanCongressfor?
ThankstoNancyKassebaumandherfellowsocialist-fascistsintheSenate,thisRepubli-
canCongresswilldomoretoinchustowardtotalitarianismthananypreviousCongress.Does
SenatorDoleapproveofwhathisfellowKansanisdoing?
Meanwhile,whatshouldwedo?Weshoulddoallwecantogetthefederalgovernment
outoftheeducationandhealthcarebusinesses.IfRepublicansreallybelieveindownsizing
government,thelastthingtheyshouldbedoingisvotingformoregovernmentintrusionin
educationandhealthcare.
Call,write,orfaxyourRepresentativesandSenators.PurchaseacopyoftheU.S.Congress
Handbook,P.O.Box566,McLean,VA22101,703-356-3572.Thishandbookcontainsallofthe
informationyouwillneedforaccesstoyourWashingtonlawmakers.Theyneedtohearfrom
you.
AppendixXVI
“TotalitarianData-GatheringSystem
PreparedbyU.S.DepartmentofEducation”
“TotalitarianData-GatheringSystemPreparedbyU.S.DepartmentofEducation”bySamuel
BlumenfeldfromTheBlumenfeldEducationNewsletter,October1995(Vol.10,No.10,Letter
#109).
IfeverproofwereneededtoconirmthattheNewWorldOrderwouldbetotalitarianin
itscontrolofindividualcitizens,theU.S.DepartmentofEducation’srecentreleaseofitshand-
booksondata-gatheringonstudentsandfacultyshouldbeenoughtosatisfyanyfreedom-loving
citizen.ThetwopublicationsaretheStudentDataHandbookforEarlyChildhood,Elementary,
andSecondaryEducation(NCES94–303)releasedinJune1994,comprisedof226pagesplus
about100pagesofappendices,andtheStaffDataHandbook:Elementary,SecondaryandEarly
ChildhoodEducation(NCES95–327)releasedinJanuary1995,comprisedof219pagesand
about70pagesofappendices.BothHandbookswereproducedundertheauspicesoftheU.S.
DepartmentofEducation,theOficeofEducationalResearchandImprovement(OERI),and
theNationalCenterforEducationStatistics(NCES).Bothcanbeobtainedbytelephonefrom
theU.S.Dept.ofEducation.TheForewordfortheStudentDataHandbookstates:
NCESispleasedtoreleasethe1994StudentDataHandbook:Elementary,Secondary
andEarlyChildhoodEducation.Itisamajorefforttoestablishcurrentandconsistentterms,
deinitions and classiication codes to maintain, correct, report and exchange information
aboutstudents.
Whenthiseffortbegan,theonlyexistingnationalstandardsforstudentdatahadbeen
publishedbyNCESin1974.Becausestudentdatahaveevolvedgreatlyovertimebothinthe
typeandformatofdatamaintained,itwasessentialthatnewstandardsbedevelopedthat
wouldrelectcurrentpractices.
ThisnationaleffortwascoordinatedbytheCouncilofChiefStateSchoolOficersunder
contracttotheNationalCenterforEducationalStatistics.Thoseindividualsandorganizations
involvedintheprocesstrulyrelectallinterestedstakeholdersinelementary,secondaryand
A–81
A–82
earlychildhoodeducation.
NCEShasastrongcommitmenttoprovidetechnicalassistanceandsupporttotheedu-
cationcommunitytofacilitatethecollection,reporting,anduseofhighqualityeducation
information.Thishandbookisoneoutcomeofthatcommitment.Itisbutoneinaseriesof
relatedhandbooksandmanualsthatNCEShaspublishedinthepastandplanstocontinue
todevelopinthefuture.
The Foreword is signed by Paul D. Planchon, Associate Commissioner, Elementary/
Secondary Education Statistics Division and Lee M. Hoffman, Chief, General Surveys and
AnalysisBranchoftheNationalCenterforEducationStatistics.
IntheAcknowledgmentsweread:
Thisdocumentistheresultoftheworkofmanyindividualsfromaroundthecountry
whogenerouslycontributedtheirknowledge,time,andcommitment….
ThehandbookowesitsexistencetothemembersoftheNationalTaskForceonEducation
DataElements.Thetaskforce’sStudentDataSubgrouphelpedconceptualizeandoverseeits
development,reviewedseveralcopiesofthedrafts,andprovidedconstantandtimelyassis-
tancetotheproject.AlistofthetaskforcemembersisincludedinAppendixA.
Thetaskforceincludes28members,ofwhich6werefromstatedepartmentsofeducation
(Mississippi,Ohio,Florida,Minnesota,Texas,NewYork)and6fromcityandcountyschool
districts.TherestwerebureaucratsfromvariousoficesoftheU.S.Dept.ofEducation,the
AmericanAssociationofCollegiateRegistrarsandAdmissionsOficers,JohnsHopkinsUniversity,
BureauoftheCensus,UniversityofCalifornia,(SantaBarbara),CouncilofGreatCitySchools,
andtheNationalScienceFoundation.
BureaucratsatWork
WereadfurtherintheAcknowledgments:
UndercontractfromtheNationalCenterforEducationStatistics(NCES),stafffromthe
CouncilofChiefStateSchoolOficers(CCSSO)preparedthemanuscriptofthishandbook.
BarbaraS.Clements,ProjectDirector,providedtheleadershipforthiseffortandistheprimary
authorofthedocument….
Emerson Elliott, Commissioner of Education Statistics, who has encouraged inter-
andintra-agencycollaborationandteamworktoimprovethequalityofeducationdata,set
the stage for this effort. Paul Planchon, Associate Commissioner of Education Statistics,
Elementary/SecondaryEducationStatisticsDivision,providedstrongsupportandguidance
forthehandbookasaprojectunderhisauthority.LeeHoffman,Chief,GeneralSurveyand
AnalysisBranch,notonlyprovidedtechnicaladviceasataskforcemember,butalsoreviewed
alldraftsofthedocument….
Inotherwords,asmallarmyofbureaucratshavebeenworkingonthisprojectforyears.
ThepurposeofthestudenthandbookisdescribedinChapter1:
1)toprovideacommonlanguagethatcanbeusedtodescribeinformationaboutstudents,2)
topromotestandardmaintenanceofstudentdata,3)toencouragetheautomationofstudent
datamaintenance,4)topromotethedevelopmentofpoliciestosafeguardtheconidentiality
AppendixXVI A–83
andensureappropriateuseofstudentdata,and5)todescribehowdatacanbemaintained
inawaythatpromotesappropriateandlexibleusagebyallrelevantparties.
Chapter1alsoprovidesthisrevealingOverview:
Accurateandcomprehensiveinformationisneededinordertomakeappropriatecost-
effectiveandtimelydecisionsaboutstudentswithinbothpublicandprivateschools.Teachers,
schooladministrators,schooldistrictadministrators,schoolboardmembers,andstateand
federaleducationagencypersonnelmustuseinformationaboutstudentstoplanandcarry
outprogramsoflearningthatmeettheneedsofchildrenwithdifferentabilitiesandrequire-
ments,fromdivergentbackgrounds,andofdifferentages.Schoolhealthoficialsandother
serviceprovidersalsouseinformationaboutindividualstudentstoensureappropriateservices
areprovidedtothem.Theseinformationneedsarebeingmetinanincreasingnumberof
instancesbyautomatedmanagementinformationsystemsthatallowdatatobeanalyzedin
avarietyofwaystoaddressthequestionsandneedsofthedecision-makers.Amanagement
informationsystemiseffective,however,onlytotheextentthatdataareconsistentlyentered
into the system according to established deinitions, data are updated and maintained on
aregularbasis,andinformationrelevantforongoingdecision-makingcanbeaddedtothe
system.Thishandbookaddressestheimportanceofconsistencyinhowdataaredeinedand
maintainedwithintheeducationsystem.
DesigningDataCollection
…Researchersfromthe[U.S.]DepartmentofEducation,federallyfundedlaboratories
andresearchcenters,universities,andotherpublicandprivateorganizationsprovideinsights
intotheneedsandperformanceofthenation’sschoolsthroughsurveyssuchastheNational
EducationLongitudinalSurveyandassessmentactivitiessuchastheNationalAssessmentof
EducationalProgress.Thishandbookcanbevaluableforresearchersconcernedwithaccu-
racyandconsistencyindesigningdatacollectionactivitiesandreportingresultsofstudies
ongroupsofstudents.
Thehandbookisintendedtoservepublicandprivateeducationagencies,schools,and
othercentersandinstitutionsservingstudentsfrompreschoolthroughhighschoolgradua-
tion,aswellasresearchersandthegeneralpublic….
Nogovernmentalagencyrequirestheuseoftheterms,deinitions,andproceduresof
thishandbook;however,carewastakentomakesurethatthedeinitionsinthishandbook
wereconsistentwithmanygovernmentalreportingrequirementsexistingatthetimeofthe
handbook’scompletion….
AToolforDecisionMaking
Thehandbookidentiiesconceptsanddataelementswhichareusedtodescribeand
make decisions about students. Some decisions are very speciic, pertaining to personal
needs,vocationalchoices,andeducationalprogramsofindividualstudents.Otherdecisions
arebroaderinscope,concerningtheplanningandmanagementofeducationforlargegroups
ofstudents….
Sometypesofstudentdataaremaintainedbecauseoffederal,stateorlocalreporting
requirements.Iffederal,stateorlocalreportingrequirementsaremadeconsistent,thena
singlecollectionofinformationaboutstudentscanservemultiplepurposes.
Ifstudentdataaremaintainedinacumulative(longitudinal)recordusingconsistent
A–84
termsanddeinitions,thepermanentrecordcontainsallrelevantinformationandiseasier
tointerpret….
AutomatedDatabase
Theadvantagesofmaintainingstudentrecordsinanautomateddatabase,however,are
numerous.Automateddatabasespromotethemaintenanceofconsistentlydeinedinformation,
sincethecomputersoftwarespeciieshowdataarecodedandotherwiseentered….
Studentdatamustbekeptconidential.…Whetherornotstudentdataaremaintained
inacomputer,allschoolorschooldistrictstaffneedingdataaboutanindividualstudentor
groupsofstudentsmusthaveaccesstopertinentinformation.…Teacherscananalyzestudent
performanceusingavarietyoftypesofinformationanddecidewhatconceptsneedtobe
retaughtorreinforced.
Obviously,thepurposeoftheprojectistoproducestandardizationamongdata-gatherers
sothatallofthestudentinformationcanbecomputerizedandstoredinacentraldatabase.
AstheHandbookstates:
Technicaladvancesincomputerdataentry,storage,andretrievalaredevelopingquickly,
making these aspects of student records management less expensive, more eficient, less
demandingofphysicalspace,andmoreaccessibletomultipleusers.
Incidentally,ifyouarecuriousaboutthelegislationthatauthorizedfundingforallofthis,
theHandbookreferstotheStandardsforEducationDataCollectionandReporting(SEDCAR)
developedpursuanttotheHawkins-StaffordAmendmentsof1988whichauthorized“aneffort
toimprovethecomparability,qualityandusefulnessofeducationdata.”
SPEEDE/ExPRESSSystem
TheHandbookalsorevealsthatitsstandardsarecompatiblewiththoseoftheSPEEDE/
ExPRESSformat.(SPEEDEstandsforStandardizationofPostsecondaryEducationElectronic
DataExchanges,andExPRESSstandsforExchangeofPermanentRecordsElectronicallyfor
StudentsandSchools.)SPEEDE/ExPRESS“providesastandardformatforastudentrecordor
transcripttobesentfromoneschoolorschooldistricttoanotherorfromaschoolorschool
districttoapostsecondaryinstitution.”
Conidentiality
AlthoughlipservicetoconidentialityisrequiredintheFamilyEducationalRightsand
PrivacyActof1974(FERPA),thelawallowsinformationinstudentrecordstobedisclosed
“withoutstudentorparentalpermission”to:
1)Schoolemployeeswhohaveaneedtoknow.2)Otherschoolstowhichastudentis
transferring.3)Certaingovernmentoficialsinordertocarryoutlawfulfunctions.4)Appropri-
atepartiesinconnectionwithinancialaidtoastudent.5)Organizationsdoingcertainstudies
fortheschool.6)Accreditingorganizations.7)Individualswhohaveobtainedcourtordersor
subpoenas.8)Personswhoneedtoknowincasesofhealthandsafetyemergencies.9)State
andlocalauthoritiestowhomdisclosureisrequiredbystatelawsadoptedbeforeNovember
19,1974.
FERPAalso“guaranteesthestudentand/orhisorherparentstherighttoinspectand
reviewallofthestudent’seducationrecordsmaintainedbytheschoolorschooldistrict,and
AppendixXVI A–85
therighttorequestthataschoolcorrectrecordsbelievedtobeinaccurateormisleading.”
TheNumberCode
Whatkindofdatawillthesystemcollect?Themostdetailedpersonalinformationabout
theindividualinallaspectsofhislife.Thesystemusesanumbercodeforeachspeciicpiece
ofinformation.Forexample,codes001to012dealwiththestudent’sname.Codes013to036
dealwiththestudent’sbackground,whichincludesIdentiicationNumber(013),Identiication
System(014)withfourteensubcategories:01Driver’slicensenumber,02Healthrecordnumber,
03Medicaidnumber,04Migrantstudentrecordstransfersystem(MSRTS)number,05Profes-
sionalcertiicateorlicensenumber,06School-assignednumber,07SelectiveServicenumber,
08Socialsecurityadministrationnumber,09CollegeBoard/ACTcodesetofPK-grade12insti-
tutions,10Localeducationagency(LEA)number,11Stateeducationagency(SEA)number,
12U.S.DepartmentofEducation,NationalCenterforEducationStatistics(NCES)number,13
Otherorganizationnumber(e.g.,RomanCatholicDioceseorassociationnumber),99Other.
Inotherwords,Americanswillbeidentiiedandnumberedasneverbefore.
DataonStudent’sReligion
Under Religious Background (030) we ind the following subcategories: 01 Amish, 02
AssemblyofGod,03Baptist,04Buddhist,05Calvinist,06Catholic,07EasternOrthodox,08
Episcopal,09Friends,10GreekOrthodox,11Hindu,12Islamic,13Jehovah’sWitnesses,14
Jewish, 15 Latter Day Saints, 16 Lutheran, 17 Mennonite, 18 Methodist, 19 Pentecostal, 20
Presbyterian,21OtherChristiandenomination,22SeventhDayAdventist,23Tao,98None,
99Other.
Inotherwords,thetraditionaldesignationsofProtestant,Catholic,orJewisharenolonger
suficientforthedata-gathererswhowanttoknowmuchmoreaboutanindividual’sreligious
values.NotetheabsenceofUnitarian-Universalist.Ithinkthey’remorenumerousinAmerica
thanpractitionersofTao.
HomeschoolsandPrivateSchools
Willhomeschoolersbeincludedinthisdata-gatheringsystem?UnderAddress/Contact
Informationweindthatcode056“Non-ResidentAttendanceRationale—Thereasonthatthe
studentattendsaschooloutsideofhisorherusualattendancearea,”contains10subcategories,
including07“Homeschooling—Thestudentisreceivingeducationalinstructionofferedina
homeenvironment,asregulatedbystatelaw,forreasonsotherthanhealth.”So,homeschool-
ersarenotonlyincluded,buthavetheirowncodenumber:056–07.
Privateschoolsarealsoincludedunder“SchoolInformation.”Code076“SchoolAdmin-
istration”includessubcategory05“Private,non-religiously-afiliatedschool,”and06“Private,
religiously-afiliatedschool.”Under“SchoolType”(077)weindsubcategories02“Alternative,”
and04“Montessori.”Under“DiscontinuingSchoolingReason”(112)weindsubcategory19
“Religion—Thestudentleftschoolbecauseofreligiousconvictions.”
Under “Non-Entrance Information” we ind category 116 “Reason for Non-Entrance in
Local or Secondary School,” under which we ind subcategory 03 “Home schooling—The
individualisreceivingeducationalservicesofferedinahomeenvironmentforreasonsother
thanhealth.”Alsounder116weindsubcategory05“Religiousreason—Theindividualorhis
orherparent/guardianhasreligiousconvictionsthatprohibitparticipationintheeducational
programoftheschooloreducationagency,andtheindividualisnotreceivingapprovedinstruc-
A–86
tionelsewhere.”Thus,thegovernmentcontrollerscoverallbases.
AssessmentInformation
Dataonstudentswillalsoincludeextensiveassessmentinformation.Under“Assessment
Type”(189)weindthefollowingsubcategories:01AchievementTest,02AdvancedPlacement
Test,03AptitudeTest,04AttitudinalTest—“Anassessmenttomeasurethementalandemotional
setorpatternsoflikesanddislikesoropinionsheldbyastudentoragroupofstudents.Thisis
oftenusedinrelationtoconsiderationssuchascontroversialissuesorpersonaladjustments.”
05Cognitiveandperceptualskillstest—“Anassessmenttomeasurecomponentsofastudent’s
mentalabilitysuchasvisualmemory,igure-grounddifferentiation,auditorymemory,reasoning
ability,andsequentialprocessing.”06DevelopmentalObservation,07InterestInventory—“An
assessmentusedtomeasuretheextenttowhichastudent’spatternoflikesanddislikescorre-
spondstothoseofindividualswhoareknowntobesuccessfullyengagedinagivenvocation,
subjectarea,programofstudies,orotheractivity.”08LanguageProiciencyTest,09Manual
DexterityTest,10MentalAbility(Intelligence)Test,11PerformanceAssessment—“Anassess-
menttomeasureastudent’sknowledgeorskillbyrequiringhimorhertoproduceanansweror
productthatisnotnecessarilyinastandardizedformat.Examplesofperformanceassessment
includewritingshortanswers,solvingcomplexmathematicalproblems,writinganextended
essay,conductinganexperiment,presentinganoralargument,orassemblingaportfolioof
representativework.”12PersonalityTest—“Anassessmenttomeasureastudent’saffective
ornonintellectualaspectsofbehaviorsuchasemotionaladjustment,interpersonalrelations,
motivation,interests,andattitudes.”13PortfolioAssessment,14PsychologicalTest—“Anassess-
menttomeasureasampleofbehaviorinanobjectiveandstandardizedway.”15Psychomotor
Test,16ReadingReadinessTest.Notethattheassessmenttestsareincompleteharmonywith
Outcome-BasedEducation.
AllAboutYourTeeth
It’shardtoimaginealess-intrusivedata-gatheringsystemthanthisone,anditisdificult
toexaggeratethethoroughnessofthesystem.Forexample,underHealthConditionsweindthe
categoryofOralHealthwiththefollowingcodedesignations:230NumberofTeeth,231Number
ofPermanentTeethLost,232NumberofTeethDecayed,233NumberofTeethRestored,234
OcclusionCondition,withsubcategories01Normalocclusion,02Mildmalocclusion,03Moder-
atemalocclusion,04Severemalocclusion.235Gingival(Gum)Condition,withsubcategories
01Normal,02Milddeviation,03Moderatedeviation,04Severedeviation.236OralSoftTissue
Condition,withsubcategories01Normal,02Milddeviation,03Moderatedeviation,04Severe
deviation.237DentalProsthetics,andOrthodonticAppliances.
Whyallofthisinterestinteeth?Willtheschoolsbeofferingdentalservicesatstateexpense?
Oristheinformationforthepurposesofidentiicationincaseyourfaceissmashedtoapulp
byaguardinoneoftheirconcentrationcampsforthepoliticallyincorrect?Butbythenevery
individualwillprobablybemicrochipped,barcoded,tattooedortagged.Arewebeingparanoid?
WereJewsinGermanyin1933paranoid?WereanticommunistRussiansin1917paranoid?
MedicalData
MedicalinformationwillalsoincludeMaternalandPre-NatalCondition,Conditionsat
Birth,HealthHistory,describedas:“Arecordofanindividual’saflictions,conditions,injuries,
AppendixXVI A–87
accidents,treatments,andprocedures”;MedicalEvaluations,DisablingConditions,Medical
LaboratoryTests,Immunizations,LimitationsonSchoolActivities,HealthCareProvider,and
OtherHealthInformation—“Informationaboutanindividual’smedicalorhealthrequirements
thatarenototherwiseaddressedabove.”
Undercategory322StudentSupportServiceType,weread,“Typeofrelatedorancillary
services provided to an individual or a group of individuals within the formal educational
systemorofferedbyanoutsideagencywhichprovidesnon-instructionalservicestosupportthe
generalwelfareofstudents.Thisincludesphysicalandemotionalhealth,theabilitytoselect
anappropriatecourseofstudy,admissiontoappropriateeducationalprograms,andtheability
toadjusttoandremaininschoolthroughthecompletionofprograms.Inservingastudent
withanidentiieddisability,relatedservicesincludedevelopmental,corrective,orsupportive
servicesrequiredtoensurethattheindividualbeneitsfromspecialeducation.”Thereare39
subcategoriesundercategory322.
IndividualHealthPlan
Codenumber331referstoServiceProviderType—“Thequaliiedindividualorlicensed
organization(iflicensingisnecessary)responsibleforservingthestudent.”Subcategory02
referstoHealthnurse—“Certiied,licensed,registerednurseornursepractitionerwhoprovides
anyofthefollowingservices:1)caseindingactivitiestoincludehealthappraisal,screeningfor
developmentalmaturational/milestones,visionandhearingacuity,speech,dentaldeviations,
growth,andnutritionaldisorders;2)nursingcareproceduresthatincludeimmunization,medi-
cation-monitoringandadministration,nursingassessment,andproceduresrelatedtothehealth
impairedstudent’sIndividualHealthPlan(IHP);3)carecoordinationandoutreachtochildren
whodonototherwisereceivepreventivehealthcare,follow-upstoassurereferralcompletion,
homevisitsforfollow-upplanningorhomeenvironmentassessment,andinterimprenatalor
familyplanningandmonitoring;4)patient/studentcounselingorinstructiontoincludenursing
assessment,counseling,andanticipatoryguidancetomaintainwellnessorprovideassistance
foridentiiedhealthproblemsorconcerns.
SocializedMedicineViaEducation
Obviously,thehealthprovisionaspectsofpubliceducationaretobeexpandedexponen-
tially.Iftheliberalscan’tgetsocializedmedicinethroughthehealthcaresystem,they’llgetit
throughtheeducationsystem.
Subcategory03Socialworkerreads:“Certiied,licensed,orotherwisequaliiedprofes-
sionalwhoprovidesthefollowingservices:1)preparingasocialordevelopmentalhistoryon
astudentwithdisabilities;2)groupandindividualcounselingwithastudentandhisorher
family;3)workingwiththoseproblemsinastudent’slivingsituation(home,school,andcom-
munity)thataffectadjustmentinschool;4)mobilizingschoolandcommunityresourcesin
ordertoenablethestudenttoreceivemaximumbeneitfromhisorhereducationalprogram;
and5)otherrelatedservicesasnecessary.”
ServicedtoDeath
What kind of individual will emerge from an “education” system as all-encompassing
andsuffocatingasthisone?Americanchildrenwillbeservicedtodeathbytheirgovernment
whichwillsurroundthemwithteachersandspecialiststormentingtheminsubtle,abusive
wayswithendlesstests,emotionalprobingandstripsearching,andrequiredpoliticallycorrect
A–88
performancestoindicate,inBillSpady’swords,“visionaryhigher-orderexitoutcomes.”Thisis
asystemdesignedtoturneveryhealthyyoungsterthatentersitintoanacademicallycrippled,
emotionallydamagedadult.
Subcategory04Psychologistreads:“Certiied,licensed,orotherwisequaliiedprofessional
who provides the following services: 1) administering psychological and educational tests,
andotherassessmentprocedures;2)interpretingassessmentresults;3)obtaining,integrating,
and interpreting information about student behavior and conditions relating to learning; 4)
consultingwithotherstaffmembersinplanningschoolprogramstomeetthespecialneedsof
studentsasindicatedbypsychologicaltests,interviews,andbehavioralevaluations;5)plan-
ningandmanagingaprogramofpsychologicalservices,includingpsychologicalcounseling
forstudentsandparents.”
Subcategory 05 Counselor reads: “A staff member responsible for guiding individuals,
families,groupsandcommunitiesbyassistingtheminproblem-solving,decision-making,dis-
coveringmeaning,andarticulatinggoalsrelatedtopersonal,educational,andcareerdevelop-
ment.”Howmanyguidancecounselorsthatyouknowcanhelpanyone,letaloneastudent,
“discovermeaning”?Whatajokeallofthisis.
DoWeNeedThis?
Wearetoldthatthegovernmentneedsallofthisincrediblydetailedinformationsothat
effectivedecisionscanbemadeforthestudentbybureaucrats,teachers,administrators,and
othersonthegovernment’spayroll.Butwhatitalladdsuptoisatoolofbehavioralcontrol
andmanagementoftheAmericanpopulationbythecontrollingelite.Thegovernmentofafree
peopledoesnotgoaboutcreatingthemostdetailedandthoroughpersonaldossieroneach
citizenfromdateofbirthtobestoredingovernmentcomputersonthepretextthatitisneeded
toprovidethatcitizenwithaneducation.
WhenIattendedpublicschoolasachildinNewYorkCityintheearly1930s,allthey
neededwasmyname,address,dateofbirth,andparents’names.Thatwasit.Anditwasall
writtenbyhandonacard.Yourentireschoolrecordwasonasinglecardwithyourinalgrades
foreachsubjectforeachyear.That’sthewayitoughttobetoday.
AsfortheStaffHandbook,itcallsforthesamekindofthoroughbiographicaldataas
outlinedintheStudentHandbooksuchasrace,religion,ethnicity,plusextensivedataonedu-
cational background, professional development, credentialing, employment, job and course
assignments,andevaluations.Ifyouaddtothisthedataintheteacher’silewhenheorshe
wasastudent,youhaveanincrediblydetailedproileofthatindividual.InChapter1ofthe
StaffHandbook,weread:
Educationagenciesandinstitutionsmaintaininformationaboutstafftofacilitatetheefi-
cientandeffectivefunctioningoftheeducationenterprise….Ifalldataaboutastaffmember
aremaintainedinanautomateddatasystem,manyusesandtypesofanalysesarepossible.
Forinstance,anadministratormayneedtoknowabouttheavailabilityofhumanresources
toinitiateanewprogram.Informationaboutthebackground,educationalandprofessional
qualiicationsofcurrentstaffmemberscouldbeusedtoidentifypossiblecandidatestowork
ontheprogram.
Notethereferencetothestaffmemberasa“humanresource.”That’sthethinkingofa
systemsbureaucrattowhomahumanbeingisnowa“resource”tobecontrolledandused
likeanyothernaturalresource.
AppendixXVI A–89
WhatCanBeDone?
Itisabsolutelyessential,ifwearetoremainafreepeople,thatthisentiredata-collection
systembestoppedanddismantled.Ithasnoplaceinafreesociety.Thelegislationthatautho-
rizeditmustberepealedorrescindedordefunded.Thisentiresystemisbasedontheneedof
behavioralscientistsforadetailed,longitudinalaccumulationofdatatoverifythe[eficacy]of
theirprogramstochangehumanbehavior.BenjaminBloom,thegodfatherofOutcome-Based
Education,wroteinhis1964bookStabilityandChangeinHumanCharacteristics:
Wecanlearnverylittleabouthumangrowth,development,orevenaboutspeciichuman
characteristicsunlesswemakefulluseofthetimedimension.Effortstocontrolorchange
humanbehaviorbytherapy,byeducation,orbyothermeanswillbeinadequateandpoorly
understooduntilwecanfollowbehavioroveralongerperiod.(p.5)
Thatthebehaviorist’spurposeofeducationistochangehumanbehaviorwasspelledout
inBloom’sTaxonomyofEducationalGoalsdealingwiththeaffectivedomain.Hewasgreatly
concernedwiththeneedtogetcontrolofchildrenasearlyaspossible.Hewrote:
Theevidencepointsoutconvincinglytothefactthatageisafactoroperatingagainst
attemptstoeffectacompleteorthorough-goingreorganizationofattitudesandvalues.(p.
85)
Theevidencecollectedthusfarsuggeststhatasinglehourofclassroomactivityunder
certainconditionsmaybringaboutamajorreorganizationincognitiveaswellasaffective
behaviors.Weareoftheopinionthatthiswillprovetobeamostfruitfulareaofresearchin
connectionwiththeaffectivedomain.(p.88)
AndinStabilityandChangeinHumanCharacteristics,Bloomwrote:
Webelievethattheearlyenvironmentisofcrucialimportanceforthreereasons.The
irstisbasedontheveryrapidgrowthofselectedcharacteristicsintheearlyyearsandcon-
ceivesofthevariationsintheearlyenvironmentassoimportantbecausetheyshapethese
characteristicsintheirmostrapidperiodsofformation.
Secondly,eachcharacteristicisbuiltonabaseofthatsamecharacteristicatanearlier
timeoronthebaseofothercharacteristicswhichprecedeitindevelopment….
Athirdreason…stemsfromlearningtheory.Itismucheasiertolearnsomethingnew
thanitistostampoutonesetoflearnedbehaviorsandreplacethembyanewset.(p.215)
ThedatacollectionsystemoutlinedintheStudentHandbookwillgivethebehaviorists
thevitaltooltheyneedtohonetheirabilitytothoroughlyreorganizethevalues,attitudesand
behaviorsoftheAmericanstudent.Godhelpusifthissystemisimplemented.
AppendixXVII
MemosonDirectInstruction
January10,1997Memo
To:Researchers
From:CharlotteIserbyt
Regarding:DirectInstruction
TheChristianConscience,September1996,commencedtheserializationonamonthlybasis
of my updated 1985 Back to Basics Reform or OBE… Skinnerian International Curriculum
(ChronologicalHistoryofOBE/ML:1880sthrough1990s).Iurgethoseofyoutryingtoeducate
opponents of OBE and School-to-Work programs WHO SUPPORT DIRECT INSTRUCTION,
please go to The Christian Conscience website (http://www.christianconscience.com) and
requesttheSeptember–December1996backissues.Thesewilltakeyouthroughtheimportant
sixties and will explain with complete documentation that the Direct Instruction method
is similar to the Skinnerian OBE/mastery learning method and should be rejected since
animal training methods have nothing to do with education. For the life of me I cannot
understand why Christian schools and home schoolers support ML/DI which uses animal
training methods based on the theory of evolution (man is nothing but an animal) which
theysovociferouslyoppose.
ThoserammingOBE/MLworkforcetrainingdownourthroatsranintosomuchtrouble,
dueunfortunatelyonlytothenastyoutcomes,notduetotheSkinnerianmethod,thatthey
rescuedtheirOBE/MLrestructuringbyjumpingfromthemasterylearningshipontoitssister
ship,DirectInstruction.Theyigured,anditseemswithgoodreason,thatiftheypresented
thesamemethodwithadifferentlabelandfocusedonacademic,notaffective,touchy-feely
outcomes,theycouldcapturetheapprovaloftheconservativeopposition.
DirectInstructionisonaroll—alloverthecountry.CaliforniaislookingatDI;parents
werereadyfor“anything”afterthewholelanguagedisaster.Chicago,whichsurelyshould
knowbetterafteritsMLcatastrophewhichresultedinhalfthefreshmanclassnotgraduating,
A–90
AppendixXVII A–91
isimplementingDI.DougCarnine,DirectorofthefederallyfundedNationalCentertoImprove
theToolsofEducators,inEugene,Oregon,haswrittenMs.Moran,California’sCommission
for the Establishment of Academic Content and Performance Standards, regarding the
Center’s work with Virginia on aligning their state assessment with their standards and
in developing their accountability system. What is of interest here is that Carnine, who
is close to Engelmann, the father of DI—DISTAR, and who was involved in the Follow
ThroughDirectInstructionEvaluation(1970–76),knownasthe“largestandmostexpensive
socialexperimenteverlaunched,”hassurfaced20yearslaterasakeyplayerineducation
restructuring.YouwillbetoldDirectInstructionis“backtobasics”andifyousquawkhard
enoughabouttheoutcomesorstandardsoflearning,orwhatevertheycallyourobjectives,
the educrats may recommend Virginia’s Standards of Learning [Is this E.D. Hirsch? ed.]
which are pretty clean—for now—but don’t forget those standards can be interpreted by
theeducratsanywaytheywant,andsomeineday,theycouldbecompletelychanged.The
problemisnottheoutcomes,buttheSkinnerianmethodessentialforworkforcetraining,and
DirectInstructionisjustasbad,forthesamereasons,asMasteryLearning,whichhasbeen
adisasterinalltheinnercityschoolsinwhichitwasused.
LastnightontheJimLehrerShowtherewasapaneldiscussiononthesorrystateof
education during which John Chubb of the liberal Brookings Institute, who heads up the
Edison Project (charter schools), recommended Direct Instruction as the solution to the
nation’seducationproblems.Chubbetal.,withstrongtiesintotheinternationalbusiness
community,supportpubliclyfundedcharterschools,which,asallofyouknow,willbeused
forworkforcetraining.TheSkinnerianMethod,beitMLorDI,isofvitalimportancetothe
implementationofworkforcetraining.MLandDIarenotthesamethingasteacher-initiated
or driven instruction of basic content material (traditional education). Curriculum in
script form using operant conditioning, i.e. Programmed Learning, be it Ethna Reid’s
ECRIMasteryLearning(ML)orEngelmann’sSRA(DISTAR).DirectInstruction(DI)isnot
the same as teacher-initiated or driven instruction of basic content material (traditional
education).PLSPUTONINTERNET!
January29,1997Memo
To:SupportersofDirectInstruction
From:CharlotteIserbyt
Regarding:TheRoleofSiegfriedEngelmann,developerofDISTAR/ReadingMastery,in
teachertrainingforfederallyfundedECRI(SkinnerianMasteryLearning)
OnApril12,1980theMaineFacilitatorCenter(NationalDiffusionNetwork)heldaconference
to train teachers in Ethna Reid’s mastery learning program known as “The Exemplary
Center for Reading Instruction.” A teacher friend of mine gave me the 125-page teacher
trainingmanualusedattheconference.
Although I had always suspected that Engelmann’s DISTAR/Reading Mastery was in
somewayconnectedtotheECRIprogramsincethetechniquesweresimilar,Iwasunable
tomakeadirectconnection.WhenIirstreadthetrainingmanualtenyearsago,Ididnot
knowwhoEngelmannwassohisnamemeantnothingtome.NowthatIknowwhoheis,
youcanimaginehowshockedandsickenedIwastoindhimreferencedinReid’sratlab
A–92
trainingmanual.MyworstsuspicionsregardingDI/ReadingMasteryhavebeenconirmed.
Oneofthemanyreferencesfollows:
BASICPRINCIPLESOFBEHAVIORMANAGEMENT
Until recent years, the study of human behavior was thought to elude careful analysis.
However,duringthelastthreedecades,scientiictechniqueshavebeendevelopedforthe
studyofbehaviorwhichshowthatbehavioralprocessesarebaseduponexactprinciples.In
applyingtheseprinciplestoteaching,Becker,Engelmann,andThomasstated:
Theexperimentalstudyofeventsthatmakelearninghappenhasproducedconsistent
indingsthatcanprovidetheteacherwithasystematicbasisfordoingherjob.Events
occurringbeforeandafterachildmakesaresponsehavebeenshowntobecriticalin
determining when and where that response will occur again. Environmental
events that influence responding are called stimuli. A teacher accomplishes a
teaching objective by effectively arranging the occurrence of stimulus events for
the child—that is, by controlling when and how she talks, praises, shows things,
andpromptsresponses.
Teachingisfurtherdescribedasathree-stepprocess,writtenS-R-S
(S)Theteacherpresentsprecedingstimuli(signal)
(R)Thechildresponds
(R)Theteacherpresentsfollowingstimulus(consequence)
ThisModelforDirectTeachingcanbeshownthus:
S(PrecedingStimuli);
R(PupilResponse);and
S(ConsequentStimuli)
Reference #8, Becker, Engelmann, and Thomas, Teaching: A Course in Applied Psychology
(ScienceResearchAssociates,Inc.:Chicago,1971),p.1.
DISTAR/Reading Mastery is being used in the Houston public schools and is being
touted as the most successful curriculum around by conservative groups. It is also being
promotedbythemulti-nationalcorporationsandJohnChubbwhosupportcharterschools
forworkforcetraining.
January30,1997Memo
To:SupportersofDirectInstruction
From:CharlotteIserbyt
Forces for Change in the Primary Schools 1980 (High Scope Press High Scope Educational
ResearchFoundation:Ypsilanti,MI,1980),pp.81–82,identiiesDouglasCarnineas“Director
ofFollowThrough(FT)DirectInstructionModel,UniversityofOregon,DepartmentofSpecial
Education.” The FT program was a longitudinal educational experiment aimed at inding
effectivemethodsforeducatingdisadvantagedchildren.
DougCarnine’sDec.11,1996lettertoMs.EllenMoran,StateofCalifornia,Commission
for the Establishment of Academic Content and Performance Standards, is written on the
AppendixXVII A–93
NationalCentertoImprovetheToolsofEducatorsletterheadwhichalsosaysinineprint“To
addresstheQualityofTechnology,MediaandMaterialsforStudentswithDiverseLearning
Needs,fundedbytheU.S.OficeofSpecialEducationPrograms.”Carnine’slettertoMoran
statedthat“theCenterisworkingcloselywiththeVADept.ofEducationandStateBoardon
aligning their state assessment with their standards and in developing their accountability
system….NCITEisalsopreparinginformalassessmentbenchmarksforirstandsecondgrade
inmathandlanguageartsthatschoolscanvolunteertousebeforetheformalassessment
beginsingrade3.Ourcenteriswillingtomaketheseandothermaterialswedevelopfor
VirginiaavailabletotheCommissionwithoutcharge.”
DISTAR/Reading Mastery is being promoted as an alternative to Whole Language
readinginstruction.Evenifonedoesn’tobjecttoSkinnerianbehaviormodiication/operant
conditioning/animal training being used on children, doesn’t it make sense to question
whether one wants their perfectly normal children subjected to a program designed
for disadvantaged children (10-15% of students). Many critics of Skinnerian training
programshavegoneevenfurtherandsuggestedthatitwasunethicaltousedisadvantaged
children for experimentation, such as was done with the “Follow Through” program
inthelatesixties.
I have before me a study entitled Educational Outcomes and Indicators for Students
Completing School, from the National Center on Educational Outcomes, The College of
Education, University of Minnesota, in collaboration with St. Cloud State University and
NationalAssociationofStateDirectorsofSpecialEducation,1993,whichsays:“TheNational
Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) is working with federal and state agencies to
facilitateandenhancethecollectionanduseofdataoneducationaloutcomesforstudentswith
disabilities.Indoingso,ithastakenaninclusiveapproach:Identifyingaconceptualmodelof
outcomesthatappliestoALLstudents,notjusttostudentswithdisabilities.”
Is this what the “deliberate dumbing down” of America is all about? All children
are considered to have disabilities and are categorized as special education? All children
will have an individualized education plan? All children will be taught using Skinnerian
behavioral psychology, be it mastery learning/OBE or Direct Instruction/DISTAR/Reading
Mastery?
Although the Evaluation of Follow Through cited some academic and self-esteem
gains at some sites due to the use of the Direct Instruction model, it would have been
virtuallyimpossibleforthesegainsnottohavebeenmadeconsideringtheopenclassroom,
touchy-feelymodelswithwhichitwascompared.HadtheDirectInstructionmodelbeenin
competitionwithagoodtraditionalphonicsprogramnotbasedonanimalpsychology,itis
mostunlikelyitwouldhavebeenabletopointtoanygainsatall.Also,theresultsofthe
FollowThroughprogramshouldbequestionedasvaluabletooursocietyasawholesince
theywerebased,again,ontheresultsininnercityschools.Whydidn’tthoseinvolvedreach
forthestarsandtrytoindoutwhatitwas,inourmostacademicallyorientedschools,with
hightestscores,inmiddleincomecommunities,thatleadtosuccess,andusethatmodelin
theinnercityschools?Isn’titelitisttosuggestthatlowincome,minoritychildrenwerenot
capableofattainingthesameresultsasthoseoftheirmoreadvantagedclassmatesinother
partsofthecountry?Andisn’titinterestingthatthemodelforthe“disadvantaged”children
(Engelmann’s Direct Instruction/Reading Mastery) seems to have been selected for ALL
our children as the model for the schools of the 21st Century, publicly funded charter
schools,runbyunelecteddirectors,whosepurposewillbeto“train”ourchildren(human
A–94
resources)fortheglobalworkforce?
If the above analysis is on target, and the documentation unfortunately seems to
point in that direction, it is a very, very sad day for American education, our children,
andournation.
January30,1997Memo
To:ActivistsinStatesImplementingDISTAR/ReadingMasteryusingDougCarnineof
thefederally-fundednationalCentertoImprovetheToolsofEducators,asConsultantto
yourStateDeptartmentofEducation
From:CharlotteIserbyt
Regarding:DougCarnine’sworkinyourState.ProofthatDirectInstruction/Reading
Masteryis100%B.F.SkinnerRatLabeducation
AmsendingyouthealertsIhavebeengettingoutthepasttwoweeks,whichhavegoneonto
theInternet,andwhichyoushouldhave,ifyouarenoton-line.
CarninehasnotrespondedtomyoriginalJanuary10,1997alert,althoughrequested
todosobyothersontheInternet.Consideringtheamountofinformationwehaveonhis
connectionswithEngelmann,fatherofDISTAR/ReadingMastery,datingbacktwentyyears,it
isnosurpriseEngelmann,Becker,Carnine,etc.,donotwishtorespond.
ThosewhodonotunderstandSkinnerianbehavioralpsychologyanditsuseoninnocent
children are making a very big mistake supporting DI/Reading Mastery. I have the entire
ECRIteachertraininginwhichEngelmannisreferencedseveraltimes(absolutelynauseating
quotes).Icannotindawordtoexpressmydisgustthatsuchadehumanizingmethodcould
beusedonanyone,muchlesscaptivechildrenintheclassroom.Idon’tcareifitisusedto
teachtheTenCommandments.Itissick,sick,sick,andourgoodpeoplehadbetterwakeup
andstopembracingitsimplybecauseitusesintensivephonicsinsteadofWholeLanguage.
Hitlerhadaprettygoodsystemgoingforhim,too;heusedthismethod;sodotheRussians.
I personally consider my two sons to be more than “organisms.” I pulled them out of a
ChristianschoolthatusedMLforthesamereasonifteenyearsago.
AfterreadingtheECRIteachertrainingIcanhonestlysaythatIwouldprefertohave
mychildinaWholeLanguageclass,learningnothing,thanaSkinnerianDIclass,possibly
learningbitsandpiecesofbasics(whichwillnevertransfer)andinwhichmychild’swhole
being,personality,etc.willbedamaged,perhapsforever.AndIhavefoughtWholeLanguage
eversinceitarrivedonthehorizon,forovertenyears.Ihavewrittenaboutit.Onearticle
wasevenpublishedinTheCongressionalRecord.Imentionthisonlytoconvincethosestill
believing I am possibly pro-Whole Language that I am not. I support teaching phonics
with the teacher in front of the class, lecturing the children (teacher-initiated or -driven
instructionofbasiccontentmaterial:traditionaleducation).Curriculuminscriptformusing
operantconditioning,i.e.ProgrammedLearning,beitEthnaReid’sECRIorEngelmann’sSRA
(DISTAR/ReadingMastery/DirectInstruction)isnottraditionalteaching.
When Ann Herzer, a teacher, complained about going through the ECRI training in
Arizona,shewasabsolutelycruciied,strungup,andlefttheretobleed(byconservatives,
among others). She was asked by the trainer, “Don’t you understand—we’re training the
children to be ‘people pleasers’?” You should see the ile I have of letters from distraught
AppendixXVII A–95
parents,reputabledoctors,psychologists,etc.whocametoAnn’sdefenseinopposingthis
sickprogram.Youshouldseethelettersfromplainmomsabouttheirchildrengettingsick;
nervous ailments, ticks, nightmares, etc. Ann and the parents were threatened with legal
reprisaliftheydidn’tshutup.Anndidnotshutup.
TheU.S.DepartmentofEducationhasdeniedthatECRIusesrattraining;alsodenies
that there was ever an ECRI teacher training manual, which I happen to hold in my
hand right this minute! Fortunately, a wonderful American teacher who went through
the training in Maine in 1980 gave me the manual. We would never have had the entire
storywithoutherhelp.
PleasegetonthebandwagonwithyourGovernors,Legislature,StateBoardofEducation,
media,etc.Butmostofallwithlocalschoolboardsandparents.Warnthem!Anddon’tforget
totellthemthatwhenwehaveexposedDirectInstructionforwhatitis,thechangeagents
willgiveitanothername.Globaleconomy,multinationalcorporations,andtheUnitedNations
musthaveonlyonemethodoftraining,andthatisSkinner.Theoutcomescanbechanged
overnight;themethodcannot.
AppendixXVIII
“AHumanResourcesDevelopmentPlanfortheUnitedStates”
NATIONALCENTERONEDUCATIONANDTHEECONOMY
(c)1992NationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomy
AdditionalCopiesareAvailablefor$7.50each,postpaidfromthe
NationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomy
39StateStreet,Suite500
Rochester,NY14614–1327
716–546–7620
FAX:716–546–3145
Preface
The advent of the Clinton administration creates a unique opportunity for the country to
develop a truly national system for the development of its human resources, second to
noneontheglobe.TheNationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomyanditspredecessor
organization, the Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy, have been elaborating
a national agenda in this arena over the last eight years. Here, we outline a set of
recommendations to the incoming Clinton administration in the area of human resource
development. It builds directly on the proposals that the President-elect advanced during
thecampaign.Thisreportismainlytheworkofasmallgroupofpeoplewithclosetiesto
theNationalCenter:TimBarnicle,DavidBarram,MichaelCohen,DavidHasselkorn,David
Hornbeck,ShirleyMalcom,RayMarshall,SusanMcGuire,HilaryPennington,AndyPlattner,
Lauren Resnick, David Rockefeller, Jr., Betsy Brown Ruzzi, Robert Schwartz, John Sculley,
MarshallSmith,BillSpringandmyself.Whileallofthesepeopleareingeneralagreement
withwhatfollows,theymaynotagreeonthedetails.
—MarcTucker
A–96
AppendixXVIII A–97
Introduction
ThegreatopportunityinfrontofthecountrynowistoremoldtheentireAmericansystemfor
humanresourcesdevelopment,almostallofthecurrentcomponentsofwhichwereputin
placebeforeWorldWarII.Thenaturalcourseistotakeeachoftheideasthatwereadvanced
inthecampaignintheareaofeducationandtrainingandtranslatethemindividuallyinto
legislative proposals. But that will lead to these programs being grafted onto the present
system, not to a new system, and the opportunity will have been lost. If this sense of
timeandplaceiscorrect,itisessentialthatthenation’seffortsbeguidedbyaconsistent
vision of what it wants to accomplish in the ield of human resources development, a
vision that can shape the actions not only of the new administration but of many others
overthenextfewyears.
Whatfollowscomesintwopieces:
First, a vision of the kind of national—not federal—human resources development system
the nation could have. This is interwoven with a new approach to governing that should
inform that vision. What is essential is that we create a seamless web of opportunities to
develop one’s skills that literally extends from cradle to grave and is the same system for
everyone—young and old, poor and rich, worker and full-time student. It needs to be a
system driven by client needs (not agency regulations or the needs of the organizations
providing the services), guided by clear standards that deine the stages of the system for
thepeoplewhoprogressthroughit,andregulatedonthebasisofoutcomesthatproviders
producefortheirclients,notinputsintothesystem.
Second, a proposed legislative agenda the new administration and the Congress can use
to implement this vision. We propose four high priority packages that will enable the
federalgovernmenttomovequickly:
1. The irst would use the President-elect’s proposal for an apprenticeship system as the
keystone of a strategy for putting a whole new postsecondary training system in place.
Thatsystemwouldincorporatehisproposalforreformingpostsecondaryeducationinance.
It contains what we think is a powerful idea for rolling out and scaling up the whole
newhumanresourcessystemnationwideoverthenextfouryears,usingthe(renamed)
apprenticeshipideaastheenteringwedge.
2.Thesecondwouldcombineinitiativesondislocatedworkers,arebuiltemploymentservice
andanewsystemoflabormarketboardsinasingleemploymentsecurityprogrambuilt
onthebestpracticesanywhereintheworld.Thisisthebackboneofasystemforassuring
adultworkersinoursocietythattheyneedneveragainwatchwithdismayastheirjobs
disappearandtheirchancesofevergettingajobagaingowiththem.
3.Thethirdwouldconcentrateontheoverwhelmingproblemsofourinnercities,combining
elements of the irst and second packages into a special program to greatly raise the
work-relatedskillsofthepeopletrappedinthecoreofourgreatcities.
A–98
4. The fourth would enable the new administration to take advantage of legislation on
which Congress has already been working to advance the elementary and secondary
reformagenda.
TheVision
AnEconomicStrategyBasedonSkillDevelopment
←The economy’s strength is derived from a whole population as skilled as any in
the world, working in workplaces organized to take maximum advantage of the
skillsthosepeoplehavetooffer.
←A seamless system of unending skill development that begins in the home with
the very young and continues through school, postsecondary education and the
workplace.
TheSchools
←Clear national standards of performance in general education (the knowledge and
skillsthateveryoneisexpectedtoholdincommon)aresettothelevelofthebest
achieving nations in the world for students of 16 and public schools are expected
to bring all but the most severely handicapped up to that standard. Students get a
certiicatewhentheymeetthisstandard,allowingthemtogoontothenextstageof
theireducation.Thoughthestandardsaresettointernationalbenchmarks,theyare
distinctlyAmerican,relectingourneedsandvalues.
←Wehaveanationalsystemofeducationinwhichcurriculum,pedagogy,examinations
andteachereducationandlicensuresystemsarealllinkedtothenationalstandards,
butwhichprovidesforsubstantialvariationamongstates,districtsandschoolson
these matters. This new system of linked standards, curriculum and pedagogy will
abandontheAmericantrackingsystem,combininghighacademicstandardswiththe
abilitytoapplywhatoneknowstorealworldproblemsandqualifyingallstudentsfor
alifetimeoflearninginthepostsecondarysystemandatwork.
←We have a system that rewards students who meet the national standards with
further education and good jobs, providing them a strong incentive to work
hardinschool.
←Our public school systems are reorganized to free up school professionals to make
thekeydecisionsabouthowtousealltheavailableresourcestobringstudentsup
tothestandards.Mostofthefederal,state,districtandunionrulesandregulations
thatnowrestrictschoolprofessionals’abilitytomakethesedecisionsaresweptaway,
though strong measures are in place to make sure that vulnerable populations get
the help they need. School professionals are paid at a level comparable to that of
otherprofessionals,buttheyareexpectedtoputinafullyeartospendwhatevertime
AppendixXVIII A–99
ittakestodothejobandtobefullyaccountablefortheresultsoftheirwork.The
federal,stateandlocalgovernmentsprovidethetime,staffdevelopmentresources,
technology and other support needed for them to do the job. Nothing less than a
wholly restructured school system can possibly bring all of our students up to a
standardonlyafewhavebeenexpectedtomeetuptonow.
←Thereisanaggressiveprogramofpublicchoiceinourschools.
←Allstudentsareguaranteedthattheywillhaveafairshotatreachingthestandards,
thatis,thatwhethertheymakeitornotdependsonlyontheefforttheyarewillingto
make.Adeterminedeffortonthepartofthefederalgovernmentwillberequiredon
thispoint.Schooldeliverystandardsmayberequired.Ifso,thesestandardsshould
havethesamestatusinthesystemasthenewstudentperformancestandards,butthey
shouldbefashionedsoasnottoconstituteanewbureaucraticnightmare.
PostsecondaryEducationandWorkSkills
←Allstudentswhomeetthenewnationalstandardsforgeneraleducationareentitled
to the equivalent of three more years of free additional education. We would have
thefederalandstategovernmentsmatchfundstoguaranteeonefreeyearofcollege
educationtoeveryonewhomeetsthenewnationalstandardsforgeneraleducation
(the amount of this award would be set at a stipulated maximum so as to avoid
runaway charges for college tuition). So a student who meets the standard at 16
wouldbeentitledtotwofreeyearsofhighschoolandoneofcollege.Loans,which
canbeforgivenforpublicservice,areavailableforadditionaleducationbeyondthat.
National standards for sub-baccalaureate college-level professional and technical
degrees and certiicates will be established with the participation of employers,
laborandhighereducation.Theseprogramswillincludebothacademicstudyand
structured on-the-job training. Eighty percent or more of American high school
graduateswillbeexpectedtogetsomeformofcollegedegree,thoughmostofthem
less than a baccalaureate. These new professional and technical certiicates and
degrees typically are won within three years of acquiring the general education
certiicate,so,formostpostsecondarystudents,collegewillbefree.Theseprofessional
and technical degree programs will be designed to link to programs leading to
the baccalaureate degree and higher degrees. There will be no dead ends in this
system. Everyone who meets the general education standard will be able to go
to some form of college, being able to borrow all the money they need to do so,
beyondtheirstfreeyear.
Thisideaofpost-secondaryprofessionalandtechnicalcertiicatescapturesallofthe
essentialsoftheapprenticeshipidea,whileofferingnoneofitsdrawbacks(seebelow).
Butitalsomakesitclearthatthoseengagedinapprentice-styleprogramsaregetting
morethannarrowtraining;theyarecontinuingtheireducationforotherpurposesas
well, and building a base for more education later. Clearly, this idea redeines
college. Proprietary schools, employers, and community-based organizations
will want to offer these programs, as well as community colleges and four-year
A–100
institutions,butthesenewentrantswillhavetobeaccreditediftheyaretoqualify
tooffertheprograms.
←Employers are not required to provide slots for the structured on-the-job training
component of the program but many do so, because they get irst access to the
mostaccomplishedgraduatesoftheseprogramsandtheycanusetheseprogramsto
introducethetraineestotheirownvaluesandwayofdoingthings.
←The system of skill standards for technical and professional degrees is the same
for students just coming out of high school and for adults in the workforce. It is
progressive,inthesensethatcertiicatesanddegreesfortheentryleveljobsleadto
furtherprofessionalandtechnicaleducationprogramsathigherlevels.Justasinthe
case of the system for the schools, though the standards are the same everywhere
(leading to maximum mobility for students), the curricula can vary widely and
programscanbecustomdesignedtoittheneedsoffull-timeandpart-timestudents
withverydifferentrequirements.Governmentgrantandloanprogramsareavailable
on the same terms to full-time and part-time students, as long as the programs in
whichtheyareenrolledaredesignedtoleadtocertiicatesanddegreesdeinedby
thesystemofprofessionalandtechnicalstandards.
←Thenationalsystemofprofessionalandtechnicalstandardsisdesignedmuchlikethe
multistatebar,whichprovidesanationalcorearoundwhichthestatescanspecify
additionalstandardsthatmeettheiruniqueneeds.Therearenationalstandardsand
exams for no more than 20 broad occupational areas, each of which can lead to
many occupations in a number of related industries. Students who qualify in any
oneoftheseareashavethebroadskillsrequiredbyawholefamilyofoccupations,
and most are suficiently skilled to enter the workforce immediately, with further
occupation-specific skills provided by their union or employer. Industry and
occupational groups can voluntarily create standards building on these broad
standardsfortheirownneeds,ascanthestates.Studentsenteringthesystemareirst
introducedtoverybroadoccupationalgroups,narrowingovertimetoconcentrateon
acquiringtheskillsneededforaclusterofoccupations.Thismodularsystemprovides
fortheinitiativeofparticularstatesandindustrieswhileatthesametimeproviding
formobilityacrossstatesandoccupationsbyreducingthetimeandcostentailedin
movingfromoneoccupationtoanother.Inthisway,abalanceisestablishedbetween
thekindsofgenericskillsneededtofunctioneffectivelyinhighperformancework
organizationsandtheskillsneededtocontinuelearningquicklyandwellthrougha
lifetimeofwork,ontheonehand,andthespeciicskillsneededtoperformatahigh
levelinaparticularoccupationontheother.
←Institutionsreceivinggrantandloanfundsunderthissystemarerequiredtoprovide
information to the public and to government agencies in a uniform format. This
information covers enrollment by program, costs and success rates for students of
different backgrounds and characteristics, and career outcomes for those students,
therebyenablingstudentstomakeinformedchoicesamonginstitutionsbasedoncost
and performance. Loan defaults are reduced to a level close to zero, both because
programs that do not deliver what they promise are not selected by prospective
A–101
AppendixXVIII
studentsandbecausethenewpostsecondaryloansystemusestheIRStocollectwhat
isowedfromsalariesandwagesastheyareearned.
EducationandTrainingforEmployedandUnemployedAdults
←The national system of skills standards establishes the basis for the development
of a coherent, uniied training system. That system can be accessed by students
coming out of high school, employed adults who want to improve their prospects,
unemployedadultswhoaredislocatedandotherswholackthebasicskillsrequired
togetoutofpoverty.Butitisallthesamesystem.Therearenolongeranypartsof
it that are exclusively for the disadvantaged, though special measures are taken to
makesurethatthedisadvantagedareserved.Itisasystemforeveryone,justasall
thepartsofthesystemalreadydescribedareforeveryone.Sothepeoplewhotake
advantage of this system are not marked by it as damaged goods. The skills they
acquireareworldclass,clearanddeinedinpartbytheemployerswhowillmake
decisionsabouthiringandadvancement.
←The new general education standard becomes the target for all basic education
programs, both for school dropouts and adults. Achieving that standard is the
prerequisiteforenrollmentinallprofessionalandtechnicaldegreeprograms.Awide
range of agencies and institutions offer programs leading to the general education
certiicate,includinghighschools,dropoutrecoverycenters,adulteducationcenters,
communitycolleges,prisonsandemployers.Theseprogramsaretailoredtotheneeds
of the people who enroll in them. All the programs receiving government grant or
loanfundsthatcomewithdropoutsandadultsforenrollmentinprogramspreparing
studentstomeetthegeneraleducationstandardmustreleasethesamekindofdata
requiredofthepostsecondaryinstitutionsonenrollment,programdescription,costand
successrates.Reportsareproducedforeachinstitutionandforthesystemasawhole
showingdifferentsuccessratesforeachmajordemographicgroup.
←The system is funded in four different ways, all providing access to the same or a
similarsetofservices.Schooldropoutsbelowtheageof21areentitledtothesame
amount of funding from the same sources that they would have been entitled to
hadtheystayedinschool.Dislocatedworkersarefundedbythefederalgovernment
throughthefederalprogramsforthatpurposeandbystateunemploymentinsurance
funds.Thechronicallyunemployedarefundedbyfederalandstatefundsestablished
for that purpose. Employed people can access the system through the requirement
thattheiremployersspendanamountequalto1and1/2percentoftheirsalaryand
wagebillontrainingleadingtonationalskillcertiication.Peopleinprisoncouldget
reductionsintheirsentencesbymeetingthegeneraleducationstandardinaprogram
providedbytheprisonsystem.Anyofthesegroupscanalsousethebalancesintheir
grantentitlementortheiraccesstothestudentloanfund.
LaborMarketSystems
←TheEmploymentServiceisgreatlyupgraded,andseparatedfromtheUnemployment
A–102
Insurance Fund. All available front-line jobs—whether public or private—must be
listed in it by law [this provision must be carefully designed to make sure that
employers will not be subject to employment suits based on the data produced by
thissystem—iftheyaresubjecttosuchsuits,theywillnotparticipate].Alltrainees
inthesystemlookingforworkareentitledtobelistedinitwithoutafee.Soitisno
longerasystemjustforthepoorandunskilled,butforeveryone.Thesystemisfully
computerized.Itlistsnotonlyjobopeningsandjobseekers(withtheirqualiications)
butalsoalltheinstitutionsinthelabormarketareaofferingprogramsleadingtothe
generaleducationcertiicateandthoseofferingprogramsleadingtotheprofessional
and technical college degrees and certiicates, along with all the relevant data
about the costs, characteristics and performance of those programs—for everyone
and for special populations. Counselors are available to any citizen to help them
assess their needs, plan a program and inance it, and, once they are trained,
tolocateavailablejobs.
←A system of labor market boards is established at the local, state and federal
levels to coordinate the systems for job training, postsecondary professional and
technicaleducation,adultbasiceducation,jobmatchingandcounseling.Therebuilt
Employment Service is supervised by these boards. The system’s clients no longer
have to go from agency to agency illing out separate applications for separate
programs.Itisalltakencareofatthelocallabormarketboardoficebyonecounselor
accessing the integrated computer-based program, which makes it possible for the
counselortodetermineeligibilityforallrelevantprogramsatonce,planaprogram
withtheclientandassemblethenecessaryfundingfromalltheavailablesources.The
samesystemwillenablecounselorandclienttoarrayalltherelevantprogramproviders
sidebyside,assesstheirrelativecostsandperformancerecordsanddeterminewhich
providersarebestabletomeettheclient’sneedsbasedonperformance.
SomeCommonFeatures
←Throughout,theobjectistohaveaperformance-andclient-orientedsystemandto
encouragelocalcreativityandresponsibilitybygettinglocalpeopletocommittohigh
goalsandorganizetoachievethem,sweepingawayasmuchoftherules,regulations
and bureaucracy that are in their way as possible, provided that they are making
real progress against their goals. For this to work, the standards at every level of
thesystemhavetobeclear;everyclienthastoknowwhattheyhavetoaccomplish
inordertogetwhattheywantoutofthesystem.Theserviceprovidershavetobe
supported in the task of getting their clients to the inish line and rewarded when
theyaremakingrealprogresstowardthatgoal.Wewouldsweepawaymeans-tested
programs,becausetheystigmatizetheirrecipientsandalienatethepublic,replacing
themwithprogramsthatareforeveryone,butalsoworkforthedisadvantaged.We
wouldreplacerulesdeininginputswithrulesdeiningoutcomesandtherewardsfor
achievingthem.Thismeans,amongotherthings,permittinglocalpeopletocombine
manyfederalprogramsastheyseeit,providedthattheintendedbeneiciariesare
progressing toward the right outcomes. We would make individuals, their families
AppendixXVIII A–103
and whole communities the unit of service, not agencies, programs and projects.
Whereverpossible,wewouldhaveserviceproviderscompetewithoneanotherfor
funds that come with the client, in an environment in which the client has good
informationaboutthecostandperformancerecordofthecompetingproviders.Dealing
withpublicagencies—whethertheyareschoolsortheemploymentservice—shouldbe
morelikedealingwithFederalExpressthanwiththeoldPostOfice.
AnAgendafortheFederalGovernment
Government at every level has an enormous potential for affecting a nation’s human
capacity—from the resources it provides to nourish pregnant women to the incentives it
providestoemployerstoinvestintheskilldevelopmentoftheiremployees.Inthissectionwe
concentrateontherolethefederalgovernmentcanplayandlargelyrestrictourieldofvision
toelementaryandsecondaryeducation,jobtrainingandlabormarketpolicy.
Everything that follows is cast in the frame of strategies for bringing the new system
described in the preceding section into being, not as a pilot program, not as a few
demonstrations to be swept aside in another administration, but everywhere, as the new
wayofdoingbusiness.
Theprecedingsectionpresentedavisionofthesystemwehaveinmindchronologically
from the point of view of an individual served by it. Here we reverse the order, starting
with a description of program components designed to serve adults, and working our
waydowntotheveryyoung.
HighSkillsforEconomiccompetitivenessProgram
DevelopingSystemStandards
←Create a National Board for Professional and Technical Standards. The Board is a
privatenot-for-proitcharteredbyCongress.Itscharterspeciiesbroadmembership
composed of leading igures from higher education, business, labor, government
and advocacy groups. The Board can receive appropriated funds from Congress,
privatefoundations,individualsandcorporations.NeitherCongressnortheexecutive
branch can dictate the standards set by the Board. But the Board is required to
report annually to the President and the Congress in order to provide for public
accountability. It is also directed to work collaboratively with the states and cities
involvedintheCollaborativeDesignandDevelopmentProgram(seebelow)inthe
developmentofthestandards.
←CharterspeciiesthattheNationalBoardwillsetbroadperformancestandards(not
time-in-the-seat standards or course standards) for postsecondary Professional and
Technical certiicates and degrees at the sub-baccalaureate level, in not more than
20areasanddevelopsperformanceexaminationsforeach.TheBoardisrequiredto
A–104
setbroadstandardsofthekinddescribedinthevisionstatementabove,andisnot
permittedtosimplyreifythenarrowstandardsthatcharacterizemanyoccupations
now(morethan2,000standardscurrentlyexist,many,forlicensedoccupations—these
arenotthekindsofstandardswehaveinmind).Italsospeciiesthattheprograms
leading to these certiicates and degrees will combine time in the classroom with
timeatthework-siteinstructuredon-the-jobtraining.TheBoardisresponsiblefor
administeringtheexamsystemandcontinuallyupdatingthestandardsandexams.
The standards assume the existence of prerequisite world class general education
standards set by the National Board for Student Achievement Standards, described
below.Thenewstandardsandexamsaremeanttobesupplementedforparticular
occupationsbythestatesandbyindividualindustriesandoccupationalgroups,with
supportfromtheNationalBoard.
←LegislationcreatingtheBoardissenttotheCongressintheirstsixmonthsofthe
administration,imposingadeadlineforcreatingthestandardsandtheexamswithin
threeyearsofpassageofthelegislation.
Commentary:
TheproposalreframestheClintonapprenticeshipproposalasacollegeprogramand
establishes a mechanism for setting the standards for the program. The unions are
very concerned that the new apprenticeships will be confused with the established
registeredapprenticeships.FocusgroupsconductedbyJobsfortheFutureandothers
showthatparentseverywherewanttheirkidstogotocollege,nottobeshuntedaside
intoanon-collegeapprenticeship“vocational”program.Byrequiringtheseprograms
to be a combination of classroom instruction and structured OJT, and creating a
standard-setting board that includes employers and labor, all the objectives of the
apprenticeship idea are achieved, while at the same [time], assuring much broader
support for the idea, as well as a guarantee that the program will not become too
narrowly[focussed]onparticularoccupations.ItalsotiestheClintonapprenticeship
idea to the Clinton college funding proposal in a seamless web. Charging the Board
withcreatingnot more than20 certiicateor degree categoriesestablishesa balance
betweentheneedtocreateonenationalsystemontheonehandwiththeneedtoavoid
creating a cumbersome and rigid national bureaucracy on the other. This approach
provideslotsoflatitudeforindividualindustrygroups,professionalgroupsandstate
authoritiestoestablishtheirownstandards,whileatthesametimeavoidingthechaos
thatwouldsurelyresultiftheyweretheonlysourceofstandards.Thebillestablishing
the Board should also authorize the executive branch to make grants to industry
groups, professional societies, occupational groups and states to develop their own
standards and exams. Our assumption is that the system we are proposing will be
managedsoastoencouragethestatestocombinethelasttwoyearsofhighschooland
the irst two years of community college into three-year programs leading to college
degrees and certiicates. Proprietary institutions, employers and community-based
organizationscouldalsooffertheseprograms,buttheywouldhavetobeaccreditedto
offerthesecollege-levelprograms.Eventually,studentsgettingtheirgeneraleducation
certiicatesmightgodirectlytocommunitycollegeortoanotherformofcollege,but
A–105
AppendixXVIII
thenewsystemshouldnotrequirethat.
CollaborativeDesignandDevelopmentProgram
Theobjectistocreateasinglecomprehensivesystemforprofessionalandtechnicaleducation
that meets the requirements of everyone from high school students to skilled dislocated
workers, from the hard core unemployed to employed adults who want to improve their
prospects.Creatingsuchasystemmeanssweepingasidecountlessprograms,buildingnew
ones,combiningfundingauthorities,changingdeeplyembeddedinstitutionalstructures,and
soon.Thequestionishowtogetfromwherewearetowherewewanttobe.Tryingtoram
it down everyone’s throat would engender overwhelming opposition. Our idea is to draft
legislationthatwouldofferanopportunityforthosestates—andselectedlargecities—thatare
excitedaboutthissetofideastocomeforwardandjoinwitheachotherandwiththefederal
governmentinanalliancetodothenecessarydesignworkandactuallydelivertheneeded
services on a fast track. The legislation would require the executive branch to establish a
competitivegrantprogramforthesestatesandcitiesandtoengageagroupoforganizations
tooffertechnicalassistancetotheexpandingsetofstatesandcitiesengagedindesigning
and implementing the new system. This is not the usual large scale experiment nor is it
a demonstration program, but a highly regarded precedent exists for this approach in the
National Science Foundation’s SSI program. As soon as the irst set of states is engaged,
anothersetwouldbeinvitedtoparticipate,untilmostorallofthestatesareinvolved.Itisa
collaborativedesign,rolloutandscale-upprogram.Itisintendedtoparalleltheworkofthe
NationalBoardforProfessionalandTechnicalStandards,sothatthestatesandcities(and
alltheirpartners)wouldbeabletoimplementthenewstandardsassoon[as]theybecome
available,althoughtheywouldbedeliveringservicesonalargescalebeforethathappened.
Thus, major parts of the whole system would be in operation in a majority of the states
withinthreeyearsfromthepassageoftheinitiallegislation.Inclusionofselectedlargecities
in this design is not an afterthought. We believe that what we are proposing here for the
cities is the necessary complement to a large scale job-creation program for the cities.
Skill development will not work if there are no jobs, but job development will not work
without a determined effort to improve the skills of city residents. This is the skills
developmentcomponent.
←Participants
—Volunteerstates,counterpartinitiativeforcities.
—15 states, 15 cities selected to begin in the first year, 15 more in each
successiveyear.
—5yeargrants(ontheorderof$20millionperyeartoeachstate,loweramounts
tothecities)giventoeach,withspeciicgoalstobeachievedbythethirdyear;
includingprogramelementsinplace(e.g.,upgradedemploymentservice),number
ofpeopleenrolledinnewprofessionalandtechnicalprograms,andsoon[.]
←CriteriaforSelection
A–106
—AcoresetofHighPerformanceWorkOrganizationirmswillingtoparticipatein
standardsettingandtooffertrainingslotsandmentors.
—Strategies for enriching existing coop ed, tech prep, other programs to meet
thecriteria.
—Commitmenttoimplementingnewgeneraleducationstandardinlegislation.
—Commitment to implementing the new Technical and Professional skills
standardsforcollege.
—Commitment to developing an outcome- and performance-based system for
humanresourcesdevelopment.
—Commitmenttonewroleforemploymentservice.
—Commitmenttojoinwithothersinnationaldesignandimplementation
activity.
←Clients
Youngadultsenteringworkforce.
Dislocatedworkers.
Longtermunemployed.
Employedwhowanttoupgradeskills.
←ProgramComponents
—Instituteownversionofstateandlocallabormarketboards.Locallabormarket
boardstoinvolveleadingemployers,laborrepresentatives,educatorsandadvocacy
group leaders in running the redesigned employment service, running intake
system for all clients, counseling all clients, maintaining the information system
thatwillmakethevendormarketeficientandorganizingemployerstoprovidejob
experienceandtrainingslotsforschoolyouthandadulttrainees.
—Rebuildemploymentserviceasaprimaryfunctionoflabormarketboards.
—Develop programs to bring dropouts and illiterate up to general education
certiicate standard. Organize local alternative providers and irms to provide
alternative education, counseling, job experience and placement services to
theseclients.
—Develop programs for dislocated workers and hard-core unemployed (see
below).
A–107
AppendixXVIII
—Developcity-andstate-wideprogramstocombinethelasttwoyearsofhighschool
andtheirsttwoyearsofcollegeintothreeyearprogramsafteracquisitionofthe
generaleducationcertiicatetoculminateincollegecertiicatesanddegrees.These
programsshouldcombineacademicsandstructuredon-the-jobtraining.
—Develop uniform reporting system for providers, requiring them to provide
information in that format on characteristics of clients, their success rates by
program, and the costs of those programs. Develop computer-based system for
combiningthisdataatlocallabormarketboardoficeswithemploymentdatafrom
[the]statesothatcounselorsandclientscanlookatprogramsofferedbycolleges
and other vendors in terms of cost, client characteristics, program design, and
outcomes,includingsubsequentemploymenthistoriesforgraduates.
—Design all programs around the forthcoming general education standards
and the standards to be developed by the National Board for Professional and
TechnicalStandards.
—Createstatewideprogramoftechnicalassistancetoirmsonhighperformance
workorganizationandtohelpthemdevelopqualityprogramsforparticipantsin
TechnicalandProfessionalcertiicateanddegreeprograms(itisessentialthatthese
programsbehighquality,nonbureaucraticandvoluntaryfortheirms).
—Participate with other states and the national technical assistance program
in the national alliance effort to exchange information and assistance among
allparticipants.
←NationalTechnicalAssistancetoParticipants
—Executivebranchauthorizedtocompete[for]opportunitytoprovidethefollowing
services(probablyusingaRequestForQualiications).
—State-of-theartassistancetothestatesandcitiesrelatedtotheprincipalprogram
components (e.g.; work reorganization, training, basic literacy, funding systems,
apprenticeship systems, large scale data management systems, training systems
for the human resources professionals who make the whole system work, etc.).
Anumberoforganizationswouldbefunded.Eachwouldbeexpectedtoprovide
informationanddirectassistancetothestatesandcitiesinvolved,andtocoordinate
theireffortswithoneanother.
—Itisessentialthatthetechnicalassistancefunctionincludeamajorprofessional
developmentcomponenttomakesurethekeypeopleinthestatesandcitiesupon
whom success depends have the resources available to develop the high skills
required. Some of the funds for this function should be provided directly to the
statesandcities,sometothetechnicalassistanceagency.
—Coordinationofthedesignandimplementationactivitiesofthewholeconsortium,
A–108
documentation [of] results, preparation of reports, etc. One organization would
befundedtoperformthisfunction.
DislocatedWorkersProgram
←New legislation would permit combining all dislocated workers programs at a
redesigned employment service ofice. Clients would, in effect, receive vouchers
for education and training in amounts determined by the beneits for which they
qualify.Employmentservicecasemanagerswouldqualifyclientworkersforbeneits
and assist the client in the selection of education and training programs offered
by provider institutions. Any provider institutions that receive funds derived from
dislocated worker programs are required to provide information on costs and
performanceofprogramsinuniformformatdescribedabove.Thisconsolidatedand
voucherized dislocated workers program would operate nationwide. It would be
integrated with the Collaborative Design and Development Program in those states
and cities in which that program functioned. It would be built around the general
education certiicate and the Professional and Technical Certiicate and Degree
Programassoonasthosestandardswereinplace.Inthisway,programsfordislocated
workers would be progressively and fully integrated with the rest of the national
educationandtrainingsystem.
Levy-GrantSystem
←This is the part of the system that provides funds for currently employed people
to improve their skills. Ideally, it should specifically provide means whereby
front-line workers can earn their general education credential (if they do not
already have one) and acquire Professional and Technical Certiicates and degrees
inieldsoftheirchoosing.
←Everything we have heard indicates virtually universal opposition in the employer
communitytotheproposalfora1and1/2percentlevyonemployersfortrainingto
support the costs associated with employed workers gaining these skills, whatever
the levy is called. The President may choose to press forward with the proposal
nevertheless.Alternatively,hecouldtakealeafoutoftheGermanbook.Oneofthe
most important reasons that large German employers offer apprenticeship slots to
Germanyoungstersisthattheyfear,withgoodreason,thatiftheydon’tvolunteerto
doso,thelawwillrequireit.ThePresidentcouldgatheragroupofleadingexecutives
andbusinessorganizationleaders,andtellthemstraightoutthathewillholdbackon
submittinglegislationtorequireatraininglevy,providedthattheycommitthemselves
toadrivetogetemployerstogettheiraverageexpendituresonfront-lineemployee
traininguptotwopercentoffront-lineemployeesalariesandwageswithintwoyears.
If they have not done so within that time, then he will expect their support when
hesubmitslegislationrequiringthetraininglevy.Hecoulddothesamethingwith
respecttoslotsforstructuredon-the-jobtraining.
Loan/PublicServiceProgram
AppendixXVIII A–109
←This proposal was a keystone of the Clinton campaign. Because we assumed that
itisbeingdesignedbyothers,wedidnotfocusonitsdetails.Fromeverythingwe
knowaboutit,however,itisentirelycompatiblewiththerestofwhatisproposed
here.Whatis,ofcourse,especiallyrelevanthereisthatourreconceptualizationof
theapprenticeshipproposalasacollegeleveleducationprogram,combinedwithour
proposalthateveryonewhogetsthegeneraleducationcredentialbeentitledtoafree
yearofhighereducation(combinedfederalandstatefunds)willhaveadecidedimpact
onthecalculationsofcostforthecollegeloan/publicserviceprogram.
AssistanceforDropoutsandtheLong-TermUnemployed
The problem of upgrading the skills of high school dropouts and the adult hard core
unemployedisespeciallydificult.Itisalsoattheheartoftheproblemofourinnercities.All
theevidenceindicatesthatwhatisneededissomethingwithalltheimportantcharacteristics
of a non-residential Job Corps-like program. The problem with the Job Corps is that it is
operated directly by the federal government and is therefore not embedded at all in the
infrastructureoflocalcommunities.
The way to solve this problem is to create a new urban program that is locally—not
federally—organizedandadministered,butwhichmustoperateinawaythatusessomething
likethefederalstandardsforcontractingforJobCorpsservices.Inthisway,localemployers,
neighborhood organizations and other local service providers could meet the need, but
requiring local authorities to use the federal standards would assure high quality results.
Programsforhighschooldropoutsandthehardcoreunemployedwouldprobablyhavetobe
separatelyorganized,thoughtheservicesprovidedwouldbemuchthesame.Federalfunds
would be offered on a matching basis with state and local funds for this purpose. These
programsshouldbefullyintegratedwiththerevitalizedemploymentservice.Thelocallabor
marketboardwouldbethelocalauthorityresponsibleforreceivingthefundsandcontracting
withprovidersfortheservices.Itwouldprovidediagnostic,placementandtestingservices.
Wewouldeliminatethetargetedjobscreditandusethemoneynowspentonthatprogram
toinancetheseoperations.FundscanalsobeusedfromtheJOBSprogramintheWelfare
ReformAct.Thiswillnotbesuficient,however,becausethereiscurrentlynofederalmoney
available to meet the needs of hard-core unemployed males (mostly Black) and so new
monieswillhavetobeappropriatedforthatpurpose.
ElementaryandSecondaryEducationProgram
Thesituationwithrespecttoelementaryandsecondaryeducationisverydifferentfromadult
educationandtraining.Inthelattercase,anewvisionandawholenewstructureisrequired.
Intheformer,thereisincreasingacceptanceofanewvisionandstructureamongthepublic
atlarge,withintherelevantprofessionalgroupsandinCongress.Thereisalsoalotofexisting
activity on which to build. So our recommendations here are rather more terse than in the
caseofadulteducationandtraining.
ThegeneralapproachhereisparalleltotheapproachdescribedfortheHighSkillsforEconomic
A–110
CompetitivenessProgram.Here,too,westartwithstandards.Andweproposeacollaborativeprogramwith
thestatesandwiththemajorcities(adding,inthiscase,areassufferingfromruralpoverty)thatprovides
anopportunityforthosethatwishtodosotoparticipateinastaged,voluntaryandprogressiveimplemen-
tationofthenewsystem.Theparallelismisdeliberate.Somestatesandcitiesmaywishtoparticipatein
bothprograms,developingthewholesystematonce,othersinonlyone.Muchofwhatweproposecanbe
accomplishedthroughrevisionstotheconferencereportonS2andHR4323,recentlydefeatedonacloture
voteintheCongress.SolidmajoritieswerebehindthelegislationinbothhousesofCongress.
StandardSetting
Legislationtoacceleratetheprocessofnationalstandardsettingineducationwascontainedinthecon-
ferencereportonS2andHR4323.Thenewadministrationshouldsupporttheearlyintroductionofthis
legislationtocreateaNationalBoardforStudentAchievementStandards.TheBoardshouldbeestablished
asanindependentnot-for-proitorganizationcharteredbytheUnitedStatesCongress.Thechartershould
establishaself-perpetuatingboardoftrusteesfortheBoardthatisbroadlyrepresentativeoftheAmerican
people,includingrepresentationofgeneralgovernmentatalllevels,education,employers,labor,child
advocacygroupsandthegeneralpublic.Itshouldbeeligibletoreceivefundsfromprivatefoundations,
government (including funds directly appropriated by the Congress), corporations and individuals. It
shouldbechargedwithcomingtoaconsensusoncontentstandardsforthecoresubjectsinelementary
andsecondaryeducationandforwork-relatedskills.Wedonotbelievethatitshouldbechargedwith
developinganationalexaminationsystem,butthatfundsshouldbeappropriatedbytheCongresstoenable
theExecutiveBranchtoprovidesupporttoavarietyofgroupsthatcomeforwardtoimplementexamina-
tionsystemsbasedonthestandardsestablishedbytheBoard.TheBoardshouldberequiredtoreport
annuallytotheCongressandthepublic,whetherornotitreceivesCongressionalappropriations.
SystemicChangeinPublicEducation:ACollaborativeDesign
andDevelopmentProgram
Aswenotedabove,theconferencereportonS2andHR4323containedacomprehensiveprogramto
supportsystemicchangeinpubliceducationuponwhichwewouldbuild.Hereagain,wewouldinvite
thestatestosubmitproposalsinacompetitivegrantprogramonthesameprinciplesandforthesame
reasonswesuggestedthatapproachabove.Eachyear,additionalstates—and,inthiscase,majorcities
andpoorruralareas—wouldbeaddedtothenetwork.Hereagain,mostoftheexistingrulesandregula-
tionsaffectingrelevantfederaleducationprogramswouldbewaived,saveforthoserelatingtohealth,
publicsafetyandcivilrights,andtheparticipantswouldbeexpectedtospecifyobjectivesforspeciic
demographicgroupsofstudentsandtomakesteadyprogresstowardtheirachievementasaconditionof
remainingintheprogram.Whiletheparticipantswouldhavealotoflatitudeinconstructingastrategy
thatitstheirparticularcontext,thatstrategywouldhavetoshowhowtheyplannedto:
• ImplementanexaminationsystemrelatedtothestandardsdevelopmentbytheNationalBoard.
• Empowerschoolstafftomakethekeydecisionsastohowthestudentswillmeetthosestan-
dards.
• Providecurricularresourcestotheschoolstaffsrelatedtothenewstandardsandexaminations.
AppendixXVIII A–111
• Reorganizepre-serviceandin-serviceprofessionaldevelopmentprogramstosupportthedevelop-
mentoftheskillsnecessarytobringallstudentsuptothenewstandards.
• Reorganizethedeliveryofhealthandsocialservicestochildrenandtheirfamiliessoastosupport
studentsandtheschoolfaculties.
• Deployadvancedtechnologiestosupportthelearningofstudentsinandoutofschool.
• Restructuretheorganizationandmanagementofpublicelementaryandsecondaryeducationonthe
principlesofmodernqualitymanagement,empoweringschoolstaff,reducingintermediatelayers
ofbureaucracyandtheburdenofrulesandregulationsfromthestate,theboardofeducationand
theunionsandholdingschoolstaffaccountableforstudentprogress.
Fundsprovidedbythisprogramcouldbeusedforprofessionaldevelopment,toprovidecriticallyneeded
“glue”supporttoweldtogetheractivitiesconsistentwiththepurposesoftheprogram,andtoprovidestudent
services.Butfundsfordirectstudentservicescouldbeusedonlyforservicesrenderedbeforeandafterthe
regularschoolday,onweekendsandduringvacationperiods.Statesreceivingfundsunderthisprogram
wouldhavetoproviderelieffromregulationcomparabletothatprovidedbythefederalgovernment.
FederalProgramsfortheDisadvantaged
• Theestablishedfederaleducationprogramsforthedisadvantagedneedtobethoroughlyoverhauled
torelectanemphasisonresultsforthestudentsratherthancompliancewiththeregulations.A
nationalcommissiononChapter1,thelargestoftheseprograms,chairedbyDavidHornbeck,has
designedaradicallynewversionofthislegislation,withtheactiveparticipationofmanyofthe
advocacygroups.Othergroupshavebeensimilarlyengaged.Wethinkthenewadministrationshould
quicklyendorsetheworkofthenationalcommissionandintroduceitsproposalsearlynextyear.It
isunlikelythatthislegislationwillpassbeforethedeadline—twoyearsaway—forthereauthoriza-
tionoftheElementaryandSecondaryEducationAct,butearlyendorsementofthisnewapproach
bytheadministrationwillsendastrongsignaltotheCongressandwillgreatlyaffecttheclimate
inwhichotherpartsoftheactwillbeconsidered.
PublicChoice,Technology,IntegratedHealthandHumanServices,CurriculumResources,HighPer-
formanceManagement,ProfessionalDevelopmentandResearchandDevelopment
• Therestructuringoftheschoolsthatweenvisionisnotlikelytosucceedunlesstheschoolshavea
lotofinformationabouthowtodoitandrealassistanceingettingitdone.Theareasinwhichthis
helpisneededaresuggestedbytheheadingforthissection.
[Ed.Note:Thisisoneofthemostsigniicantreportstowhichwe’vehadaccess.Itcallsforacomplete
changeinourformofgovernment,educationandopportunitytopursueindividuallifechoices.Atthe
timeofthepublicationofthisdocumentthefollowingpeoplewereservingontheBoardofTrusteesofthe
NationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomy.Manyofthesenameswillbefamiliarandsigniicantas
thereaderrelatesthemtoproposalsforchangeandreform.
A–112
NATIONALCENTERONEDUCATION VeraKatz
ANDTHEECONOMY SpeakeroftheHouse
BOARDOFTRUSTEES OregonHouseofRepresentatives
MarioM.Cuomo,HonoraryChairman ThomasH.Kean
Governor President
StateofNewYork DrewUniversity
JohnSculley,Chairman ArturoMadrid
Chairman,PresidentandChiefExecutiveOficer President
AppleComputer,Inc. TheThomasRiveraCenter
JamesB.Hunt,Jr.,Vice-Chairman IraC.Magaziner
Partner President
Poyner&Spruill SJS,Inc.
R.CarlosCarballada,Treasurer ShirleyM.Malcolm
Vice-Chancellor Head
NewYorkStateBoardofRegents DirectorateofEducationandHumanResources
PresidentandChiefExecutiveOficer AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience
CentralTrustCompany
RayMarshall
MarcS.Tucker,President ChairinEconomicsandPublicAffairs
NationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomy L.B.J.SchoolofPublicAffairs
UniversityofTexasatAustin
AnthonyP.Carnevale
VicePresidentofNationalAffairsandChiefEconomist PeterMcWalters
AmericanSocietyforTrainingandDevelopment Superintendent
RochesterCitySchoolDistrict
SarahH.Cleveland
LawStudent RichardP.Mills
YaleLawSchool CommissionerofEducation
StateofVermont
HillaryRodhamClinton
Partner PhilipH.Power
RoseLawFirm Chairman
SuburbanCommunicationsCorporation
ThomasW.Cole,Jr.
President LaurenB.Resnick
ClarkAtlantaUniversity Director
LearningResearchandDevelopmentCenter
VanBurenN.Hansford,Jr. UniversityofPittsburgh
President
HansfordManufacturingCorporation DavidRockefeller,Jr.
ViceChairman
LouisHarris RockefellerFamily&Associates
ChiefExecutiveOficer
LouisHarrisandAssociates AdamUrbanski
President
BarbaraR.Hatton RochesterTeachers’Association
DeputyDirector
EducationandCultureProgram RobertF.Wagner,Jr.
TheFordFoundation President
NewYorkCityBoardofEducation
GuilbertC.Hentschke
Dean KayR.Whitmore
SchoolofEducation Chairman,President,andChiefExecutiveOficer
UniversityofSouthernCalifornia EastmanKodakCompany]
AppendixXIX
“Taxonomy”
ExcerptsfromanewsletterfromanEducationResearcher,1writtenin1980.
1980:Mrs.MargaretOdaoftheHawaiiDepartmentofEducationmentionedthatmuchhelp
hadcomeinHawaii’scurriculumfromMadelynHunter’sElementaryLaboratorySchoolat
theUniversityofCalifornia,atLosAngeles.ThePublisherofthisnewsletterwroteMadelyn
Hunterandobtaineddataonherteachingconcepts.Inthematerialwhichshesenttous,the
elusiveterm“Taxonomy”surfacedonceagain.Onpage2of“AudioVisualMaterials”which
shesent,twoilmsarelisted:
Item2:“ObjectivesintheCognitiveDomain.”InaclearandcomprehensivelanguageDr.
Hunterteachesthe6levelsofBloom’sTaxonomyOfEducationalObjectives:HandbookI:
CognitiveDomain.
Item3:“ObjectivesintheAffectiveDomain.”WithremarkableclarityDr.Hunterteachesthe
KrathwohlTaxonomyofEducationalObjectives:HandbookII:AffectiveDomain.
Onceagain,asTaxonomyemerged,thePublisherofthisnewsletterdecideditwastimeto
seewhattheeducationalMasterPlannershadinmindforAmerica’schildren.Inthematerial
whichfollows,wewillfocusourattentionmostlyontheAffectiveDomainsincespacedoes
notallowustoconsiderallthreedomains.And,becausefromarelevantstandpoint,itisthe
AffectiveDomainwhichshouldreceiveourimmediateattention,sincethatisoneofthedomains
which[ourstate’s]ownAccountabilityResolutionembraces.Wehavereadmanydescriptions
frommanyarticlesofTaxonomy,butafterreadingtheplanitselffeltactualexcerptswerethe
onlywaytodojusticetoaplanwhichotherwisemighthavebeencastoffasaigmentofour
imagination.Excerptsfrom[TaxonomyofEducationalObjectives]HandbookIIfollow:
A–113
A–114
ThethreedomainsoftheTaxonomy:
I. COGNITIVE: Objectives which emphasize remembering or reproducing something
whichhaspresumablybeenlearned,aswellasobjectiveswhichinvolvesolvingofsome
intellectivetaskforwhichtheindividualhastodeterminetheessentialproblemandthen
reordergivenmaterialorcombineitwithideas,methods,orprocedurespreviouslylearned.
Cognitive objectives vary from simple recall of material learned to highly original and
creativewaysofcombiningandsynthesizingnewideasandmaterials.Wefoundthatthe
largestproportionofeducationalobjectivesfellintothisdomain.
II. AFFECTIVE: Objectives which emphasize a feeling tone, an emotion, or a degree
of acceptance or rejection. Affective objectives vary from simple attention to selected
phenomenatocomplexbutinternallyconsistentqualitiesofcharacterandconscience.We
foundalargenumberofsuchobjectivesintheliteratureexpressedasinterests,attitudes,
appreciations,values,andemotionalsetsorbiases.
III. PSYCHOMOTOR: Objectives which emphasize some muscular or motor skills,
some manipulation of material objects, or some act which requires a neuromuscular
co-ordination. We found few such objectives in the literature. When found, they were
most frequently related to handwriting and speech and to physical education, trade,
andtechnicalcourses.
…A much more serious reason for the hesitation in the use of affective measures
for grading purposes comes from somewhat deeper philosophical and cultural values.
Achievement, competence, productivity, etc., are regarded as public matters. Honors are
awarded for high achievement, honor lists may be published by the Dean, and lists of
National Merit Scholarship winners may be printed in newspapers. In contrast, one’s
beliefs,attitudes,valuesandpersonalitycharacteristicsaremorelikelytoberegardedas
privatematters,exceptinthemostextremeinstancesalreadynoted.Myattitudestoward
God,home,andfamilyareprivateconcerns,andthisprivacyisgenerallyrespected.My
politicalattitudesareprivate.ImayrevealthemifIwish,butnoonecanforcemetodoso.
Infact,myvotingbehaviorisusuallyprotectedfrompublicview.Eachman’shomeishis
castle,andhisinterests,values,beliefsandpersonalitymaynotbescrutinizedunlesshe
voluntarilygivespermissiontohavethemrevealed.Thispublic-privatestatusofcognitive
vs.affectivebehaviorsisdeeplyrootedintheJudeo-Christianreligionandisavaluehighly
cherishedinthedemocratictraditionsoftheWesternWorld.
Closelylinkedtothisprivateaspectofaffectivebehavioristhedistinctionfrequently
madebetweeneducationandindoctrinationinademocraticsociety.Educationopensup
possibilities for free choice and individual decision. Education helps the individual to
explore many aspects of the world and even his own feelings and emotion, but choice
anddecisionaremattersfortheindividual.Indoctrination,ontheotherhand,isviewed
as reducing the possibilities of free choice and decision. It is regarded as an attempt to
persuadeandcoercetheindividualtoacceptaparticularviewpointorbelief,toactina
particularmanner,andtoprofessaparticularvalueandwayoflife.
THECONTRIBUTIONSOFATAXONOMYOFAFFECTIVEOBJECTIVES
If affective objectives and goals are to be realized, they must be deined clearly;
learningexperiencestohelpthestudentdevelopinthedesireddirectionmustbeprovided;
and there must be some systematic method for appraising the extent to which students
growinthedesiredways.
A–115
AppendixXIX
…The more we carefully studied the components… the clearer it became that
a continuum might be derived by appropriately ordering them. Thus the continuum
progressed from [to] a level at which the individual is merely aware of a phenomenon,
beingabletoperceiveit.Atanextlevelheiswillingtoattendtophenomena.Atanext
levelherespondstothephenomenawithapositivefeeling.Eventuallyhemayfeelstrongly
enoughtogooutofhiswaytorespond.Atsomepointintheprocessheconceptualizes
his behavior and feelings and organizes these conceptualizations into a structure. This
structuregrowsincomplexityasitbecomeshislifeoutlook.
This ordering of the components seemed to describe a process by which a given
phenomenonorvaluepassedfromalevelofbareawarenesstoapositionofsomepower
toguideorcontrolthebehavioroftheperson.Ifitispassedthroughallthestagesinwhich
itplayedanincreasinglyimportantroleinaperson’slifeitwouldcometodominateand
control certain aspects of that life as it was absorbed more and more into the internal
controllingstructure.Thisprocessofcontinuumseemedbestdescribedbyatermwhich
was heard at various times in our discussions and which has been used similarly in
the literature: “internalization.” This word seemed an apt description of the process
by which the phenomenon of value successively and pervasively become a part of
theindividual.
INTERNALIZATION:ITSNATURE
English and English (1958) deine it as “incorporating something within the mind or
body;adoptingasone’sowntheideas,practices,standards,orvaluesofanotherperson
orofsociety”(p.272).
…ThusintheTaxonomy,internalizationisviewedasaprocessthroughwhichthereis
atirstanincompleteandtentativeadoptionofonlytheovertmanifestationsofthedesired
behaviorandlateramorecompleteadoption.
…Thetermisacloserelativeoftheterm“socialization,”which,thoughitisoftenused
as a synonym...[properly means]...“conformity in outward behavior without necessarily
accepting the values.” They deine socialization as “the process whereby a person...
acquires sensitivity to social stimuli...and learns to get along with, and to behave like
othersinhisgrouporculture.”…(p.508)
English and English’s concept of socialization helps to deine a portion of the
content of the affective domain—that which is internalized.... [T]his deinition must
be interpreted broadly since “sensitivity to social stimuli” must include the arts as
wellasothers’behavior.
This deinition suggests that the culture is perceived as the controlling force in the
individual’s actions.... [O]ur schools, in their roles as developers of individualism and
as change agents in the culture, are not solely concerned with conformity…. The term
“internalization”byreferringtotheprocessthroughwhichvalues,attitudes,etc.,ingeneral
areacquired,isthusbroaderthansocialization,whichrefersonlytotheacceptanceofthe
contemporaryvaluepatternofthesociety.
…Theterm“internalization”referstothisinnergrowthwhichtakesplaceasthereis
“acceptancebytheindividualoftheattitudes,codes,principles,orsanctionsthatbecomea
partofhimselfinformingvaluejudgmentsorindetermininghisconduct.”…
Kelman (1958) used the term “internalization” in describing a theory of attitude
change. He distinguished three different processes (compliance, identification, and
internalization) by which an individual accepts influence or conforms. These three
processesaredeinedasfollows:
[1]Compliancecanbesaidtooccurwhenanindividualacceptsinluencebecause
hehopestoachieveafavorablereactionfromanotherpersonorgroup.Headopts
A–116
the induced behavior not because he believes in its content but because he
expects to gain speciic rewards or approval and avoid speciic punishments or
disapprovalbyconforming.
[2]Identiicationcanbesaidtooccurwhenanindividualacceptsinluencebecause
he wants to establish or maintain a satisfying relationship to another person or
group(e.g.,teacherorotherschoolauthority)….Theindividualnaturallybelieves
in the response which he adopts through identiication…. The satisfaction from
identiicationisduetotheactofconformingassuch.
[3] Internalization can be said to occur when an individual accepts influence
becausethecontentoftheinducedbehavior—theideasandactionsofwhichitis
composed—isintrinsicallyrewarding.Headoptstheinducedbehaviorbecauseit
iscongruentwithhisvaluesystem….Behavioradoptedinthisfashiontendstobe
integratedwiththeindividual’sexistingvalues.Thus,thesatisfactionderivedfrom
internalizationisduetothecontentofthenewbehavior.
…TheTaxonomyusestheterm“internalization”toencompassallthreeofKelman’s
terms,recognizingthemasdifferentstagesintheinternalizationprocess.
ANEWLOOKATCURRICULUM,EVALUATION,ANDRESEARCH(Chapter6)
…The Taxonomy has been used by teachers, curriculum builders, and educational
researchworkersasonedevicetoattacktheproblemsofspecifyingindetailtheexpected
outcomesofthelearningprocess.Wheneducationalobjectivesarestatedinoperationaland
detailedform,itispossibletomakeappropriateevaluationinstrumentsandtodetermine,
withsomeprecision,whichlearningexperiencesarelikelytobeofvalueinpromotingthe
developmentoftheobjectiveandwhicharelikelytobeoflittleornovalue.
It is this increased speciicity which we hope will be prompted by the Affective
Domain part of the Taxonomy…. If affective objectives can be deined with appropriate
precision, we believe it may be no more dificult to produce changes in students in this
domainthaninthecognitivedomain.
…Thesecuringoftheappropriateresponsesfromtheindividual…requiresthatthe
newcuesandstimulibereceivedunderconditionsthatmakeiteasyfortheindividualto
respondandgivehimsatisfactionfromtheactofresponding….
However,asweturntotheobjectiveswhichgobeyondmerelyreceivingorresponding
to stimuli and cues, we find that the development of learning experiences that are
appropriaterequiresfarmoreeffortandfarmorecomplexsetsofarrangementsthanare
usuallyprovidedinparticularclassroomlessonsandsessions….
…Itistobeexpectedthatsomeobjectivesmaytakeseveralyearstobereachedtoa
signiicantdegree….Theorderingofobjectivesisofimportanceinbothdomains,butwe
regarditasofprimeimportanceintheaffectivedomain.
…Someobjectives,particularlythecomplexonesatthetopoftheaffectivecontinuum,
areprobablyattainedastheproductofall,oratleastamajorportion,ofastudent’syears
in school. Thus, measures of a semester’s or year’s growth would reveal little change.
This suggests that an evaluation plan covering at least several grades and involving the
coordinated efforts of several teachers is probably a necessity. A plan involving all the
gradesinasystemislikelytobeevenmoreeffective.Sucheffortswouldpermitgathering
longitudinal data on the same students so that gains in complex objectives would be
measurable…. If we are serious about attaining complex affective objectives, we shall
have to build coordinated evaluation programs that trace the successes and failures of
oureffortstoachievethem.
AchievementofAffectiveObjectivesandBehaviors
A–117
AppendixXIX
…For any major reorganization of actual practices and responses to take place, the
individual must be able to examine his own feelings and attitudes on the subject, bring
them out into the open, see how they compare with the feelings and views of others,
andmovefromanintellectualawarenessofaparticularbehaviororpracticetoanactual
commitmenttothenewpractice….
Whatissuggestedhere,ifspeciicchangesaretotakeplaceinthelearners,isthat
the learning experiences must be of a two-way nature in which both the students and
teachersareinvolvedinaninteractivemanner,ratherthanhavingonepresentsomething
tobe“learned”bytheother.
A...indingisemergingfromthestudyofenrichmentofeducationalopportunitiesin
theNewYorkpublicschools,whichhasbeentermed“HigherHorizons”(Mayer1961)….
Thesigniicantthingtorememberinthisveryambitiousprojectisthatthemajorimpactof
thenewprogramistodevelopattitudesandvaluestowardlearningwhicharenotshared
bytheparentsandguardiansorbythepeergroupintheneighborhood.Therearemany
storiesoftheconlictandtensionthatthesenewpracticesareproducingbetweenparents
andchildren.Thereisevenmoreconlictbetweenthestudentsandthemembersoftheir
peergroupswhoarenotparticipatinginthespecialopportunities.Theeffectivenessofthis
newsetofenvironmentalconditionsisprobablyrelatedtotheextenttowhichthestudents
are“isolated”fromboththehomeandpeergroupduringthisperiodoftime.Itisunlikely
that such “separation” from the home and peer group would take place after the age of
sixteenandseventeen.Anditisalsolikelythattheearliernewenvironmentsarecreated,
themoreeffectivetheywillbe.
From the operational point of view and from the research point of view, it does
seem clear that, to create effectively a new set of attitudes and values, the individual
must undergo great reorganization of his personal beliefs and attitudes, and he must
be involved in an environment which in many ways is separated from the previous
environmentinwhichhehasdeveloped.
…[T]he changes produced in such a general academic atmosphere which is not
deliberatelycreatedareprobablyofsmallermagnitudethanthechangesproducedwhere
theentireenvironmentisorganized(deliberatelyornot)withaparticularthemeatwork.
Insummary,weindthatlearningexperienceswhicharehighlyorganizedandinterrelated
mayproducemajorchangesinbehaviorrelatedtocomplexobjectivesinboththecognitive
and affective domains. Such new objectives can best be attained where the individual
is separated from earlier environmental conditions and when he is in association with
a group of peers who are changing in much the same direction and who thus tend
toreinforceeachother.
Inhisstudiesofstabilityandchangeinvariouscharacteristics,Bloom(1964)inds
that the individual is more open to some of these major changes earlier in the growth
periodthanlater....Theevidencepointsquiteconvincinglytothefactthatageisafactor
operatingagainstattemptstoeffectacompleteorthorough-goingreorganizationofattitudes
andvalues….Itisquitepossiblethattheadolescentperiod,withitsbiologicalandother
modiications,isastageinwhichmorechangecanbeproducedthaninmanyotherperiods
oftheindividual’scareer....[T]hereisanincreasingstabilityofinterestsintheageperiodof
abouttentoifteenandthatappropriatelearningexperiencesandcounselingandguidance
maydomuchtodevelopdifferentkindsofinterests.
SomeAdditionalResearchProblems
…[Bloom]hasbeenattemptingtodoresearchonwhatmightbecalled“peaklearning
experiences.” …[T]he evidence collected so far suggests that a single hour of classroom
activityundercertainconditionsmaybringaboutamajorreorganizationincognitiveaswell
A–118
asaffectivebehaviors….Itmayverywellhelpustounderstandsomeoftheconditionsthat
arenecessaryformajorchangesinlearnersinaffectiveobjectives….
Allport (1954) emphasizes the basic reorganization that must take place in the
individualifreallynewvaluesandcharactertraitsaretobeformed.Weareoftheopinion
thataswecometounderstandthisprocesswemayindwaysofhelpingbringaboutmajor
changes in the affective domain with less in the way of trauma and conlict than now
seems to be the case. Is it possible for individuals to take on the new without rejecting
the old? Is it possible that programs of the Higher Horizons type (Mayer, 1961) help
individuals become motivated toward higher education and the new values involved
in academic work without at the same time bringing about great conlict and tension
betweentheindividualandhishome?
…However,backofallthemoreoperationalandpsychologicalproblemsisthebasic
question of what changes are desirable and appropriate. Here is where the philosopher
and behavioral scientist must ind ways of determining what changes are desirable and
whatchangesarenecessary….Itisnotenoughmerelytodesireanewobjectiveortowish
otherstobemoldedintheimagethatweinddesirableorsatisfactory….Newobjectives
areimportant,buttheymustbethoughtthroughverycarefully,andallmustbewillingto
paythepriceiftheyaretobeobtained.
…Cantheschoolstaketheinitiativeintheaffectivedomain,ormusttheyapproach
itwithgreatcautionandhesitation?Weleavethisproblemtothecurriculummakers,the
educationalphilosophers,andthesocialandpoliticalforceswhichmayormaynotmake
certainobjectivesclearlydesirableandevennecessary.
TheAffectivedomainis,inretrospect,avirtual“Pandora’sBox.”…Wearenotentirely
surethatopeningour“box”isnecessarilyagoodthing;wearecertainthatitisnotlikely
tobeasourceofpeaceandharmonyamongthemembersoftheschoolstaff,[but]our
“box”mustbeopenedifwearetofacerealityandtakeaction.
It is in this “box” that the most inluential controls are to be found. The affective
domain contains the forces that determine the nature of an individual’s life and
ultimately the life of an entire people…. Education is not the rote memorization of
meaningless material to be regurgitated on an examination paper. Perhaps the two
Taxonomy structures may help us to see the awesome possibilities of the relations
betweenstudents-ideas-teachers.
ThePhilosophy…TheCommitment
…Eriksondescribestheachievementofintegrity,whichisthehallmarkofmaturityas:“the
age’saccruedassuranceofitsproclivityfororderandmeaning.Itisapost-narcissisticlove
ofthehumanego—notoftheself—asanexperiencewhichconveyssomeworldorderand
spiritualsensenomatterhowdearlypaidfor.Itistheacceptanceofone’soneandonly
lifecycleassomethingthathadtobeandthat,bynecessity,permittedofnosubstitutions;
itthusmeansanew,adifferentloveofone’sparents….Althoughawareoftherelativity
ofallthevariouslifestyleswhichhavegivenmeaningtohumanstriving,thepossessorof
integrityisreadytodefendthedignityofhisownlifestyleagainstallphysicalandeconomic
threats.Forheknowsthatanindividuallifeistheaccidentalcoincidenceofbutonelife
cycle with but one segment of history; and that for him all human integrity stands
or falls with the one style of integrity of which he partakes. The style of integrity
developed by his culture or civilization thus becomes the “Patrimony of his soul,”
the seal of his moral paternity of himself. Before this inal solution, death loses its
sting(Erikson,p.232)….
A–119
AppendixXIX
ACondensedVersionoftheAffectiveDomain
oftheTaxonomyofEducationalObjectives
1.0Receiving(Attending)
At this level we are concerned that the learner be sensitized in the existence of certain
phenomenaandstimuli;thatis,thathebewillingtoreceiveortoattendtothem.Thisis
clearlytheirstandcrucialstepifthelearneristobeproperlyorientedtolearnwhatthe
teacher intends that he will…. Because of previous experience (formal or informal), the
studentbringstoeachsituationapointofvieworsetwhichmayfacilitateorhinderhis
recognitionofthephenomenatowhichtheteacheristryingtosensitizehim.
1.1Awareness
Awareness is almost a cognitive behavior.... [W]e are not so much concerned with
a memory of, or ability to recall, an item or fact as we are that, given appropriate
opportunity,thelearnerwillmerelybeconsciousofsomething.
1.2WillingnesstoReceive
In this category we have come a step up the ladder.... At a minimum level, we
are here describing the behavior of being willing to take notice of the phenomena
andgiveithisattention.
1.3ControlledorSelectedAttention
In some instances it may refer not so much to the selectivity of attention as to
the control of attention, so that when certain stimuli are present they will be
attended to. There is an element of the learner’s controlling the attention here,
so that the favored stimulus is selected and attended to despite competing and
distractingstimuli.
2.0Responding
…Thisisaverylowlevelofcommitment,andwewouldnotsayatthislevelthatthiswas“a
valueofhis”orthathehad“such-and-suchanattitude.”...[W]ecouldsaythatheisdoing
somethingwithoraboutthephenomenabesidesmerelyperceivingit....
…Most commonly we use the term to indicate the desire that a child become
suficientlyinvolvedinorcommittedtoasubject,phenomenon,oractivitythathewillseek
itoutandgainsatisfactionfromworkingwithitorengaginginit.
2.1AcquiescenceinResponding
We might use the word “obedience” or “compliance” to describe this behavior….
The student makes the response, but he has not fully accepted the necessity
fordoingso.
2.2WillingnesstoRespond
…There is the implication that the learner is suficiently committed to exhibiting
thebehaviorthathedoessonotjustbecauseofafearofpunishment,but“onhis
own”orvoluntarily.Itmayhelptonotethattheelementofresistanceorofyielding
unwillingly, which is possibly present at the previous level, is here replaced with
consentofproceedingfromone’sownchoice.
2.3SatisfactioninResponse
The additional element in the step beyond the Willingness to Respond level, the
consent, the assent to responding, or the voluntary response, is that the behavior
is accompanied by a feeling of satisfaction, an emotional response, generally of
pleasure, zest, or enjoyment.... Just where in the process of internalization the
attachment of an emotional response, kick, or thrill to a behavior occurs has
beenhardtodetermine.
A–120
3.0Valuing
Thisistheonlycategoryheadedbyatermwhichisincommonuseintheexpressionofobjectives
byteachers.Further,itisemployedinitsusualsense:thatathing,phenomenon,orbehaviorhas
worth.Thisabstractconceptofworthisinpartaresultoftheindividual’sownvaluingorassess-
ment,butitismuchmoreasocialproductthathasbeenslowlyinternalizedoracceptedandhas
cometobeusedbythestudentashisowncriterionofworth....
…Atthislevel,wearenotconcernedwiththerelationshipsamongvaluesbutratherwiththe
internalizationofasetofspeciiedideas,values....[T]heobjectivesclassiiedherearetheprime
stufffromwhichtheconscienceoftheindividualisdevelopedintoactivecontrolofbehavior.
3.1AcceptanceofValue
The term “belief,” which is deined as “the emotional acceptance of a proposition or doc-
trineuponwhatoneimplicitlyconsidersadequateground”(English&English,1958,p.64),
describesquitewellwhatmaybethoughtofasthedominantcharacteristichere....Oneof
thedistinguishingcharacteristicsofthisbehaviorisconsistencyofresponse.Itisconsistent
enoughsothatthepersonisperceivedbyothersasholdingthebelieforvalue....[H]eisboth
suficientlyconsistentthatotherscanidentifythevalue,andsuficientlycommittedthatheis
willingtobesoidentiied.
3.2PreferenceforaValue
…Behavioratthislevelimpliesnotjusttheacceptanceofavaluetothepointofbeingwilling
tobeidentiiedwithit,buttheindividualissuficientlycommittedtothevaluetopursueit,
toseekitout,towantit.
3.3Commitment
…Insomeinstancesthismayborderonfaith,inthesenseofitbeingirmemotionalaccep-
tanceofabeliefuponadmittedlynon-rationalgrounds.Loyaltytoaposition,group,orcause
wouldalsobeclassiiedhere.
Thepersonwhodisplaysbehavioratthislevelisclearlyperceivedasholdingthevalue….
Hetriestoconvinceothersandseeksconvertstohiscause….Thereisatensionherewhich
needstobesatisied;actionistheresultofanarousedneedordrive.Thereisarealmotiva-
tiontoactoutthebehavior.
4.0Organization
Asthelearnersuccessivelyinternalizesvalues,heencounterssituationsforwhichmorethanone
valueisrelevant.Thus,necessityarisesfora)organizationofthevaluesintothesystem,b)the
determinationoftheinterrelationshipsamongthem,andc)theestablishmentofthedominantand
pervasiveones....Thiscategoryisintendedastheproperclassiicationforobjectiveswhichdescribe
thebeginningsofthebuildingofavaluesystem.
4.1ConceptualizationofaValue
…Thispermitstheindividualtoseehowthevaluerelatestothosethathealreadyholdsorto
newonesthatheiscomingtohold.
4.2OrganizationofaValueSystem
Objectivesproperlyclassiiedherearethosewhichrequirethelearnertobringtogetheracom-
plexofvalues,possiblydisparatevalues,andtobringtheseintoanorderedrelationshipwith
oneanother....Thisis,ofcourse,thegoalofsuchobjectives,whichseektohavethestudent
formulateaphilosophyoflife.
5.0CharacterizationbyaValueorValueComplex
Atthislevelofinternalizationthevaluesalreadyhaveaplaceintheindividual’svaluehierarchy,are
organizedintosomekindofinternallyconsistentsystem,havecontrolledthebehavioroftheindividual
forasuficienttimethathehasadaptedtobehavingthisway;andanevocationofthebehaviorno
longerarousesemotionoraffectexceptwhentheindividualisthreatenedorchallenged.
5.1GeneralizedSet
Thegeneralizedsetisthatwhichgivesaninternalconsistencytothesystemofattitudesand
valuesatanyparticularmoment....Itisapersistentandconsistentresponsetoafamilyof
relatedsituationsorobjects.
5.2Characterization
AppendixXIX A–121
…[T]hepeakoftheinternalizationprocess....Thus,herearefoundthoseobjectives
whichconcernone’sviewoftheuniverse,one’sphilosophyoflife,one’s“weltanschau-
ung”—avaluesystemhavingasitsobjectthewholeofwhatisknownorknowable.
Asthetitleofthecategoryimplies,theseobjectivesaresoencompassingthat
theytendtocharacterizetheindividualalmostcompletely.
Endnote:
1.Theresearcherwhoproducedthispiecewishestoremainanonymous.
AppendixXX
“The‘Skinner-Box’School”
“The‘Skinner-Box’School”byJedBrownwaspublishedintheMarch1994issueofSquibbs
andisreprintedhereinitsentirety.
Outcome-BasedEducation(OBE)hasbecomeablightonthelandscapeofournational
heritage.AfteronlyafewyearsofOBE,wholeschoolsystemsarebeginningtowitherand
die. Much worse, the children, their minds once fertile ields of intellectual soil, are even
now being infected by the worm of ignorance. True learning is starved to death, as all of
the nutrients of sound academic practice are being replaced with a dust-bowl curriculum
that is structured to secure proper attitudes for the “Brave New World.” Sadly, the only
“outcome” of OBE will be a baser society, a society in which the nobility of the mind is
losttothesavageryofenslavement.
But wait! Parents have been told that Outcome-Based Education has nothing to do
withchangingtheattitudesandvaluesoftheirchildren;thatOBEwillimprovelearningfor
all children through “best-practices” research. What parents are not being told is that the
researchbaseforOBEisfromtheieldofpsychology,noteducation;thatinpsychologythe
term “learning” is synonymous with the term “conditioning.” What parents are not being
toldisthatOutcome-BasedEducationisnoteducationatall;itisbutthehollowsubstituteof
psychologicalconditioningor,asitissometimescalled,behaviormodiication.
Whyisconditioningreplacingtheteaching/learningprocessinourschools?Iftheobject
istochangetheattitudesandvaluesoftheyoung,whywould“behaviormodiication”be
used? Why not work with attitudes and values directly? Just tell the children what they
mustbelieve!Afterall,theconventionalwisdomisthatattitudescontrolbehavior.Ifachild
develops the “right” attitudes he will behave in the “right” manner. Beyond the fact that
parents would not stand for such an intrusion as an overt assault on traditional values,
psychologistsknowsomethingthatlaypeopledonot.Theyrealizethatthedirectapproach
tochangingvaluesdoesnotwork.
Modern psychological research suggests that the opposite of conventional wisdom is
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AppendixXX A–123
true. It is our behavior that shapes our attitudes, not the other way around. Therefore, to
controlachild’sattitudesandvaluesitisirstnecessarytomodifythechild’sbehavior.Ifthe
childhasthe“right”behavior,thenhisattitudewillchangetoaccommodatethebehavior,
hisvaluesystemwillchangetorelecthisnewsetofattitudes.Itislikefallingdominoes:if
theirstpieceistoppled,thentherestwilltumbleafter.Thus,conditioning,i.e.,modifying
behavior, is the perfect method for instilling in children the new value system required
of citizens of the New World Order. Our schools know that changing behavior is the irst
domino.Remember,“thestudentshalldemonstrate.”
TounderstandthedevastationofOBEconditioning,itisimportanttoknowitsorigins
andhowitisbeingusedtochangechildrenforever.Thelineageofpsychologicalconditioning
canbeformallytracedbacktotheearlypartofthiscentury,toanAmericanpsychologist
named John B. Watson. Watson is credited as the father of the Behaviorist School of
Psychology.Hebelievedthatpsychologyshouldbecomethescienceofbehavior,discarding
referencestothoughts,feelings,andmotivation.ForWatson,onlythatwhichwasobservable
was important. The goal of psychology, he thought, should be to predict a behavioral
responsegivenaparticularstimulus.
Further,itwasatimeofgreatdebateinpsychology.Thedebatecenteredonwhether
heredity or the environment had the most profound effect on the development of the
individual.Watsonbelievedthatheredityhadlittleornoeffect,thataperson’sdevelopment
wasalmosttotallydependentuponhisenvironment.Infact,Watsonboasted,
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, and my own speciied world to bring
them up in, and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become
any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes,
even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities,
vocations,andraceofhisancestors.
Watson’s statement is at the heart of OBE. Watson became the most inluential force
in spreading the idea that human behavior was nothing more than a set of conditioned
responses. According to the narrow view of Behaviorism, learning is nothing more than
“a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.” Other
psychologists irst, then educational leaders, and inally rank-and-ile teachers have been
persuadedtoadopttheBehaviorists’viewofeducation.Therichnessofeducationisthus
lost,astheschoolingexperienceisreducedtoonlyappliedlearning.Nolongerdoeslearning
enhancetheinternallocusofman—itisbutanexternalshell.Thecurriculumhasbecome
hollowandlearninghasbecomemereconditioning.
ThreedifferenttypesofpsychologicalconditioninghaveinvadedschoolswithOutcome-
BasedEducationandeducationreform.Eachtypehasitsspeciiedpurposeincontrollingthe
behavior,andthereforetheminds,attitudes,andvaluesofouryoung.TheirstisClassical
Conditioning, developed by a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov only a few years
before Watson’s conception of Behaviorism. The second, credited to B.F. Skinner, is
Operant or Instrumental Conditioning. The third, attributed to Albert Bandura, is
Observational Learning. Each of these Behaviorist conditioning approaches is woven
through the OBE reforms of education to accomplish only one thing: to control attitudes
bycontrollingbehavior.
Classical,orPavlovianConditioningcanbedeinedascreatingarelativelypermanent
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changeinbehaviorbytheassociationofanewstimuluswithanoldstimulusthatelicitsa
particular response. Working on physiology experiments, Pavlov noted that each time the
dogsheusedassubjectsweretobefedtheybegantosalivate.Heidentiiedthefoodasthe
“old”stimulusandthesalivationastheresponse,orbehavior.Pavlovrangabelleachtime
the food was presented to the dogs. The bell was identiied as the “new” stimulus. After
severalpairingsofthebellandthefood,hefoundthatthedogswouldsalivatewiththebell
alone.Achangeinbehaviorhadoccurred.
Allwellandgood,butwhatdodogs,food,saliva,andbellshavetodowithchanging
attitudes in children? Just like Pavlov’s dogs, children’s behavior patterns can be changed
with Classical Conditioning. Upon suficient pairings, a child will associate old behavior
patternsandconsequentattitudeswithnewstimuli.ThePavlovianapproachisthereforea
potentweaponforthosewhowishtochangethebeliefstructuresofourchildren.Further,
Classical Conditioning may be used to set children up for further conditioning that is
necessary for more complex attitude shifts. The method is being used to desensitize
children to certain issues that heretofore would have been considered inappropriate for
school-agechildren.
OneexampleofanattitudechangebyPavlovianconditioningrevolvesaroundtheword
“family.”Theterm“family,”asitisappliedtothehomesetting,isusedastheoldstimulus.
Theallegiancetoparentsandsiblingsthatisnormallyassociatedwiththeterm“family”may
bethoughtofastheresponse,orbehavior.Withthecurrenteducationreformmovementthe
childistoldbytheteacherthattheschoolclassisnowthefamily.Thus,theterm“class”
maybethoughtofasthenewstimulus.Bycontinuallyreferringtotheclassorclassroomas
thefamily,anattitudechangetakesplace.Byassociation,thechildisconditionedtogive
familyallegiancetotheclassandteacher.
An example of desensitizing children through Classical Conditioning can be seen
in the inclusion of gender orientation within the curriculum. The school setting may be
thought of as the old stimulus. The formal school setting carries with it a whole set of
emotional-behavioral responses, or behaviors. There is an air of authority and legitimacy
that is attached to those subjects included in the curriculum. This feeling of legitimacy
can be considered a behavioral response. By placing the topic of gender orientation into
the curriculum, it is associated with legitimacy of the school settings. Thus, children are
desensitizedtoatopicthatisdifferentfromthetraditionalvaluestructure,andhencethey
arepredisposedtofurtherconditioning.
TherealmeatandpotatoesofOutcome-BasedEducationisOperantConditioning,or
Rat Psychology, so called because B.F. Skinner used rats as his experimental subjects. A
“SkinnerBox,”aboxcontainingapressbarandaplacetodispenseafoodpellet,isused
toconditiontherattopressthebar(thebehavior).Afoodpellet(thestimulus)isusedto
reinforce the desired behavior, pressing the bar. The rat, having no idea what to expect,
is placed in the box. Once in the box, the rat’s movements are exploratory and random.
As soon as the rat looks towards the bar, the experimenter releases a food pellet. After
eating the food the rat resumes his random movement. Another look, another pellet.
Anotherlook,anotherpellet.
Oncetheratistrainedtolookatthebar,heisrequiredtoapproachthebarbeforethe
pellet is delivered. The rat must then come closer and closer to the bar each time before
reinforcementisgiven.Overtime,therat’sbehaviorisslowlyshapedbytheexperimenter;
eachtrialtheratsuccessivelyapproximatesmorecloselytheultimatebehaviorofpressing
AppendixXX A–125
the bar. Eventually the well-conditioned rat will continually press the bar as fast as he
can eat. Operant Conditioning is, therefore, deined as a relatively permanent change
in behavior by successive approximations through repeated trials using positive or
negativereinforcements.
Theconceptof“successiveapproximation”iskeytounderstandingtheuseofOperant
Conditioning with Outcome-Based Education. Just as for the rat, the experimenter (the
State)establishestheultimategoalsforchildren(pressingthebar).OBErequiresthatspeciic
behavioral outcomes be designed such that the children must master each outcome in
succession.Theoutcomesaredesignedinaspiralfashion,suchthatasthechildgoesfurther
in school, the outcomes more closely approximate the ultimate goals. As children master
anoutcome,thereinforcementisfoundinapproval(foodpellets).Anotheroutcome,more
approval.Anotheroutcome,moreapproval(successiveapproximation).WhentheSkinnerBox
experimentiscomplete,ourchildren,likerats,willdancetothetuneoftheState.
ObservationalLearning,althoughitdoesnotcarrythenameconditioning,hasbeen
described by Dollard and Miller as a special case of Operant Conditioning. It is Operant
Conditioning applied to social behavior. Observational Learning is the twenty-ive cent
word for modeling. There are two purposes for Observational Learning in the schools.
First, it is a method used to condition a host of social behaviors, like parenting styles,
gender roles, problem-solving strategies, and discipline boundaries. Second, it is used
as reinforcer of the behaviors and attitudes previously conditioned with Classical and
OperantConditioning.
According to Observational Learning, people model the behavior of those within
their “reference groups.” Under normal conditions, the child’s primary reference group is
the family. Nevertheless, children are being conditioned with Classical methods to shift
allegiance to their new school family, their new reference group. Once the new group is
established, schools use surveys to gauge attitudes and then orchestrate the conditioning
process through Observational Learning. Relying almost exclusively on cooperative
learning (group learning), OBE reforms unfortunately use Observational Learning to
establish and enforce the proper behaviors and attitudes through peer pressure and a
forced“groupthink”process.
Theideathatourschoolsarenotdealinginattitudesandvaluesisludicrous.Thepsy-
chologistshaverippedtheschoolsfromparentsandteachersalike.Theironlyobjectiveis
tocreatechildrenwhomaylookdifferent,butbehavethesame,thinkthesame,andbelieve
thesame.Theyshallcreateineachchildthe“perfectchild.”LikeJohnB.Watson,theyshall
createchildrenastheyseeit.Theyshalldoitwithconditioning,notteaching.Isitanywonder
thatourschoolsarefailingtoeducatechildrenwhenweuseratsastheexampleofexemplary
learning?Welcometothe“BraveNewWorld.”Welcometothe“SKINNERBOXSCHOOL.”
AppendixXXI
“StatusofInternationalizationofEducation”
“Status of Internationalization of Education” by Charlotte Iserbyt originally appeared in
The Christian Conscience (March 1998) and is printed here in its entirety with updates
torelectmorerecentevents.
ThoseparticipatingintheDirectInstruction(DI)/CoreKnowledge(CK)debateonan
anti-educationreformInternetdiscussionlooporelsewheremaywishtostepbackandtake
a look at the big picture, without which none of the myriad components of restructuring
canbefairlydiscussedorjudged.Atpresentitseemsthatsomeverysincerepeople,who
have done excellent work in the past, have a severe case of tunnel vision. They must get
themselvesoutofthetunnelinordertosurveythelandscape.
Ingredientsintherecipe
Therecipefortheinternationalcurriculum/workforcetrainingagendacallsforimplementation
of the following components. (Noted after each component in italics is the status of each
agendaitem,i.e.,whetherornotthecomponent[s]has/havebeenaccomplished.)
(1)Federal/InternationalControlofEducation.ThecreationoftheU.S.Department
of Education in 1978 established the oficial link between U.S. education and all the
internationalagenciesandMinistriesofEducationwhichanswertotheUnitedNationsand
itslifelonglearningagenda.(Done.)
(2) Passage of Goals 2000 (done), STW Opportunities Act (done), Careers Act.
(Done.)
(3) Funding. Federal government funding of the instructional method, computers,
curriculum,nationalassessment,andworkforcetraining.Allfundingisnowinplacewith
theexceptionofpendingSenatepassageoftheCAREERSActandpendingSenatepassageof
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AppendixXXI A–127
theReadingExcellenceAct(theinternationalMasteryLearning/DirectInstructionmethod).
ProfessorS.AlanCohen,AssociateDirectoroftheCenterforOutcome-BasedEducationat
the University of San Francisco, said (at a conference on Mastery Learning sponsored by
the Maine Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, May 13, 1983, at
Saco,Maine):“In1976BlockandBurnspublishedinAERAresearcharoundtheworldon
mastery learning. UNESCO committed to ML all over the world…. [We] have evaluated
data worldwide.” (Funding for all of the above is now in place due to the pounding
of the last nails in the cofin: passage of the CAREERS Act and the Reading Excellence
Actinlate1998.)
(4) Skinnerian Method. Direct Instruction/Mastery Learning/OBE are necessary for
global workforce training which is outcome, results, performance-based training—not
education. Education has not been performance-based, traditionally—with the exception
of the arts—since traditional education deals with the intellect, not just knee-jerk muscle
movements based on Pavlov and B.F. Skinner’s stimulus-response (S-R-S). The computer
has all the bells (rewards) and whistles (punishments) to achieve OBE’s standards in
the academic, workforce, and value change areas. The new label for the old OBE is now
“standards-basededucation.”Anyoneouttherewhoknowsofanevennewerlabel,pleaselet
meknow.(DonewhenSenateapprovedReadingExcellenceAct.)
(5) Sequential Core Curriculum. The Texas Alternative Document(TAD) and E.D.
Hirsch’sCoreKnowledgeSequence,inconjunctionwithscriptedcurriculasuchasDISTAR,
ECRI, or SUCCESS FOR ALL—which specify exactly what is to be taught, how it is to
be taught, and when it is to be taught—are good examples of what could be used. The
TAD could provide the framework for the national curriculum since it supports the
method—DirectInstruction—andhasthesupportofkeyplayersinrestructuring,including
E.D.Hirsch,ChesterFinn,etc.
Ifsubject(content)isnotspeciicandsequential,students’performanceisdificultto
“measure.”OneofSkinner’scriteriaforlearningisthatresults/outcomesbe“measurable.”
Thistypeofcorecurriculumisready-madeforcomputer-assistedinstruction/programmed
learning. Curriculum must also be the same for all students; otherwise, international
assessmentusingthecomputerwillbevirtuallyimpossible.Themainreasontheeducrats
want to control private and home school education is that results from the computerized
internationaleducationsystemwillbeskewed(unreliableandincomplete)ifalltheworld’s
children are not in the computer, thus denying the corporate trainers and educrats the
necessary information for future planning and remediation on an international scale.
Remember,wearelookingataglobalplannedeconomy.(Choiceofcorecurriculum/framework
is pending, but law requires that it be “scientiic” and “research-based”—which limits the
choicestobehavioristprograms.)
A European Union Press Release (www.eurunion.org/news/home/htm) Feb. 3, 1998
(No.7/98)stated:
International Conference in Akron to Explore Issues of Workforce Development....
Representativesofindustry,governmentandeducationfromthroughouttheUnitedStates
and the European Union (EU) will gather in Akron, Ohio from February 9-11 to discuss
issuesofworkforcedevelopmentandtheincreasingshortageofskilledworkersavailable
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to ill jobs in industry. The Akron Forum of Regional Collaboration to Develop Learning
StrategiesfortheGlobalEconomyisajointundertakingoftheUnitedStatesInformation
Agency (USIA) and the European Commission, and will be hosted by the Northeast
Ohio Trade and Economic Consortium (NEOTEC). The Akron Forum is an important
initiative under the New Transatlantic Agency (NTA) which, through more than one
hundred joint projects, reafirms strong and enduring ties between the United States
andtheEuropeanUnion….
(6)GlobalEthics/Values.ACIVITASpressreleasedated“4/7/97”says:
“UNESCOChiefCitesLinkBetweenDemocracyandDevelopment...StressesRoleofValues,”
by David Pitts USIA Staff Writer. Washington. Sustainable development cannot occur
“without freedom, justice, and democracy,” says Federico Mayor, director-general of the
UnitedNationsEducational,ScientiicandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO).“Sustainable
development requires sustainable democracy,” he added in an April 7 address before
the International Steering Committee of CIVITAS, an international consortium for civic
educationthatisholdingitsspringmeetingattheWhiteHouseconferencecenter.According
toMayor,“thepartnershipbetweenUNESCOandCIVITASisveryimportant”inhelping
topromotethecultureofdemocracyaroundtheglobe....The“moralaspects”ofthecivic
educationmovementwerealsounderlinedbyMayor.Thismeansencouragingthosevalues
andbeliefsthatbestallowforpeaceandfreedomtothrive,hesaid….
CIVITAS was initiated in June 1995 at the CIVITAS Prague conference. Following that
meeting, participants representing 50 nations signed a declaration pledging “to create
and maintain a worldwide network that will make civic education a higher priority on
theinternationalagenda.”
Participants at the Prague Conference included Diane Ravitch, a member of Hudson
Institute’s Education Policy Committee and Educational Excellence Network, and the late
AlbertShanker,formerPresidentoftheAmericanFederationofTeachers.Ofinterestinthis
regard is the fact that the AFT’s “Education for Democracy Project” was launched by the
AFT in cooperation with the Educational Excellence Network and Freedom House (1985),
and was partially funded by the U.S. Department of Education. (Global ethics curriculum,
undermanydifferentlabels,isinprogress.)
(7) Technology which includes robotics and computer-assisted instruction
(programmed learning). Mastery Learning/Direct Instruction it like a hand in the glove
of the computer. They have been made for each other. Skinner said “the computer is the
sophisticated version of his (Skinner’s) box.” (Federally-funded OBE/ML, using computers,
inuseinallschoolstoadifferentdegree,butmethodnotyetmandated.Thepassageofthe
ReadingExcellenceActof1998couldfacilitatethiscomponent.)
(8)Choice.Choiceintheformoftuitiontaxcredits,vouchers,charterschools,useof
publiceducationfacilitiesandmaterialsbyhomeschoolers,apprenticeshipswithcorporations
which are in partnership with government (corporate fascism), etc., will result in federal
(international)controlofAmericaneducation.(Pending.)
(9) Teacher Union Support. Support from the American Federation of Teachers and
AppendixXXI
A–129
the National Education Association seems to be assured. The AFT supports both Direct
Instruction and Hirsch’s Core Curriculum. The NEA supports the new reading research
recommendedintheReadingExcellenceAct.BobChase,PresidentoftheNEA,saidinthe
January1998issueofToday’sEducation,“Stopthesoundandfuryofthephonicsvs.whole
languagewar:weneedboth.”(Done.)
WholeLanguagevs.DirectInstruction
HowconservativescansowholeheartedlysupportwhatandwhotheunconstitutionalU.S.
DepartmentofEducationhasfundedinthepast(EngelmannandCarnine)andwhattheU.S.
DepartmentofEducation,AFT,NEA,and,mostrecently,theleft-of-centerLearningAlliance
andPresidentBillClintonsupportisdificulttounderstand.
TheunconstitutionalReadingExcellenceAct,passedbyCongressin1998,willforthe
irsttimeinthehistoryofAmericaneducationmandateaparticularmethodofteaching.In
ordertogetapprovaloftheDImethod,itsusewasattachedtoreading,whichistheessential
toolforlearning.IftheDirectInstructionmethodhadbeenattachedtolegislationrelatedto
someotherdiscipline,aboutwhichcontroversywasnotraging,itisunlikelyitwouldhave
passedtheHouseofRepresentatives.Thewholelanguagecontroversyfacilitatedpassageof
thislegislation—aperfectexampleofthedialecticmethodinaction.
Themethod,DirectInstruction,willbeusedtoteachalldisciplines,includingworkforce
skills. Direct Instruction is not content; it is method, as was the 1968 federally-funded
programExemplaryCenterforReadingInstruction(ECRI)whichtrainedteachers(1968–1998)
in Mastery Learning (virtually the same method as Direct Instruction). Teachers who
have been trained by ECRI trainers can apply their training to any discipline (math,
science,history,etc.).
Interestinglyenough,SiegfriedEngelmann,thedeveloperofDISTAR(DirectInstruction),
isreferencedonnumerousoccasionsintheECRIteachertrainingasadeveloperofprograms
basedonoperantconditioning.ECRIandDISTARarebothbasedonoperantconditioning.
Skinnersaid“Icouldmakeapigeonahighachieverbyreinforcingitonaproperschedule”
(operantconditioning),exactlywhatDavidHornbeck,BillSpady,ThomasStichtandallthe
educationchangeagentscriticizedbyconservatives,arelookingfor,right?Highachieversin
theplannedglobalworkforceeconomy.AllofthisitsnicelyintoTotalQualityManagement
andISO9000.ThatTQMisbasedonmanyoftheprinciplesofMasteryLearninghasbeen
admittedbykeychangeagents.
Whether E.D. Hirsch’s Core Knowledge or some other sequential curriculum is used
willbeirrelevant.Hirsch’sCoreKnowledgeseemstobethechoiceatthepresenttime,butwho
knows?Curriculumforthecomputercanbechangedovernight.Themethodcannot.Regarding
Hirsch’sso-calledcredentialsandhissupportof“historicalrevisionism,”theFreeCongress
Foundation’sdailyprogrammingregardingHirsch,February1997reads:
AHistoryofUs:AllthePeoplebyJoyHakimandpublishedbytheOxfordUniversityPress
has initiated a great deal of controversy concerning its historical revisionism. Discussing
their review of this textbook on NET’s Morning View were Allan Ryskind, senior fellow
attheNationalJournalismCenter,andPeterLaBarbera,executivedirectorofAccuracyin
Academia who co-authored a critique of the textbook in the Sept. 12th issue of Human
Events. According to Ryskind and LaBarbera, the textbook reports that the deicit was
2.3 trillion dollars when Ronald Reagan left ofice in 1988 [Ryskind puts the deicit at
$155billion,ed.];claimsHoChiMinh’sgoalwastofreeVietnamfromoutsiders;blames
A–130
PresidentTrumanforChina’sCommunistGovernment;andcreditsFidelCastroforimproved
schoolsandracerelationsinCuba.ThistextbookisheraldedbyE.D.Hirsch,whoisacultural
literacyguide,who’stryingtopromotestandardsforschoolchildren.Andyet,ifthisisthe
bestthingtheycando,andthisisbeinglaudedevenbysomeconservativesasgoodhistory,
thenIthinkoureducationsystemisinbiggertroublethanwethought.
According to The Jim Lehrer News Hour (September 17, 1997) Hirsch said, “National
testingisagoodidea,butbecarefulofthecontent.”Onecanassumethatnationaltesting
wouldsuitHirschjustineaslongasthecontentishisCoreKnowledge.
Onewhohaswatchedtheeducratsturntraditionaleducationonitsheadoveraperiod
ofyearswouldtrulyhavetobeinacomanottoseeaveryuglypictureemerging.Itdoesn’t
takearocketscientisttoputtogetherthepiecesofthispuzzle.Theinternationaleducation
systemcouldnothavebeenfullyimplementedwithoutapprovaloftheSkinnerianmethod,
andthechangeagents—usingconservativeconcernoverwholelanguage—havesucceeded
inhavingtheSkinnerianmethodmandatedatthenationallevel.
Amatterofmorality
Therehavebeentoofewpeoplewhounderstandhowevilthemethodis,andwhohavebeen
willingtospeakout.ThenotedphilosopherandauthorFrancisSchaefferhasspokenmost
eloquentlyinoppositiontotheSkinnermethodinhisbookBacktoFreedomandDignity.
TheextentofdamagetoourchildrenfrombadcontentK–12,outrageousastheoutcomesare
andhavebeensincethiswriterstartedresearchingeducationin1973,cannotbecompared
tothedamagetoourchildrenfromtheuseofoperantconditioningK–12.Doparentsreally
understandthatthismethodwasirstusedonratsandpigeonsinexperimentallaboratories?
Humanbeingsarenotanimals;theyhaveintellect,soul,conscienceandcreativity.Theycan
think.Theycanigurethingsout.DirectInstructionorMasteryLearningdonottakeanyof
theseimportanthumanaspectsintoaccount.
Those who do understand the dangers inherent in operant conditioning are naturally
veryconcernedoverthedecisiontomandatethismethodofinstruction.Concernedparent
Tracey Hayes, for one, comes to mind as an individual who has been very helpful to me,
a researcher and writer. Many of us have read much of the medical research on operant
conditioning.Wehavewrittenonthesubject,butwehaveneveractually“used”themethod
onourownchildren.Traceyisvaluableparticularlyforthisreason—aswellasfortheine
in-depthresearchshehasdoneasanopponentofwholelanguagewhichshehasatgreatcost
madeavailabletoallofus.ShesawwhatEngelmann’sDISTARdidtoherownchild.Shehas
helpedmeenormouslytounderstandtherealityofthisevilmethod.Thosegrassrootsparents
researchingeducationareextremelyluckytohaveherinput.
AsforAnnHerzer,weallknowhercredentialsasalong-timetraditionalphonicsreading
teacherandthecourageousstandshetookinopposingtheExemplaryCenterforReading
Instruction(ECRI)teachertraining.SheandTraceyhavepersonallylivedoutthenightmare
of operant conditioning and are thus in a position to speak authoritatively regarding the
method. Do those who support Direct Instruction agree with Ann Herzer’s teacher trainer
whoangrilysaidtoherwhensheresistedthetraining,“Don’tyouunderstandwearetraining
ourchildrentobepeoplepleasers?”
Also, as a member of the AFT, Herzer was responsible for getting a resolution
unanimouslyapprovedbytheArizonaafiliateoftheAFTtoforbidfederalfundingofoperant
AppendixXXI A–131
conditioningprogramsforuseonteachersandchildren.ThelateAlShanker,Presidentof
theAFT,whowasCarnegieCorporation’sstoogeformanyyearsandwhosupportedglobal
workforcetraining,tabledherresolutionattheAFTnationalconventionin1984.Heknew
the Skinner method was necessary for workforce training and admitted to Herzer that he
wasamemberoftheTrilateralCommission.ItshouldcomeasnosurprisethatShanker’s
successor, Sandra Feldman, also supports the method, this time under the label of Direct
Instruction,thefraternaltwinofECRI.
Sometimes one becomes so convinced of the rightness of a message, due to one’s
respect for the carrier of the message, that one can get off track. I’m afraid that this is
what is happening with anti-reform researchers and parents across the nation—in the
tunnelandoffthetrack.
ThoseopposingthemandatingoftheDirectInstructionmethodhavebeenviliiedby
thoseformerlyconsideredalliesinoppositiontoeducationrestructuring.Thosewhooppose
themethoddosonottobecontrary.Thepositiontheyaretakingisnotprimarilyrelatedto
whetheronemethodworksbetterthananothermethod.Ourpositionisprimarilyamoral
position. It is wrong to use an animal training method on human beings. Did the great
intellectsandthinkersofthisworld—scientists,historians,writers,theologians—learnthis
way?Yourchildrenshouldnothavetheirpotentialslimitedbysuchamethod.Whyshould
yourchildrenbeusedinthisexperimenttorobotizetheworld,totrainhumanbeingstobe
people-pleasing,cookie-cuttercitizens?
From the above examples one can see that everything is in place. The only missing
componentwasmandatingthemethod.RepublicansupportfortheReadingExcellenceAct
hashandedthemethodtotheinternationalistchangeagentsonasilverplatter.TheArizona
legislaturejumpedthegunonU.S.SenatepassageoftheActbyconsideringlegislationwhich
wouldimplementtheReadingExcellenceActinArizona.Wecannowexpectthesametype
oflegislationtosurfaceinallstates,and,tragically,tobesupportedbyconservatives,unless
thiswarningisheeded.Thefactthatnationaltestinghasbeenputonholdismeaningless
since the National Assessment for Educational Progress has received heavy funding since
1965 and has been used in all states. All that has to be done is to align the NAEP with
whatevercorecurriculumandSchool-to-Workskillsareselectedforuse,andtoimplement
theCertiicateofInitialMasterynationwide.
WhatShouldWeDo?
Call for repeal of the Reading Excellence Act passed by Congress. Lobby against similar
non-traditional ML/DI phonics legislation in your state. If possible, put your children in
“good” private schools which receive no tax support or exemptions whatsoever, or, best
ofall,homeschoolyourchildren.
Oppose passage of legislation supporting tuition tax credits or exemptions, vouchers,
charterschools,etc.MakesurewhatevereducationyouchooseisnotbasedonSkinnerian
MasteryLearning/DirectInstructionbyateacherorusingthecomputer.Teachyourchildren
to read using traditional phonics reading instruction; e.g. programs by Eller, Blumenfeld,
Schlaly,SisterMonica,etc.
AppendixXXII
“TheThiefofAmericanIndividualism:
TotalQualityManagementandSchool-to-Work”
“The Thief of American Individualism: Total Quality Management and School-to-Work”
by Tim Clem was published in the December 1996 (Vol. 2, No. 11) of The Christian
Conscience.
Virtually unknown to parents across the USA is the Federal School-to-Work Opportunities
Act(STWOA).FortheirsttimeinAmericanhistory,GovernmentandBusinesshavejoined
togethertoeducatechildren.Whyisthisunusual?GovernmentandBusinessoperatetogether
incountriessuchasChina,Germany,Russia,Japanandinthirdworldcountries,nottheUSA.
Rightnowcorporations,alongwithyourlocalschoolsystem,arecreatingpartnershipslinking
theFederalSchool-to-WorkOpportunitiesActwithyourlocalschooldistrict.
UnderstandingtheTQMFoundation
School-to-WorkisbasedonthefoundationofTotalQualityManagement(TQM),alsoknown
asContinuousQualityImprovement(CQI).FirstintroducedandrejectedbyU.S.companies
inthepost-WorldWarIIera,WilliamEdwardsDeming,thefatherofQuality,presentedhis
theoriestoJapanandfoundhimselfwelcomedasanationalhero.Japanclaimedthattheir
socialandeconomicturnaroundcamefromMr.Deming’sTQMtheory.Sincethisturnaround,
TQM has been implemented almost entirely within corporate America in hopes to mimic
Japanese successes. Americans have been subjected to the thought that Japan and other
countriessuchasGermanyareaheadoftheUSAintechnologyandeducation.
Education and business theorists believe that Americans must “benchmark” their
schoolsandcorporatemanagementagainstthesupposedsuccessesofJapanandGermany.
Theirspeculationisdeadwrong.Forexample:
...[T]heAmericanworkforceisstill30%moreproductivethantheJapanese.Sixtypercent
ofAmericanhighschoolstudentsaremorelikelytoattendcollegethanJapanese.There
is no evidence that Japanese students learn more in school or that Japanese adults
A–132
AppendixXXII A–133
are more literate than Americans. Japanese companies are not more technologically
advanced than American companies. Japanese companies don’t earn more patents
thanAmericancompanies.1
Only40%ofJapanesehomeshavesewagesystems.2Americanstudentsandworkers
haveallbeenintimidatedbymisrepresentedsuccessesoftheJapanese.Wearetoldrepeatedly
thatbecauseofthegreaterdedicationofJapanesestudentsandworkerswearelosingour
statusofworldleader.Jobscouldbelost,andAmericacouldgobankrupt.
GroupThink
TotalQualityteachesstudentsandworkersthatAmericanswillneveradapttothepreferred
Japanese methods unless we change our culture. Changing a culture requires a complete
changeinthewaywethink,a“paradigmshift.”Americanswillingtosearch“within”are
givinguptheirpersonalresponsibilitiesandtheirpursuitofindividualhappinessinexchange
fora“wecanallworktogether—appreciateoneanotherasagroup”mentality.
Qualitytrainingexpertsadmitthattellingemployeestheymustbeginanentirelynew
way of thinking is frightening upon inception. One chart shows the “Steps in transition
management,”inwhichaworkermovesfromastateofwell-beingthroughstagesofshock,
denial, strong emotion (frustration), acceptance, experimental (frustration again), fuller
understandingandintegration.3[Thisisotherwiseknownascognitivedissonance,atechnique
utilizedtomanipulatepeopleintochangingbehaviors,attitudes,values,etc.,ed.]
Therefore, much time and training is spent in self-esteem building. The employee
begins to forget the discomfort they irst sensed in exchange for comfort offered in group
encountersessionscalled“teambuilding.”Slowly,alongwithfearoflosingtheirfuture,job,
home,food,andallpreciousvitals,theybegintomeltintothesafetyoftheworkgroupthey
encounter daily. This is labeled as a “team,” a “unit,” or “family group.” This new way
of thinking is called “higher order thinking skills,” which implies that they have reached
a new intellectual plane. By this type of indoctrination, we are volunteering the loss of
our supposedly outmoded culture so we may imitate the business management style and
educationalmethodsoftheJapanese.
TheSTWOAGrantApplicationstatesrepeatedlythatTQMandCQIshallbethestructure
of this program. At irst glance, we associate the word “quality” with goodness; however,
TQMdoesnotdescribe“quality”inthismanner.TQMdeinesqualitynotasanendproduct
but as a “process.” In order for this process to be implemented, the company must irst
require (as mentioned above) a total culture change, also described as “paradigm shift.”
Thisparadigmchangeresultsinasystemwhereallemployeesoperateunderauniiedset
of “values” or corporate beliefs. Workers go through hours upon hours of in-depth group
trainingbeforetheybecomeapartoftheTQMprocess.Thistrainingteachesworkersthat
individualvaluescanhindertheperformanceoftheirteam.
Workers who question the training are labeled with names such as “snipers” or
“renegades.”Theinstructoristaughttousethecompliantemployeesinpressuringthesniper
to conform. The group then uses a process called “bringing out.” Fellow employees make
statementstothesniperthatimplyconcernforthefeelingsofthesniper.Forexample,“Is
theresomethingwehavesaidordonethatmakesyounotwanttojoinourgroup?”Or,“What
wouldyoubegivingupifyoudecidedtogoalongwiththerestofus?”Or,“Isitfairtotake
usalldownforyouroneconcern?”Eventually,eachemployeemustputasidepersonalvalues
A–134
inexchangeforacommonvaluesystemwithintheirworkgroup.
Qualitytrainingandeducationalmanualsstatethatonceworkersadapttoanewmethod
ofthinking,theworkgroupcaneficientlyfunctionasateam.Individualperformanceisnever
rewardedorencouraged.Allproblemsintheworkplacecanbesettledbyapredetermined
“Problem-SolvingProcess.”Noproblemcanbesolvedbyanindividual;thepraisethatan
individual receives from solving a problem could detract from the accomplishments of a
workgroupandpossiblycausehurtfeelings.Therefore,alltheworkersofagroupmustmeet
andutilizetheProblemSolvingModelbeforecomingtoasolution.Thismodelsystematically
takes the group through a serendipity or encounter group session where methods of free
discussioncalled“freewheeling,”“roundrobin,”“slipsheet”and“brainstorming”areutilized.
Asenseofsecurityandopennessisestablishedthroughafacilitator.
Afacilitatorcandevelop,inagroupwhichmeetsintensively,apsychologicalclimateofsafety
inwhichfreedomofexpressionandreductionofdefensivenessgraduallyoccur.”4
Thefacilitatorsetsthegroundrulesofthesession.Groundrulestypicallyincludethe
following directions: no criticizing, no shutting out, all ideas must be recorded, all ideas
mustbeevaluated,nopreconceivedsolutionsareallowedtobebroughttothemeeting.A
solutionmusthavegroupconsensusbeforeitisimplemented.Allsolutionsaretrackedand
monitoredforeffectiveness.ByutilizingtheProblem-SolvingProcess,TQMexpertsensure
thattheemployeeandtheirteamwillbeabletoindwaystosolveproblemsonanemployee
level,eliminatingcostlymanagementinput.
CreatingaKaizenCulture
TQMlabelsthisemployeelevelofproblemsolvingas“empowerment.”Theseemployeesare
tothenbecomea“worldclass”workgroup,abletocompetewithina“global”economy.This
globaleconomyisdescribedasaworkplacewhereastateofcontinuousqualityoccurs.This
statecauseschangeataveryrapidpaceandonlycompanieswithemployeeshighlytrained
inproblemsolvingandTQMprocessescansurvive.ThisstateiscalledKaizen,theJapanese
wordusedfordescribingastateofcontinualchangingwhereonecanalwaysadaptwithout
hesitationorquestion.Reachingthisleveltakeshoursofemployeegrouptrainingsessions.
Therefore,TQMisdescribedasan“evolutiontobringaboutarevolutionaryprocess.”Quality
expertsstatethatittakesuptotenyearsforacompanyanditsemployeestoreachKaizen.
Therefore, TQM-based companies are looking for employees that are already “globally
trained.”IfaTQMcompanycouldhiretheseKaizenlevelemployees,millionsofdollarscanbe
savedintrainingandmoremanagementpositionscouldbeeliminated,thusincreasingproits
greatly.Ifastudenthasbeenpreparedinthe“process,”onecanseehowarecentgraduateof
School-to-Workwillbemetwithopenarmswithinthecorporateworld.
TheSTWOAstatesthatallstudentswillbeadeptinTQMtechniquesofproblemsolving
and associated behaviors. In addition to Cognitive Skills, all students will be tested to
determine Affective Skills such as self-esteem, ability to relate to others, diversity, and
appreciationforothercultures.TheSTWOAstatesthatstudentskillswillbeassessedand
describedaccordingtotheJobsProgramTrainingAct(JPTA).
JPTAstandardsarefoundinthefederalskillscatalogcalledSkillsandTasksforJobs:
A SCANS Report for America 2000 published by the Secretary’s Commission on Achieving
NecessarySkills(SCANS)oftheU.S.DepartmentofLabor.AsinTotalQualityManagement,
AppendixXXII A–135
alljobsarereducedtoa“TaskLevel.”Forinstance,theSCANScatalogliststhevarioustasks
of a farmer: plowing, planting, harvesting, feeding, even menial tasks such as shoveling
manure.Thesevarioustasksaregivenaratingshowingthelevelofskillneededtoaccomplish
eachtask.ThisskillratingisthenmatchedwithaSchool-to-Workstudent,linkingthestudent
withavocationalcareertrainingpaththatcontinuesthroughouttheremainingyearsofthe
student’seducation.TheSTWOAstudentisthenplacedinavocationalapprenticeshipatthe
localVo-TechSchoolwherehecanperfecttheskillsneededforhisfuture.
The STWOA student must have school and work-related experience with their
apprenticeshipprogram.Betweentheagesof16and17eachstudentmustworkinaield
oftheirtrainingtogainon-the-job(OTJ)experience.Whenthestudenthascompletedboth
schooling and OTJ requirements, he is given a certiicate that enables him to be placed
in the workforce. Prior to and after STWOA training, the student may allow the state to
makeavailablehispersonalscoresandrecordstopotentialemployers.Potentialemployers
willthensearchtheSTWOAcomputerdatabaseforstudentsmeetingjobrequirementsand
testscoresnecessaryforemployment.
The dangers of the federal STWOA are frightening. Just think: the lifelong vocational
destiny of a student is determined by a test, and at the most awkward stage of one’s
life—adolescence. Time and perseverance have always been on the side of the American
Dream.Weareinacountrywhereallcitizenshavehadthesameopportunitytopursuea
vocationorgoaloftheirchoiceatanystageoflifeiftheysodesired.STWOAremovesthese
entrepreneurialelementsandreplacesthemwithsocialengineeringandcaptivity.
Endnotes:
1.Eberts,RayandCindelyn.TheMythsofJapaneseQuality(PrenticeHall:NewYork,1995).
2.“Prosperity’sBase:ODA,”JapanTimes(October16,1990),p.20.
3.Atkinson,PhillipE.CreatingCulturalChange:TheKeytoSuccessfulTotalQualityManagement(Pfeiffer&Co,1990).
4.Rogers,Carl.CarlRogersonEncounterGroups(Harper:NewYork,1970).
AppendixXXIII
“SovietsintheClassroom:America’sLatestEducationFad”
“Soviets in the Classroom: America’s Latest Education Fad” by Charlotte T. Iserbyt is a
pamphletpublishedin1989(America’sFuture,Inc.:NewRochelle,NY).*
EducationAgreementswiththeSovietUnion
IstherepugnantactofburningtheAmericanlagmoredamagingtoournation’spolitical
integrity than letting the Soviets into our classrooms, in person, on video, or through
U.S.-Sovietjointlydevelopedcurricula?
One would think so, considering the extensive establishment media coverage given
the lag decision compared to the wall of silence built around the Soviet invasion of
Americanclassrooms.
Maybe America needs a Supreme Court decision similar to the lag-burning decision
sayingit’slegaltolettheSovietsteachourchildrenandto“putupstatuesofwellknown
Sovietculturaliguresinourparks,”ascalledforintheGeneralAgreementbetweentheU.S.A.
andtheU.S.S.R.onContacts,ExchangesandCooperationinScientiic,Technical,Educational,
CulturalandOtherFields,signedin1985and1988atGenevaandMoscow,respectively.The
mediamightinditimpossibleto“coverup”aSupremeCourtdecision.
Perhaps if Americans knew about and understood the deep signiicance of these
agreements,theiroutragemightevenexceedthatdemonstratedoverthelagdecision.They
mightevencallforafullytelevisedCongressionalinvestigationleadingtocancellationofall
education agreements with the Soviets—government-initiated agreements as well as those
withtax-exemptprivatefoundations.
The agreements call for “cooperation in the ield of science and technology and
additionalagreementsinotherspeciicields,includingthehumanitiesandsocialsciences;
the facilitation of the exchange by appropriate organizations of educational and teaching
materials, including textbooks, syllabi, and curricula, materials on methodology, samples
ofteachinginstrumentsandaudiovisualaids,andtheexchangeofprimaryandsecondary
school textbooks and other teaching materials... [and] the conducting of joint studies
A–136
AppendixXXIII A–137
on textbooks between appropriate organizations in the United States and the Ministry
ofEducationoftheU.S.S.R.”
WhatdotheSoviets—whokidnapped10,000Afghanchildrenandshippedthemtothe
SovietUnionfor“re-education”andinthespringof1989usedpoisongasandsharpened
shovels to disperse a nationalistic demonstration in Soviet Georgia, killing at least twenty
personsandinjuring200—havetoofferourchildreninthewayofschoolmaterials?What
doesacountryhavetoofferourchildreninthewayofschoolmaterialswhich,according
to an 1987 “out-of-print” book by American Federation of Labor—Council of Industrial
Organizations(AFL-CIO)entitledCruelandUsualPunishment:ForcedLaborinToday’sUSSR,
holdstensofthousandsofpoliticalprisonersinSovietprisons,laborcamps,andpsychiatric
hospitals, including between four and ive million non-political prisoners in slave labor
camps?Whatdoesacountrywhichpublisheschildren’sbooksfordisinformationpurposes
overseas—and in the case of books distributed in India, portrays America as “rich,
uncaring, and prejudiced,” and compares us with the Brahmin caste, which is the ruling
caste much resented by the disadvantaged in India—have to offer our children in the
wayofschoolmaterials?1
Contrary to the media’s portrayal of political change in the Soviet Union, the August
1986 issue of Comparative Education Review published an article entitled “Aspects of
Socialist Education: The New Soviet Educational Reform” which states that the Soviet
reform movement recommends the “intensiication of ideological education.” A June 2,
1986 Washington Times article entitled “Russian Education Obsolete” says in a discussion
of education reform, “The specialist of today should have a thorough Marxist-Leninist
training.” Professor Adam Ulam, the distinguished director of Harvard’s Russian Research
Center,reportsthat
[O]ne of the principal goals of military patriotic education is to counteract any paciist
tendencies, to teach all Soviet citizens, from the youngest children to pensioners, that
theymustbepreparedatanymomenttoightforsocialism....Thedeterminationtoinstill
explicitly military values in the schools comes through with equally striking clarity in
textbooksandmanualsusedbyteachers.
Soviet General Popkov wrote in August 1986 in a regional military paper, Sovetskiy
Voin,that
[T]he schools are taking on ever increasing importance in military and patriotic
indoctrination. Party documents on school reform deine an extensive, scientiically
basedprogramforthiswork.2
In light of the above information, which contradicts Gorbachev’s glasnost/perestroika
propaganda, why has our government signed education agreements calling for extensive
cooperationwiththeSovietsincurriculadevelopment,exchangesofeducationalmaterials
andtheconductingofjointstudies?
WhyareSovieteducatorspermittedtodowhatU.S.DepartmentofEducationeducators
areforbiddenbylawtodo:involvethemselvesincurriculadevelopment?
Why did the U.S. Department of State authorize the unelected, tax-exempt Carnegie
Corporation, a long-time and well funded advocate of disarmament and “world
interdependence,” to negotiate with the Soviet Academy of Sciences, known to be an
A–138
intelligence-gathering arm of the KJB, regarding “curriculum development and the
restructuring of American education”? Is it because “privately endowed foundations can
operate in areas government may prefer to avoid” as stressed by psychiatrist Dr. David
Hamburg, President of the Carnegie Corporation and chief negotiator for the exchange
agreement,inaninterviewwiththeLosAngelesTimesonJune12,1987?(ColonelOliver
North’s “operations in areas government preferred to avoid” resulted in a fully televised
multi-milliondollarCongressionalinvestigation.)
Representative Lee Hamilton (D-IN) said during the Iran-Contra hearings that “The
use of private parties to carry out the high purposes of government makes us the subject
ofpuzzlementandridicule.”Shouldn’thebeaskedwhytheusebyourgovernment(State
Department)ofprivateparties(tax-exemptCarnegieCorporationandotherfoundations)to
carry out the high purposes of government does not similarly make Congress the subject
ofpuzzlementandridicule?
AFewExamples
Acompletelistingofthemanyshockingexchangeactivitiestakingplaceasaresultofthe
1985 and 1988–1991 agreements would require volumes. A few concrete examples should
sufice to convince the reader that all proposals called for in the agreements are being
faithfullyandfastidiouslycarriedout.
1.Cambridge-basedEducatorsforSocialResponsibility(ESR)project,“Educatingfor
NewWaysofThinking:AnAmerican-SovietInstitute.”Twosuchinstitutesessionshave
beenheld(oneinLeningradthesummerof1989)atwhich“SovietandAmericaneducators
examinedclassroomtheoryandpracticeincriticalthinkingaboutsocialandpoliticalissues
andworkedonrecommendationsandresourcesforimprovingthewaysweteachabouteach
other’scountry,andonASource-BookforNewWaysofThinkinginEducation:AU.S.-Soviet
Guideforusebyteachersandstudentsinbothcountries.”3
“Criticalthinking”isthelatestfadtohitourchildren’sclassrooms.N.Landa’sLenin:
On Educating Youth, published by the Soviet state-controlled Novosti Press, quotes Lenin
on“thinking”asfollows:
To pose a real question means to deine a problem which demands a new approach
and new research.... Sometimes accepted truth no longer answers as a solution for
a serious and pressing problem. The school should cultivate in pupils the ability to
perceive scientiically evolved truths as stages along the endless road of cognition—not
assomethingstationaryandset.
Morerecently,anarticleinEducationWeek(4–9–86)entitled“AreTeachersReadytoTeach
PupilstoThink?”lamentsthefactthatgraduatingcollegeseniors
show little evolution of alternative views on any issue, tending to treat all opinions as
equallygood,tendingtoholdopinionsbasedlargelyonwhimsorunsubstantiatedbeliefs,
and hesitating to take stands based on evidence and reason. Summing up a decade of
research in the 1960’s, O.J. Harvey laments that very high percentages… [of educators]
“operatedincognitivestylesgroundedinabsoluteassumptions—viewingrealityinterms
of good/bad, right/wrong, and either/or, while attributing goodness and truth to wise
andall-knowingauthorities.”
AppendixXXIII A–139
Onedoesn’thavetohaveaPh.D.toaccuratelypredictwhatU.S.-Sovietjointlydeveloped
criticalthinkingcurriculawilllooklike.DoAmericanparentswanttheirchildrenexposed
to this type of education, especially when it will also be on computer where they can’t
gettheirhandsonit?
2. The Carnegie Corporation’s exchange agreement with the Soviet Academy
of Sciences has resulted in “joint research on the application of computers in early
elementary education, focusing especially on the teaching of higher level skills and
complex subjects to younger children.” (“Higher level skills” is often a euphemism for
“critical thinking skills,” or values, attitudes, etc.) Carnegie’s 1988 one-year, $250,000
grant is funding implementation of this program, coordinated on the American side by
MichaelCole,DirectoroftheLaboratoryofComparativeHumanCognitionattheUniversity
ofCalifornia,SanDiego.4
3. The American-Soviet Textbook Study Project began in 1977, was suspended
in 1979 when Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan, and resumed in 1985 under the
GenevaAgreement.AtaconferenceheldinRacine,WisconsininNovember1987,theU.S.
representativesacquiescedtotheSovietinsistencethatAmericantextbooksshouldpresent
a more “balanced” (i.e., friendly) discussion of Lenin and should give the Russians more
“credit” for their role in World War II. A.M. Rosenthal of the New York Times said in a
December8,1987editorialthat
American educators solemnly discuss with Soviet educators the mutual need for
textbook revision, just as if the state did not censor every single book published in
the Soviet Union and the Russians could write as they pleased. That is comedy, if
youlikeitrealblack.
4. Scholars from the American Council of Learned Societies and the Ministry of
EducationoftheSovietUnionmetintheUnitedStatesin1986andagreedtoestablish
a Commission on Education that will be responsible for joint scholarly relations in
pedagogyandrelatedieldsbetweentheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion.Somemajor
joint U.S.-Soviet project themes are: Methods of Teaching and Learning School Science
andMathSubjectsUsingComputers;TheoryofTeachingandLearning;Psychologicaland
PedagogicalProblemsofTeachingintheDevelopmentofPre-SchoolandSchool-ageChildren,
andProblemsofTeachingChildrenwithSpecialNeeds.5
5.TheCopenFoundation/NewYorkStateEducationDepartment/SovietAcademyof
Sciencesagreement“linksstudents,teachers,administratorsinU.S.andSovietschools
bycomputerandvideo-telephonelines.”Mr.Copendeclared
Sovietoficialsareespeciallyinterestedinstudyingtheeffectsoftelecommunicationson
interculturalunderstanding,teachingmethods,andlearningoutcomes,andthattheSoviets
haveassignedivescientiststomonitortheproject.6
ThisagreementshouldbechallengedonconstitutionalgroundssinceArticleI,Section
10oftheU.S.Constitutionsays,“NoStateshall,withouttheconsentofCongress,…enterinto
anyagreementorcompactwithanotherState,orwithaforeignpower.”
A–140
6.UndertermsreachedwiththeSovietAcademyofSciences,theNationalScience
TeachersAssociationwillpublishaSovietsciencemagazineintheUnitedStates.Copies
ofQuantumscheduledforpublicationinSeptember1989willbedistributedfreeofcharge
togiftedandtalentedchildreninthiscountry.7
7.OnDecember8,1987theindependentNationalAcademyofSciencespledgedto
helpplacemorethanamillioncomputersinSovietclassroomsbytheearly1990s.8
8.A$175,000grantwasmadefromtheUnitedStatesInformationAgency(USIA)
to the National Association of Secondary School Principals, the American Council of
TeachersofRussian,andSisterCitiesInternational.Thisgrantwillimplementanexpanded
studentexchangeprogram,callingforupto1500Americanhighschoolstudentstoliveand
studyintheSovietUnioneachyearandanequalnumberofSovietstudentstocometothe
UnitedStates.9FormerEducationSecretaryWilliamBennetttoldtheKansasCityChamber
ofCommerceonJanuary21,1986that
Americanstudentsknowlittleabouttheirownhistoryandheritageandwehaveforgotten
thatintellectualinnocenceiseasilyseducedandthepricewepayisthatsomeofourchildren
canonlynodtheirheadsinagreementwhenconfrontedwithstandardSovietpropaganda.
Theylacktheknowledgetorecognizeitaspropaganda,muchlesstorefuteit.
9.OnMarch4,1989,ifteenSovietteensandtwoadultteachersarrivedinAurora,
Colorado as part of the Reagan-Gorbachev agreements. According to an article by Beth
PetersoninthehighschoolnewspaperRaiderReview
A conlict arose when reportedly a Russian student, Farkhod (who was head of the
Komsomol Young Communist League and spokesman for the group) told students in an
honorshistoryclass,“YouareallgoingtobeCommunistswithiniftyyears.Justremember
thateverysocietymustbereadyforCommunism—evenAmerica.”
10.StudentsparticipatedinthePhillipsAcademyinAndover,Massachusettsstudent
exchange with an elite Soviet prep school deep in Siberia. The students “agreed one
characteristic was more striking than any other: an indefatigable commitment to Soviet
communism.” One student, Horovath, said, “I think in general young people are more
committed to the Party’s ideology than to their parents.” Another student, Tom Clyde,
said, “They seem to think there is going to be a world revolution any day now and the
CommunistPartywillovertakeAmerica.”10
TheSovietUnion:TheOnlyBenefactor
Does our government really believe that the Soviet government is participating in these
student exchanges so that their students can be de-programmed and become good little
capitalistseagerforpeaceatanyprice?
MichaelWarderoftheRockfordInstitutesaysthat“Exchangesareallegedlydesignedto
promotepeace.”However,hepointsoutthat,ascurrentlydevised
mostexchangesareof beneit onlytotheSovietUnion.Inthesummerof1985a group
AppendixXXIII A–141
of 46 Soviets visited the United States on a so-called goodwill mission. But the 46 were
selected,briefed,andcontrolledbySovietsecurityorgans.Eachofthe“friendlyvisitors”
had relatives being held hostage at home, lest any of them might consider defecting or
deviating from the oficial Soviet propaganda line. Their trip was paid for by the Soviet
government,andamongthemwereSovietagents.
Mr.Wardernotesthat
SovietleadersknowthatifpeacepropagandaeffectivelyreachestheU.S.publicitwillresult
intheCongressvotinglessmoneyfornationaldefense.U.S.groupsgoingtotheSovietUnion
havenosuch“equal”opportunitytoreduceSovietarmsexpenditures.11
How on target Warder’s comments have proven to be! Soviet propagandizing of the
American people has been so successful that on May 9, 1989 four top Soviet oficials
were given the red carpet treatment by the U.S. House Armed Services Committee: “They
appealed for a warmer approach by Washington and asked us to open a second front
against the Cold War.”12 Could their appearance have something to do with the proposed
defensebudgetcuts?
The cost to the American taxpayer—not only in terms of the miseducation of his
children, but also in terms of plain, hard-earned tax dollars—is immense. Soviet students
comingherearehavingtheirtravel,livingexpenses,andtuitionpaidforbyourtaxdollars,
whilesomeofourchildrencannotaffordtogotocollege.
In 1988 the U.S. Department of State awarded $4,540,000 to various groups involved
in education exchanges with the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.13 This amount, which
is probably the amount doled out annually, is just the tip of the funding iceberg, with
large annual grants from other government agencies and tax-exempt foundations keeping
thecontroversialexchangesaloat.
It is to be hoped that the tragic Tiananmen Square massacre of Chinese students
will result in cancellation of the U.S.-Chinese student exchanges, resulting in a lessening
of our budget deicit, rather than in a transfer of those tax dollars into the U.S.-Soviet
educationexchangeaccount.
ANighttoRemembertellsoftheiveicebergwarningssentbywirelesstotheTitanic.
Whenthesixthmessage—”Lookoutforicebergs!”—camein,theTitanic’soperatorwired
back, “Shut up. I’m busy.” Just 35 minutes later, the ship whose captain had said, “God
HimselfcouldnotsinkTitantic,”wassinking.
We have been warned. Are we, like the Titanic’s operator, convinced that “God
Himselfcannotsink”America?
The question Americans must ask themselves is: Why, when the Soviet Union is an
economic,political,moral,andsocialbasketcase,militarilysuperiorbutinternallyonthe
verge of collapse, does the United States seek its assistance in improving our educational
system?Thoseresponsibleshouldberequiredtojustifytheirsupportforactionswhichare
notinthebestinterestoftheUnitedStates.
*TheaddressforAmerica’sFutureis:7800Bonhomme,St.Louis,MO36105.
Endnotes:
A–142
1.Bailey,Kathleen.“Disinformation:ASovietTechniqueforManagingBehavior.”IssuesinSovietEducation:Proceedingsofa
Conference,NationalAdvisoryCouncilonEducationResearchandImprovement,March3,1988.
2.Finn,ChesterE.,Jr.,AssistantSecretary,U.S.DepartmentofEducation,“MappingtheCommonGround.”Remarksbeforethe
AmericanForumonEducationandInternationalCompetence,St.Louis,MI,May16,1988.
3.EducatorsforSocialResponsibility,Cambridge,MA.Promotionallyerentitled“TeachingforCriticalThinkingintheNuclear
Age:AU.S.-SovietInstitute,”Leningrad,U.S.S.R.,July27–August12,1989andlyerentitled“EducatingforNewWaysof
Thinking:AnAmerican-SovietInstitute,”HampshireCollege,Amherst,MA,August7–21,1988.
4. Carnegie Corporation of New York. “The List of Grants and Appropriations 1988,” reprinted from the 1988 Annual
ReportoftheCarnegieCorporation.
5. National Academy of Education, Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, MA. Informational Letter entitled
“ACLS–U.S.S.R.MinistryofEducationCommissiononEducation,”Fall1987.
6. “Computers,”EducationWeek,Dec.7,1988.
7. “NSTAtoPublishSovietJournal,”EducationWeek,May17,1989.
8.Breen,Tom.“AcademytoGiveSovietsComputers,”WashingtonTimes,Dec.9,1987.
9.“NewExchangeSetforU.S.,SovietStudents,”EducationWeek,Sept.28,1988.
10.Lee,Gary.“TheStudents’Surprise,”WashingtonPost,May26,1987.
11.TheDonBellReport,Nov.21,1986.
12.Gordon,MichaelR.“HousePanelSees4SovietOficials,”NewYorkTimes,May10,1989.
13.FederalRegister,Feb.18,1988.
AppendixXXIV
“OurChildren:TheDrones”
“OurChildren:TheDrones”byAnnHerzer,M.A.,ReadingSpecialist.Thistwo-partarticle
waswrittenin1984andisreprintedherewithpermissionoftheauthor.
PartI
Withtaxpayers’moneythroughaNationalScienceFoundationgrant,in1968RichardI.
EvanswroteB.F.Skinner:TheManandHisIdeas.Thephilosophystatedinthisbookshould
beofcriticalinteresttoallpeoplethatareinterestedineducationandvaluetheindividual.
FollowingaresomedirectquotesfromSkinnerincludedinEvans’sbook:
Icouldmakeapigeonahighachieverbyreinforcingitonaproperschedule.(p.10)
WhenIsayaconceptisirrelevant,Imeanthatithasnobearingonthekindofanalysis
Iamtryingtodevelop.(p.23)
Forthepurposeofanalyzingbehavior,wehavetoassumemanisamachine.(p.24)
You can induce him to behave according to the dictates of society instead of his own
selishinterest.(p.42)
Itisconceivablethatatechniqueofcontrolwillbedevelopedwhichcannotbediscovered.
Theword“brainwashing”isdangerous.(p.54)
Wewanthim[thestudent]tocomeunderthecontrolofhisenvironmentratherthanon
verbaldirectionsgivenbymembersofhisfamily.(p.64)
Ipredictthatthecurriculumofthefuturewillbedesignedaroundvariouscapacitiesand
abilitiesratherthansubject.(p72)
A–143
A–144
Idon’tbelieveinmentaldisciplineassuch....I’mmuchmoreconcernedwiththestudent’s
so-calledpersonalitytraits.(p.72)
I should not bother with ordinary learning theory, for example. I would eliminate most
sensory psychology and I would give them [the students] no cognitive psychology
whatsoever.(p.91)
Itisn’tthepersonwhoisimportant,it’sthemethod.Ifthepracticeofpsychology[operant
conditioning] survives, that’s the main objective. It’s the same with cultural practices in
general;noonesurvivesasaperson.(p.96)
Itdoesbothermethatthousandsofteachersdon’tunderstand,becauseimmediategains
are more likely in the classroom than in the clinic. Teachers will eventually know—they
must—and I am more concerned with promoting my theories in education [operant
conditioning].(p.106)
Ishouldliketoseeourgovernmentsetupalargeeducationalagencyinwhichspecialists
couldbesenttotrainteachers[inoperantconditioning].(p.109)
Have the radical psychologists achieved their goals? Let’s take a look at exactly
whattheybelieve.
The study of human emotions, feelings, and individual worth are of no concern to
these psychologists. They believe that by shaping behavior one can produce any “human
machine” that society needs. Skinner proposes to achieve this utopian goal through the
Americanschoolsystem.
EvansaskedSkinnerwhatwouldhappenifa“hostilegovernmentweretogaincontrol
andproceedtoshapethedevelopmentofchildren,puttingsuchtechniquestotallyintouse.”
Skinner replied, “There’s no doubt about it, but what are you going to do? To impose a
moratoriumonsciencewouldbeworstofall.”Wouldit?
ANationatRiskstatesthat“Ifanunfriendlyforeignpowerhadattemptedtoimpose
on America the mediocre educational performance that exists today, we might well have
viewed it as an act of war. As it stands, we have allowed this to happen to ourselves.”
Did we? Did the American people really know what was happening in education and to
theirchildren?Theanswerisno.
Anaiveandgreatnationoffreedom-lovingpeoplehasbeendeceivedbya“technique
of control” that cannot be discovered by the average American. By subtle means of mind
manipulationfromcleverpropagandatechniquestoout-and-outlies,theAmericanpeople
have been sold these radical ideas, methods, and techniques that truly place our nation
andourchildrenatrisk.
Skinner said, “You will teach your student as he wants to be taught, but never
forget that it is within your power to make him want what you want him to want.” In
other words, a teacher can program and shape a child into being anything the radicals
decideheshouldbe.
ParentsandAmericancitizensshouldbeawareofthegovernment-sponsoredprograms
being disseminated throughout the United States by the National Diffusion Network. The
Network was established in 1974 to promote government-approved educational programs.
Many of these programs are subtly designed with behavioral psychology techniques that
AppendixXXIV A–145
could train young children to aim for limited goals of common labor. These programs
prey on the poor and minority children in our nation. Many of these programs started
inthe1960’s.
You might wonder who selects these programs. A panel of twenty-two so-called
“experts” selects the programs and approves them for dissemination by the Network.
They are promoted in a book called Educational Programs That Work published by the
U.S.DepartmentofEducation.
A great number of programs being promoted by the Network state in the book that
“No evidence has been submitted to or approved by the Panel.” It seems that even these
great experts are not willing to accept the responsibility if these government programs
failorsucceed.
Theradicalbehavioralpsychologistsbelieveinatotallyplannedsocietywithsomany
elitetorule,whilethedronesfollowlikeprogrammedrobots.
Very few college professors, teachers, school board members, or the news media
have ever heard of the National Diffusion Network, and certainly the average American
citizenisnotawareoftheEducationalProgramsThatWorkbookortheprogramstherein.
Every American should obtain this book and take a long look at just what their children
arebeingtaughtornottaught.
One experimental program after another has been placed in the American classroom
overthelasttwentyyears.Manyoftheseprogramshavebeenbroughtintotheclassrooms
over the objections of teachers and parents—those teachers and parents who understood
what was happening. These programs have proliferated to such an extent that the school
childhasbecomeahumanguineapigfortheseradicalswhoproposetobringaboutthegood
lifeforthewholeworldby“brainwashing.”
Whenisthelasttimeyouheardyourchildrenspeakofthe“Americandream”?
Anunfriendly,“hostilegovernment”inaction?Well,maybe.
PartII
At taxpayers’ expense, preparation of B. F. Skinner’s dehumanizing book Beyond
FreedomandDignitywassupportedbytheNationalInstituteofMentalHealth(grantnumber
K6–MH–21, 755–01). Skinner suggested that “what is called for now is a ‘technology of
behavior’—asystematicandscientiicprogramtoalterthenatureofman.”
ThemajorthemeinEvans’sbookisthatbecauseofthecomplexityofthemodernworld
we can no longer afford freedom and dignity; therefore, the scientiic method of operant
conditioningshouldbeusedtocontrolandshapemankindforthegoodoftheworld.
Manisconsidereda“humanmachine”withnosoul,nofreewill,justanumberlike
“K6–MH–21,755–01”tobemanipulatedbychangeagents—agroupofself-anointed,radical
behavioral psychologists proposing to brainwash man into submission to whatever they
determinetobethebestformankind.
Thisisnotanewthemeinhistory.ItisolderthantheInquisition.Whatisnewinhistory
isthatascientiicmethodofbrainwashingdoesexist.TheAmericansoldierinKoreaand[the
Jonescultin]Jonestown,Guyanaareonlytworecentexamplesofthisfact.
Ifoneweretoattemptthisradicalchange,themostlogicalplacetostartthisstep-by-step
“technologyofcontrol”wouldbetostartintheschoolsandthefreemarketplace.
A–146
AplannedcurriculumandaplannedeconomycouldstrangleanationliketheUnited
Stateswithinafewshortyears,andhelptobringabout“equality”forthewholeworld.This
isconceivableifatechniqueofcontrolcouldbedevelopedthatcouldnotbedetectedbythe
averageAmerican.Hasithappened?Justlookatourschoolsandtheeconomy.Howmany
smallcompanieshavegonebrokerecently?Howmanysmallfarmersarebeingforcedout
ofbusiness?Whocontrolstheschools,theindustries,themedia,thenaturalresources,and,
moreimportantly,whowillcontrolthelandintheUnitedStates?
Fortheunreadandskeptics,I’mgoingtosuggestseveralbooksthatgiveacomprehensive
overviewofAmericaneducationandtheextensiveuseofclassicalandoperantconditioning
in our society. Of course, one must irst read Skinner’s books to fully understand what
hehasproposed.
Perhaps the best and most comprehensive book written that truly gives historical
documentationforthedeclineofoursystemwaswrittenbyAugustineG.Ruddin1957and
calledBendingtheTwig.Mr.RuddwaschairmanoftheEducationalCommitteefortheNew
YorkChapteroftheSonsoftheAmericanRevolution.Fartoomuchblamehasbeenplaced
onJohnDewey,inmyopinion.Atleasthiseducationaltheorieswerechild-oriented,butof
coursetheradicalpsychologistswerenotinvoguein1957.
AReportoftheComptrollerGeneraloftheUnitedStates,datedApril15,1977(HRD–7749)
should be obtained from government records and read by all Americans. The title is
“Questions Persist about Federal Support for Development of Curriculum Materials and
Behavior Modiication Techniques Used in Local Schools.” It appears that nothing has
beendoneaboutthequestions.
Othertitlesthateveryoneshouldreadare:
ThePsychologicalSociety,MartinGross
ThoughtReformandthePsychologyofTotalism,RobertJayLifton
MindControl,PeterSchrag
ThePeopleShapers,VancePackard
ChangeAgentsintheSchools,BarbaraM.Morris
BehaviorMod,PhilipJ.Hilts
TheLiteracyHoax,PaulCopperman
LegalChallengestoBehaviorModiication,ReedMartin
WaldenTwo,B.F.Skinner
TheSuicideCult,MarshallKilduffandRonJavers
Snapping,FloConwayandJimSiegelman
BelowaredirectquotesfromBeyondFreedomandDignity:
Why should I care whether my government, or my form of government, survives long
aftermydeath?...
WhyshouldIbeconcernedaboutthesurvivalofaparticularkindofeconomicsystem?...
A remote personal good becomes effective when a person is controlled for the good
of others, and the culture which induces some of its members to work for its survival
brings an even more remote consequence to bear.... It is a matter of the good of the
culture,notoftheindividual....
AppendixXXIV A–147
Aprogrammedsequenceofcontingenciesmaybeneeded.Thetechnologyhasbeenmost
successfulwherebehaviorcanbefairlyeasilyspeciiedandwhereappropriatecontingencies
canbeconstructed—forexample,inchildcare,schools,andthemanagementofretardates
and institutionalized psychotics. The same principles are being applied, however, in the
preparation of instructional materials at all educational levels, in psychotherapy beyond
simplemanagement,inurbandesign,andinmanyotherieldsofhumanbehavior....
Suchatechnologyisethicallyneutral....
Itisnotdificulttoseewhatiswronginmosteducationalenvironments,andmuchhas
alreadybeendonetodesignmaterialswhichmakelearningaseasyaspossible.
InPartIof“OurChildren:TheDrones”Iquotedsomeofthechangeagentsandhow
theyproposedtobringaboutthechangeinsocietyandeducation.
This next article will deal with actual enactment of the methods and programs, and
how they are being promoted by the United States Department of Education through the
NationalDiffusionNetwork.
TheirstprogramI’mgoingtotellyouaboutistheonethatstartedwhatInowreferto
asmy“searchforfreedomanddignity”formyself,children,andteachers.Theirstprogramis
knownasTheExemplaryCenterforReadingInstruction.Theword“reading”isamisnomer.
ThisprogramispureoperantconditioninginthebesttraditionofB.F.Skinner.
In1978,IwasworkinginaTitleIprograminPhoenix,Arizona.Ourprogramwasone
offortythathadbeenselectedasoutstandingprogramsintheUnitedStates.Thegovernment
wasdoingathree-yearstudyonfortyprograms.Thestudywascalledthe“SustainingEffects
Study.”Iassumedthatstudywasbeingdonesoourprogramandtheothersuccessfulones
couldbeusedasexamplesfortherestofthecountry.
Our program was based on an individualized diagnostic program for each child. The
child’sreadingandmathneedsweredeterminedandweweretaughttoremediatethespeciic
needsineachchild’sareaofweakness,whiletryingtobuildonthechild’sstrongareasas
well.Wewereproudtohavebeenselectedasoneoftheinnovativeprogramsinthenation.
Partofourprogramalsocalledforcontinuoustraininginourareaofspecialization.Minewas
reading.Iwasalsoamemberoftheparentadvisorycommittee.
Inearly1978,ourprincipal,TitleIsupervisor,andassistantsuperintendentofschools
forthedistrictmetwiththeTitleIteachersandproposedaweek-longworkshopbasedona
masteryteachingandlearningtheory.Quiteasalespitchwasgivenforthemethodandthe
director.Myprincipalsaidhehadknownherforseveralyearsandthatshewasapersonal
friend of a prominent church and business leader in our community. Since his daughter
was a personal friend of mine and he is highly respected as a church and community
leader,thiswasagoodsellingpointfrommypointofview.Anothersellingpointwasthe
limited cost of the workshop, and the training would include the Title I aides and some
oftheclassroomteachersaswell.
The time arrived for the workshop, and substitute teachers were obtained for the
teachers. The training session was held at the district ofice. Our trainer’s name was Mrs.
CurringtonfromHawkins,Texas.
Weweretomeetfrom8:00a.m.to4:30p.m.everyday,MondaythroughFriday.Wewere
toldthatifwecouldnotkeepthosehoursandattendeveryday,nottoattendtheworkshop.
A–148
Ithoughtthatwasratherstrange,butsaidnothingatthetime.
One of our teachers, Sherri _____, had small children and was having a problem
with adjusting the hours with baby sitters. Since her husband was a medical doctor,
she could not depend on him for before and after school care. She asked if she could
come late and leave early on some days. She was told no, and that it was her problem
toworkout.Somehowshedid.
OnMondaywhenwearrivedatthedistrictofice,wefoundourtablesarrangedina
UshapewithMrs.Curringtonatthehead.Wewereneverintroducedtoher,norwereany
wordsofwelcomeextended.Shestartedtoteach,andIstartedtotakenotes.Mysupervisor
toldmenottotakenotes,thatalltheinformationwouldbesuppliedlater.Ithoughtthiswasa
verystrangearrangement,butIstoppedtakingnotesforthetimebeing.
Two hours into the program I whispered to Sherri, “Just what in the [h— ] is this?”
By this time they had handed out a massive workbook that made no sense whatsoever.
Sherri pointed out that no method or philosophy was stated in the book and asked me
ifIthoughtthiswasstrange.
When we broke for lunch, I met one of our outstanding classroom teachers in the
restroomandshewasintears.Shesaid,“Ann,Idon’tknowwhatiswrongwithme.Ihave
neverreactedtoanythinglikethisbefore.”Isaid,“Deanna,thisistheworstthingIhaveever
beenexposedto.”Shesaid,“Metoo.Ijustthoughtitwasme.”
Severalteachershadlunchtogetherandwewereallveryalarmedabouttheworkshop.
Oneoldtimersaid,“Thisisjustanotherprogramthatwehavetoputupwith—wehavehad
oneaftertheotherforseveralyears.Wejustlearnonemethodandprogram,thentheybring
inanotherone.Thiswillpasslikealltherest.”
Sincetwohours’creditwasbeingofferedbyUCLAatDavis,someoftheteachersasked
meifIwasgoingtosignupforit.Isaidno,becauseIwouldnotwantsuchathingonmy
transcripts.Noneofourteacherssignedupforcredit.
Daily,moreandmoreoftheteacherswereraisingtheireyebrowsandmyfriendMary
_____ was beside herself. Finally, I said, “Look, Mary, we bought a pig in a poke and
noneoftheteachersarebuyingthis.”
Wewerepressuredtomemorizetheword-by-worddirectivesandpasstheproiciency
testsonadailybasis.Eachteachertakingherturn,wewererequiredtofolloweachdirective
exactly as the students would. Finally, the teachers and aides started asking questions.
Some became downright hostile toward the teacher-trainer. Our questions were deferred
by intimidation. For example, when someone would question a portion of the teaching
technique, the trainer would say, “Shame on you. Don’t you want to do what is best
forchildren?”
WhenDeannapointedoutthattheprogramdidnottakeintoconsiderationthelearning
styles of individual children, Mrs. Currington said, “The group is more important than
the individual and we should raise our children to be people pleasers.” That is when
I really sat up to take notice. I recognized the philosophy right away, and I recognized
thisprogramasbeingpolitical.
Children were required to master each and every small step before moving on, and
onlyperfectpenmanshipwastobeallowedfromthechild.Maryaskedaboutsmallchildren
whoseinemotorskillshadnotdeveloped.Mrs.Curringtonsaid,“Allinemotorskillshave
developedbytheageofone.”Wow!
BythistimeSherriwaslaughing.Atonepointanadministratorfromthedistrictofice
AppendixXXIV A–149
came in and said, “We thought this was awful too when we attended the workshop last
week,butitgetsbetterastheweekgoesalong.”Thiswastheirsttimewerealizedthatthe
administratorshadtakentheworkshop,also.
Atonepointinthetrainingwewererequiredtoraiseourarmstoa45-degreeanglewith
ouringerspointed.Thechildrenweretodothiswhenevertheycompletedanassignment
andtheteacherwastocheckforperfectpenmanship,etc.Iftheworkwasnotperfect,then
thechildhadtostartover.Therestoftheclasstracedtheirwordwiththeiringerandsaid
thewordinunisonwhiletheothersmadethecorrection.
Ikeptasking,“Whatisthismethod?”Iwassomewhatmoreverbalthantherest.Atone
pointmyprincipalsaidtheyusedthismethodinGermany.ThisiswhenIsaidtoSherri,“I
recognizethesalute:SiegHeil!I’mnotgoingtodothisagain.”
At this point I sat with my arms folded and Sherri continued to chuckle. I was
not laughing. This workshop was no longer funny. I was thinking that something was
veryamiss.
SherriandIweresittingatthesametableacrossfromeachother.Mrs.Curringtoncame
and moved our table out from the others and told us to work with the group across the
room. Since this was impossible, I thought it was very strange. That’s when I noticed
that our behavior was being monitored by the teacher-trainer, Mrs. Currington. I told
Mary and Sherri to be careful of their actions because we were being monitored. They
said,“Ohcomeon,Ann.”
The next day our table had been moved to the end of the room, in direct view of
theteacher-trainer.
Onthelastdayofourworkshop,Mrs.Curringtonsaidshehadjustreturnedfromdoing
aworkshopinBoston,andtheydroveheroutoftownwithpoliceescort.Someoneasked
herwhy,andshesaiditwasbecauseofapapershehadpresentedintheworkshop.Shesaid
shewouldnotpresentthepaperagainunlessDr. Reid(theprogram director)ordered her
to.DeannaaskedifshecouldseethepaperandMrs.CurringtonsaidyesifDeannawould
returnitrightafterlunchandpromisenottoshowittoanyone.
ThenextdayDeannatoldmethatthepaperwasthe“Children’sHour.”1Isaid,“I’m
not surprised that they ran her out of Boston with police escort because that is where
theythrewtheteaoverboard!”
IamhappytoreportthatIdidnotpasstheiridelityorproiciencytests.
Endnote:
1. “TheChildren’sHour”isastorybyJamesClavellwhichdealswiththeabilityofa“new”teacher,broughttoanelementary
classroomasaresultofa“hostilegovernment’stakeover,”whoisabletocompletelysubvertthevalues,beliefsandloyalties
ofthechildreninahalfhour’stime.AttheendofthestorythechildrenhadcutuptheAmericanlagandthrownthelagpole
outofthewindow,andhadbeenconvincedthatprayerwasawasteoftimebecause“whatyoureceivealwayscomesfrom
soembodyelse,”notGod.(Seepp.70–71ofthisbook.)
AppendixXXV
(1)“TheTruthaboutHowWeAllHaveBeenHad”
and
(2)“TheDifferencebetweenTraditionalEducationand
DirectInstruction”
(1) “The Truth about How We All Have Been Had” by Charlotte T. Iserbyt was an alert
sent out in late 1998, after the passage of Omnibus Budget Bill for 1999 which contained
the Reading Excellence Act. (2) “The Difference between Traditional Education and Direct
Instruction”byTraceyJ.HayeshasbeenpublishedintheJanuary1999issueofTheEducation
ReporterafterhavingbeendistributedwithIserbyt’salert.
(1)“TheTruthaboutHowWeAllHaveBeenHad”
Pleasebearwithme.Thisalertisgoingtotrytoexplainwhathappenedontheslow
roadtoteachingourchildrenhowtoread.Youmayusethisalert/articleinanywayyouwish
aslongasyouattributeittotheauthors,IserbytandHayes,anddonotalteritoraddto
it in any way. The story is sad and should make American blood boil. Before you start
reading, please take the time to read the last two pages of this alert containing an
article entitled “The Difference between Traditional Education and Direct Instruction”
byTraceyJ.Hayes.
First, I want to thank the loop for alerting me about two years ago to the activities
of Doug Carnine, director of the federally funded National Center to Improve the Tools
of Educators (NCITE) at the University of Oregon. By the way, folks, that is a federally
funded ofice which has dealt for a very long period of time with programs for special
educationchildren.Carnine’snamejumpedoutatmewhenmentionedinoneoftheloop’s
communicationssupportingdirect,systematic,intensivephonics(directinstruction),which,
A–150
AppendixXXV
A–151
bytheway,isNOTTRADITIONALPHONICSINSTRUCTION.
Iimmediatelythought,“Waitaminute.What’sgoingonhere?IsthisthesameDoug
CarninewhowasinvolvedwithSiegfriedEngelmann’sFollowThroughDISTARprogram(now
knownasTeachYourChildToReadin100EasyLessonsorReadingMastery),aboutwhom
I had written in my 1985 book Back To Basics Reform or… OBE Skinnerian International
Curriculum?”Ofcourseitwas,andfromthattimeonIdevotedmuchtimetryingtoconvince
parentsthat“directinstruction,”regardlessofwhetheritisspelledwithloweroruppercase
“d”and“i,”isbasedontheoperantconditioningexperimentswithanimalscarriedoutby
theRussianIvanPavlovandtheAmericanprofessorB.F.Skinner.
In January of 1997 I wrote many memoranda on this subject which were included
on the Internet Education Loop website, identifying Carnine and Engelmann with Ethna
Reid’slearningprogramwhichAnnHerzer(atraditionalphonicsreadingteacheropposed
toSkinnerianoperantconditioning)sovaliantlyfoughtinthelate‘70sandearly‘80s.When
Herzerobjectedtothetraining,shewasasked,“Don’tyouknowwearetrainingourchildren
tobepeoplepleasers?”[SeeAppendixXVIIofthisbook,ed.]Ipointedoutthatmy1985book
BackToBasicsReformOr...discussedtheECRI/DISTARmethod.Manyofushavefoughtthis
method for twenty years and, sad to say, we have gotten nowhere. I suppose that is to
be expected since we are not part of the national conservative leadership nor are we part
of the education establishment leadership. No one listens to you unless you are well
funded and have fancy letterhead. Follow the money, follow the money. We didn’t have
theresourcestomakeadifference.
However,allisnotlostifthoseofyouwhoreadthisalertwilltakethenecessaryaction
tostopthefundingoftheReadingExcellenceActatthelocallevel.Millionsoftaxdollarswill
begushingforthinyourcommunitiestoimplementthisSkinnerianreadingprogramunder
theguiseof“scientiic,research-based”phonicsreadinginstruction.
LetmequotefromanOctober1997letterDougCarninewroteto“concernedfriends”
asking them to support H.R. 2614, The Reading Excellence Act, which called for the use
of “research-based” reading instruction programs; i.e., his and Engelmann’s program
(ECRI/DISTAR). Obviously, use of these programs could be of inancial beneit to those
involvedinthedevelopmentoftheprogram.Carnine’sletterencouragedthefollowing:
As you know, signiicant reforms are in process in the bellwether states of California
and Texas as well as in many other states. State lawmakers, education leaders, and
concerned citizens are joining forces to ensure that the wealth of scientiic research
on reading conducted during the past three decades is fully transformed into effective
classroomreadinginstruction.
Muchofthe“scientiicresearch”towhichherefersistheSkinneriandog-trainingmethod
used in DISTAR and ECRI. Whenever you see the word “effective” related to education,
realize that it relates to the late Ron Edmonds’s Effective School Research (Harvard and
MichiganState).Itsays“almostallchildrencanlearn”whentaughttothetest,providedthe
necessaryenvironmentforthatindividualchildandenoughtimeforthechildto“master”
whateverthecontent(orworkforceskills)ismadeavailable.That’sSkinnerian/behavioral
terminology,forthosewhoarenotinitiated.Thenewtermfor“environment”isnow“positive
schoolclimate,”whichtakestheplaceofthebehavioristterm“psychologicallymanipulative
environment.” Effective School Research calls for the elimination of the Carnegie unit,
A–152
norm-referencedtesting,gradelevels,etc.EffectiveSchoolResearchcallsforoutcome-based
education,whichismasterylearningandcanincludedirectinstruction.Botharecloselyrelated
toTotalQualityManagementandPlanning,Programming,andBudgetingSystems.
Ofcourse,forthosewhodon’thaveanyproblemwiththistypeofeducation/training,
STOP:youneedreadnofurther.Forthosewhomayhavequestions,pleasebearwithme.
First,youwillwanttobesureIamcorrectinmyclaimthatthisis,infact,Skinnerian
dogtraining.Theinalpieceofthepuzzle,whichshouldbetheclincherandforwhichmany
ofusaremostgrateful(Godworksinwondrousways!)cameinthepublishingofWhatWorks
in Education, edited by Crandall, Jacobson, and Sloane (Cambridge Center for Behavioral
Studies:Cambridge,Massachusetts,1997).1TheCenter’sactivitiesandpublicationscanbe
accessedontheirwebsite(http://www.behavior.org).Followingaresomeexcerptsrelatedto
twoofthenineprogramsdiscussedinthisbook:
WhatWorksinEducationistheresultofacollaborativeeffortbetweentwoorganizations:
TheCambridgeCenterforBehavioralStudiesandDivision33oftheAmericanPsychological
Association.... We would like to extend our gratitude to Doug Carnine, Professor of
Education at the University of Oregon, and Bonnie Grossen, Editor of Effective School
Practices,forconsultingonthisproject.
Thechapterentitled“MabelB.WesleyElementary”states:
TheMabelB.WesleyElementarySchoolinHouston,Texas,hashadaschoolwideDirect
Instruction language arts curriculum since 1976, and has implemented other direct
instruction programs and other programs based on related approaches in other subject
matters....Dr.ThaddeusS.Lott,Sr.istheProjectManagerfortheNorthwestCharterDistrict
andMrs.WilmaRimesistheprincipalofMabelB.WesleyElementarySchool.
In 1975... in searching for a means of improving reading skills, Dr. Lott, then the new
principal, visited a campus that was implementing the DISTAR reading curriculum (see
Direct Instruction for Teaching Reading and Remediation, Carnine and Silbert, 1979),
developedbyEngelmann(reportedinBecker,EngelmannandThomas,1975Aand1975B).
HewasimpressedbywhatheobservedandbegantheimplementationofDISTAR[now
calledReadingMastery,ed.]in1976.
The chapter entitled “Exemplary Center for Reading Instruction—ECRI” by Ethna R. Reid
oftheReidFoundationstates:
ABSTRACT:ECRIprovidesconsultingandtrainingforindividualclassrooms,gradelevels,
or entire schools in implementing a direct instruction model in language arts. The ECRI
modelisappliedtoandadaptedforexistinginstructionalmaterials.Fromthesematerials,
structured lessons are developed to teach an integrated curriculum of phonics, oral
and silent reading, comprehension, study skills, spelling, literature, and creative and
expository writing. ECRI also includes rate building, mastery learning, and behavior
managementcomponents.
ECRI identiied effective teaching strategies later corroborated in the Follow Through
Program (Stebbins, L.B., St. Pierre, R.G., Proper, E.D., Anderson, R.B., & Cerva, R.T.,
1977)andnowknownasDirectInstruction(Jenson,Sloane&Young,1988,pp.335–336,
AppendixXXV
A–153
350–362).ECRIadoptedageneraldirectinstructionalapproachandexpandedit...inways
thatallowedapplicationtoexistingsubjectmaterialinanycontentarea.
CanyounotseethatthisisthenecessarySkinnerianmethodforapplicationtoworkforce
training? Skinner said, “I could make a pigeon a high achiever by reinforcing it on a
properschedule.”
The above ECRI connection with DISTAR (Reading Mastery), the direct instruction
programbeingpushedalloverthecountry(ThaddeusLott’sHoustonsiteisthebestknown)
should come as no surprise since the developer of DISTAR, Siegfried Engelmann, has his
workinSkinnerianoperantconditioningcitedseveraltimesinEthnaReid’sTeacherTraining
Manual. Of interest is the fact that the U.S. Department of Education in 1981, when Ann
Herzer tried to have ECRI shut down, lied in writing when it said ECRI did not use
operant conditioning. I have all the correspondence regarding this controversy. A class
action suit should be filed against the U.S. Department of Education for its role in
promoting this type of training/ conditioning under the guise of “education” and for
lyingaboutthemethod.
Inotherwords,ECRIandDISTARarenotjustclosecousins;theyare,infact,fraternal
twins.Theonlydifferencebetweenthemistheirname.Theywerebothfundedduringthe
WaronPoverty,GreatSociety1960s,andsincethattimehavebeenusedonthemosthelpless
members of our society, the underprivileged and minority children. Professors Benjamin
BloomandLeeShulman’s1968–1981ChicagoMasteryLearningProgramwas,accordingto
aMarch6,1985articleinEducationWeek
atragedyofenormousproportionswithalmostone-halfofthe39,500publicschoolstudents
inthe1980freshmanclassfailingtograduate,andonlyone-thirdofthosegraduatingable
toreadatorabovethenational12thgradelevel.
OfinterestisthefactthatclaimsofeffectivenesssimilartothosemaderegardingtheHouston
DISTARprogramweremadebytheelitistchangeagentsduringthe1970sandearly1980s.
TheChicagoProgramcrashedin1981.
WhathappenedtothestudentswhoparticipatedinChicago’sSkinnerianexperiment?
WhathappenedtoLeeShulman,whowasinvolvedintheChicagoMasteryLearningdisaster?
Lee Shulman went on to become the Director of the Carnegie Foundation’s Board for
ProfessionalTeachingStandards,whichisthearchitectoftheperformance-based(Skinnerian)
teacher training model. Shulman, who had been a Fellow of the American Psychological
Association and a Fellow of the Center for the Advancement of Behavioral Sciences, later
becamePresidentoftheCarnegieFoundationfortheAdvancementofTeaching.Thereader
shouldrefertothefactthatthebookWhatWorksinEducationisaresultofacollaborative
effort between the American Psychological Association and the Cambridge Center for
BehavioralStudies.Whatrewardsforsuchadisaster!Thelivesofthechildreninvolvedin
theexperimentarenotsodecorouslydocumented.
One simple question should be asked which should put this whole matter to rest:
Whyhaven’ttheunderprivileged,theminorities,etc.,hadmoreacademicsuccessifthese
programs (which have been used in most of our inner cities under the guise of effective
schoolingpractices)areinfactso“effective”?Whyisitthatsomeverygoodanti-OBEpeople
out there don’t even realize that this method is OBE? It is based on Bloom’s and Spady’s
A–154
contention (which, by the way, is embraced by the Soviets in their polytechnical training
as well) that “all except the most seriously handicapped” children can learn, if they work
at their own pace with an individualized education plan, are taught to the test, do not
have to compete with classmates, are subject to criterion-referenced testing rather than
norm-referencedtesting,andhaveaslongastheywantto“master”thecontrollers’outcomes,
results, or competencies. Outcome-based mastery learning/direct instruction is what the
United Nations is talking about when it refers to Lifelong Learning. Everyone can take as
longasneededto“master”whatthecorporateandinternationalplannerswantaslongas
everyone“masters”it,evenifittakesalifetime.Godforbidthatyoumaynotwanttomaster
certainthings.Anddon’tforget,it’snotjuststudentsbutallofuswhowillbeinvolvedinthis
lifelonglearning—unless,ofcourse,Americanswakeupanddosomething.
Whethereitherprogramhasproducedthegainsproponentsofthe“method”suggestis
questionable.ThebasicskillstestresultsfromMission,Texas,whichusedECRIforaperiod
oftwentyyears,certainlyaredismal.Muchmoredocumentationisrequiredinthisregard.
Bythetimewehavethesadtruthregardinglongitudinalteststudies,includinginformation
onwheretheDISTAR-educatedstudentsarenowor10yearsfromnow,andwhattheyare
doing, if anything, it will be too late. Norm-referenced testing will be a thing of the past.
Performance-based testing (portfolios, demonstrations, etc.) will be standard, and we will
have highways plastered with “My Son/Daughter Is an Honor Student.” We will never
know how dumbed down our children are except when, instead of saying “Please, may I
havetheketchup?”theysimplygruntacertainnumberoftimesforketchupandacertain
numberoftimesforbutter,etc.
The basic question, however, aside from test scores, remains: Is it moral to use this
methodonchildrenintheclassroomwithouttheirinformedconsent,evenifresultsshow
small and temporary gains? There are laws on the books which give prisoners protection
against such behavior modiication methods. Medical research is available showing that
operant conditioning causes psychological, neurological, and medical problems. Children
in the ECRI program have exhibited such symptoms. There are doctors’ statements to
thisfact.
Forthosewhostilldon’tbelievethatDISTAR(ReadingMastery)isthesameasECRI,let
mequotefromafewpagesofadissertationbyatopstatedepartmentofeducationoficial
whodoesnotwishtohaveitattributedtohim.Thepaper,writtenin1986,entitled“The
ExemplaryCenterforReadingInstruction—ECRI,”statesinpart:
Oneofthemajorgoalswastodoacost-effectivenessstudytoascertainthemostbeneicial
time to introduce academic skills to students. The only break the children had during
their instruction was a snack time which was used as a language experience to discuss
the various foods the children were eating. The main instructional unit was the SRA
DISTARProgram.TheresultsshowedanincreaseinpupilIQofapproximately20points
in the irst year of the program and elimination of a great many behavioral problems.
[emphasisadded]
FactsEstablished
1.ECRIandDISTARarefraternaltwins,andbothuseSkinnerianoperantconditioning.
2.OperantconditioningisbasedonPavlov’sexperimentswithslobberingdogs.
AppendixXXV
A–155
3.TheRighttoReadFoundation,formerlyheadedbyRobertSweet,supportsTeaching
YourChildrentoReadin100EasyLessons,whichisSRA’sDISTAR(MasteryReading).Sweet
recentlybecameaconsultanttotheHouseEducationandWorkforceCommitteeandhelped
draft and promote the Reading Excellence Act. Several years ago when Tracey Hayes, a
researcher,broughtherconcernsregardingtheCarnine/Engelmannprogramtohisattention,
Sweet told her he saw nothing wrong with mastery learning. Good parents looking for
traditionalphonics-basedreadinginstructionfortheirchildrenhavebeenhadbythemaster
manipulators’useoftheHegeliandialectic.They(theinternationalistchangeagents)created
thewholelanguagedisaster(ortookadvantageofit)inordertogetparentstoscreamsothat
parentscouldbeofferedthepredeterminedsolution:thedirectinstructionSkinnerianprogram
whichcanbeappliedtoanyotherdisciplines,includingWORKFORCETRAINING!
And the desperate parents have bought into this shameful scam, thinking that the
educationalestablishmentreallycaredabouttheirchildrenlearningtoread.Thecorporate
sector, which supports direct instruction, does not really want educated workers. Thomas
Sticht,amemberoftheSecretary’sCommissiononAchievingNecessarySkills(SCANS)saidas
muchwhenhewasquotedinanAugust17,1987WashingtonPostarticleasfollows:
Manycompanieshavemovedoperationstoplaceswithcheap,relativelypoorlyeducated
labor.Whatmaybecrucial,theysay,isthedependabilityofalaborforceandhowwellit
canbemanagedandtrained—notitsgeneraleducationallevel,althoughasmallcadreof
highlyeducatedcreativepeopleisessentialtoinnovationandgrowth.Endingdiscrimination
and changing values are probably more important than reading in moving low-income
familiesintothemiddleclass.
Sticht was also at one time associated with the “Hooked on Phonics” program. Oh,
what a tangled web we weave! Harvard’s Professor Anthony Oettinger, a member of
the Council on Foreign Relations, which is bringing us STW, Free Trade and Global
Governance,saidin1981:
Thepresent“traditional”conceptofliteracyhastodowiththeabilitytoreadandwrite.
Buttherealquestionthatconfrontsustodayis:Howdowehelpcitizensfunctionwellin
theirsociety?Howcantheyacquiretheskillsnecessarytosolvetheirproblems?Dowereally
have to have everybody literate—writing and reading in the traditional sense—when we
havethemeansthroughourtechnologytoachieveanewloweringoforalcommunication?
It is the traditional idea that says certain forms of communication such as comic books
are “bad.” But in the modern context of functionalism they may not be all that bad.
[emphasisadded]
Allthatonemustdotosmellonebigratisaskthefollowingquestions:
1.WhywouldformerCaliforniaCommissionerofEducationWilliamHonig(whowasat
one time someone parents loved to hate) support something supposedly good for our
children (DISTAR/ECRI) after years of implementing the progressive, humanistic agenda?
Why would the leadership of the two major teacher unions support a method which
supposedly is in the best interests of your children unless all of them have been walking
downtheroadtoDamascus?
A–157
AppendixXXV
Thanksforlistening.
P.S.:SamuelBlumenfeld,intheForewordtomynewbook,hastakenastandagainst
directinstruction.He’saveryprincipledfellow!Ihopethisalertwillgetalotmoreprincipled
peopletotakeastandagainstthismethodbeforeit’stoolate.
Endnote:
1.WhatWorksinEducationcanbeorderedfromtheCambridgeCenterbycalling1–978–369–2227.
(2)“TheDifferenceBetweenTraditionalEducationandDirectInstruction”
byTraceyJ.Hayes
ThemajordifferencebetweenTraditionalEducationandDirectInstruction(DI)isthe
methodinwhichthecontentistaught.
Traditionaleducationfocusesoncontent-richcurriculuminwhichaparticularsubjectis
“introduced,taught,andreviewed,”movingfromsimpletocomplex,spiralingbacktorefresh
and retain previously learned material while progressing in that subject. Some publishing
companiesmakerecommendationsonwhatcontentistobetaught,butinmosttraditional
educationclassrooms,theteacherdecides“how”the“what”istobetaught.
To help determine student achievement in traditional education, weekly quizzes and
end-of-chapter tests are administered. One hundred percent mastery is, however, not
expected. The teacher knows that with time and review, retention of knowledge and test
scoreswillimprove.Theobjectoftraditionaleducationistoofferstudentsabroadfoundation
ofinformation,basedonfactsandigures,thatwillberetainedforfutureapplicationonhigh
stakesassessments,educationandcareerobjectives,andlife-longwisdom.
Traditional education is sometimes described as “direct instruction.” In traditional
educationtheteacherstandsinfrontoftheclassroom“directlyinstructing”thestudentsin
the subject matter. Direct instruction and teacher-directed instruction (used in traditional
education)areexamplesofhowwordsinourlanguagecanbeperceivedasbeingoneandthe
same,wheninfacttheyareverydifferentfromoneanother.Deceptivesemanticshascreated
muchconfusionamongmanyeducatorsaswellasparents.
Withtraditionaleducation,onMondaytheteacherassignsherclassachaptertoread
onthesubjectofGeorgeWashingtoncrossingtheDelaware.Shetellsthemtheywillbetested
onthissubjectonFriday,butshedoesn’ttellthemexactlyonwhattheywillbetested.In
otherwords,theymustlearnasmuchastheycanabouteverythinginthechapter—including
thenameofGeorgeWashington’shorse.Whentested,thestudentsmightreceivea75%or
80%gradeandsomeparentsmaybeupsetwithwhattheyconsidera“low”grade.However,
in fact, the students have done far better than students using mastery learning or direct
instructionwhoaretaughttothetest,onlylearningthatmaterialonwhichtheteachertells
themtheywillbetestedandreceivingagradeof90–100%.Thestudentsinthetraditional
education class have actually learned many, many times more than the students in a
mastery learning or direct instruction class, even though they did not have to use all
they learned on their test. Professor Benjamin Bloom, the father of mastery learning, was
certainly correct when he asserted that students could reach 85% mastery—of a limited
ordumbeddowncurriculum.
Direct Instruction focuses on a narrow curriculum in which a particular subject is
A–158
introduced via a stimulus, expecting a particular response from the student. Based on
behavioralpsychologyandtheworkofB.F.Skinner,DIrequirestheteachertouseoperant
conditioning and behavior modiication techniques. In a DI classroom the teacher must
follow a prescribed set of lesson plans, sometimes in script form, and use certain cues
such as clapping with the intent to incite a certain reaction such as unison chanting
from the students. In many classrooms, rewards and tokens are also used to generate a
predeterminedresponse(S-R-S).
DirectInstructionisateachingmethodthatbypassesthebrainandinstigatesarelex
thatisnotnatural,butrathercontrolledandprogrammed.Thiskindofmanipulationcauses
somestudentstobecomesostressedthattheybecomesickordevelopnervoustics.Many
DI programs are designed for the computer with built-in bells and whistles to “control
and pace the learning outcomes.” With outcome-based education (OBE) already in many
schools,ComputerAssistedLearning(CAL),programmedwiththeML/DImethod,isalso
promotingaffective/subjectivegoals.
DirectInstructionexpectsmastery(ML)tobeachievedineachareaofinstructionbefore
movingontothenextlevel.Therearefrequenttests,cramming,cranking,anddrillingthe
skills to perfection, so test scores are usually high in the early years. Typical classrooms,
however, consist of students with varying abilities, so the amount of content is decreased
to accommodate the slowest learner. In some schools cooperative learning is used to
appeasethehighachiever.Sincereviewofpreviouslylearnedmaterialsisnotencouraged,
overall retention is less. SAT scores are low, and ultimate application is not achieved
andinsomecasesstiled.
DirectInstructionhasbeenusedfordecadesinareaswherepovertyisprevalentbecause
themethodofteachingpromotesorderanddisciplineintheclassroom.Sincemanyparents
wanttodiscardwholelanguageandimplementphonics,schoolsacrossthenationareadopting
DIprogramswithouttrulyunderstandingthemethodbehindthecontent.Attheexpenseof
destroyingone’sfreewill,theseschoolsaretrainingstudentstobecomepassivedronesrather
thaneducatedcitizens.Asstudentsplateauatacertainlevelbecausetheycannotmakesense
oftheknowledgetheyoncewereexpectedtorecalloncommand,onemustwonderifthe
pressuretoperformlikebarkingdogsiswhatstudentsreallyneedorwhatwereallywant.
AppendixXXVI
“ShamanisticRitualsinEffectiveSchools*”
“ShamanisticRitualsinEffectiveSchools*”byBrianRowan,SeniorResearchScientist,Far
WestLaboratoryforEducationalResearchandDevelopment.Paperpresentedattheannual
meetingoftheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociation,NewOrleans,LA,April,1984.
Asterisk in title is notation on bottom of title page which states, “Work on this paper
was supported by the National Institute of Education, Department of Education, under
Contract No. 400–83–003. The contents do not necessarily relect the view or policies of
the Department of Education or the National Institute of Education.” Brian Rowan was
involved in Bill Spady’s Far West Lab grant to the Utah State Department of Education to
“putOBEinallschoolsofthenation.”
This paper develops a theoretical perspective for analyzing the non-scientiic uses
of research in educational policy debates. A central focus is educational researchers’ use
of shamanistic rituals to affect organizational health (cf., Miracle, 1982). A number of
shamanisticritualsderivedfromresearchon“effective”schoolsaredescribedhere,andan
analysisdemonstratesthecircumstancesunderwhichtheseritualscanbeusedtodivinethe
unknown,cureills,andcontroluncertainevents.
Background
Miracle(1982)suggestedthatshamansandappliedsocialscientistsperformanumber
ofsimilarfunctionsinsociety.Shamans,thepowerfulmedicinemenofpremodernsocieties,
worked mainly to cure ills, divine the unknown, and control uncertain events, and they
performedthesefunctionsbyusingaspecializedcraftobtainedafteralongperiodofformal
initiation and training. Similarly, applied social scientists acquire a specialized craft after
initiationandtraining,andtheytooarecalledupontoalleviatethevagueillsofcorporate
groups, divine the unknown for organizational strategists, or bring order to the uncertain
eventsthatplagueinstitutionalaffairs.
Theanalogyraisesanumberofimportantissuesforappliedsocialscience.Firstand
A–159
A–160
foremost,shamanspracticemagic,whereasappliedsocialresearchersarethoughttopractice
“science.”Tolikenscientiststomagiciansraisesinterestingquestionsabouttherelationship
of science to pragmatic action. An additional problem is that shamans are but one of the
many practitioners of magic in societies, and they can be distinguished from others who
employmagicintheirrituals,forexample,sorcerers,witchesandwizards.Thisobservation
raises questions about the uses of research in modern policy analysis. If educational
“science”functionsasmagic,whoaretheshamans,witches,andsorcerersofeducational
research?
FormsofPragmaticAction
We begin with the problem of whether applied educational scientists practice magic.
A number of anthropologists have observed that magic is used for pragmatic purposes
in premodern societies, but that magic is not the only form of pragmatism available to
premodernpractitioners.Forexample,bothMalinowski(1948)andEvansPritchard(1965)
argued that premodern societies possessed sound technical logics that practitioners could
usetosuccessfullyaccomplishmostworktasks.Inaddition,premodernpeoplewereable
to sharply distinguish between these working, practical logics and magic. In premodern
societies, when tasks were going well, the technical logic of everyday work dominated
action. But as uncertainties increased, or as conlict and stress became more problematic,
premodern practitioners began to supplement technique with magic. Thus, Malinowski
(1948)observedtheishingpracticesofTrobriandislandersandfoundthat,inthesafetyof
lagoons,practitionersmadelittleuseofmagicandreliedprimarilyonestablishedtechnical
routinestoensuregoodishing.Butasactivitiesmovedintothemoredangerousopenseas,
magicwasincreasinglyinvokedasasupplementaltechnicalaid.
Similarpointscanbemadeaboutthemoderneducationalpractitioner’suseofresearch.
Itseemsclearthatschoolshaveanestablishedseriesoftechnicalroutines(Goodlad,1983).
Butthesepracticesarenotgroundedinthehighlystylizedlogicsofmodernscience.Rather,
theyexistinthemoresubtleandlargelyunarticulatedlogicofteachersandadministrators
(Jackson,1968).Althoughsomeeducationalobservershavelikenedthisunarticulatedlogic
to magic (e.g., Lortie, 1975), Malinwoski’s (1948) [sic] discussion suggests that it is more
appropriatetothinkofeducationalresearchasmagic.Theeducationalpractitionerappears
tomakewideuseofthesubtleandunarticulatedlogicofschooling,andthislogicappears
tohavethedesiredtechnicaleffectonalargenumberofstudents(Hyman,WrightandReed,
1975).Practitionersmakemuchlessuseofthestylized“scientiic”knowledgeofappliedsocial
scientists.Indeed,likeMalinowski’sTrobrianders,theyappeartoreservetheuseof“science”
forthosesectorsofschoolingwhichareproblematicorin“crisis.”
Other arguments also suggest that educational “science” functions much like magic.
As Miracle (1982) noted, both applied social scientists and shamans utilize a “force” that
derivesfromanotherworld(MaussandHubert,1961).Shamans,forexample,oftentravelto
otherworldstocommunicatewithspiritsoraccompanythedeadtotheirsupernaturalresting
places.Asaresult,theyaresaidtoinhabitboththerealworldandaspiritorsupernatural
world. Similarly, applied scientists appear to inhabit two distinct worlds, one the “real”
world,theothertheproverbial“ivorytower.”Itiswidelyrecognizedthatknowledgegained
intheivorytowerisnotthesameasthatgainedinthe“real”world,anobservationthat
endows “scientiic” knowledge with a certain otherworldly nature. Thus, like shamans,
applied educational scientists inhabit two worlds and practice a craft that has a special
legitimacyinsocialaffairs.
AppendixXXVI A–161
TypesofMagic
Ifweperist[sic]intheanalogybetweeneducational“science”andmagic,itbecomes
usefultoclassifyvarioustypesofmagicandmagicians.Inpremodernsocieties,forexample,
therewerenumerouspractitionersofmagic,includingnotonlyshamans,butalsovarious
witches, wizards and sorcerers. Distinctions among these practitioners can be made on
the basis of their actual magic practices. Wizards and witches often practiced forms of
“blackmagic”thatwereusedasweaponstodefendinterestsorharmenemies,whereasthe
shaman’smagicwasmostoftenemployedforbenevolentpurposes,includingthecuringof
ills. There is also a need to look carefully at the rituals practiced by different groups. For
example,shamansoftenengageinacommon“spittingandsuckingcure,”buttheyalsouse
otherritualsfromtheir“bagoftricks.”
Educationalresearcherscanalsobeclassiiedbythetypesandfunctionsoftherituals
theyperform.Forexample,policyanalystssometimesusetheritualsofresearchtoconfound
andweakenpoliticalorscientiicopponents,aformofresearchthatappearssimilartothe
“black” magic of witches. But there are also research shamans who can be called upon
by policy analysts to perform healing rituals. All types of research ritualists select from
a common and well-known bag of research tricks, although in recent years there has
been a rise of ritual specialists who exclusively work either qualitative or quantitative
magiconpolicyaudiences.
ShamanismandSchoolEffectivenessResearch
In this paper, we limit attention to a single type of research ritualist—the research
shaman—andtoafewrelatedmagictricksusedwithinanarrowpolicydomain.Ourinterest
is in describing research rituals that heal and revitalize sectors of education and not in
researchthatfanscontroversy,inlictsharmonideologicalenemies,ordemoralizesexisting
constituenciesinapolicydomain.Moreover,theanalysiswillbenarrowedtoafewresearch
ritualsusedinonepolicydomaintobetterillustratehowresearchshamansoperate.
ShamanismandCrisis
Itiscommonlyobservedthatworkingpractitionersineducationremaindetachedfrom,
evenignorantof,theindingsandapplicationsofappliedresearch.Yetthisobservationis
notentirelytrue.Educationalpolicymakersandtheirresearchritualistscontinuetogenerate
research,andthisresearchcontinuestoplayaroleincertainsectorsofeducationalpractice.
Thus, a question emerges: in what sectors of educational institutions are the rituals of
researchshamanismmostutilized?
Anthropologicalstudiessuggestsomeanswerstothisquestion.Ithasbeenarguedthat
magicassumesitshighestimportanceininstitutionalsectorsplaguedbythreeconditions:(a)
highlevelsoftechnicaluncertainty;(b)structuralcleavagesthatcreategreatstressamong
social groups; and (c) social disorganization that creates problematic mood states among
participants(Malinowski,1925;Gluckman,1952;Wallace,1956).Theargumenthereisthat
researchshamanismismostvaluedinsectorsofeducationthatcontainthesecharacteristics.
Thus, research in education is most numerous in areas where there is high technical
uncertainty(doschools/programs/teachersmakeadifferencetoeducationaloutcomes?).The
rituals of research also take on great importance in areas where there is conlict among
social groups (are new educational initiatives needed to redress past social inequities?).
And inally, research is increasingly directed at problems related to disorganization and
A–162
dissatisfaction in institutional sectors of education (are urban/high schools better or
worsethaninthepast?).
ResearchonEffectiveSchools
Research on effective schools has its origins in these problems. The research deals
withasectorofeducationalinstitutions—theinstructionalcore—whichhaslongbeenthe
subjectofuncertainty,conlict,andpessimism,andwheretheuseofmythandritualhas
beencommon(MeyerandRowan,1977;1978).Whatisdistinctiveabout“effectiveschools”
research, in contrast to much past scientiic work, is that it has taken a shamanistic
approach to the problems of schooling. It has not fanned the lames of discontent and
uncertainty like previous scholarly work (e.g., Coleman et al., 1966; Averch et al., 1972;
Jencks et al., 1972), but instead has held out hope that the pervasive ills of modern
urbanschoolingcanbecured.
Edmonds (1979a), the most powerful of all effective schools shamans before his
untimelydeath,seemedaccutely[sic]awareoftheneedforhealinginmoderneducational
institutions,andacarefulreadingofhisworksrevealshisstrategyforeffectingacurefor
theproblemsconfrontingurbaneducation.Hearguedthatresearchmustbeusedtocounter
thepessimisticviewthatschoolshaveweakeffectsonstudentoutcomes,andthatasthis
occurred, practitioners could attain new expectation states that facilitated, rather than
hindered,theachievementofdisadvantagedchildren(see,especially,Edmonds,1978;1979b).
Thus,Edmondssawthat“science”couldbeusedtoconfronttheconlicts,uncertainties,and
problematicmoodstatesaflictingmodernschooling.
ThatEdmonds’[sic]approachpossessedaspecial“force”ineducationalpolicyarenasis
indisputable.Liketherevitalizationmovementsthatsweptthegreatplainsduringtheperiod
of indian [sic] decline (Wallace, 1966), the rituals of effective schools research diffused
widely and rapidly. They were adopted by other shamans, who brought them to state
departmentsofeducationandlocalschoolsystems,andtheretheseritualswereusedasthe
cornerstoneofambitiousrevitalizationceremonials(see,e.g.,Ogdenetal.,1982;Shoemaker,
1982;ClarkandMcCarthy,1983).
Itisworthnotingthattheperspectivebeingdevelopedheredoesnotnecessarilyimply
thattheseshamanisticritualsarehoaxes.Indeed,justasmanymodernmedicalpractitioners
havecometorecognizethewisdomandeficacyofshamans,thereisatleastsomereason
to think that the arguments of effective schools proponents possess some scientiic merit
(see, e.g., Rowan, Bossert and Dwyer, 1983). Nevertheless, for the moment, it is useful
to suspend our empirical curiousity [sic] about whether these initiatives really “work,”
[sic] and to examine instead some of the concrete ritual practices that characterize this
neweducationalmovement.
ImportantShamanisticRituals
It has already been suggested that shamanistic rituals are designed to cure ills,
divine the unknown, and control uncertain events. In this section of the paper, three
prominent effective schools rituals are discussed and their relationship to the central
functionsofmagicareillustrated.
CuringIllswithLiteratureReviews
We begin with one of the most common shamanistic rituals in the effective schools
AppendixXXVI A–163
movement, the glowing literature review that promises relief from the currently pervasive
sense that educational institutions are in poor organizational health. Miller’s (1983:
1) review illustrates the general form of this ritual: “Not so long ago the conventional
wisdom regarding American schools was that ‘schools do not make a difference.’ ...Yet
today...themessageof...researchisprimarilypostive[sic]andupbeat:schoolscanmake
adifference”(Miller,1983:1).
A closer look illustrates the consistent dramatic form used by reviewers to affect the
promiseofacure.First,theauthorscontrastthedismaltraditionofschooleffectsresearch
with“morerecent”andmorepositivestudiesofeffectiveschools.Thisisfollowedbythe
citationofahostofpreviouslyunpublishedandobscurestudieswhichareoftennothingmore
than other positive literature reviews. The inal step is a grandiose concluding statement,
whichmostoftencallsonpractitionerstoadoptthenewdiscoveries.
Wespeculatethattheseritualshavetheirmostdramaticeffectonnaïveindividualswho
havelittletimeorinclinationtofollow-upfootnotesorreadworkscitedinthetext,oron
thosewhohavelittletolerancefortheambiguitythatmarkstruescientiicdebate.Lackinga
systematicunderstandingofthescientiicprosandconsofeffectiveschoolsresearch,naïve
individualsareleftonlywiththepowerfulandappealingrhetoricofthereviewers.Thusit
isthatresearchoneffectiveschoolshascometobeseenasa“cure”foreducationalillsthe
less it has been published in scholarly journals and the more it has been disseminated in
practitioner magazines. The experiences shaman knows to avoid the scrutiny of scholars,
for this can raise objections to the “scientiic” basis of ritual claims and divert attention
away from the appealing rhetoric. Instead, the shaman cultivates the practitioner who
needsasimpleandappealingformula.
DiviningtheUnknownUsingOutliers
Whiletheliteraturereviewritualcanbeobservedequallywellbybothqualitativeand
quantitative specialists, a second ritual, designed to divine the unknown, is the exclusive
domainofquantitativeritualists.Theritualusesresidualsfromaregressionanalysistoidentify
“effective”schoolsandtocontrastthemwith“ineffective”schools.Thepurposeistodivine
ananswertotwonaggingquestionsinschooleffectivenessresearch:whicharetheeffective
schoolsinasystemandwhataretheseschoolsdoingthatmakesthemdifferent?
Thetechniquesinvolvedinthisritualhavebeendescribedbefore(see,Rowanetal.,
1983). A regression equation predicting school achievement from school socioeconomic
composition is tested, and errors of prediction are calculated. The errors (or residuals)
are used to identify “effective” and “ineffective” schools and form samples for contrasted
groups studies. The ritual almost always strongly supports the rhetorical posture of the
ritual literature review. Since predictor variables never account for all of the variance in
school-levelachievement,ananalysisofresidualswillalwaysdemonstratethatschoolsdiffer
inachievementevenaftercontrollingforsocioeconomiccomposition.Thusanyexperienced
shamancanind“effective”schools.Second,ifashamanasksalargenumberofquestions,
anumberofstructuralandculturaldifferencesbetweeneffectiveandineffectiveschoolscan
befound.Thus,theoutliersritualnotonlyidentiiesthepreviouslyunrecognized“effective”
schools,italsorevealsfortheirsttimewhytheseschoolsattaineffectiveness.
Fromamagician’sstandpoint,thisritual’spowercanbeincreasedinanumberofways.
First, the worse the speciication of the initial regression model, the more persuasive the
ritual.Forexample,byfailingtoincludeallmeasuresofschoolsocioeconomiccomposition,
A–164
ashamancanincreasetheresidualachievementdifferencesbetweenschools.This,inturn,
enhances claims that “effective” schools make a difference to achievement. Moreover, to
the extent that school characteristics are correlated to omitted socioeconomic predictors,
misspeciication [sic] enhances the liklihood [sic] that differences in school characteristics
willbefoundbetween“effective”and“ineffective”groupsofschools.Thus,theworsethe
initialregressionmodel,themorepowerfultheshamanisticritual.
Arelatedtacticistouseaggregatemodels.Byusingschoolsratherthanindividualsas
theunitofanalysis,proportionsofvarianceinachievementexplainedbyschoolmanagement
andcultureareincreased.Inbetween-schoolanalyses,schoolscanbeseentoaccountfor
nearly30%ofthevarianceinachievement.Butinbetween-individualanalyses,thisisreduced
toabout5%.Thus,effectiveschoolsritualistshavebeenabletoinlatetheirclaimsofschool
effectsthroughasimpleaggregationtrick(seeAlexanderandGrifin,1976).
The experienced shaman also avoids certain practices. For example, it is wise not to
repeattheresidualsritualinthesamepopulation,forthishighlightsthelowcorrelationof
residualsovertimeandraisesquestionsaboutmeasurementreliability.Itismuchwiserto
demonstratereliabilitybyusingtheconventional,andcross-sectional,“split/half”procedure
ofpsychometricians(see,Forsythe,1973).Similarly,afterafewperformancesoftheresiduals
ritual and the associated contrasted group study, it becomes possible to ignore problems
ofvalidation.Thus,astimemoveson,thewiseshamanavoidsachievementdataandthe
residualsritualentirely,andinsteadassessesschoolsonthedegreetowhichtheirstructures
matchthoseofpreviouslyidentiied“effective”schools.
ControllingUncertaintythroughMeasurement
Ainalshamanisticritualintheeffectiveschoolsmovementrequirestheshamantohave
advancedtrainingintheartofpsychometrics.Theritualisparticularlysuitedtoapplication
inurbanorlowperformingschoolsystemswheresuccessfulinstructionaloutcomesamong
disadvantagedstudentsarehighlyuncertainbutwheremobilizedpublicsdemandimmediate
demonstrationsofsuccess.Theuncertaintiesfacedbypractitionersinthissituationcaneasily
bealleviatedbywhatscholarshavebeguntocall“curriculumalignment.”
This ritual begins with an analysis of what is actually being taught in schools. The
shaman conducting the ritual assembles a group of local practitioners and together they
listinstructionalobjectivesforeachgradelevel.Thenextstepistoindachievementtests
that ask questions related to these objectives. To the extent that test items matching local
objectivesarefound,eitherincommerically[sic]preparedtestsorinlocallyconstructedones,
andtotheextentthattheseitemsareusedinachievementtestingratherthanthehaphazard
collectionofitemscontainedinmostcommerically[sic]preparedtests,thecurriculumand
testingsystemsofthelocalschoolaresaidtobe“aligned.”
Sinceitisknownthatatleastsomevarianceinstudentachievementisafunctionof
students[sic]opportunitytolearnwhatistestedincriterionmeasures(CooleyandLeinhardt,
1980),thealignmentritualcanhaveimmediateeffectsonperceptionsofeffectiveness.For
example, a school system moving from an unaligned commercially prepared achievement
testtoanalignedonecanexpectthatitwillscorehigheronnationalnormsthanbefore.But
thisincreased“effectiveness”doesnotoccurbecausestudentsarelearningmoreordifferent
things. In the typical alignment ceremony, only test items—not instruction—are changed.
Nevertheless, while student learning remains unchanged, alignment allows students to
practicecriterionmeasuresandachievehighertestscores,thusgivingthemanadvantage
AppendixXXVI A–165
overcomparablestudentsinunalignedschoolsystems.
Anevenmorepowerfuldemonstrationofinstructionaleffectivenesscanbeachievedif
shamansavoidthestandardpsychometricpracticeofdesigningnorm-referencedachievement
tests and move instead toward criterion-referenced tests. As Popham and Husek (1969)
discussed, the typical norm-referenced achievement test eliminates items that nearly all
students in a population can answer correctly, since norm-referenced tests are designed
to produce between-student variance in achievement scores. But if one neglects this
practice and allows items that almost everyone can answer correctly to be included
in achievement tests, a larger number of students will appear to be performing more
successfullyintheiracademics.
Thus,theartofmeasurementcanbeusedasanaidtoshamanism,espcially[sic]in
urban schools plagued by the uncertainties of student performance. Student variability in
performancecanbereduced,andrelativeperformanceincreased,notbychanginginstructional
objectivesorpractices,butsimplybychangingtestsandtestingprocedures.
Conclusion
Theanalysisofspeciicshamanisticritualsintheeffectiveschoolsmovementraisesa
numberofimportantquestionsabouttherelationshipofappliedsciencetopragmaticaction.
Most importantly, it suggests that future studies of “science” as magic are needed. There
isaneedtobegintochartotherritualsusedbyappliedscientiststodisarmenemies,cure
ills,anddivinetheunknown.Moreover,thereisaneedtostudytheconditionsunderwhich
thesemagicalpracticesspreadthroughpractitionerpopulations.Usingthisperspective,much
of the literature on organizational change and applied research can be rewritten from an
institutionalperspective(MeyerandRowan,1977).
Atthesametime,thereisaneedtocarefullyanalyzethescienceofmagic.Therecanbe
littledoubtthatMalinowski’s(1948:50)observationsaboutpremodernmagicwillringtrue
formanyobserversofcurrentappliedresearchineducation:
...whenthesociologistapproachesthestudyofmagic...heindstohisdisappointmentan
entirelysober,prosaic,evenclumsyart,enactedforpurelypracticalreasons,governedby
crudeandshallowbeliefs,carriedoutinasimpleandmonotonoustechnique.
Yetthis“clumsy”artsometimesachievesgreateffectsinpractitionercommunitiesandmay
even have some empirical merit, and this raises the appealing promise that applied social
scientistscansomedaydevelopshamanisticritualsthatempirically“work.”
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AppendixXXVII
“BigBadCowsandCars:
GreenUtopianism&EnvironmentalOutcomes”
“Big Bad Cows and Cars: Green Utopianism & Environmental Quality,” by Sarah Leslie
from the Free World Research Report (Vol. 2 No. 6), June 1993. Reprinted in its entirety
withpermissionofauthor.
The problem with cows and cars, it seems, is with their... well, er... emissions. Both are
supposedlyresponsibleforwreakinghavocontheplanetEarth(spelledwithacapital“E”
tosuggestrespectand“reverence”)becauseoftheirCO2output—foroneamatteroflife,for
theotheramannerofmechanization.
Theybothhavetogo.Thismeanstractors,too,ofcourse.Thegoalsforsustainability,
accordingtothelatestenvironmentalcraze(whichwehavedubbed“GreenUtopianianism”),
require an abandonment of modern material affluence, a transfer of wealth to third
world countries and, unmistakably, a return to the manual plow accompanied by a
vegetariandiet.
Wherecanoneindsuchutopiannonsense?Itispoppingupwithincreasingfrequency
in mainstream publications and credible-sounding scientiic documents. Jeremy Rifkin’s
“Beyond Beef” campaign and Al Gore’s recent book, Earth in the Balance, have lent the
necessary pizazz to launch a massive public relations campaign about the environmental
hazardsoftheseCO2emissions(that’s“gas”forthefolksinRioLinda,California).
Theeducationestablishment,pronetojumpingonthelatestbandwagon,isgoinggreat
guns for environmental education. Educators are frequently puzzled and amazed when
parentsobjecttoenvironmentalandglobalcurriculaandoutcomes.Whatcouldbewrong
withthat?theyask.Werecommendtheyreadtheliterature.
TheRaveReview
We found the abolishment of the cow and car through reading an Iowa Department of
Educationdocument.Severalyearsago,inapublicationentitledSocialStudiesHorizons(Fall
A–167
A–168
1990),justsuchautopianbookwasgivenaravereview.Thisbook,originallyentitledThe
FutureasIfItReallyMattered,wasrecentlyre-issuedunderanewtitle—TowardASustainable
Society:AnEconomic,SocialandEnvironmentalAgendaforOurChildren’sFuturebyJames
Garbarino.Thetitlesaysitall.Itisquiteanagenda!
Hereistheravereview:
Excerptsfromabookthatisaclassofpracticalwisdomonwhatasustainablesociety
is,whyweneedtomovetoasustainablesociety,andwhatasustainablesocietymight
looklike.Itisthiskindofthinkingweneedtoconsideraswemovetowardtransforming
the social studies. It seems to me that teaching the “transformational economics” of
sustainabilitywouldbeamuchmoreempoweringandenliveningprocessforourstudents
thanthetextbook-mires“dismalscience”approachtoeconomicsthathasbeenthenorm.
(SocialStudiesHorizons,p.4)
If you think sustainability is just a nice new term to describe more environmentally
responsiblefarmingmethods,thinkagain.Sustainability,atleasttothenewGreenUtopians,
isanentirerestructuringofthewayhumansliveontheplanet,andisthenewprimedirective
forthesurvivalofspecies(manonlysomewhatincluded).
TheIowaDEpublicationquotedGarbarino:
This enjoyment of owning, having, spending, buying, and consuming is a serious
threat.ItthreatensourrelationshipwiththeEarthandourrelationshipswitheachother,
particularlyinourfamiliesandinoureffortstopreservetheresourcesnecessaryforsocial
welfare systems. It cannibalizes the planet, undermines the spiritual order, and leaves
us scrambling to ill the social and spiritual void with positions. It is an addiction pure
and simple... and our chances of making the transition to a sustainable society depend
uponourovercomingit.(p.4)
The major chore for humans on Garbarino’s anthropomorphic Earth is to make the
transition to sustainability. But, just what does HE mean by this? What is the agenda
ofthenewGreenUtopians?
UtopianSustainability
Garbarino’stransitiontosustainabilityisaprocesslongonideologyandshortonspeciics,
intypicalutopianfashion.Garbarinostates:
Ourgoal,remember,isthecreationofamoresustainablehumancommunitybased
on competent social welfare systems, just and satisfying employment, reliance on the
nonmonetarizedeconomyformeetingmanyneeds,andapoliticalclimatethatencourages
culturalevolutionandhumandignity.(p.162)[emphasisadded]
Garbarinoidentiieshimselfasautopianthroughoutthebook.Hisoptimisticviewof
thefutureisdependentuponhisfaiththatthehumanracewillacceptstringentpopulation
control measures, severely limited transportation and trade, earth-friendly housing, local
neighborhood food and energy production, and government-regulated health and social
welfareservices.Theseriousnessof“ourcommonfuture”isenoughtowarrantthismassive
overhauloftheWesternlifestyle.
AppendixXXVII
A–169
OurNot-So-RaveReview
The preface of Garbarino’s book (page ix) gives credit to Aurelio Peccei and the Club of
Romeforthe“wealthofideasandinformationabouttheprospectsforasustainablesociety.”
The Club of Rome is best known for its earth-shattering GLOBAL 2000 report, Limits to
Growth (1972), calling for massive world-wide population control measures and many
other controversial plans. The Club of Rome is one of those international organizations
that the extreme left esteems (including the national media) and the extreme right views
asoneof“those”conspiratorialgroups.
The Club of Rome does not advocate for a mainstream, reasonable approach to
environmentalstewardship.Notbyanystretchoftheimagination.Itisanindisputablefact
thattheClubofRomeistiedcloselytothewackyinternationalNewAgegroupsknownas
PlanetaryCitizens.PlanetaryCitizenssponsoreda“1990WorldSymposiumonInterspecies
&InterdimensionalCommunication.”(Thismeanscommunicatingwithspeciesnotofthis
world!)AurelioPeccei’snamehasappearedonPlanetaryCitizensletterhead.
AReturntothePlow
Tractors will go the way of the car and the cow. Manual high-tech plows are the wave
ofthenewutopianfuture.
TheplowdevelopedbytheSchumacher-inspiredIntermediateTechnologyGroupisa
goodexample[ofappropriatetechnology].Itrelievesthebackbreakingburdenofworking
an oxen-powered plow, but it is not a conventional tractor. In their clever arrangement,
asmallenginepullsaplowacrossaieldusingawire,whiletwofarmersusetheirskill
and strength to guide it. The result is better plowing with a less expensive tool and
provisionofmeaningfulwork.(p.223)
This utopian vision of a new society includes agricultural cooperatives, a cashless
economy, and women working at home at gardening chores to provide food for their
householdsandcommunities.“Householdandcommunitygardenscansuccessfullyproduce
fruits and vegetables, and in some cases even grain.” (p. 231–2) Concurrent with these
recommendationsistheeliminationofmosttradebecauseofitsrelationshiptotransportation
(whichproducesCO2).Everythingmustbeproducedlocally.
Eatingmeatisnotincludedinthebook.“Themassiveconcentrationsofcattleexcrement
produce large amounts of methane,” claims Garbarino in Rifkin-like fashion. Presumably
thecowisregulatedtoapositionofprominenceinsociety,perhapsevenveneration.Ifthe
cow isn’t good for food, and not an “appropriate” technological substitute for the tractor
for use with plows, then perhaps the Green Utopians of the future will hang garlands
oflowersabouttheirnecks!
CarCrimes
“Using a car to accomplish daily tasks that could be done without one is a misdemeanor
against the Earth and posterity. Social policies that encourage driving and discourage
walkingarecrimesagainsttheplanet.”(p.221)ThetermforthisnewkindofcrimeinGreen
Utopia is “bioeconomic crime” according to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, who is further
quotedonthematterofautomobiles:
EverytimeweproduceaCadillac,weirrevocablydestroyanamountoflowentropy
A–170
that could otherwise be used for producing a plow or a spade. In other words, every
time we produce a Cadillac, we do it at the cost of decreasing the number of human
livesinthefuture.(p.135)
This type of logic, which ties Western consumption to the future destruction of the
Earth,isthedrumbeatofGarbarino’sbook.Itexplainsthereasoningbehindtheoriginalversion
oftheIowaGlobalEducationcurriculummanual(CatalogueofGlobalEducationClassroom
Activities,LessonPlans,andResources),whichcontainedaSocialStudiesexerciseforgrades
4–6whichlinkedeatingredmeattothedestructionofthetropicalrainforest:
Calculate the amount of meat eaten by a person in the U.S. per year; translate to
numberofanimals.Howmuchenergyandgrainareusedtoproducethismeat?Howmany
treesinthetropicalrainforestaredestroyedtoproducethismeat?(p.26)
ForGarbarinoandtheGreenUtopians,automobile-basedurbanizationisamajorculprit
intheanti-sustainablemodernlifestyle.“Suburbsarenotconducivetosustainablepatterns.”
(p. 166) Suburbs allow people to live far away from where they work and shop. Suburbs
dependuponthecar,orotherformsoftransit.Suburbsarenotanacceptablealternative.So
what,then,istheutopianalternative?
TheAbolitionofPatriarchy
Garbarinowouldliketoredeinethefamilyinthecontextofcommunity,whathetermssocial
welfare systems for a sustainable society. His ideas parallel those of the social engineers.
Hewouldmakecommunitybeparent:“Communitiesshouldsharejointcustodyofchildren
with parents.... We can require ‘registration and inspection’ of young children so that the
communitycanmonitorchilddevelopmentandnotlosetrackofthechildrenforwhichitis
responsible.”(p.245)Garbarinoalsocallsforaparentinglicense.
Family roles are redeined, too. “We need to end masculine domination both in the
familyandinsociety,sothatwecancreateaculturalclimateinwhichthesustainablesociety
canexist.”(p.66)Patriarchyisathreattotheplanet,accordingtoGarbarino.Hedevotes
an entire chapter to this subject because he believes we need to have a more feminine
ethic to survive. His book has probably never been fully embraced by the feminists,
however, because he believes women should be out working in the gardens and ields
producingthehousehold’sfood!
Garbarino’s design for sustainable social welfare systems for families are nearly
identical to the education reform efforts, including parents as “partners,” a “community
levelorganization...fortransportationsystems,formaleducation,industrialenterprise,and
thelike.”(p.222)Althoughhedoesnotspeciicallyidentifytheschoolasthe“hub”ofthe
community structure (as we have seen in other education reform writings), it is clear
that the new environmentally-correct society will be managed by grouping people into
small neighborhood communities—almost completely self-suficient in food production
and other life needs, but requiring intimate governmental managing of their personal
andfamilylives.
MandatoryPopulationControls
Garbarinowrites:
AppendixXXVII
A–171
To achieve a stable population, countries will have to establish a comprehensive
andpervasivefamilyplanningprogramandcarefullymonitorimmigration.Atminimum,
accomplishingthiswillrequireincentivesforkeepingfamilysizeatthereplacementlevel,
penaltiesforexceedingthatlevel,andcompleteaccesstocontraception.Itwillmeanthat
familysizewillbelimitedtotwochildren.(p.228)
Family planning, the obligatory two children, is the cornerstone of Garbarino’s
sustainablesociety.HelaudstheChineseexample,despiteitsoppressiveness(penalties)and
slaughter(mandatoryabortions).Infact,rewardsandpenaltiesforecologicallyresponsible
procreationareakeycomponenttoGarbarino’sidealsociety.Heviewschildrenasconsumers
ofscarceresources,moremouthstofeedonacrowdedplanet.
Garbarinoconsistentlyspeaksofchildrenintermsofeconomics(humancapital?):
Childrenareaneconomicbeneitinthehouseholds,neighborhoods,andcommunities
that rely upon human labor rather than non-renewable energy and materials to produce
foodandprovideutilities.(p.79)
Limitingthesizeofspeciicfamiliesmayturnchildrenintoaneconomiccommodity,
ifpeoplecanselltheirrightstobearthem.(p.84)
Childrenarethecurrencyoffamilylife.”(p.180)
CashlessEconomics
A radical new economic order is interwoven throughout the entire text of the book.
Garbarino’s economics calls for a cashless society and a new kind of economics that
accurately accounts for the damage done to the environment. The price of every item
must calculate the cost in terms of environmental destruction, especially nonrenewable
resourceslikegasolineandoil.
Free enterprise is the villain to the world’s environmental woes. It is responsible for
thedestructionoftheplanetaccordingtoGarbarinoandheutterlydismissesitasanoption
orasolution.Thecurrent“economicorderanditsculturalbaggagearemajorobstaclesin
thetransitiontoasustainablesociety.”(p.116)ReadingGarbarinodoesnotmakeonefeel
comfortable about Gorbachev heading up the new world effort for this Green Utopia (his
international Green Cross environmental effort). The abolishment of free enterprise has
alwaysbeenattheforefrontofthecommunistagenda.
SeverelimitstoworldtradearecalledforbyGarbarino:“Inasustainablesystem,world
tradewouldbelimitedtotwodomains.Theirstisideas,technology,andartisticcreations
and the people necessary to communicate them. The second is material goods needed to
meetbasichumanneedsortodramaticallyenhancehumanexperienceinwaysunavailable
locally. Most world trade today fails to meet either criterion.” (p. 152) It is not clear why
artisticcreationsaregivensuchahighpriorityfortrade!TheNationalEndowmentforthe
Artswillappreciatethisrecommendation.
VoluntaryPoverty
A total and complete reduction in the modern American afluent lifestyle is called for.
“A relatively poor American family typically uses less of the world’s resources than an
afluentAmericanfamily,butitstillconsumesmuchmorethananIndianfamilythatlivesat
A–172
subsistencelevel.”(p.85)Therefore,Garbarinoconcludes,thatonlyreasonablesolutionis
this:“Astheworld’sleadingconsumer...[theUnitedStates]hasaspecialobligationtoreduce
itsdemandsforresourcestoalevelthatisdomesticallysustainable.”(p.89–90)
Garbarino’sideasaboutwhatconstitutes“sustainable”andtheaverageAmerican’sare
radically different. He links American consumerism to every threat to the planet. It is not
unliketheIowaGlobalEducationexerciseforHomeEconomicsstudentsgrades9–12:“Seek
connections between U.S. consumer and eating habits and the presence of malnutrition
worldwide.”(Catalogue,p.36)
ARiceville,IowasophomoreEnglishclasswasgivena“SimplicitySurvey”aspartof
“TheThoreauProject.”ThetestshedsconsiderablelightontheextenttowhichGarbarino’s
radical ideas about sustainability have iniltrated classroom curriculum. Here are a few
sample“commitments”thatstudentshadtomakeonthesurvey:
• I and/or my family will own no more than three sets of clothes and three pairs
ofshoesperperson.
• Iand/ormyfamilywillownonlyoneautomobile.
• My family and/or I will eat less meat, more vegetables and fruits, and no
whitesugar.
• My family and/or I will make our own simple personal products—such as,
deodorant,soap,toothpaste—fromoldhistoricalrecipes.
• My family and/or I will learn to do almost everything for ourselves: cleaning,
baking,repairing,building,etc.
• Myfamilywillhavenomorethantwochildren.
Thissurveyisagoodindicationofhowoutcome-basededucationwillfunction.Ifthe
childdoesnotscoreatahighenough“committed”level,the“teachermayaskyoutoretake
thissurveyinordertoseeiftheunitchangesyourcommitment.”Inotherwords,ifthechild
doesn’tdisplaythecorrectattitudesaboutthisradicalformofsustainability,theymayhave
tore-takethetesttoseeiftheirattitudeswerechanged!
TheNewReligion
To break our addiction to free enterprise, material consumption, and freedom in general,
Garbarinocallsforsomenewvalues.ItisherethatwebegintoseethelinkbetweenhisGreen
Utopianviewofasustainablesocietyandthestrange-soundingethicalvaluescontainedin
the new educational outcomes being promoted across the country. Garbarino cites Amitai
Etzioni,sayingthathe“linksconsumerism,theworkethic,andculturalpatriotism.Thisis
a linkage we must break, replacing it with a combination of passionate commitment to
a humane social environment and rejection of materialism as an end rather than a very
limitedmeans.”(p.100)Theoldvalueshavetogo,tobereplacedbyanewethic.Thesenew
valuesnecessarilyentailanewreligion.
Youmayhaveguessedit—weneedtoformarelationshipwiththeEarth.Wearenot
toldexactlyHOWonegoesaboutformingthisnew“relationship.”Huggingtreesisgoodfor
astart—weneedto“speaktothetreesandlistentothebirds.”(p.226)Presumably,thisnew
anthropomorphicviewofMotherEarthisthenewreligion.Garbarinodescribesitthisway:
“Areformedhumanfamilyemphasizingequityandharmony...isagoodmodeltofollowin
establishingourrelationshipwiththeEarth.”(p.99)
A–173
AppendixXXVII
LikemanyoftheothernewGreenUtopians(AlGore,especially),Garbarinodenigrates
Christianitybecauseitelevatesmanabovenature:“Christianitywasanecologicalregression
compared with the primitive animist impulse that emphasized the spiritual integrity of
existence, the commonality of being, which demanded respect for the trees, the waters,
the plants, the animals—for the Earth as a whole.” (p. 98) Garbarino would replace
big, bad Christianity with Eastern mysticism. “Buddhism teaches that material goods
are only a means of achieving personal well-being. Consuming for its own sake has
novalue.”(p.99)
And,hereisabigadmission:“Primitiveanimismhasmoreincommonwithemerging
ecologicalscience,althoughotherreligioustraditionscanalsoaccommodateit.”(p.98–99)
This admission may serve to explain the recent upsurge of religious indoctrination in
environmental and global education curricula. It also explains the including of native
AmericanIndianritualisticritesinchildren’scurricula.
Garbarino advocates for this new (old) earth-centered religion. But what of other
religions? What will happen to freedom of religion under this utopian system? “Freedom
will be absolute in the realm of ideas and expression but minimal in the domains of
environmentallythreateningbehavior.”Youcanbelievewhateveryoulike,butyouractions
cannotharmtheenvironment,howeverthatcomestobedeined.Infact,theenvironment
reigns supreme in Green Utopia. The Earth’s needs (real or perceived) are paramount to
humanneedsandhumanrights.
TheNewGreen“Outcomes”
ToachievethisGreenUtopiarequiresthathumanbeingsacceptanewsystemofethics,one
thatvaluestheEarth.Garbarinosuggeststhatif“wecanforgethislinkbetweenpersonal
and public concerns, we will be able to harness the motivating power of the family in
transformingSpaceshipEarth.”(p.67)Thecurrentclassroomemphasesonenvironmental
andglobaleducationareprimeexamplesofthis.Makingsmallchildrenfeelresponsiblefor
thesurvivaloftheplanetisoneofthemechanismsforforgingthislink.“Children...need...
todevelopasenseofkinshipwithnature.”(p.169)
Reversingbiases“thatcurrentlydiscouragereusability,manuallabor,andselfreliance”
(p.205)isoneofthegoalsforeducatingthepublic.Thismeansthatitisabsolutelyessential
thatpublicattitudesandvaluesbealteredtoitthenewenvironmentalcrisisworldviewof
thefuture,completewithutopiansolutions.
Amazingly, Garbarino’s book contains language almost identical to an outcome seen
statebystateacrossAmericainthenewpushforoutcome-basededucation.“Socialization
toadulthoodmeansacquiringtheskillsandattitudesnecessarytoassumefullresponsibility
intheworkplace,thehome,andthecommunity.”(p.206)AnIowaWorldClassSchools
documentstates:“Aworld-classeducationwillequipstudentstolive,workandcompeteas
successfulcitizensinaglobalsociety.”(p.5)
In light of Garbarino’s Green Utopia, state by state comparisons of nearly identical
outcome-based language takes on new significance. The language that educators are
strugglingtodeineiseasilymanagedbytheenvironmentalfringe.Infact,WilliamSpady,the
fatherofmodernOBE,haswritten:“Afragileandvulnerableglobalenvironment...requires
alteringeconomicconsumptionpatternsandqualityoflifestandards,andtakingcollective
responsibilityforpromotinghealthandwellness.”(SpadyandMarshall,1990)
In the new Green Utopia, social abilities are of prime importance. Garbarino gives
A–174
primacy to social development rather than technological issues: “[s]ocial changes, not
technological ixes, are the primary vehicle for averting disaster and placing humanity on
sustainableecologicalandsocioeconomicfooting.”(p.21)Becauseofthisde-emphasison
technology,hebelievesthatchildren“mustbecomeadeptatlanguage,bodycontrol,morality,
reasoning,emotionalexpressiveness,andinterpersonalrelations.Unlesstheydo,theybecome
aburden—totheirfamilies,tooursociety,andeventothemselves.”(p.105)
ThebeliefsystemoftheGreenUtopiansexplainsthenationalpressuretohaveattitudinal,
behavioral and value-laden outcomes. It also explains the vacuum of solid academics.
Reading,writingandarithmeticwillnolongersolvetheworld’sproblems.Thecrisisistoo
complex.Humansmustbetaughttoadjustandadaptinstead.Garbarinodoesnotstakehis
futurehopesintechnologicaldevelopmentandman’spotentialtodevelopscientiicsolutions
forthecomplexenvironmentalcrisis.Theonlyhopethatheseesissustainability.
Anothernationallypopularoutcomehastodowithdiversity.Garbarinoexplainswhy
thisissonecessary:“Culturaldiversityisasimportantasbiologicaldiversityinenhancing
evolutionary resilience and human progress.” At least for some, “diversity” has much
more to do with their religious beliefs in evolution of mankind than it has to do with
protecting the human rights of religious and ethnic groups. Cultural diversity, in the form
ofmulticulturaleducation,oftenpromotesritualisticpaganpracticesthatenhanceafeeling
ofconnectednesswiththeEarth.
Thosewhoopposetheteachingofthisnewreligionofinterconnectednesswithnature
are labeled “racists.” When Davenport, Iowa school board member Elaine Rathmann
challengeda“Multi-CulturalWeek”asmere“politicalindoctrinationandsocialreform”she
waspubliclychargedinthelocalpresswithracism.
TheNewGreenUtopianClassroom
A recent article by Barbara Melz of the Boston Globe appeared in the Des Moines Register
(6/6/93,p.3E).Melzdetailsthevulnerabilityofchildrentoemotionalmanipulationinareas
of environmentalism. She quotes from a book by Lynne Dumas (Talking with Your Child
aboutaTroubledWorld,FawcettColumbine):“Everythingbecomesapersonalissueforkids,
everythinggetsrelatedintheirmindstotheirownsafety.”
The article goes on to give a poignant example of how vulnerable children can be
tothistypeofeducation:
This is especially true of environmental issues, she says. From the earliest ages,
children relate to animals and nature in a kind of magical way. “TV shots of oil-soaked
birdsandseals,whalestrappedonabeach,endangereddolphinsallthesekindsofthings
can be very upsetting to them. They can react with an intensity that surprises parents,”
she says... [S]olid waste disposal is an issue many school-age children glom on to in a
veryconcreteway.“Theyseehowmuchtrashtheyproduceintheirownhouse.Sohere’s
theirworry:Ifeveryone’shousemakesthismuchtrash,whatwillhappen?Willtherebe
enoughroomformetoliveintheworld?”
Arechildrenbeingeducatedorindoctrinated?Isitfairtoburdenthemwithfeelingsof
guiltandresponsibilitybasedontheperceivedcrisisoftheGreenUtopians?
OnlyOneChoice
A thorough reading of Garbarino’s book, especially in the context of other works by the
A–175
AppendixXXVII
new Green Utopians, creates the crisis and then presents the solution. His crisis is an
out-of-controlworldpopulationproblemcompoundedbyscarceresources.Hisworldview
is clearly founded on the Club of Rome Global 2000 report. Garbarino has a limited view
of human potential, technological innovation, the value of free enterprise, or ingenuity.
However, there are serious questions about the scientific and rational validity of the
entireso-calledspecies.
The only politically-correct technology for the Green Utopians is apparently the
computer, probably because of its ability to control human behavior through the charting
of actions and attitudes. The greater good of society and the seriousness of the threat
againsttheplanetwouldlikelyjustifyacentraldatabanktomonitoreachcitizenaccording
tothelogicofGreenUtopians.
Garbarino’ssolutionisareturntothird-worldsubsistenceliving.Garbarinodoesn’tsay
thisdirectly.Onemustreadbetweenthelinesandcometounderstandthatabolishingcows
andcars,transportationandtrade,freeenterpriseandamarketeconomy,andcertainbasic
humanfreedomsinmattersrelatedtoreligionandprocreationcanonlymeananinternational
totalitarian society. Granted, Garbarino, the consummate Green Utopian, objects to this
(totalitarianism)andfeignstodistancehimselffromthenastinessofitall.Yethisproposals
canmeannothingelse.
TheNewGreenWorldView
To explain sustainability, Garbarino gives an extensive quote from Voluntary Simplicity
by Duane Elgin, in which Ram Dass—”a Western-style intellectual turned Eastern-style
mystic”—tellsastoryaboutanidealsociety.ItshedsmuchlightonwhatGarbarinomeans
bya“sustainable”society.Hereareafewhighlights:
IlookoutoveragentlevalleyintheKumoanHillsatthebaseoftheHimalayas.A
riverlowsthroughthevalley,formingnowandagainmanmadetributariesthatirrigatethe
fertileields.Theseieldssurroundtheiftyorsothatchedortin-roofedhousesandextend
inincreasingnarrowterracesupthesurroundinghillsides.
InseveraloftheseieldsIwatchvillagemenstandingontheirwoodenplowsgoading
ontheirslow-movingwaterbuffalowhopulltheplows,providethemen’sfamilieswith
milk,andhelptocarrytheirburdens.Andamidthegreenofthehills,inbrightlycolored
sarisandnoserings,womencutthehighgrassestofeedthebuffaloandgathertheirewood
which,alongwiththedrieddungfromthebuffalo,willprovidetheiretocookthegrains
harvestedfromtheieldsandtowarmthehousesagainstthewintercoldsanddrythem
duringthemonsoons.Ahugehaystackpassesalongthepath,seeminglyself-propelled,in
thatthewomanonwhoseheaditrestsislostentirelyfromview.
Itallmovesasifinslowmotion.Timeismeasuredbythesun,theseasons,andthe
generations.Aconchshellsoundsfromatinytemple,whichhousesadeityworshipedin
thesehills.Thestoriesofthisandotherdeitiesarerecitedandsung,andtheyarehonored
bylowersandfestivalsandfasts.Theyprovideacontext—vastinitsscaleofaeonsoftime,
richwithteachingsofreincarnationandthemoralityinherentintheinevitableworkingsof
karma.Anditisthiscontextthatgivesverticalmeaningtothesevillagers’liveswiththeir
endlessrepetitionofcyclesofbirthanddeath.(p.36–37)
TheOtherSideoftheStory
Thissceneisseductive,richwithdescriptionofpeoplelivinginasustainablesocietyclose
totheEarth.However,thereisanothersidetothisstory.Itwouldburstthebubbleofthe
A–176
utopianstohearit.Further,itwouldgivegreatcredencetoChristianityasapotentforcefor
personal freedom in the world. This alternative account comes from a humble missionary
story,TheBambooCross,byHomerDowdy:
JustoverbeyondthemountainswhichsurroundedtheSixteenPeakslivedtheTring.
TheywerethemostdificultofallthemountaintribesthatSauhadtriedtoreach.They
were shy. When strangers approached they scurried into the forest. The Tring were the
poorest, most fear-ridden tribe of all. If Sau’s people often went hungry, the Tring lived
alwaysontheedgeofstarvation.
Theydidnotliveinvillages.
Thespiritsthatruledthemforbadeonefamilytodipwaterfromanother’ssource;
one of them could not even live across the stream from an in-law. So Tring houses
were spotted sparsely for long distances along the mountain rivers, each a desolation
pictureofisolation.
Clingingtothesteep,stonysidesofmountainsformereexistence,theTringshivered
intheceaselesscoldofthewind.Oftengustsbrokedownthecornbeforeitcouldcome
intoear.Thewetmonsoonblewwhentheyneededittobedry,andwhenitwasdryfor
toolongtheysufferedfromthedrought.
Thedemons,too,keptthemhungry.Ifamanwenttohisieldinthemorningandfound
dewontheground,hereturnedhomewithoutworkingthatdaytoavoidacurse.
If fortune kept him away from his ield beyond the planting season—well, it was
evidentthatthespiritsdidnotwanthimtoindhisfoodinsuchaneasyway.
And if he did plant, he was careful not to plant enough to satisfy his needs. The
spirits always demanded of him that he search in the forest for roots and leaves to eke
outhisdiet.Forthisreasonhewasinclinedtoplantjustenoughmountainricetokeep
hisalcoholjarsfull.(p.72)
The Bamboo Cross is a descriptive account of how people’s lives in this tribe and
othersweretrulytransformedwhentheywerereleasedfromthespiritualbondagetotheir
demonsandfatsorcerers(whoexactedlargeamountsofmaterialgoodsfromtheirsubjects
torelievethemofsupposedcurses).
NewGreenUtopia
GreenUtopia,then,maybeaplace—severalgenerationshence—wherepeoplelivingina“sus-
tainable”societystronglyresemblemoreprimitivecultureswithonenotableexception.There
willbealittleboxthatdoesthings,andpeopletalkonit,andyouhavetopushthecorrect
buttonsforfoodandmedicine.Nooneknowsthecomplicatedmathandsciencerequiredto
programthisboxbecauseshopkeepermathandlogicarenottaughtanymore.Thelittlebox
is,therefore,anobjectofgreatsuperstitionandmagic.Itaccuratelypredictstheweatherand
seemstoknowalmosteverything.
Thelittleboxisthecomputer.
Garbarino’sbookwasprobablyneverabest-seller.Butforthosewhoareseekingtounder-
standtherationale,worldviewandjustiicationforsucharadicaleducationreformproposal,
itjustmightprovideafewunexpectedanswers.
INDEX
INDEX
A and“America2000Plan,”278–279
andAnitaHoge,221
biographyof,376
Abdela,Daphne,29
andEducationalExcellenceNetwork,352
Abeene,Pat,347
educationrestructuringwithRussia,188,290
AcademyforEducationalDevelopment,290
asGovernorofTennessee,239,274
acceleratedlearning.SeeSuperlearning
andnationalcurriculumplans,244
AcceleratedSchools,435–436
andNationalGovernors’Association,299
Accomplishing Europe through Education and Training,
andnationalstandardsforeducation,357–359
360–361
Alinsky,Saul,376
accountability,4,55,191–192,355
Alioto,RobertF.,136
basedonmeasurementsofteacherquality,296
Allen,Adrienne,363
damageresultingfrom,429
Allen,DwightD.,101
AccountabilityinAmericanEducation:ACritique,3–4
Allen,Richard,304
Acevedo,JeronimoSaavedra,360
AllOurChildrenLearning(BenjaminBloom),171
ACHIEVE,411–412
Allport,Gordon,A60
Achieve,Inc.,446
Allyn,David,49
achievement,295–296
“AlternativeAssessmentofStudentAchievement:TheOpen
AchievementSkillsprograms,228–229
BookTest”(ThomasA.Kelly),322–323
“ACLS(AmericanCouncilofLearnedSocieties)—USSRMinistry
“AlternativeFuturesforOurSocietyandImplicationsforEdu-
ofEducationCommissiononEducation,”231
cation”(HaroldPluimer),173
Act236,268
alternativelifestyles,132
ActionforExcellence,73,210
America,associalistdemocracy,59–60,280–281
“ActionPlantoDealwithViolence,”453n
America’sChoice:HighSkillsorLowWages!,271,329,A73
ActiveTeaching,226
“America’s Next Twenty-Five Years: Some Implications for
Adams,MarilynJager,172,212,417
Education”(HaroldShane),139–140
Adler,Mortimer,226,280–281
America 2000, 147, 300, 334. See also Goals 2000 (Educate
adulteducation,A101–102
AmericaAct)
AdultEducationAct,133,387
andChesterFinn,385
AdultPerformanceLevel(APL)Study,183,196
andNASDC,298
AdvancedSystemsinMeasurementandEvaluation,Inc.,274,
unveilingof,254–255
392–393
America 2000: An Education Strategy (Rev.)—Making This
Adventuring,Mastering,Associating:NewStrategiesforTeach-
LandAllThatItShouldBe,278–279
ingChildren(AlexanderFrazier),288
“America2000Plan,”278–279
AdvisoryCommissiononIntergovernmentalRelations,338
AmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience,18,A24
AgendafortheNation(KermitGordon),83
AmericanAssembly,60
Aikin,WilfordM.,20–21
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 14,
Akron (Ohio) Forum of Regional Collaboration to Develop
A112
Learning Strategies for the Global Economy, A127–
AmericanAssociationofEnterpriseZones,377
128
AmericanAssociationofSchoolAdministrators(AASA),270,
AkronRegionalDevelopmentBoard,267–268
290,A38
Albanese,J.Duke,378,431–432
withCitizensforExcellenceinEducation,347–348
Alber,Louis,95
andAnEducator’sGuidetoSchoolwideReform,434–436
Albright,Madeline,36
AmericanAssociationofSchoolLibrarians,339
Alesen,LewisAlbert,49
AmericanCivilLibertiesUnion(ACLU),13,350,A21
Alexander,Lamar,235
AmericanCouncilforCollaborationinEducationandLanguage
I–3
I–4
Study(ACCELS),419 AppleComputer,Inc.,290,302,A112
AmericanCouncilofLearnedSocieties,A139 AppliedBehavioralandCognitiveSciences,Inc.,147
AmericanCouncilofTeachersofRussian,A140 AppraisingandRecordingStudentProgress:EvaluationRecords
AmericanCouncilonEducation,91 and Reports in the Thirty Schools (Eugene R. Smith,
AmericanEducationalComputer,A37–38 RalphW.Tyler),21
AmericanEducationalResearchAssociation,198,326,A159 apprenticeships,437–438,A97,A104
andpersonsinvolvedwith,201,220,236 historyof,xx
writingtoclarifyvalues,useof,223 “AppropriateEducationinthePrimaryGrades:APositionState-
AmericanEnterpriseInstitute,176 mentoftheNationalAssociationfortheEducationof
AmericanExpressTravelRelatedServicesCo.,Inc.,344 YoungChildren(NAEYC),”258
AmericanFamilyAssociationJournal,418 Aramony,William,175
AmericanFamilyAssociationLawCenter,369,452n A.R.A.Services,Inc.,235–236
AmericanFederationofLabor/CouncilofIndustrialOrganiza- “AreBasicSkillsaCasualtyofKERA?—Arestatetestscausing
tions(AFL/CIO),177,330,A137 teacherstounderemphasizebasicskills?”,274
American Federation of Teachers (AFT), 81, 290, 327, Aristotle,xiii
A128–A130 Arizona,132,144,A130–131
andAlbertShanker,236,256,285 ArizonaFederationofTeachers,81,191–192
andAnEducator’sGuidetoSchoolwideReform,434–436 ArizonaForum(The),191–192
PhiladelphiaFederationofTeachers,302 ArizonaRepublic(The),424
andReachfortheStars:AProposalforEducationReform Arkansas,29
inGeorgia,287 ArmcoSteel,176
AmericanFlagCommittee,43 ArmsControlandDisarmamentAct,65
AmericanHistoricalAssociation,18,23 Armstrong,AndrewC.,4
AmericanHumanistAssociation,21,71,192–193 Armstrong,Jane,270–271
FreeInquiry,241 Arthur,Corey,29
AmericanInstituteforCharacterEducation(AICE),229,375, ArthurAndersen&Co.,268
389–390,419 ArtsandtheSchools(JeromeJ.Hausman),152,397–398
AmericanInstituteforResearch,434–436,A7,A12,A48 “Arts Education: A Cornerstone of Basic Education,” 397–
AmericanLawInstituteModelPenalCodeCommittee,40 398
AmericanLegislativeExchangeCouncil(ALEC),338 Ash,Roy,112
“AmericanMalvern,”32–33 Ashbrook,JohnM.,56,62,66
AmericanPersonnelandGuidanceAssociation,145,203 AshlandOil,333
AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,A152–153 AspenInstituteforHumanisticStudies,136,281
AmericanRoadtoCulture(The)(GeorgeCounts),18 Assagioli,Roberto,73–74,229,264n,427
AmericanSchoolBoardJournal,414 assessment,235–236,298,329,A44–51
AmericanSexualBehaviorandtheKinseyReport(MorrisErnst authentic,159
andDavidLoth),39 needforstatewide,286–287
AmericanStockExchange,176 needs,A39–40
AmericanVolunteer,1981(The):StatisticsonVolunteers,179 useoftestsin,124–125
AnacostiaHighSchool,331 AssessmentFrameworkfortheMichiganHighSchoolProi-
AnaheimBulletin,90–91 ciencyTestinReading,325–326
Anderson,John,376 Association for Educational Computing and Technology
Anderson,Karen,299 (AECT),93–94,113,170–171,A35–38
Anderson,Robert,100 Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
Anderson,Ronald,422 (ASCD),311–312,350
Anderson,Tucker,299 “21stCenturyReportCard,”284–285
“AndItCametoPass,”95–96 and agreements of William Spady and Robert Simonds,
“AndYouThoughtAmericanSchoolsWereBad”(Theodore 347–348
Dalrymple),244,359 AnnualConference(1978),148
AnitaHoge/Pennsylvaniacase,221,348–349 Celebration of Neurons (A): An Educator’s Guide to the
Annenberg,WalterH.,218,355 HumanBrain,341
AnnenbergInstituteforSchoolReform,218 CurriculumUpdate,397–398
Annual National Convention of Professors of Educational EducationalLeadership,135,148,155,204
Administration(34th),164 EducationUpdate,202,248
Anrig,Gregory,152,177 “ElementaryEducationforthe21stCentury:APlanning
Index I–5
FrameworkBasedonOutcomes,”258–260 Ballantine,Chrissy,337
andSkinnerianbehaviormodiication,127 Ballou,FrankA.,24
andteachingreligioninschools,418 Ballou,Roger,344
andWorldConferenceonEducation,96,270 BambooCross(The)(HomerDowdy),A175–176
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Bandura,Albert,A123
Yearbook(1962),A40 Bangor Daily News (The) (Maine), 155, 236, 255–256,
Association of California School Administrators (ACSA), 345–346
107–108 BarbaraMorrisReport(The),149–150
AssociationofChristianSchoolsInternational(ACSI),367–368, Barber,Carol,233
452n Barnes,Rick,393–394
Association of School Business Oficials Research Corpora- Barnes,Ron,181
tion,328 Barnes,Susan,191
Astuto,Terry,264n Barnicle,Tim,A96
AT&T,344 Baroody,WilliamJ.,176
AthensDailyNews/BannerHerald(Georgia),436–437 Barr,A.S.,214–215
Atkins,Rick,395–396 Barram,David,A76,A96
AtlantaConstitution(The),111,316 Barrett,Catherine,139
“EducationinaRelaxedAtmosphere:Brain-BasedMethod— Barrett,Nancy,A46
TeachingTrendEmphasizingCreativity,Flexibilityand Barrette,William,174
InformalityGrowinginAreaSchools,”425–427 Barry,JanetN.,240
“Educators, Religious Groups Call School Truce—They “BasicEducationProgram”(NorthCarolina),226
AgreetoDisagreeonHotIssuesof’90s,”349–350 “basiclearningneeds,”451n
“GeorgiaSchoolsOKTrackingSystem,”407–408 BasicPrinciplesofCurriculumandInstruction(RalphTyler),
“Gingrich: Taps for Textbooks—He Says Computers Will 43
ReplaceThem,”400–401 basicskills,245–247,A21
“TeachingPolitics,”370–371 emphasison,172
Atlanta-JournalConstitution(The),393–394 recommendations from National Education Association
AtlantaLifeInsuranceCompany,344 (NEA),139
AtlanticMonthly,381,435–436 BasicSkillsoftheNationalInstituteofEducation,146
attentioncontrol,248,249 Bayev,Boris,230
attitudinal changes in students, bringing about desired, BeaconJournal(Akron,Ohio),445–446
207–209 Bean,ScottW.,316
AudiovisualCommunicationReview,67 Bear,Barry,253–254
Avila,Rosie,433–434 Beard,CharlesA.,24
Aydelotte,Frank,12 Beatty,WalcottH.,89–90
Becker,James,162
SchoolingforaGlobalAge,151
Becker,W.C.,75
B Becker-Engelmannprogram.SeeDirectInstruction
Becoming a Nation of Readers (Commission on Reading),
“backtobasics,”A91 211–212
BacktoBasicsReformOr...OBESkinnerianInternationalCur- “BecomingPlanetaryCitizens:AQuestforMeaning,”113
riculum,A76,A151 BeginningtoRead:ThinkingandLearningaboutPrint(Marilyn
BacktoFreedomandDignity(FrancisSchaeffer),xxvi,A130 JagerAdams),417
“BacktotheFuture—withFundingfromNASDCandDirection Behavioral Objectives: A Guide for Individualized Learning,
fortheHudsonInstitute,theModernRedSchoolhouse 101
UpdatesanAmericanIconforthe90’s”(LynnOlson), BehavioralResearchLaboratories,82–83
323 BehavioralSciences,86,137–138
Baer,Richard,Jr.,351 BehavioralScienceTeacherEducationProgram(BSTEP),56,
Bailey,Alice,51,54n,283,366–367 88,207
Bailey,Dennis,182 excerptsfrom,A23–26
Bailey,GeorgeW.,217–218 initiationof,72
Bailey,StephenK.,83,152 behaviorism,75,210–213
Baker,VirginiaBirt,288–289 Christianconlictwith,185–186
Baldwin-Whitehallpublicschools,68 philosophyof,242
I–6
psychologyof,118 A26
researchof,121 B.F. Skinner: The Man and His Ideas (Richard I. Evans),
asscientifcandresearch-based,238–239 77–78,A35
behaviormodiication,119–120,126,127 BiasCrimeTaskForceReport,405
“Beijing Journal: Personal File and Worker Yoked for Life” Bienter,RobertF.,99–100
(NicholasD.Kristof),294 Bierwirth,Jack,337
Bell,Don,112 “BigBadCowsandCars:GreenUtopianism&Environmental
Bell,TerrellH.,141,183,221,257,350 Outcomes”(SarahLeslie),A167–176
AdultPerformanceLevel(APL)Study,133 “BigSchoolChangesProposed,”155
“creatingcrisistobringaboutchange,”xviii Billington,James,341–342
andeducationalresearchlaboratories,205–206,215 BillofRights(American),27
EdwardCurran,dismissalof,192 Billups,Andrea,437–438
International Conference for Parent/Citizen Involvement birthcontrol,103
inSchools,188–189 Bishop,Lloyd,100
andKelwynn,Inc.,394 BismarckTribune(NorthDakota),348–349
NationalCommissiononExcellenceinEducation,A28 Black,FlorenceMassey,31
PerformanceAccountabilitySystemforSchoolAdministra- Block,Clifford,290
tors(A),A39–41 Block,James,117,118,227,228,313–314
Thirteenth Man: A Reagan Cabinet Memoir (The), “Mastery Learning: The Current State of the Craft,”
A75–76 155–156
andeducationalresearchlaboratories,160 Bloom,Benjamin,79,134,189,A43,A75
PerformanceAccountabilitySystemforSchoolAdministra- AllOurChildrenLearning,160,171
tors(A),124–125 andbehaviormodiication,126,207
BellSouthCorporation,344,439 andDirectInstruction,117,228
Benjamin,Harry,40 “FatherofMasteryLearning,”4,141,227
Bennett,William,118,184,236,250 andMasteryLearning,124–125,370,A41
andAnitaHoge,221 “New Views of the Learner: Implications for Instruction
andappointmentofHillaryRodhamClinton,452n andCurriculum,”148
biographyof,375–376 StabilityandChangeinHumanCharacteristics,A89
andcharactereducationprograms,228–229 TaxonomyofEducationalObjectives:TheClassiicationof
ondesignteamforModernRedSchoolhouse,323 EducationalGoals,HandbookII,AffectiveDomain,29,
andEducationalExcellenceNetwork,352 52–53,65,69,187,A22,A89
EffectiveSchoolsResearch,202 Bloom,Sophie,79
andNationalCommissiononCivicRenewal,371 Blosser,Fred,446
andoutcome-basededucation,238–239 Blumenfeld,Samuel,254,A72–80,A81–89,A131
Reach for the Stars: A Proposal for Education Reform in forewordtobook,xi–xii
Georgia,285 WholeLanguageOBEFraud(The),6,A57–64
U.S.-SovietEducationAgreements,230 BlumenfeldEducationLetter(The),264n,274,A72–89,451n
Benzel,Brian,A70–71 Blyth,JohnW.,A9
Berkeley,186,199 boardingschools,155,336
Berlin,Gordon,273 Boatman,Robert,104
Berman,Paul,225–226,A42–43 Bock,JohnC.,99
Bernardin,Pascal,346 Boeing,446
Bernays,Edward,12 Boggs,LarryJ.,109
Berreth,Diane,418 Bohlen,CharlesE.(Chip),12
Berry,MaryF.,149 Bolt,Beranek,andNewman,Inc.,171,417
Berry,SharonR.,367–368 Bong,Russell,308–309,451n
Berryman,SueE.,244–247 Bonstingl,JohnJay,420
Bettelheim,Bruno,21 Bontempo,Robert,447
BetterBoysFoundation,441 Boorstein,Michelle,103
BetterHomesandGardensMagazine,434 Boosalis,HelenG.,176
“Between Classes—What Cost, Accountability?” (Terry L. Boring,EdwinG.,A61
Forthum),191–192 Bosterick,Prudence,11
Beversluis,Joel,276–277 BostonEveningTranscript,13
Beyond Freedom and Dignity (B.F.Skinner), 109, 185–186, BostonGlobe(The),392,396–397,A74
Index I–7
BostonUniversity,219–220 M:ACOS(Man:ACourseofStudy),226,A63–64
CenterfortheAdvancementofEthicsandCharacter,312, InSearchofMind,A57
351,421 Bryan,WilliamJennings,13
Bottomly,Forbes,128 Buckley,Mel,A27
Bottoms,Gene,307 Buckley,WilliamF.,360
Bowen,Charles,177 Budapest International Seminar on Educational Technology,
Bowen,Robert,398 147
Bowman,BarbaraT.,417 Buddhism,22
Bowman,Isaiah,24 “BuildingaFoundationforLife-Long,Self-DirectedLearning,”
Boyce,EugeneMaxwell,198,310,317,355,451n 412–413
Boyer,ErnestL.,80,217,226,A46,A51 Bulletin (National Association of Secondary School Princi-
Boyer,Marilyn,339–341 pals),184
brain-compatiblelearning,339–341 Bundy,McGeorge,141
brainwashing,xiii,209,346,A143–145 Burchett,B.R.,30–31
inRedChina,398 BureauofJusticeAssistance(BJA),444
reversingtheprocessinAmerica,450 BureauofPlanningandDevelopmentoftheCaliforniaState
andsensitivitytraining,131–132 DepartmentofEducation,96
andTacticsforThinking,248–249 Burit,KentGarland,135
techniquesof,49 Burke,RobertH.,97–98
Brainwashing(EdwardHunter),209,264n Burkhart,Pat,248
BrainwashinginRedChina:TheMenWhoDeiedIt(Edward Burningham,LelandG.,141,215
Hunter),209,264n,450 Burns,Christine,412–413
Brameld,Theodore,11 Burns,M.Susan,212,417
Brandt,Ronald,135,169,248,249 Burns,Robert,216
Brandwein,Paul,78 Burstall,Clare,177,244,357
Branscomb,LewisM.,235–236 Bush,Barbara,188,289,351
Braun,Greg,279 Bush,George,12,243,254–255
Braun,WilliamJ.,Sr.,415 administrationof,274
BraveNewSchools(BeritKjos),348–349 andEducationSummit(1989),A73
BraveNewWorld(AldousHuxley),17,18,A91 andLamarAlexander,278–279
Breasted,James,206 TheNationalYouthApprenticeshipAct,301
Breedlove,Carolyn,409 and New American School Development Corporation
BremertonSun(Washington),263 (NASDC),290,298
“BridgingtheAtlanticPeople-to-PeopleLinks,”411–412 PointsofLight,179
“BriefDescriptionofIntervention,”116 School-to-WorkOpportunitiesAct,357–359
BrighamYoungUniversity,100 SixAmbitiousGoals,273
Brighton,Suzanne,439 supportofEdisonProject,299
BritishColumbiaTeacher’sFederation,291–292,451n voucherprogram,forprivateschools,289,301
“Broad-GaugedResearch/ReformPlanforSecondaryEduca- Bush,Jeb,243
tion—IntheTraditionoftheEight-YearStudy”(Project Bushnell,DavidS.,68
onAlternativesinEducation(PAE),169 BusinessandEducationReform:TheFourthWave—AResearch
Broady,Stephen,203–204 Report,331–332
Brock,WilliamE.,327,330,451n BusinessRoundtable(The),273
BrockGroup(The),327 Buzbee,SallyStreff,349–350
Bronfenbrenner,Urie,69,A22
BrookingsInstitution,299–300,A91
BrooklynCollege,96–97
Brookover,Wilbur,217 C
Broome,EdwinC.,31,38
Brown,Jed,A122–125 California,127,144
Brown,MaryV.,68 CaliforniaAssembly(The),76
Browning,Dominique,297 CaliforniaJournalonTeacherEducation,264n
BrownUniversity,218,351 CaliforniaLearningAssessmentSystem,393
Bruner,Charles,443 CaliforniaMedicalAssociation,49
Bruner,JeromeC.,114,117,132,A57–59 CaliforniaRepublicanWomen’sFederation,110
I–8
CaliforniaSchoolAccountingManual,76 “CarnegieReportonEducation:‘RadicalBlueprintforChange’”
CaliforniaStateBoardofEducation,76 (NancyGarland),236
CaliforniaStateSenateInvestigativeCommittee,208 Carnegie-SovietEducationAgreement,36,45,235,261–262
“CallforaRadicalRe-examination:EducationShouldRelect extentofdamageresultingfrom,290–291,309,A139
a New International Economic Order (A)” (Michael oppositionto,294
Debeauvais),194–195 “Carnegie Teaching Panel Charts ‘New Framework’—Grants
CambridgeCenterforBehavioralStudies,A153 Totaling$900,000MadetoPressReforms,”235–236
CambridgeGroup(The),353 CarnegieUnit,154,302
“CambridgeSomervilleYouthStudy(The),”202 possibleremovalof,69,83,141,190
Campbell,AllanK.,128,235–236 requirementsof,429
“CanComputersTeachValues?”(JosephA.Braun,Jr.,Kurt “CarnegieUnit:AnAdministrativeConvenience,butanEduca-
Slobodzian),184–185 tionalCatastrophe(The)”(CarlW.Salser),98
Candler,WarrenA.,10 Carnine,Douglas,387,417,A91–94
Canield,Jack,74 Carnoy,Martin,99
CapeCodTimes(The),308 Carol,LilaN.,167
Capitalism,19 Carroll,John,79
Carballada,R.Carlos,A112 Carroll,Priscilla,436–437
Cardoso,FernandoHenrique,386 Carswell,Marion,11
CareerLadderProgram,305 Carter,Jimmy(President),151
CareerPassport(Ohio),267 CasadeiBambini,8–9
Carle,Erica,34–35,53n CascadeInternationalofSanFrancisco,313
CarlRogersonEncounterGroups(CarlRogers),A135 Casey,Greg,401
Carlson,Bill,413–414 Castro,Fidel,136,A129
Carnavale,AnthonyP.,327,A46,A112 Catalogue of Global Education Classroom Activities, Lesson
Carnegie,Andrew,357–358 Plans,andResources,276
CarnegieBoardforProfessionalTeachingStandards,255 Cavazos,Lauro,301
CarnegieCorporation,7,30,72,73,161 Cawelti,Gordon,260
and“America2000Plan,”278–279 CBS,Inc.,176
ConclusionsandRecommendationsfortheSocialStudies, Celebration of Neurons: An Educator’s Guide to the Human
265 Brain(A)(RobertSylwester),341
andDavidW.Hornbeck,273 CensusBureau(U.S.),1981MappingProjectof,295–296
andEducationalTestingService(ETS),38 CenterforAdvancedStudyinBehavioralScience,141,A22
EducationCommissionoftheStates(ECS),91 CenterforCivicEducation,374
funding of projects/organizations, 21, 23, 210, 245, 271, CenterforCognitiveStudies,A57–58,A63–64
357–358 CenterforCollaborationforChildrenofCaliforniaStateUni-
andJohnGardner,376 versity,440
andANationPrepared:Teachersforthe21stCentury,287 CenterforDemocracyandCitizenship,374
ProjectRead,82–83 CenterforEconomicDevelopment,377
SovietAcademyofScience,229–230 CenterforEducationalInnovation,299
CarnegieCorporationBritishandColoniesFund,12 CenterforEducationalResearchandInnovation(CERI),191,
CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace,11,36,38,42, 264n
47–48 CenterforLearningandCompetitiveness,327
Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy, 235–236, CenterforLivingDemocracy,374
255–256 CenterforOutcome-BasedEducation,A127
CarnegieFoundation,12,18 Center for Planning and Evaluation in Santa Clara Country,
controlofeducation,10,11,13 110
CarnegieFoundationforInternationalPeace,35 CenterforPolicyAlternatives,A42
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 8, Centerforthe4thand5thR’s,351
73,91,210 Center for the Advancement of Ethics and Character, 220,
andDavidW.Hornbeck,204–205,241–243 351
andErnestBoyer,80,217 CenterfortheNewWestofDenver,Colorado,179–180
granttoLeeShulman,241 Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, 109, 185–
“CarnegieFoundationSelectsaNewLeader,”80 186
CarnegieNationalAllianceforEducationandtheEconomy, CenterfortheStudyofHumanResources(UniversityofTexas
355 atAustin),xx,326–327,329
Index I–9
CenterfortheStudyofLearningDisabilities,417 drop-outrateasresultof,362
CenterforWorkforcePreparation,377 “ChicagoStatementonEducation(The),”276,282
CenterofAdvancedMastery,A42 ChicagoSunTimes,362–363,366
CenteroftheAmericanExperimentBreakfastandLuncheon ChicagoTribune,361–362
ForumSeries,385–386 “CitySchoolsDroppingIowaSkillsTests,”362
CenteronEducationandWork,429–430 ChildAbuseintheClassroom(PhyllisSchlaly),124,158n
CentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA),38 ChildandFamilyPolicyCenter,443
CertiicateofInitialMastery(CIM),242,286,294 Child Development and Behavior Branch (CDBB) of the
NationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomy,271 NationalInstituteofHealth,386
inOregon,343–344,355,A131 ChildhoodEducation,113
usedasassessment,329,A47 ChildhoodinChina(WilliamKessen),135
ChallengersforInsight,339–341,452n “childinneedofassistance”(CINA),253–254
ChamberofCommerce(UnitedStates),377 children
Champlin,John,193,314 gifted,152–153,A9
“changeagent,”207,263 ashuman“capital,”xxv,A44–51
JohnGoodlad,56 ashumanresources,xi
meaningof,39,55 retarded,8
ThomasA.Kelly,160 Children’sResourcesInternational,395
ChangeAgent’sGuidetoInnovationinEducation(The)(Ronald Children’sStory(The)(JamesClavell),70,A149
G.Havelock),xvii,120,280,296,353,A65–A66 “ChildrenAreNotChattel”(KathyL.Collins),241
“Changing Admission Procedures in Four-Year Colleges to “Children, Computers, and Education” (David Porteous),
SupportK-14Reform,”429–430 250–251
“Changing Conditions in American Schools” (Don Davies), Childs,Michael,425
88 China,A171
“ChangingTeacherPractice:FinalReportofanExperimental ChinaInternationalIntellectualResourcesDevelopmentCenter
Study,”191 forChildren(CICC),335
Chao,Elaine,376 “ChinaOrdersManualLaborforStudents:BeijingMovesAgain
CharacterCounts!Coalition,351,374 toControlCitizenry,”262
charactereducation,252,351–352,419 “ChinaSaysEducatorsSowedSeedsofUnrest,”262
basisof,228-229 Chisholm,Brock(General),xix,28,42
“Character Education Catching on at Schools—Respect, choice,educational.Seevouchers
ResponsibilityEmphasized,”421–422 ChoiceinEducation:OpportunitiesforTexas,299
“InterestinCharacterEducationSeenGrowing,”311–312 Chomsky,Noam,A57–58
statesinvolvedin,351 ChoosingBetterSchools:RegionalStrategyMeetingsonChoice
WilliamsburgCharterCharacterEducationProject,377 inEducation,300
Character Education: Lessons from the Past, Models for the ChoosingOutcomesofSigniicance(WilliamSpady),354
Future,252 ChristianCoalition,315,349–350
“CharacterEducationCatchingonatSchools—Respect,Respon- ChristianConscience(The),405–406,452n,A44,A90
sibilityEmphasized”(AnuManchikanti),421–422 ChristianLegalSociety,438
CharacterEducationPartnership,374,376,377 Christians
CharlesSchwabCorporation,344 attackedbyGreenUtopians,A172–173
CharlesWarrenCenter(HarvardUniversity),49 criticismsof,418
Charner,Ivan,403 andLIFEPACcurriculum,222–223
charterschools,290,317,336,352,362–363,448 andMasteryLearning,367–368
andCharterSchoolExpansionActof1998,424 moralsof,21–22
asunconstitutional(Utah),422–423 oppositiontooutcome-basededucation,343,347–348
CharterSchoolsAct(1998),422–423 traditionsof,27
“CharterSchoolsBillNowLaw,”424 utilizingSkinnerianmethodsofeducation,xxvii
ChaseManhattanBank,299 ChristianScienceMonitor(The),13–14,135,251
Chauncey,Henry,79 ChristianSciencePublishingSociety,251
ChevronConferenceontheHistoryoftheBehavioralandSocial Chronicles,301–302
Sciences(1995),49 Chronology of Education with Quotable Quotes (Dennis
ChicagoBoardofEducation,78 Cuddy),6n
ChicagoConferenceonHolisticEducation(1990),276 Chubb,John,298–300,A91–92
ChicagoMasteryLearningProject,79,235,241,A153 Chugani,Harry,382
I–10
Churchill,AndrewM.,327 Cocking,WalterD.,38,A5
ChurchUniversalandTriumphant,9 cognitivepsychology,247
Circles of Learning: Cooperation in the Classroom, Rev. Ed. Cohen,Alan,173,197,A127
(D.W.Johnson,R.T.Johnson,EdithJohnsonHolubec), Cohen,Michael,172,A56,A96
239 Coker,Homer,193,A27
“CircularCausalandFeed-BackMechanismsinBiologyand ColdWar,A63
SocialSystems,”50 treatiseon,44
Citicorp,344 Cole,Michael,262,A139
Citizen’sHandbook(A):TheKentuckyEducationReformAct— Cole,PaulF.,330
HistoricalBackground,Provisions,TimeLine,Questions Cole,ThomasW.,Jr.,A112
andAnswers,CourtCases,Overview,263 Coleman,JamesS.,300
CitizensforExcellenceinEducation,343 collaboration,toeffectreform,331–334
CitizenshipAssessment(1969–1970),178 CollaborativeDesignandDevelopmentalProgram,A103–104,
“City’sDreamUnfulilled(A),”219 A108
CivicPracticesNetwork,374 collectivism,24,33
civicrenewal,373 CollegeEntranceExaminationBoard,91
CivilWar,307,318 Collins,James,310
Clark,JosephS.,66 Collins,KathyL.,241
Clark,KennethB.,83 Colorado,xxvi,29,144,318–320
“ClassroomBrain-Watchers?”(KathleenParker),409–410 ColumbiaBroadcastingSystem,12
ClassroomManagement,81 ColumbiaTeachersCollege,4,197
Clavell,James,70,A149 andAliceMiel,46
Clay,William,Sr.,415 andDaleMann,243
Clem,Tim,A132 andHaroldRugg,64
Clements,BarbaraS.,A82 and “Knowing: How We Come to Know Things,” 322–
ClemsonUniversity,393–394 323
Clendenin,John,344 andPreserviceTeacherEducationProgram,114
Cleveland,SarahH.,A112 andSueE.Berryman,244
ClinicService/FamilyCounselingCenteroftheMassachusetts ColumbiaUniversity,188,443
SocietyforPreventionofCrueltytoChildren,441 BusinessSchool,447
Clinton,HillaryRodham,85,235,302 ColumbineHighSchool(Colorado),319
Clinton,WilliamJefferson(President),28 Columns(UniversityofGeorgia),425
AmeriCorps,179 ComingRevolutioninEducation(The):BasicEducationand
andcharactereducationprograms,421–422 theNewTheoryofSchooling(EugeneMaxwellBoyce),
andCharterSchoolExpansionActof1998,424 198
andCommunity-OrientedPolicing(COP),444–445 Comings,John,290
andcomputers,381 “Coming Soon to a School Near You: Forced Labor” (Paul
andeducationlegislation,402 Mulshine),427–428
endorsement of New Transatlantic Agenda (NTA), Commager,HenrySteele,132–133
359–361 CommerceDepartment(U.S),384
Goals2000Act(EducateAmericaAct),323 CommissionfortheBlind(Texas),384
asGovernorofArkansas,268 CommissionontheYear2000,A24
andMikhailGorbachev,308 Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Educa-
plantopreventschoolviolence,410 tion,416
School-to-WorkOpportunitiesAct,330,357–359 CommissiononEducationandPublicPolicy,211
signingofWorkforceInvestmentAct(H.R.1385),416 CommissiononExcellence(TerrellH.Bell),190,A29
visittoTiananmenSquare,391 CommissiononInternationalCooperationinEducation,96
“ClintonCharmGetsRioWorkout,”386 CommissiononNationalandCommunityService,377
ClubofRome,A169,A174 CommissiononReading(U.S.Dept.OfEducation),211–212
“ClustersPromoteCommunityGrowth,”439 CommissiononSkillsoftheAmericanWorkforce(U.S.Dept.
Coalition of Essential Schools (CES), 24–25, 141, 217–218, ofLabor),329,452n,A73
326,435 Commission on the Relation of School and College of the
CommonPrinciplesof,333 ProgressiveEducationAssociation,20–21
reportsoffailureofoutcome-basededucationin,355 CommissionontheSocialStudies,18
andTheodoreSizer,344–345 CommissiontoStudytheBasisofaJustandDurablePeace,
Index I–11
32 A44–45
CommitteeforEconomicDevelopment(CED),273,308,352, competency-basedteachereducation,154
377 “CompetencyTestsSetin26Schools:NewCurriculumShifts
CommitteeonAssessingtheProgressofEducation,72 TeachingMethodsinDistrict,”146,215–216
Committee on Coordinating Educational Information and “CompetitivenessIllusion(The):DoesOurCountryNeedtoBe
Research(CCEIR),169 LiterateinOrdertoBeCompetitive?Ifnot,WhyRead?”
CommitteeonEducationandLabor(U.S.HouseofRepresenta- (PeterShaw),307–308
tives),356–359 Complete Works of Francis A. Schaeffer: A Christian World-
CommitteeonMissionandOrganization(Dept.ofHEW),62 view,VolumeOne:AChristianViewofPhilosophyand
CommitteeonPerformance-basedTeacherEducation,A32 Culture,185–186
CommitteeontheEmergencyinEducation,22–23 computer-assistedinstruction,174,251,381–383,A127–128
CommitteeonthePreventionofReadingDificultiesinYoung “ComputerDelusion(The)”(ToddOppenheimer),381–383
Children,172,212,416 ComputerinAmericanEducation(DonD.BushnellandDwight
CommitteetoFrameaWorldConstitution,280 W.Allen),75
CommonSenseofPolitics(The)(MortimerAdler),280 computers,75,213,424,A176
CommunicationArtsFrameworkfortheHighSchoolProiciency aspectsofuse,273
Test,323–326 “CanComputersTeachValues?”,184–185
Communism “Children,Computers,andEducation,”250–251
agendaof,A171 ComputersinEducation:RealizingthePotential,196
inAmerica’sschools,30–31 gamesfor,xxvi
andconnectionswithAmerica,44 asanoperantconditioningmachine,319
andHegelianDialectic,xvii asreplacementfortextbooks,400–401
ideologyof,198 “TheComputerDelusion,”381–383
“CommunismComestoTexasPublicEducation,”383–385 andU.S.-SovietEducationAgreements,229–230
CommunistChina,104,135 ComputersinEducation:RealizingthePotential(U.S.Depart-
CommunistParty,294,A47,A138,A140 mentofEducation),196
CommunistPartyoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,17,19 ComSpeak 2050: How Talking Computers Will Recreate an
CommunistYouthLeague,294 OralCulturebyMid-21stCentury(WilliamCrossman),
communitarianism,85,405 264n
CommunitarianNetwork,374,376 Comstock,Ada,24
CommunitiesandTheirSchools(DonDavies),88,151 Conant,JamesB.,73,210
CommunityActionToolkit,315,338–339,359,A65–71 ConceptAttainmentStrategy(JeromeBruner),226
Community-CenteredSchools:TheBlueprintforMontgomery Concerns-BasedAdoptionModel(CBAM),151,191
CountySchools(Maryland),31,37–38,A5–6,A140 “ConclaveoftheChangeAgents”(BarbaraM.Morris),144
CommunityClusterCareTeams,439 ConclusionsandRecommendations:ReportoftheCommission
CommunityEducation,85,253,443 ontheSocialStudies(AmericanHistoricalAssociation),
Community Learning Information Network, Inc. (CLIN), 18,23–24
296–297,338–339,451n Conclusions and Recommendations for the Social Studies
Community-Oriented Policing Services Program (COPS), (CarnegieCorporation),17,265
444–445 ConditionedRelexTherapy(AndrewSalte),49
CommunityPartnerships,448 conditioning,196–197,A20,A122–123.Seealsobehaviorism;
TogetherWeCan:AGuideforCraftingaPro-familySystem operantconditioning
ofEducationandHumanServices,439,447–449 explanationof,115–116,119–120
CommunityResearchAssociates,445 “ConditioningofAmerica(The)”(DennisCuddy),3
CommunitySchoolsofRochesterCitySchoolDistrict,441 ConditionofEducation(The),xxi
CommunityUpdate,438 ConferenceBoard(The),333–334,447
“companyschools,”287 ConferenceofAlliedMinistersofEducation,38
ComparativeEducationReview,A137 CongressionalBudgetOfice,92n
Comparative Human Relations Initiative Consultation, CongressionalDigest(The),36
399–400 CongressionalRecord,410–412,415,A156
ComparativeLearningTeamsProject,327,329 CongressionalRecordoftheUnitedStatesSenate(1917),10
competency-basedadmissions,430 Congressional Record, Proceedings and Debates of the 82nd
“Competency-BasedEducation:ABandwagoninSearchofa Congress,FirstSession,43–44
Deinition”(WilliamG.Spady),143–144 “CongresstoExpandEducationSavings,”401–402
Competency-Based Education (CBE), 73, 134–144, A41, Conlan,John,132
I–12
Connecticut,144 CouncilofStateGovernments,77
Connecticut Assessment of Educational Progress (CAEP), CouncilonForeignRelations,12,183,232,A155
178 endorsingofworldgovernment,13,18
ConnecticutStateBoardofEducation,178 establishmentof,12
Connecting Learning Assures Successful Students (CLASS), andPeterC.Goldmark,Jr.,376
339 andWilliamBoyceThompson,10
ConnectionsandConlictsofInterest(Or,ThereOughtToBe CouncilonFoundations,252
anInvestigation!)(BillyLyon),297–301 CouncilonIntergovernmentalRelations,200
Consolidated and Reformed Education, Employment, and counseling,effectsonstudents,202
Rehabilitation Systems Act (CAREERS) (H.R. 1617), Country School of Tomorrow (The): Occasional Papers No.
355,370,A72–80 1,9
ConspiracyofGoodIntentions(A):America’sTextbookFiasco Counts,George,18–19,24
(HarrietTyson),400–401 Courier-Journal(Louisville,Kentucky),273,320–321,389
ConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,27,176,226 Course Goals Collection (Northwest Regional Educational
“Content of Our Kids’ Tests Shouldn’t Be Secret” (Margaret Laboratory),167–168
Sitte),348–349 Cox,E.E.,48
ContinuousDevelopment—MasteryLearning,79 Crampton,StephenM.,369
ContinuousProgress,315 Craven,AveryO.,24
“ContractwithAmerica,”179 Creating a New Civilization: The Politics of the Third Wave
ControlDataCorporation,176 (AlvinandHeidiTofler),303
“ControlledEnvironmentforSocialChange,”109 “CreatingCulturalChange:TheKeytoSuccessfulTotalQuality
Conway,Flo,A146 Management(PhilipE.Atkinson),A135
Cook,Desmond,A35 “CreatingLearningOrganizations:GrowththroughQuality,”
Cooke,TerenceCardinal,176 310
Coontz,Stephanie,103 “CreatingtheTwenty-FirstCentury,”284–285
Cooper,William,104 Cremin,LawrenceA.,152
CooperatingSchoolDistrictsoftheSt.LouisSuburbanArea, criterion-referencedtesting,286–287,A154,A164–165
234 criticalthinking,249
“CooperationinHigherEducationandVocationalEducation Cronin,Hines,A27
and Training between the European Community and Crossete,Barbara,388
theUnitedStatesofAmerica,”390,402 Crowder,Norman,217
“Cooperative Effort Is Needed (A): Can Our Schools Get CruelandUsualPunishment:ForcedLaborinToday’sUSSR
Better?”,219 (AFL/CIO),A137
cooperativelearning,233,239,247 “C.S.LewisonLiberalArtsEducation”(GregoryDunn),140
CooperativeProceduresinLearning(AliceMiel),46 “CubanChildrenCombineStudies,Work,”135–136
“CooperativeUmbrella(The),”239 Cuddy,Dennis,3,6n,15n,210,298,410–412
CopenFoundation,The,A139 Cueter,Barbara,232
Copperman,Paul,A146 Culverwell,Wendy,401
“CopSwap:HisBeatIsLeningradbutHe’sonLoantoLAPD— Cumming,Doug,407–408
HisLocalHostWillVisitU.S.S.R”(BobPool),279 Cunningham,Luvern,141,164–167,263,287,437
CoreKnowledgeSequence(E.D.Hirsch),A127–130 Cunningham,William,107–108
corelearningstandard,298 Cuoco,Al,396–397
CornellUniversity,75,351,A22 Cuomo,MarioM.,A73,A112
Correll,Shirley,84 Curran,Edward,118,125,161,192,A41
Corrigan,BettyO.,91,193,217,A27–31 CurrentBiography,142
Corrigan,Dean,88 curriculumdevelopment,A136–139
Corrigan,RobertE.,91,193,217–218,A27–31 Curriculum for Meeting Modern Problems (The New Model
Corrigan,Ward,217 Me),124
Cortes,Ernesto,Jr.,371,376 CurriculumforPersonalizedEducation(A)(RobertScanlon),
“cosmiceducation,”9 127
Cotliar,Sharon,366 “CyberHighSchool,”260
“CottageGroveEnduresTrials,TriumphsasItTestsNewSchool cybernetics,49–50,A25
Plan,”343–344 CybernetSystemsCompany,344
Council of Chief State School Oficers, 128, 169, 184, 306, “CyberspaceandtheAmericanDream,”303,452n,A49
328,A81–82
Index I–13
D Spatz),310
DemocraticLeadershipCouncil,376
Denton,Carol,109
Daggett,Willard,196,260,306
DepartmentofEducation(U.S.),77,95,124,211–213,A46
and Effective Schools Conference (Sixteenth Annual),
andAmerica2000,278–279
420
andCharlotteIserbyt,xix,A65
and International Center for Leadership in Education,
anddevelopmentofcharactereducation,228–229
307–308,406–407,451n
fundingofprojects/organizations,105,150,169,A37
andModelSchoolsystems,319,334–336
andNorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory,107,167
andschool-to-work,413–414
and Preventing Reading Dificulties in Young Children,
DailyProgress(The)(Charlottesville,Virginia),239
416–417
DailyRecord(The)(NorthCarolina),411–412
proposaltoabolish,192
DailyWorker(The),134
andReachfortheStars:AProposalforEducationReform
DailyWorld(The),134
inGeorgia,287
DallasMorningNews(The),105–106,222
andResearchforBetterSchools,127
Daly,John,223
and Together We Can: A Guide for Crafting a Pro-family
Dalryrmple,Theodore(AnthonyDaniels),244,359
SystemofEducationandHumanServices,439
Damon,William,351
“Totalitarian Data-Gathering System Prepared by U.S.
DanforthFoundation,152,284–285
DepartmentofEducation,”A81–89
dangan,294
DepartmentofEducation’sJointDisseminationReviewPanel
Danielson,Charlotte,159,168
(JDRP),81
DanSmootReport(The),67
DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices(U.S),443
Danziger,Sheldon,A46
DepartmentofHealth,EducationandWelfare(U.S.)(HEW),
DaretheSchoolBuildaNewSocialOrder?(GeorgeCounts),
155,170,213,236,
18–19
and Behavioral Science Teacher Education Program
“DarlingCenterHostsUNESCOConference,”409
(BSTEP),72,A23–26
Darrow,Clarence,8,13
CatalogofAssistance,126
Darwinism,57,368
FederalEducationAgencyfortheFuture(A),64
DavidDouglasHighSchool,337
fundingofprojects/organizations,120,128,A66
Davies,Don,88,152,188,338–339
andProjectFollowThrough,75
Davis,Malcolm,179–180
and Together We Can: A Guide for Crafting a Pro-family
Dawson,Dorothy,31,38
SystemofEducationandHumanServices,439
Day,EdmundE.,24
DepartmentofJustice(U.S.),445
Day,Jim,415–416
DepartmentofLabor(U.S.),A48
Dean,Beverly,304–305
DepartmentofState(U.S.),A137
deatheducation,xxvi,145,203,280
DePaulUniversity,362–363
Debeauvais,Michael,194–195
DePencier,IdaB.,6n
“DecadeoftheNineties(The)”(DonaldThomas),256–257
Derthick,LawrenceG.,146,57
DeclarationofIndependence,67,140–141
DesignsforChange,79
“DeclarationofInterdependence(A):EducationforaGlobal
DesMoinesRegister,A46
Community”(NEA),133
“Despite Heavy Funding Public Schools Showing Marks of
“Declaration of Interdependence (A)” (Henry Steele Com-
InternalCrumbling,”418
mager),132–133
DetroitNews,341–342
“DeclineofTextbooks,Change,”101
Deutsch,Albert,39
Decroly,Ovid,A62
DeutscheHochschulefurPolitik,18
“DeiningFunctionalLiteracy”(PaulDelker),196
DevelopingaSystemofSkillStandardsfortheStateofTexas,
Deino,MariaE.,191
329
deFosset,Shelley,394–395
DevelopmentofEducationalTechnologyinCentralandEastern
delayedreinforcement,116
EuropeStudies,142,147
Delker,Paul,196
Dewey,John,1,29,99,A61
Della-Dora,Delmo,288
“FatherofProgressiveEducation,”3
DelphiTechnique,52,59,166,A66
HumanistManifesto,17,21
DeltaConsulting,447
inluenceof,onothers,31,345
Deming,W.Edwards,283,310,314,451n,A132
literacy,beliefsabout,8
“DemingLashesOutinLiveTeleconferenceonQuality”(Don
andmath“dumbdown,”14–15
I–14
andProgressiveEducationAssociation(PEA),11 dresscodes,334
Psychology,5–6 DrexelUniversity,202
DeweySchool(TheUniversityofChicagoLaboratorySchool), Drexler,Melissa,29
5 drop-out,legalageto,155
DeWine,Mike,415–416 Dror,Yehezkel,166
Dialectic & Praxis: Diaprox and the End of the Ages (The) Drotz,Paul,249
(DeanGotcher),xxi Drought,NealE.,21
“DialogueDiscussionPaper,”109 Drucker,Peter,202
“Dialogues in International Education” (Nick Zienau), DrugAbuseResistanceEducation(DARE),334
312–313 DrugFreeSchoolsandCommunitiesAct(DFSCA),405,453n
diaryuse,207–209 drugs,276
Did They Succeed in College?: The Follow-up Study of the DrugAbuseResistanceEducation(DARE),334
Graduates of the Thirty Schools (Neal Drought, Wil- education, and The Change Agents’ Guide to Innovation
liamScott),21 inEducation,280
Diederich,Paul,89 Duffey,Joseph,315–316,360
“DifferencebetweenTraditionalEducationandDirectInstruc- Duke,LeilaniLattin,397
tion”(TraceyJ.Hayes),A150,A157–158 DukeUniversity,73,210,A63
Dilulio,John,375 Dulles,JohnFoster,32
Direct Instruction, 215, 228, 361–363, A12, A27. See also Dumas,Lynne,A174
DISTAR; Management by Objectives (MBO); Mastery “Dumbed-DownSATsDisguiseDeiciencies—TheFault,Dear
Learning; Outcome-Based Education; Planning, Pro- Educator,IsNotinOurTests”(GeorgeC.Roche),364
gramming and Budgeting System (PPBS); Reading Dunn,Gregory,140
Mastery Dunphy,John,192–193
andCoreKnowledge,A126–128 Dupont,PierreS.,176,323
deinitionsof,75,366 DuPontEurope,398
andFollowThroughModel,387–388 Durenberger,David,176
linkedtoProgrammedInstruction,xxvi Dyson,Esther,381,452n
manasanimal,assumptionsof,13
andMasteryLearning,4,226
memoson,A90–96
andSiegfriedEngelmann,81,182,435 E
DISTAR(DirectInstructionSystemforTeachingandRemedia-
tion),xxvii,81,181–182,212.SeealsoDirectInstruction; EarlyDevelopments,394–395
ReadingMastery “EarlySchoolingIsNowtheRage,”443–444
critiqueof,387–388 “EarlyWarningResponse,”453n
and National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators EastGibsonCounty(Indiana)Group(Jeannie’sGroup),248
(NCITE),417 EastmanKodakCompany,344,A11–12,A112
Divisions of Structures, Content, Methods and Techniques of Ebbert,Stephanie,334
Education(UNESCO),147 Eckgold,Bernard,xx
Dneprov,Edouard,293,309 EcoledesSciencesPolitiques,18
Dobbs,Bettina,174 EconomicOpportunityActof1964,75
Dodd,BellaV.,45,53n economics,194–195
Dodd,Christopher,415–416 ECRI.SeeExemplaryCenterforReadingInstruction
Dodd,Norman,30,46–48,232–233,239 “ECRI:ExemplaryCenterforReadingInstructionConsortium
National Citizens’ Alliance (NCA) Americanism Award, WindsDown,”198–199
266 ECRITeacherTrainingManual,81
Dogan,Pierre,307 “ECSat20:TheCompact’sPotentialIsStilltoBeRealized”
Doherty,VictorW.,107 (ThomasToch),209–210
Dole,Elizabeth,215,266–268,304,451n Edelman,MarianWright,351,A46
DonBellReport(The),112 EdisonProject,297–298,299–300,A91
Dorn,David,290 Edling,JackV.,101
Douglas,WilliamO.,137–138 Edmonds,Ronald,172,189,222
Dowdy,Homer,A175–176 andEffectiveSchoolsResearch,217,231–232,394,A162
Doyle,CharlotteLackner,75 education
Doyle,DennisP.,300,A75 asactiveratherthanpassive,6
Index I–15
adult,A101–102 EducationalResourceInformationCenter(ERIC),126,207
asbuilderof“NewWorld,”18 EducationalTestingService(ETS),177,238,A18,A47
choicein,458 andCarnegieCorporation,91,210
crisisof,xi,162 foundingof,38
deinitionof,1 EducationAmendmentsof1976,170
federalcontrolof,53,56–57 EducationandtheCultofEficiency,354
goals/purposesof,160,163,171 “Education and the Economy: A Diagnostic Review and
holistic,281 ImplicationsfortheFederalRole”(SueE.Berryman),
humanizing,A40–41 244–247
inKorea,A29–31 EducationCommissionoftheStates(ECS),56,73,186,218,
statedetermined,20–21 333
forsustainability,313 “ARoadMapforRestructuringSchools,”270–271
“true,”322–323 historyof,209–210
vocational,408–409 EducationCommissionReportNumber7,378–380
Education:FromtheAcquisitionofKnowledgetoProgrammed, EducationCommitteeoftheCouncilofForeignRelations,46
ConditionedResponses(RobertH.Burke),97–98 EducationDaily,79–80,234,241
“Education, Religious Groups, Seek Common Ground,” “GroupAsksEducationDepartmenttoStopFunding‘Mind
342–343 Control’Curricula,EndSovietExchanges,”249–250
“Education:TheNewTransatlanticAgenda,”411–412 “SweepingOverhaulofMinnesotaEducationSystemPro-
“Education:Whythe‘DumbingDown’intheSchools?”(Henry posed,”225–226
Hyde),370 “Teachers Inluence Student’s Values through Writing
“Education90:AFrameworkfortheFuture,”275 Assignments,”223
Education2000:AHolisticPerspective,281–284 EducationDevelopmentCenter,290,451n
“EducationalandCulturalPrograms,ExchangesandInterna- EducationDigest(The),194
tionalVisitors,”231 EducationExcellenceNetwork,278,A128
“Educational Choice—The Education Voucher, Tax Credits, EducationforAll(EFA),376
and the Nonpublic Schools” (Virginia Birt Baker), EducationforAllAmericanYouth,20
288–289 EducationforAllHandicappedChildrenAct,155
EducationalCultures,312–313 EducationforaNewWorld(MariaMontessori),9
EducationalGoals:StudiesandSurveysinComparativeEduca- EducationforDestruction(B.R.Burchett),30–31
tion,162–164 Education for Results: In Response to A Nation at Risk, Vol.
“EducationalImplicationsofNAFTA(The),”321 1:GuaranteeingEffectivePerformancebyOurSchools
EducationalImprovementCenters(EICs),126 (Robert E. Corrigan, Betty O. Corrigan), 91, 193,
EducationalInnovationAdvisoryCommission,96 A27–31
EducationalInquiry,Incorporated,106 EducationfromtheAcquisitionofKnowledgetoProgrammed
EducationalLeadership(AssociationforSupervisionandCur- ConditionedResponse,126
riculumDevelopment),204 “EducationinaRelaxedAtmosphere:Brain-BasedMethod—
“CanComputersTeachValues?”,184–185 TeachingTrendEmphasizingCreativity,Flexibilityand
“MasteryLearning:TheCurrentStateoftheCraft,”118, InformalityGrowinginAreaSchools”(DelbertEllerton),
155 425–427
“New Views of the Learner: Implications for Instruction “Education in the Future: 21st Century Schools Will Offer
andCurriculum,”148 LearningforAllCitizens”(KentTempus),253
“Observing the Birth of the Hatch Amendment Regula- EducationintheNewAge(AliceBailey),51,283
tions,”220 EducationReformAct(1993),392–393
“TheLanguageofOBERevealsItsLimitations,”354 educationreformmovement.Seeeffectiveschools
“ToOBEorNottoOBE?”,322 EducationReporter(The),412–413,A150
EducationalNewsInternational,390 EducationServiceCouncil,53n
EducationalPoliciesCommission(EPC),19 “Education, Technology, and Individual Privacy” (Lawrence
EducationalProgramsThatWork,124 P.Grayson),137–138
EducationalPsychology(EdwardLeeThorndike),5 EducationUpdate(ASCD),202
EducationalQualityAssessment(EQA),250,A21 “InterestinCharacterEducationSeenGrowing,”311–312
EducationalReportsSeries,296,430 “MessagefromtheExecutiveDirector:SouthAfricaTackles
EducationalResearchAssociates,98 AmbitiousCurriculumReformEffort,”399–400
EducationalResearchCouncilofAmerica,377 “PromisingTheoriesDieYoung,”223–225
EducationalResearcher,134–144 “TacticsforThinkingAttackedinWashington,Indiana,”
I–16
248–249 EffectiveSchoolingPractices:AResearchSynthesis—Goal-Based
“ThreeKindsofKnowledge,”224 EducationProgram,199
EducationWeek,186,250,251,318,392,417,451n EffectiveSchoolPractices,A152
“33ReligiousGroupsJoinRileyinSeekingGreaterFamily EffectiveSchoolReport(The),187,188,222,238,394
RoleinSchools,”345 “ALetterfromRussia,”290
advertisement for Sixteenth Annual Effective Schools “AlternativeAssessmentofStudentAchievement:TheOpen
Conference,420–421 BookTest,”322–323
“ARoadMapforRestructuringSchools,”270–271 “DialoguesinInternationalEducation,”312–313
“BacktotheFuture—WithFundingfromNASDCandDirec- “Education90:AFrameworkfortheFuture,”275
tionfromtheHudsonInstitute,theModernRedSchool- “EffectiveSchoolsforResults,”217–218
houseUpdatesanAmericanIconforthe90’s,”323 “FreeEducationinaFreeSociety,”292–294
“CarnegieTeachingPanelCharts‘NewFramework’—Grants “ImplementingEffectiveSchools:Commitment—TheFirst
Totaling$900,000MadetoPressReforms,”235–236 Step,”231–232
“Center Lists Skills Both Disabled, Non-Disabled Should “InternationalCongressforEffectiveSchoolsDrawsPartici-
Have,”310–311 pantsfrom13NationstoLondon,”243–244
“Education, Religious Groups, Seek Common Ground,” andLawrenceLezotte,407
342–343 “Principal’sExpectationsasaMotivatingFactorinEffec-
“EducatorProposesaGlobalCoreCurriculum,”260 tiveSchools,”225
“HalfofChicagoStudentsDropOut,StudyFinds:Problem “TheDecadeoftheNineties,”256–257
CalledEnormousHumanTragedy,”79–80,221 “The Future of Hong Kong Linked to Education,” 378–
“LeadingBusinessExecutivesCreateCounciltoPromote 380
S-T-WPrograms,”344 “TheGoalofHongKongSchools—EstablishingQualityin
“N.S.B.A.EndorsesAllAlternativestoTraditionalSchool ItsSchools,”380–381
Governance,”326 effectiveschools,222,261,A70,A163–165
“NewAFTPresidentUrgesMemberstoHelpFloundering implementationof,217–218
Schools,”81 movementfor,191
“ProponentsofMasteryLearningDefendMethodafterIts andOutcome-BasedEducation,201
RejectionbyChicago,”227 “EffectiveSchools:WhattheResearchSays”(MichaelCohen),
“ResearchersLeeryofFederalPlansforCollaboration—Fear 172
‘Cooperative’LinkaPathto‘Intervention’,”236 EffectiveSchoolsConference(SixteenthAnnual),420–421
“Seniors’ChurchAttendance,”279–280 EffectiveSchoolsDevelopmentinEducationAct,222
“SuccessEludes10-Year-OldAgency,”118,192 “EffectiveSchoolsforResults”(RobertCorrigan),217–218
“Success with Coalition Reforms Seen Limited in Some EffectiveSchoolsResearch,4,159,240
Schools,”326 philosophybehind,394
Technology Counts ’98—Putting School Technology to the asSkinnerian,135
Test,419–420 “ShamanisticRitualsinEffectiveSchools”(BrianRowan),
“ThereHasBeenaConspiracyofSilenceaboutTeaching: A159–166
B.F. Skinner Argues that Pedagogy Is Key to School useininnercityschools/southernschools,172,394
Reforms,”196–197 useofSkinnerianmethod,202,217
“ViewingReformPartnershipsasBigBrother’sIntrusion,” EffectiveSchoolsResearchAbstracts,314–315
338–339 effectiveteaching,214–215
“Who’sIn,Who’sOut,”99 Eight-YearStudy,17,20–21,89
“Widely Mixed Test Results Leave Some in Kentucky Eisenberg,Lee,297–298
Puzzled,”316 Eisenhower,DwightD.(President),30,52,53,55
EducationWritersAssociation,222 AmericanAssembly,377
Educator’sGuidetoSchoolwideReform(An)(RebeccaHerman), GoalsforAmericans,58–60,65
434–436 Eisner,Elliot,397
“EducatorProposesaGlobalCoreCurriculum,”260 Elam,Stanley,A32
“Educators,ReligiousGroupsCallSchoolTruce—TheyAgree ElementaryandSecondaryEducationAct(ESEA)of1965,56,
toDisagreeonHotIssuesof’90s”(SallyStreffBuzbee), 110,253,389,A20–21,A111
349–350 andEducationalImprovementCenters,125–126
EducatorsforSocialResponsibility,A138 PacesettersinInnovation,84,206–207
EDventureHoldings,381 passingof,byCongress,72
Edwards,SaraE.,191 reauthorizationsof,311,317–318,400
EFAToday,308–309 A Report from the State Committee on Public Education
Index I–17
to the California State Board of Education—Citizens EurekaFreeUniversity,313
for the 21st Century—Long-Range Considerations for EuropeanCommissionDirectorateGeneralofEducation,Train-
CaliforniaElementaryandSecondaryEducation(John ingandYouth,390,402
Goodlad),88–89 EuropeanEconomicAdministration,47
ElementaryandSecondaryEducationReauthorizationActof EvaluationDepartmentofthePortlandPublicSchools,107
1994(H.R.6),187,287 “Evaluation of HEW’s Publication Pacesetters in Innovation
“ElementaryEducationforthe21stCentury:APlanningFrame- (An)”(ShirleyCorrell),84
workBasedonOutcomes,”258–260 Evaluation of Project INSTRUCT: Executive Summary (Carl
ElementaryGlobalEducationFramework,258–260 Spencer),204
Elgin,Duane,A175 Evans,Barbara,305
Ellerton,Delbert,425–427 Evans,RichardI.,77–78,A143
Elliott,Emerson,A82 EvergreenStateCollege,103
Ely,DonaldP.,67,94,113,A35–38 “EvilEmpire,”279
Emig,Michael,268 evolution,13,223,368
Emile(Jean-JacquesRousseau),2 ExcellenceinEducationActof1985,234
EmoryUniversity,10 “ExcellenceinInstructionalDeliverySystems:Researchand
emotionalhealth,focuson,55 DisseminationofExemplaryOutcome-BasedPrograms,”
EmploymentandTrainingAdministration(ETA),266 160–161,215–217,218
EmploymentTrainingandLiteracyEnhancementActof1997, ExecutiveReview(The),164
416 ExemplaryCenterforReadingInstruction(ECRI),xxvii,72,
EmpowerAmerica,375 A129,A147.SeealsoDISTAR
EmpoweredEducationalSystemforthe21stCentury—Establish- controversyover,203–204,212,416
ing Competitiveness, Productivity, Accountability and andEthnaReid,80–81,A94,A152–153
EquityinSouthCarolinaEducation,306–307 andMission,Texas,212
Engelmann,Siegfried andProjectInstruct,134–135
andDirectInstruction,75,81,117,363,366,435 ExperimentalLaboratoryElementarySchool,223
andDISTAR,212,299–300 ExploringtheCurriculum:TheWorkofThirtySchoolsfromthe
andECRI,182 ViewpointofCurriculumConsultants(H.H.Giles,S.P.
andoperantconditioning,119–120 McCutcheon,A.N.Zechiel),21
England, irst experiment with Outcome-Based Education, extremeenvironmentalism,276–277
3–4 ExxonCorporation,150,344
Englehardt,Nicholas,37–38,A5 ExxonEducationFoundation,299,300
Engler,John,405,451n
EnglishRoyalInstituteofInternationalAffairs,12
En-Lai,Chou(Premier),104
EqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOC),243 F
EqualRightsAmendment,35
EricksonInstituteinChicago,417 FabianSociety,12,13
Ernst,Morris,39 Facilitator’sTrainingManual,353
Ervin,Sam,127 FactFinder(The)(Arizona),230
ESEA:GeneralEducationProvisionsAct,66,170 “FamiliesandSchools:ASystemofMutualSupport”(Terrell
Esquire,297 H.Bell),174
EssayonthePrinciplesofPopulation,388 FamilyEducationalRightsandPrivacyActof1974,A84
EssaysinEconomics:Theories,Facts,andPolicies,Vol.II(Was- FamilyLifeEducation,111
silyLeontief),142 familyplanning,101–104,A170–171
EssentialElementsofInstruction(MadelineHunter),417 “FamilyPlanninginChina”(HanSuyin),104
Estes,Nolan,A27–28 Fantini,MarioD.,169
EthicalCulture,22 Farmer-LaborerPoliticalFederation,23
“EthicalEducation,”71 Farquhar,William,79
“EthicalIssuesinDecisionMaking,”174,421 Farris,Michael,437–438,453n
Ethics and Religious Liberty Commission of the Southern Farson,Richard,111
BaptistConvention,377 Far West Regional Laboratory for Educational Research and
EthicsofSexualActs(ReneGuyon),39 Development,193,264n,290,A159
Etzioni,Amitai,351,376,A172 “ExcellenceinInstructionalDeliverySystems:Researchand
EugeneHoward’sColoradoModel,199 DisseminationofExemplaryOutcome-BasedPrograms,”
I–18
160–161,215–217 (JamesH.Billington),341–342,452n
andoutcome-basededucation,125,141 First Amendment (United States Constitution), 22, 311–312,
Featherstone,Harry,344 352,365
FederalAdultBasicEducationProgram,196 FirstAmendmentCenteratVanderbiltUniversity,418–419.See
FederalCouncilofChurches,32 alsoFreedomForumFirstAmendmentCenter
FederalEducationAgencyfortheFuture(A),56,62,64 FirstEducationalTechnologyConference,101
federalgovernment FirstLadyoftheWorld(RobertMuller),283
controlofeducation,96 Fisher,George,344
creatingproblemstofacilitatechange,406 Fiske,EdwardB.,255,443–444
fundingofeducation,350 Fitouri,Charles,162
fundingresearch,controversyover,210–213 Fitz-Gibbon,CarolTaylor,213
inluenceinschools,192 Fitzpatrick,KathleenA.,240
FederalRegister,154 Fitzsimmons,John,272
FederalReserveBank,10 FiveIssuesinTraining,38
FederalSchool-to-WorkOpportunitiesAct,327–328 FiveYearPlans,60,142–143
Feldman,Sandra,A130 Flemming,ArthurS.,57
Fellows,Michael,382 Fletcher,Dexter,174
Ferre,LuisA.,176 Florida,144
Fessler,DianaM.,364–366,369–370,373 Florida International University Human Resource Service
contactinformation,453n ProfessionalDevelopmentCenter,440
opponentofschool-to-workphilosophy,403–405 FloridaPro-FamilyForum,Inc.,6n
Feulner,Edwin,231 FloridaStateUniversity,A29
FieldofEducationalTechnology(The):AStatementofDeini- FocusontheFamily,350
tion(DonaldP.Ely),94,113,A35–38 FollowThrough,72.SeealsoProjectFollowThrough
Fields,JosephC.,305 Foorman,Barbara,417
FifthAnnualChiefStateSchoolOficersInstitute,128–130 FoothillAssociates,327
FifthReportoftheNationalCouncilonEducationalResearch, Forbes,Steve,A79–80
150 Ford,Bobbi,426
FillingtheGaps:AnOverviewofDataonEducationinGrades Ford,GuyStanton,24
KThrough12,294–296 FordFoundation,13,152,245,A7
Final Assessment Framework for the Michigan High School AgendafortheNation,83
ProiciencyTestinReading(1994),311 fundingofComparativeHumanRelationsInitiativeCon-
“FinalReportoftheNationalCommissiononCivicRenewal: sultation,399
A Nation of Spectators—How Civic Disengagement granttoTerrySanford,73,210
Weakens America and What We Can Do About It,” andH.RowanGaither,30,47,239
372–373 andMcGeorgeBundy,141
FinancialAccounting:ClassiicationsandStandardTerminology andMortimerAdler,280
forLocalandStateSchoolSystems,328 andNationalCEE,A112
Fink,Kristin,421 FordMotorCompany,344
Finley,CarmenJ.,A48 ForgottenHalf(The):PathwaystoSuccessforAmerica’sYouth
Finn,Chester,184,202,244,A75–76 andYoungFamilies,250,264n,452n
“America2000Plan,”278–279 Forrer,Sara,A62
beliefsaboutroleofparents,434 Forrester,Jay,303
andEducationalExcellenceNetwork,352 Fortas,Abe,36
favoringnationalcurricula,251,298 Forthum,TerryL.,191–192
andNationalInstituteofEducation,117–119 Fosler,Scott,A46
andoutcome-basededucation,238–239 Foster,WilliamZ.,17
“Public Service, Public Support, Public Accountability,” FoundationforResearchonHumanBehavior,A11
184 “Foundation Machine (The)” (Edith Kermit Roosevelt),
“Reforming Education—Why Do Bad Things Happen to 82–83
GoodIdeas?”,385–386 Foundations: Their Power and Inluence (Renee Wormser),
replicatingEnglishschoolsystem,357 48
andschoolreform,332 FoundationsofBehavioralResearch,SecondEdition(FredN.
Finn,JamesD.,67 Kerlinger),121
FireintheMindsofMen:OriginsoftheRevolutionaryFaith FoundationsofLifelongEducation(UNESCO),141–142
Index I–19
“Four Phases in Creating and Managing an Outcome-based Garduque,Laurie,236
Program”(JohnChamplin),193–194 Garland,Nancy,236
Fowler,BurtonP.,21 Garrett,Scott,430
“Framework for Action to Meet Basic Learning Needs,” Garvey,WillardJ.,202
269–270 Gaston,John,105–106
FRAMEWORKFORTHESOCIALSTUDIES,178 Gates,Frederick,9
“FramingaFutureforEducation”(Kansas),194 Gebhard,Paul,39,48
FrancophoneAssociationofComparativeEducation,194 General Agreement between the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. on
Frank Porter Graham Child Development Center, 394–395, Contacts, Exchanges and Cooperation in Scientiic,
452n Educational,CulturalandOtherFields,A136
Frazier,Alexander,288 GeneralAgreementsforTariffsandTrade(GATT),279
Frazier,Gloria,A56 GeneralEducationBoard(GEB),8,9,21,307
FreeCongressFoundation,A129 GeneralEducationProvisionsActoftheElementaryandSecond-
FreedomForum,418 aryEducationActof1965,213,A45
FreedomForumFirstAmendmentCenter,350,376,377 GeneralElectricCompany,A24
“FreeEducationinaFreeSociety”(NickZienau),292–294 GeneralFederationofWomen’sClubs,176
FreeInquiry,241 GenerallyAcceptedAccountingProcedures/GenerallyAccepted
FreemanInstitute,174 FederalFundingReporting(GAAP/GAFFR),xvi
FreeMind,71 GeorgeFrederickJewettChairinReligionandPublicPolicyat
FreeWorldResearchReport,276,A167–176 theAmericanEnterpriseInstitute,377
Freire,Paulo,220,237,264n Georges,Jeannie,264n
Frere,Jean,112 Georgescu-Roegen,Nicholas,A169
Freud,Sigmund,12 GeorgetownUniversity,12,341–342,376
Friedman,Milton,202 Georgia,29,48,144
“FromSchoolingtoLearning:RethinkingPreschoolthrough Georgia2000Partnership,167
UniversityEducation”(DonGlines),180 “Georgia Basic Life Process Skills, ESEA, Title II, Proposed
Fromstein,Mitchell,344 Instructional Time in School Programs” (Lucille G.
FrontiersofDemocracy,64 Jordan),150–151
FrontierThinkers(The)(HaroldRugg),12 GeorgiaDepartmentofEducation,150,307
Fullan,Michael,420 GeorgiaPublicPolicyFoundation,285
functionalism,183 “Georgia Schools OK Tracking System” (Doug Cumming),
Functional Literacy and the Workplace: The Proceedings of 111,407–408
the May 6, 1983 National Invitational Conference, GeorgiaStateUniversity,3,100
195–196 GermanDemocraticRepublic,147
FundfortheAdvancementofEducation,A7–8 GermanMarshallFundoftheUnitedStates,327
Futrell,MaryHatwood,236 GettyEducationInstitutefortheArts,397
“FutureofHongKongLinkedtoEducation,”378–380 Gilder,George,179,303
“Future of the Teaching Profession” (James Collins, Martin Gingrich,Newt,155,303,452n,A49
Haberman),310 andcomputers,381,400–401
FutureTrends,272 “ContractwithAmerica,”179
Gisi,LynnGrover,187
Glaser,Robert,61,79,211–212,A7
“PrinciplesofProgramming,”A13–16
G Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning: A Source
Book,60,A11–16
Gagne,Robert,79,89,406–407 Glasser,William,115,117
Gaiaworship,276 Glavin,Robert,285–287
Gaither,Rowan,30,47,239 Glazar,Vickie,366
Galston,WilliamA.,376 Glazer,Nathan,351
games,video,319–320 Glickman,Carl,436
Gandhi,Mahatma,9 Glines,Don,180
Garbarino,James,A167–176 Global2000,A169,A174
Gardner,Howard,340–341 GlobalAllianceforTransformingEducation(GATE),281–284,
Gardner,JohnW.,73,176,210,376 451n
Gardner,Richard,80 globaleducation/valueseducation,88,258–260
I–20
“GlobalFrameworkforLocalEducation,”276–277 andPerestroika,251,280,A137
“GlobalGovernment’sGlobalConscience,”xix promotinganewworldorder,308
“globalintegration,”411–412 U.S.-Soviet Education Agreements, 229–230, 279, 294,
“Global Interdependence: The United States and the Third A140
World,”321 Gordon,Kermit,83
globalskillsstandards,412 Gordon,Thomas,117
globalworkforcetraining,458 Gore,Albert,Jr.(Al),92n,376,421,A167
Glover,RobertW.,326–327,329 Gore,Bruce,401
Goal-basededucation.SeeOutcome-BasedEducation Goslin,Willard,43
“Goal of Hong Kong Schools—Establishing Quality in Its Gossens,SalvadorAllende,237
Schools,”380–381 Gothard,Bill,437
Goals 2000 (Educate America Act), 83, 167, 187, 268, 330, Gould,Arthur,11
353,428,A65–66 Gould’smedicaldictionary,49–50
andChesterFinn,385 GouldAcademy,38
criticismsof,370 “GovernorwithPrincipleWouldRejectSchool-to-Work”(Paul
irststatetoimplement(Oregon),336–338 Mulshine),430–431
asframeworkforH.R.6,317–318 gradualism,xvii,xviii,447,455
Goal6asmostimportant,405–406 “GraduatesLackTechnicalTraining,StudyWarns—By1990,
historyof,357–359,A73–75 2 Million May Not Have Essential Skills Needed for
andNASDC,298 Employmentin‘InformationSociety’,”186
andNationalIssuesinEducation:Goals2000andSchool- Graham,FrankPorter,394
to-Work,286 Gramm,Phil,297
programsof,364 GraniteCommunications,307
reforms,338–339 GraniteSchoolDistrict,80
signingof,323 GrantHighSchool,337
“GoalsandObjectives:TowardsaNationalCurriculum?”(Joan Grasmick,NancyS.,327,343
Gubbins),168,238–239 Grasso,Christopher,250
GoalsforAmericanEducation,19 Grayson,LawrenceP.,137–138
GoalsforAmericans,58–60 GreatAmericanConGame(BarbaraMorris),149
Golden,Cecil,111 GreatBooksFoundation,417
Goldenberg,ClaudeN.,417 GreatDepression,23
Goldman,JayP.,242–243 “GreatestSubversivePlotinHistory:ReporttotheAmerican
Goldmark,PeterC.,Jr.,376 PeopleonUNESCO(The),”43–44
Goldsborough,RobertH.,54n GreatHallofthePeople,104
GoldsekerFoundation,377 Green,Andrew,273
Gollarz,Ray,420 Green,SharonKnotts,327
Gonzalez,Felipe,359–361 Greenberg,Daniel,A46
Goodlad,John,162,169,189,226,A43 GreenCross,A171
“A Cooperative Effort Is Needed: Can Our Schools Get Greene,BertI.,220
Better?”,219 Gregg,Alan,40
A Report from the State Committee on Public Education Grifin,GaryA.,191
totheCaliforniaStateBoard—CitizensfortheTwenty- Grifin,Peg,212
irstCentury—LongRangeConsiderationsforCalifornia Grisham,Hosea,A27
ElementaryandSecondaryEducation,91n Groff,Patrick,182
“LearningandTeachingintheFuture,”81 Gross,Martin,A146
PlaceCalledSchool(A):ProspectsfortheFuture,151 Grossberg,Amy,29
Report to the President’s Commission on School Finance, Grossen,Bonnie,A152
Issue#9“StrategiesforChange,”207 Grossman,Jerome,344
statementsmadeby,56,106 “Group Supporting Paula Jones Case Sues Pasco Schools”
Study of Schooling in the United States (A) (1979), 119, (WendyCulverwell),401
151–152 Grover,HerbertJ.,327
StudyofSchooling(The)(1973),397 GuangmingDaily,262
Goodling,William,66,415,A75–78 GuardiansofEducationforMaine(GEM),xv,174
Goodman,John,299 Gubbins,Joan,168,238–239,248
Gorbachev,Mikhail,30,45,241 “Guided Affective Imagery.” See “Initiated Symbol Projec-
Index I–21
tion”(ISP) HavesWithoutHave-Nots:Essaysforthe21stCenturyonDemoc-
“Guide to Competing Teaching Methods” (Rosalind Rossi), racyandSocialism(MortimerAdler),280–281
366 Havighurst,Robert,141,A48
“Guide to the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment Hawkins,Augustus,222
System:Mathematics,”396–397 Hawkins-StaffordAmendmentsof1988,A84
Guiness,Oz,377 Hayes,CarltonJ.H.,24
Guttmacher,ManfredS.,40 Hayes,Kathy,299
Guyon,Rene,39 Hayes,TraceyJ.,A130
GwinnettCoalitionforHealthandHumanServices,439 “Difference between Traditional Education and Direct
GwinnettDailyPost(The)(Lawrenceville,Georgia),439 Instruction,”A150,A157–158
Haynes,Charles,350,377,418–419
Hays,Wayne,48
Hazlip,Ken,313–314
H HeadStart,20,386–387
Heald,Anne,327
Haberman,Martin,310 “Heartbreaking Crimes: Kids without a Conscience? Rape,
Haddock,JerryL.,367–368 murder,ababydeadataprom:Alookatyounglives
Hakim,Joy,A129 thatseemtohavegonevery,verywrong,”29
HalcyonPress,98 Heaton,K.M.,15n,92n,199–200,264n
Haley,RosalindKress,232 Hechinger,FredM.,230,236
“Half of Chicago Students Drop Out, Study Finds: Problem Hegel,Friedrich,xvii
CalledEnormousHumanTragedy,”79,221 HegelianDialectic,387,A155
Hall,John,333 deinitionof,xvii
Hamburg,David,36,235,A138 examplesofuse,xii,349–350,378,455
Hamill,Thomas,126 RichardRiley’suseof,447
Hamilton,Lee,A138 Heinich,Robert,A35
HancockClarion(The)(Hawkesville,Kentucky),320–321 Helms,Jesse,232–233
Hansford,VanBurenN.,Jr.,A112 National Citizens’ Alliance (NCA) Americanism Award,
Harley,JohnEugene,17 266
Harmon,Willis,141 Henderson,Marlene,213
Harp,Lonnie,316 Heneson-Walling,Robert,154
Harris,Louis,A112 Hentschke,GuilbertC.,A112
“HarrisonBergeron”(KurtVonnegut),66,92n HeraldNews(The)(Passaic,NewJersey),125–126
Hart,Leslie,341 HeritageFoundation,202,231,285,376
Hartmann,George,23 1993AnnualReportof,304
HarvardUniversity,4,49,100,382,A7 andCenteroftheAmericanExperiment,385
andB.F.Skinner,75,146,196,A10,A12,A49 andDISTAR,417
andChesterM.Pierce,113 PolicyReview:TheJournalofAmericanCitizenship,374,
EconomicResearchProject,143 434
GraduateSchoolofEducation,172,177,231,417 and “Time to Overhaul the Elementary and Secondary
andLawrenceKohlberg,352 EducationActof1965,”428–429
presidentJamesB.Conant,73,210 Herman,Alexis,403
RussianResearchCenterof,A137 Herman,Rebecca,434–436
andWassilyLeontief,143 Hersey,StevenM.,219
Haselkorn,David,A72,A96 Herzer,Ann,81,192,A155
Hatch,Orrin,200–201 criticismofPreventingReadingDificultiesinYoungChil-
HatchAmendment(ProtectionofPupilRightsAmendment), dren,416–417
203–204, 221, A21, A45. See also General Education oppositiontoECRIteachertraining,A94,A130
ProvisionsAct “OurChildren:TheDrones,”A143–149
hearingsforregulationson,124,200–201 Herzler,Elam,184
“Observing the Birth of the Hatch Amendment Regula- Hesburgh,Theodore,141
tions,”220–221 Heuston,DustinE.,213
Hatton,BarbaraR.,A112 HewlettPackardCorporation,327,338–339,A69
Hausman,JeromeJ.,152 HewlittFoundation,245
Havelock,RonaldG.,xvi,xix,315,A66 Hickey,HowardW.,85
I–22
HigherEducationBoard,384 Horace Mann-Lincoln Institute of School Experimentation,
HigherEducationforAmericanDemocracy;Volume3Organiz- 46
ingHigherEducation,39 Horn,Joan,383
HigherHorizons,A117–118 Hornbeck,DavidW.,263,321,446
higherorderskills(highlevel),187,245–247 HumanCapitalandAmerica’sFuture:AnEconomicStrategy
HigherOrderThinkingSkills(HOTS),264n,325–326 fortheNineties,287–288,377,A46–47
HighIntensityLearning,197 HumanResourcesDevelopmentPlanfortheUnitedStates
HighPerformanceWorkOrganization,A105 (A),A96
High School (Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of andKentuckyEducationReformAct(KERA),333–334
Teaching),73,210 mandatingcommunityservice,217
HighSchoolsThatWork(GeneBottoms),307 andProjectBASIC,204–205
HighSkillsforEconomicCompetitivenessPrograms,A109 proposalforneweducationsystem,241–243
Hill,Alan,290 “Technology and Students at Risk of School Failure,”
Hill,Edward,176 273–274
Hill,Jesse,Jr.,344 Hoser,Albert,344
Hillary,JohnC.,277–278 House,EdwinMandell,12
HillsdaleCollege,238–239,364 HouseCommitteeonEducationandLaborofCongress,62
Hilts,PhilipJ.,A146 House Education and Workforce Committee (of U.S. Con-
Hirsch,E.D.,A127–130 gress),66
Hiss,Alger,12,28,36,42–43,47 HoustonHealthScienceCenter,417
History of Laboratory Schools (The): The University of Chi- “HowtoFixaCrowdedWorld:AddPeople”(BarbaraCros-
cago,6n sete),388
HistoryofTeacher’sCollege(A):ColumbiaUniversity(Lawrence HowtoMeasureAttitudes(MarleneHenderson,LynnLyons
Cremin,DavidShannon,MaryEvelynTownsend),6n Morris,CarolTaylorFitz-Gibbon),213
Hitler,Adolph,24–25,A94 HowtoTeachAnimals:ARat,aPigeon,aDog(Kathleenand
H.J.Russell&Company,344 ShaunaReid),80
Hoban,CharlesF.,Jr.,A35 HowtoTeachAnimals(B.F.Skinner),80
Hoffman,LeeM.,A82 Hoye,J.D.,413–414
HoganandHartson,273 H.R.6—TheElementaryandSecondaryEducationReauthoriza-
Hoge,Anita,85,221,250,348–349,A21 tionActof1993,317–318
“Five Magic Questions Enable Parents to Debate the HudsonInstitute,285,323,377,A24
Issues,”368 EducationalExcellenceNetwork,352
“WhenJohnnyTakestheTest:HowYourChildIsIdentiied JohnM.OlinFellowof,385
andTrackedtotheNationalDataBank—andBeyond,” Hukill,Hobart,191
451n Humana,333
holisticeducation,281 HumanBrainandHumanLearning(LeslieHart),341
HolisticEducationReview,276–277 HumanCapitalandAmerica’sFuture:AnEconomicStrategy
Holland,MiriamV.,408 fortheNineties(DavidW.Hornbeck,LesterSalamon),
Holloway,Karel,222–223 287–288,377,A46–47
Holt,Marjorie,133 HumanEngineeringLaboratory,105–106
Holubec,EdithJohnson,239 HumanEvents,364
Hom,Ernest,24 HumanInformationProcessing,248
“HomeSchoolFamilies,”179–180 HumanIntelligenceInternationalNewsletter,171,264n
homeschooling,179–180,241,253–254,256,363 humanism,13
andschool-to-work(apprenticeships),437–438 beliefsof,21–22
utilizingSkinnerianmethodsofeducation,xxvii curriculumof,126
HomeSchoolLegalDefenseAssociation,437–438 philosophyof,238–239
HongKong,378–381 secular,22
HongKongEducationCommission,381 Torcasov.Watkins,22
HongKongTaskGrouponSchoolQualityandSchoolFund- Humanist(The),192–193
ing,381 HumanistManifesto(JohnDewey),17,21–22
Honig,William(Bill),236,A155 HumanResourcesDevelopmentPlanfortheUnitedStates(A),
Hooper,Susan,260 279,A96–112
Hooper,Walter,158n HumanResourceStudies,327
Hoover,Herbert(President),17,19 Hunt,David,115
Index I–23
Hunt,JamesB.,73,210,236,256,A112 “Information Society: Will Our High School Graduates Be
Hunter,Edward,209,450 Ready?”(RoyForbes,LynnGroverGisi),187
Hunter,Madeline,94,228,A113 Ingram,Laura,439
EssentialElementsofInstruction,417 “InitiatedSymbolProjection”(ISP)(HanscarlLeurner),74
InstructionalTheoryIntoPractice(ITIP),269,450n “In Littleton, Colorado, Voters Expel Education Faddists,”
andMasteryTeaching,117,217,233 318–320
“PromisingTheoriesDieYoung,”223–225 “InLocoParentis,PartII—The‘ParentsasTeachers’Program
Hurd,PaulDeHart,182–183 LivesOn”(LauraRogers),301–302
Hutchins,RobertM.,280 “InLocoParentis:TheBraveNewFamilyinMissouri”(Laura
Huxley,Aldous,17,18 Rogers),451n
Huxley,SirJulian,13 InnisbrookPapers,183,264n
Hyde,Henry,370,410–412,A74–76 input-outputanalysis,143
“Inquiry(the),”12
InSearchofMind(JeromeC.Bruner),A57
“InsideU.S.Communism”(HerbertPhilbrick),50
I InstituteforAcceleratedLearning,427
InstituteforAdvancedStudyatPrinceton,12
IBMCorporation,177,235–236,446,A11,A24 InstituteforAgrarianReform(Chile),237
Idaho,144 InstituteforContemporaryStudies,A51
ILedThreeLives(HerbertA.Philbrick),49 InstituteforDevelopmentofEducationalActivities,Inc.(IDEA),
IllusionofTechnique(The):ASearchforMeaninginaTechno- 66,151,152,387
logicalCivilization(WilliamBarrette),174 InstituteforEconomicAnalysis,143
ImmunoGen,Inc.,344 InstituteforEducationalLeadership,440
ImpactofScienceuponSociety(BertrandRussell),44-45 InstituteforPhilosophyandPublicPolicy,371,376
“Implementing Effective Schools: Commitment—The First InstituteforResponsiveEducation,188
Step,”231–232 InstituteforSocialResearch,280
ImpossibleDream(The)(K.M.Heaton),15n InstituteofGlobalEthics,252
“ImpressionsandConcerns:APreliminaryReport”(BillCarl- InstituteofInternationalEducation(IIE),11
son),413–414 InstituteofPaciicRelations,18
ImprovingAmerica’sSchoolsAct(IASA),A74 InstituteonEducationandtheEconomy,244
ImprovingEducationalAssessment(RalphTyler),89 “InstitutioninTransition”(MichelleBoorstein),103
Improving Educational Assessment and an Inventory of InstructionalSystemsDesign(ISD),A39
Measures of Affective Behavior (Walcott H. Beatty), “Instructional Systems Development in Korean Educational
89–90,407 Reform,”A29–31
IMTEC,260–261,264n,312–313 InstructionalTheoryIntoPractice(ITIP),223,450n
IndianaDepartmentofEducation,339 Instructor(The),78
IndianaUniversity,35 IntegratedThematicInstruction:TheModel,339
IndividualEducationPlans(IEP’s),66,180,287 “Integrating Social Services and Education: A Look at Col-
individualizededucation,126.SeealsoMasteryLearning laborationandDelivery,”321
IndividualizedInstruction,100 IntegrativeLearning,340
IndividualizedLearningLetter(T.I.L.L.):Administrator’sGuide IntellectualActivist(The),274
toImproveLearning;IndividualizedInstructionMeth- IntercollegiateSocialistSociety(ISS),8,12
ods; Flexible Scheduling; Behavioral Objectives; Study “InterestinCharacterEducationSeenGrowing,”311–312
Units; Self-Directed Learning; Accountability, Vol. 1, IntermediateTechnicalGroup,A169
100–101,401 International Association for the Evaluation of Educational
Individualizing Learning Program of Research for Better Achievement(IAEEA),171
Schools,Inc.,68 InternationalAssociationofPolice,176
IndividuallyPrescribedInstruction(IPI),68,79 International Bureau of Education (Institute Jean-Jacques
IndividualRightsandtheFederalRoleinBehaviorModiica- Rousseau),13,18,63,162
tion: Report of the Subcommittee on Constitutional International Center for Leadership in Education, 306–308,
Rights,127 334–336
IndividualswithDisabilitiesinEducationAct(IDEA),311 InternationalChamberofCommerce,35
IndustrialAreasFoundation,371,376 InternationalCityManagersAssociation,77
“IndustrialPolicyUrgedforGOP,”205 InternationalCommissionontheDevelopmentofEducation,
InformationClearinghouseonServiceIntegration,443 163
I–24
InternationalConciliation,36,42 (RobertW.Glover),329
International Conference for Parent/Citizen Involvement in ItTakesaVillagetoRaiseaChild(HillaryRodhamClinton),
Schools,188 85
InternationalCongressforEffectiveSchools,243–244,264n
“International Congress for Effective Schools Draws Partici-
pantsfrom13NationstoLondon,”243–244
“International Dimension of Education: Background Paper J
II Prepared for the World Conference on Education”
(LeonardS.Kenworthy),96–97,397 Jackson,Jesse,351
InternationalExecutiveServiceCorps,202 Jacob,Brad,438
InternationalLearningCooperative,261 Jacobs,Heidi,344
InternationalLoanAgreement,400,A31 Jacoby,Jeff,392–393
InternationalMonetaryFund,112,391 Jacques,Michael,353
InternationalReadingAssociation,270,290 Jaffras,Jason,A46
InternationalRenaissanceFoundation,419 James,William,4
International Research and Exchanges Board for Scholars, Janne,Henri,141–142
419 Javers,Ron,A146
InternationalSchoolImprovementProject(ISIP),191 Javits,Jacob,152–153
International Standard Classiication of Education (ISCED- JDR3rdFund,152
COM.75/WS/27),138–139 Jefferson,Thomas,369
InternationalStandardsofOperation(ISO)(UNESCO),xxi Jeffords,Jim,415–416
InternationalStandardsOrganization(ISO),411 Jenkins,Ed,248
InternationalUnderstanding(JohnEugeneHarley),17–18 Jennings,JohnF.,268
Interpreter(The),353 JeremiahProject,375
“InvestigationoftheSocialStudiesintheSchools,”23 J.M.SmuckerCompany,252
“InvestinginBetterSchools”(RalphTyler),83 JobCorps,A77,A79
InvoluntaryAttention-OrientingRelex,248 JobCorpsCurriculumSystem,197
Iovino,Jean,366 JobsfortheFuture,327
IowaDepartmentofEducation,241,253,275 JOBSProgram,A109
IowaGlobalEducationCurriculum,A170–173 JobTrainingPartnershipAct(JTPA),288,A134
Iserbyt,Charlotte,xxv–xxviii,219,232 JohnandCatherineT.MacArthurFellowship,377
Back to Basics Reform Or...OBE Skinnerian International JohnBirchSociety,A64
Curriculum,264n,455,A76 “JohnDeweySociety(The),”169
memosonDirectInstruction,A90–96 JohnM.AshbrookCenterforPublicAffairs,140
NationalEducationalGoalsPanelCommunityActionTool- JohnM.OlinFoundation,176,377,385
kit,Alerton,A65–71 JohnsHopkinsUniversity,377,A82
and“ObservingtheBirthoftheHatchAmendmentRegula- Johnson,Chalmers,205
tions,”220–221 Johnson,D.W.,239
and Ofice of Educational Research and Improvement Johnson,Dan,400
(OERI),xv,250 Johnson,Henry,24
SovietsintheClassroom:America’sLatestEducationFad, Johnson,JosephE.,47
46,261–262,A136–142 Johnson,Lyndon(President),55,56,73,110
“StatusofInternationalizationofEducation,”A126–131 expansionoffederalaidtoeducation,358
“Truth about How We All Have Been Had (The),” “WaronPoverty,”75
A150–156 Johnson,R.T.,239
“ViewingReformPartnershipsasBigBrother’sIntrusion,” JohnsonFoundation,251
338–339 Johnston,RobertC.,345
ISO9000,398–399,A129 JointCommitteeonEducationandEvaluation,76
“Issue#9—EducationalInnovation:Whatchangesinpurposes, JointDisseminationReviewPanel(JDRP),123–124
procedures or institutional arrangements are needed Jolly,Elton,177
to improve the quality of American elementary and JomtienConference,321
secondaryeducation?”,106–107 Jones,BeauFly,309
“IssueforDesigningASystemofSkillStandardsandCertiica- Jones,David,333
tionfortheAmericanWorkforce:OnWhatBasisShould Jones,Elsie,304
Occupation/Skill/Industry Cluster Be Organized?” Jones,GordonS.,350
Index I–25
Jones,RobertsT.,266–268 Kiefer,William,399
Jordan,Barbara,351 Kiernan,EdwardH.,176
JosephsonInstituteofEthics,351 Kildee,Dale,415
JosiahMacy,Jr.Foundation,50 Kilduff,Marshall,A146
JournalforLearningDisabilities,417 King,Faye,304–305
JournalofAssociatingTeacherEducators(The),310 Kinsey,AlfredC.,28,35,122,48–49
Joyce,Bruce,114–117,208 Kinsey: Crimes and Consequences—The Red Queen and the
Joyce,Michael,176,377 GrandScheme(JudithReisman),39,53n
J.P.MorganandCompany,12 Kipling,Rudyard,381
Judd,Charles,4,165 Kirkendall,LesterA.,98
Judeo-Christian Kirschenbaum,Howard,144
morals,21–22,A114 Kissinger,HenryA.,83
roots,havingaclearerunderstandingof,342 Kitzhaber,John,408–409
traditionof,27 Klass,Lance,2–5,6n,158n
Klein,M.Frances,119
Knapp,Frances,21
Knight,Bonnie,408
K “KnowingHowWeCometoKnowThings,”322–323
Kohlberg,Lawrence,119,144
“K-12Competency-BasedEducationComestoPennslyvania” “EthicalIssuesinDecisionMaking,”174,352
(JohnH.Sandberg),153–154 “StagesofMoralDevelopment,”130–131,421
Kame’enui,Edward,212,417 KoreanEducationalDevelopmentInstitute(KEDI),A30–31
Kane,Robert,A27 Kosiec-McFarlin,Barbara,356,452n
Kansas,144,194 Koslova,Tanya,346
Kassebaum,Nancy,A77–80 Kovalik,Susan,339–341,452n
Katz,Vera,236,327,A112 Kovalyova,Tatyana,312–313
Kaufman,RogerA.,217,A27 Krathwohl,David,29,69,A22,A113
Kean,ThomasH.,236,A112 Kravett,Bernard,90
Kearney,Annette,A27 Krey,A.C.,24
Kearns,David,255 Kristof,Nicholas,294
Keating,Thomas,234 Kristol,William,377
Keck,DanielB.,234 KutztownUniversity,310
“KeepingYouCurrentonEducationReform,”347–348
KeeptheChange,Inc.,413–414
KelloggFoundation,175
Kelly,JamesA.,256 L
Kelly,ThomasA.,160,187,322
Kemble,Eugenia,327 LaBarbera,Peter,A129
Kennedy,Edward(Ted),415–416,A80 Labor,William,417
Kennedy,JohnF.(President),55,67,132,358 LaboratoryofComparativeHumanCognition,A139
Kentucky,29,165 “laissezfaire,”ageof,24,265
KentuckyCitizensDigest,274 Lambert,Banque,112
KentuckyDepartmentofEducation,141 LancasterLaboratories,Inc.,252
KentuckyDistinguishedEducators,320–321 Land,RichardD.,377
KentuckyEducationReformAct(KERA),263,274,333 Landgraf,Kurt,398–399
problemswith,316,320–321 Landrus,Wilfred,A27
“Kentucky Schools Test Scores Vary Little from Last Year,” Lane,Franklin,12
320–321 LANGUAGEARTSFRAMEWORK,178
Kenworthy,LeonardS.,96–97,397 “LanguageofOBERevealsItsLimitations(The)”(Gretchen
Kerlinger,FredN.,121 Schwarz),354
Kerr,Clark,83 Lanier,Judith,236
Kessin,William,135 LansingSchoolDistrict,441
KetteringFoundation,151,199 Lanza,Monica,125–126
Khul,Djwhan,54n,283 Lapointe,Archie,177–179,244,349
Kidder,Rushworth,251–252 Laski,Harold,23,265
I–26
LauderFoundation,299 Leming,James,252
Lawrence,Jaqueline,206 Lenin:OnEducatingYouth(N.Landa),A138–139
Lawrence,Malcolm,209,230 Lenin,Vladimir,A63,A138–139
LeadershipDevelopmentAssociates,167 Lenskaya,Elena,289,451n
“LeadingBusinessExecutivesCreateCounciltoPromoteS-T- Leonard,George,303
WPrograms,”344 LeonardodaVinciProgrammeCooperation,390,402
LeagueforIndependentPoliticalAction,23 Leontief,Wassily,142–143,303,A49
LeagueforIndustrialDemocracy,8,11 Lepley,William,253
LeagueofNations,12,42 Lesgold,Alan,382
learning Leslie,Sarah,276,451n,A167–176
“authentic”applicationsof,325–326 Lessinger,Leon,100,127,A27
basicneedsof,451n “Lessons—inthequietworldofschools,atimebombisset
brain-based,426–427 for1993oncertifyingteachers,”255
brain-compatible,339–341 “Let’sBeHonest—EthicalIssuesofthe’90s,”252
constructivist,325–326 “LetterfromPeking”(EdgarSnow),104
deinitionof,1,2 Leu,Donald,79
group,247 Leurner,Hanscarl,74
integrative,340 Levin,HenryM.,99,340,427
service,346–347 Levin,Jonathan,29
“super,”156–158,426–427 Levitt,Arthur(Jr.),176
Learning a Living: A Blueprint for High Performance, Levitt,MichaelO.,316
266–268 Lewin,Kurt,A108
LearningandDevelopmentCenter,330 Lewis,Bayan,279
LearningandInstruction,78 Lewis,Bettye,405–406,A23–26
“LearningandPeace:UNESCOStartsItsWork”(RichardA. Lewis,C.S.,37,140,158n
Johnson),38 Lewis,Janet,327
“LearningandTeachingintheFuture”(JohnGoodlad),81 Lezotte,LawrenceW.(Larry),189,314–315,406–407,420
Learning Disabilities, Cognitive, and Social Development liberalarts,140
Branch of the National Institute of Child Health and Lickona,Thomas,312,351–352,421–422
Human Development of the National Institutes of Liebenstein,Harvey,303
Health,212 LifeMagazine,43
“LearningforAll:BridgingDomesticandInternationalEduca- LifeofC.S.Lewis(A)(GeorgeJackSayer),158n
tion,”321 Lifton,RobertJay,A146
“LearningforAll—WhatWillItTake?”,406–407 LightShallSetYouFree(The)(ShirleyMcCune),366–367
LearningforLife,389–390 LillyEndowmentoftheEliLillyCorporation,419
LearningforTomorrow:TheRoleoftheFutureinEducation Limbaugh,Rush,xxviii
(AlvinTofler),180 LimitstoGrowth(ClubofRome),A169
Learning Research and Development Center (LRDC) of the Lin,Su,335
UniversityofPittsburgh,150,417,A52,A55 Lincoln,Abraham,44
andAlanLesgold,382 LincolnCountyWeekly(Maine),409
andIndividuallyPrescribedInstruction(IPI),68 Lindquist,ClarenceB.,57
andLaurenResnick,177 Lindsley,OgdenR.,60,A8
andRobertGlaser,211–212 LinesofCredit:RopesofBondage(RobertH.Goldsborough),
LearningtoBe(FaureReport),148,163 54n
“LearningtoReadtheECRIWay”(DennisBailey),182 Lionni,Paolo,2–5,6n,158n
Ledell,Marjorie,322 Lipper,Arthur,152–153
Ledger,111 Lippman,Walter,12
LeftBrain/RightBrainThinking,340 literacy,183,237
Legal Challenges to Behavior Modiication (Reed Martin), functional,196
A146 asprobleminschools,6
Leipzig,Germany,2–3 LiteracyHoax(The),A8
Leipzig Connection (The): The Systematic Destruction of Little,JamesKenneth,A8
AmericanEducation(PaoloLionni,LanceKlass),2–5, Littleton,Colorado,xxvi,29,318–320
6n,158n LittonIndustries,112
Lemann,Nicholas,435–436 Liverpool Laboratory School at the Research and Develop-
Index I–27
mentCenterinEarlyChildhoodEducationatSyracuse MaineFacilitatorReportonCurrentNationalDiffusionNetwork
University,119 Activities(The),198–199
London,Jack,8 MaineLearningResults,431
LondonSchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScience,18 MaineMasteryLearningConsortium,198–199
LondonTruth,381 MaineStateCapacityBuildingGrant,174–175
Long,Richard,290 MaineStateDepartmentofEducation,219–220
“Long-Awaited National Teaching Certificate Detailed,” MaineSundayTelegram(The),103
255–256 MaineTechnicalCollegeSystem,272
LongfellowElementary,305 MaineTimes(The),182
“LookatBusinessin1990(A),”112 MaineYouthApprenticeshipProgram,272
Looking Back, Thinking Ahead: American School Reform “MakingAcademicsCount,”268
1993–1995,352 “MakingorBreakingStrategythroughCulture,”447
LosAngelesChamberofCommerce,112 Malcolm,ShirleyM.,236,A96,A112
LosAngelesTimes(The),135–136,279,A138 Malone,Gene,41,142
Loth,David,39 Malthus,Thomas,388
Lott,Trent,416 MalvernConference,33
Louisiana,144 Man:ACourseofStudy(M:ACOS),114,132,226,451n,A63
Lovelock,James,276 Man, Education & Society in the Year 2000 (Grant Venn),
low-incomefamilies,243–244 128–130
LoyolaUniversity,198 ManagementbyObjectives(MBO),72,88,132,204–205,A40–
Lozanov,Georgi,156–158,340,427 A41. See also Planning, Programming and Budgeting
LucisTrust,51,54n Systems(PPBS);TotalQualityManagement(TQM)
Lumsdaine,A.A.,60,A7,A11–16 andCourseGoalsProject,168
Lupberger,Edwin,377 forerunner to Planning, Programming, and Budgeting
Luria,AlexanderR.,325–326,A59–63 Systems(PPBS),A49–50
LustKiller(AnnRule),337 in“GeorgiaSchoolsOKTrackingSystems,”407–408
Lyman,RichardW.,176 andmasterylearning,84
LyndeandHarryBradleyFoundation,377 andOutcome-BasedEducation(OBE),142
Lynn,Irene,403 andTerrellH.Bell,124–125
Lyon,Billy,297–301 “manasanimal”assumptions,5
Lyon,Reid,212,417 Manchikanti,Anu,421–422
Lysaught,JeromeP.,61,A11–16 Mandel,Benjamin,45
Man,EducationandManpower(GrantVenn),128
Man,EducationandWork(GrantVenn),128
ManhattanInstituteforPolicyResearch,299
M Mann,Dale,188,243–244,264n,290
Manno,BrunoV.,377
Machiavel Pedagogue ou le Ministere de la Reforme Psy- “ManoutofaJob:PasadenaTriesTooLatetoHoldontoIts
chologique (Machivellian Pedagogy or the Ministry of SchoolSuperintendent,”43
PsychologicalReform)(PascalBernardin),346 ManpowerCorporation,344
MacMullan,Ralph,104 Mantoux,Paul,17,18
Madrid,Arturo,236,A112 Marer,Carl,188
Magaziner,IraC.,A74–75,A112 Marrow,AlfredJ.,A146
magnetschools,155,317,448.Seealsocharterschools Marshall,Kit,343
Maine,38,124,378,431–432 Marshall,LeonC.,24
Maine’sStateDepartmentofEducation1985Assessmentof Marshall,Ray,A96,A112
EducationalProgress(MAEP),227–228 MarshallHighSchool,337
MaineAspirationsBenchmarkingInitiative,431–432 MarthaHoldenJenningsFoundation,152
MaineAssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelop- Martin,Clyde,39,48
mentIn-ServiceTraining,197 Martin,Don,3–4
MaineAssociationofChristianSchools,219–220 Martin,Reed,A146
MaineCareerAdvantage,272 Martin,WilliamE.,120
MaineCentralInstitute,346 Martinez,Matthew,415
MaineDepartmentofEducation,378,431 Marx,Gary,290
MaineFacilitatorCenter,117,158n,228,A91 Marx,Karl,xvii,2,12,A146
I–28
Marxist-Hegeliandialectic,176 McDonnellDouglasCorporation,377
Maryland,37–38,144,204–205 McFarlin-Kosiec,Barbara,401
MarylandStateBoardofEducation,217 McGillUniversity,417
MarylandStateDepartmentofEducation,347 McGraw,Onalee,21
MarylandStateTeachers’Association,207 McGraw-Hill,156
MarylandTeacher,31 McGuire,Susan,A96
MarylandValuesCommission,419 McKeachie,WilbertJames,75
Marzano,Robert,248 McKeon,HowardP.“Buck,”415,A75
Maslow,Abraham,228–229,375–376,A60 McKernan,JohnB.,Jr.,272,327
MassachusettsBoardofEducation,418 McLean,Paul,340
Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS), McLemore,Judith,287–288
392–393 McMurrin,SterlingM.,62
MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology(MIT),382,A57,A58, McMurtry,John,292
A60 McNaryAreaServiceLearningProject,347
Massie,Bertram,29,52–53,65,69,187,A22 McPhail,James,A27
MasterPlanforPublicEducationinHawaii—TowardaNew McPherson,Robert,327
EraforEducationinHawaii,85–88,A55 McVey,Larry,344
Masters,Joan,359–361 McWalters,Peter,A112
MasteryinLearningProject,222,264n Means,Barbara,433
MasteryLearning,81,197,215,234,286,A43.SeealsoDirect Medicaid,154–155
Instruction;Outcome-BasedEducation Medicare,35
adaptationsof,313–314 Medlin,WilliamK.,57
andB.F.Skinner,13 Meese,Edwin,205,328,A51
behaviormodiicationmethodbehind,240–241 “MeetingtheFuture,”173
andBenjaminBloom,4,124–125 Megatrends(JohnNaisbitt),194,452n
componentsof,198 Megatrends2000(JohnNaisbitt),452n
andACourseGoalsCollection,168 Meierhenry,Wesley,A35
deinitionof,367–368 MeinKampf(AdolfHitler),24–25
linkedtoProgrammedInstruction,xxvi Melz,Barbara,A174
andOutcome-BasedEducation(OBE),A27–28,A38 MentalRobots(AlbertLewisAlesen),49
andPlanning,ProgrammingandBudgetingSystem(PPBS), Merriam,CharlesE.,24
84 Merton,RobertK.,152
removalofCarnegieUnit,21 metaphysics,122
“Mastery Learning: The Current State of the Craft” (James MetroUnitedWay,439
Block),118,155–156 Michigan,144,405–407,451n
MasteryLearningReconsidered(RobertSlavin),224–225 MichiganGovernor’sAdvisoryCouncilonPopulation,109
MasteryTeaching,233 Michigan High School Proficiency Communications Arts
math,14–15,46,447 Frameworks,311
Matheson,Scott,188 MichiganReadingAssociation,324–326
“Math Exam Rationale Doesn’t Add up: Simple Questions MichiganStateBoardofEducation,323–326,405
Are Often Posed in Unnecessarily Complex Ways,” MichiganStateUniversity,72
396–397 and Behavioral Science Teacher Education Program
Mathtec,Inc.,443 (BSTEP),A23
“MCASTestsUndermineRightsofParents,”395–396 MichiganStrategyProposalforDrugandViolenceFreeSchools
McAuley,Joanne,145–146 andCommunities,405
McCarthy,Bernice,341 “MicrocomputersinToday’sSchools,”174
McCord,Joan,202 Midcontinent Regional Educational Laboratory (McREL),
McCune,Shirley,171,194,261,263 263,A38
andGOALS2000/restructuringofschools,A65 andIMTEC,312–313
TheLightShallSetYouFree,366–367 andShirleyMcCune,194
and Midcontinent Regional Educational Laboratory TacticsforThinking,248–249,261
(McREL),377,A38 Miel,Alice,46
and“theradicalcenter,”349–350 Mielke,Keith,A35
McDonald’sUSA,344 Mikhatshwa,Sangaliso,399
McDonnell,Sanford,377 Miller,DonaldR.,83
Index I–29
Miller,George,A57–58 “ConclaveoftheChangeAgents,”144
Miller,Loye,250 GreatAmericanConGame(The),149–150
Miller,ThomasH.,61,A12 TuitionTaxCredits:AResponsibleAppraisal,184
Mills,RichardP.,A112 Morris,LynnLyons,213
MilwaukeeSentinelJournal(The),437 Morris,Robert,45–46
MinistryofRussia,312–313 Morrison,Linda,370–371
MinneapolisStarTribune,422 Mort,Paul,22–23,444,A5
Minnesota,131–132 Moseley,StephenF.,290
Minnesota’sGraduationRule,422 Motorola,Inc.,327
MinnesotaBusinessPartnership,225–226 MottFoundation(CharlesStewart),152,176,253,264n
MinnesotaDaily(The),422 Moynihan,DanielPatrick,118–119,A75
MinnesotaPlan,225–226 MSDEBulletin,347–348
Minzey,JackD.,85 Muller,HermannJ.,35
MissionoftheOficeofEducation(1960s),63 Muller,Robert,9,25,260
Mission,Texas,andECRI,212 andWorldCoreCurriculum,54n,283
MissouriSchoolBoardsAssociation,234 Mullins,James,408
Mitchell,Barbara,223 Mulshine,Paul,427–428,430–431
MobilizationforYouth,197 “MulticulturalismIsaWorthyGoal,butAmericaStillNeeds
ModelCoreCurriculumOutcomesinReading,324–326 Americans”(JohnOmicinski),341–342
“ModelProgramLinksClassroomtoWorkplace”(Courtenay multi-culturalprograms,287
Thompson),337 “MultipleChoiceReviewofEducation—ProilesofLearning
modelschool,251 TakesCentralStageatGubernatorialDebateonEduca-
“ModelSchoolforthe21stCentury,”41 tion—LargeProtestatCapitolTargetstheState’sNewest
ModelSchoolNews,260 GraduationStandards,”422
ModelSchoolsConference(SixthAnnual),406,451n MuscatineJournal(Iowa),253
Models of Instructional Organization: A Casebook on Mas- musictherapy,157–158
teryLearningandOutcomes-BasedEducation(Robert Muskie,Edmund,358
Burns),216,264n Mussolini,Benito,9
“ModelsofTeacherRepertoireTraining”(BruceJoyce),114 “MythofCompetitiveWorld-ClassEducation,”276
Models of Teaching (Bruce Joyce, Marsha Weil), 114, 208, “MythofFederalAidtoEducationwithoutControl,”56,62
228 MythsofJapaneseQuality(The)(RayandCindelynEberts),
“ModernRedSchoolhouse,”323,435,A24 A135
charterschoolof,A156
Mondale,Walter,376
Monitoring Environmental Progress: A Report on Work in
Progress,A51 N
MonroeEveningNews(The)(Michigan),95
Monson,ThomasS.,176 NaisbittGroup,194
Montessori,Maria,8–9,99 Naisbitt,John,194,272,452n
MontessoriInternational,9 “NapaEvaluationofMadelineHunter’sITIP:LessonsLearned”
MontessoriMethod,9 (RobertSlavin),224–225
MontgomeryCouncilJournal(The)(Maryland),242–243 NarrativeReportofProjectFundedunderTitleIII,Elementary
MontgomeryCounty,Maryland,xvi,208,444,448 and Secondary Education Act: OPERATION PEP, a
Moore,FrankJ.,99 Statewide Project to Prepare Educational Planners for
Moore,Opal,107 California,83–84
moral/citizenshipeducation(MCE),144 Nathan,Joe,300
MoralDevelopmentApproachCurriculum,“EthicalIssuesin Nation’sSchoolsReport,154–155
DecisionMaking,”130–131 NationalAcademyofEducation(HarvardGraduateSchoolof
moralrelativism,xii Education),231
Moran,Ellen,A92–93 CommissiononEducationandPublicPolicy,211
Moreno,Jacob,208 NationalAcademyofSciences,416–417,A140
Morgan,RobertM.,A27,A29–30 NationalAllianceforRestructuringEducation,269
MormonChurch,176 “NationalAllianceforRestructuringEducation:Schoolsand
Morphonios,Ellen,82 Systemsforthe21stCentury,”269,A52–56
Morris,BarbaraM.,A146 NationalAllianceofBusiness,268,269,273,328,333
I–30
NationalAssessmentGoverningBoard(NAGB),91 America’sChoice:HighSkillsorLowWages!,271
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 64, BoardofTrustees,A112
91,186,238 andHumanResourcesDevelopmentSystem,279,A72–80,
andEducationalTestingService(ETS),210 A96
forerunnerof,69 andMarcTucker,302
MeasuringtheQualityofEducation:ConclusionsandSum- “TheNationalAllianceforRestructuringEducation:Schools
mary,176–179 andSystemsforthe21stCentury,”269,A52
andNorthDakotastudentscores,348–349 NationalCentertoImprovetheToolsofEducators(NCITE),
andRoyForbes,187 387,417,A91–92
testingofstudents,56,286 NationalCitizensAlliance(NCA),249–250
testitems,227–228,349 NationalCivicLeague,374
workwithEngland,244,357 National Coalition for Parent Involvement in Education
NationalAssessmentofVocationalEducation,245 (NCPIE),189
National Association for the Education of Young Children NationalCommissiononCivicRenewal,371–378
(NAEYC),258,264n NationalCommissiononExcellenceinEducation,196–197
NationalAssociationofCounties(The),77 National Commission on Philanthropy and Civic Renewal,
National Association of Directors of Education Research 377
(AmericanEducationalResearchAssociation),12 NationalCommitteeforCitizensinEducation,188
National Association of Elementary School Principals, National Convention of Women for Constitutional Govern-
434–436 ment,10
NationalAssociationofSchoolPsychologists,410 NationalConvocationonPre-CollegeEducationinMathand
NationalAssociationofSecondarySchoolPrincipals(NASSP), Science,182
180,184,A140 NationalCouncilforEducationalExcellence,145–146
NationalBlueRibbonSchoolsProgram,378 NationalCouncilforEducationalResearch(NCER),210,248
National Board for Professional and Technical Standards, NationalCouncilfortheSocialStudies,149
A103–107 NationalCouncilofChurches,144
NationalBoardforProfessionalTeachingStandards,235,256, NationalCouncilonEducationalResearch,98,168,238–239
269,417,A55 nationalcurriculum,developmentof,176–179,251,A70
National Board for Student Achievement Standards, A104, NationalDefenseEducationAct,53,62
A110 NationalDefenseEducationActAmendmentof1961—Addi-
NationalBookCompany,98 tionalViews,63–65
NationalCenterforChildreninPoverty,443 National Diffusion Network (NDN), 189, 207, A91, A144–
NationalCenterforCitizenInvolvement,176,179,202 147
NationalCenterforEducationalOutcomes,311,A93 catalogof,130–131,158n
NationalCenterforEducationalStatistics(NCES),64,295-296, functionof,91n
430,A45,A76 fundingofECRI,81
EducationalRecordsandReportsSeries,A37 andNationalEducationGoals,268
FinancialAccounting:ClassiicationsandStandardTermi- as“transmissionbelt”forfederallyfundedprograms,56,
nologyforLocalandStateSchoolSystems,Handbook 123–124
II,451n National Education Association (NEA), 113, 144, 156,
andSPEEDEExpress,306,A47 A128–129
NationalCenterforNeighborhoodEnterprise,377 “ABroad-GaugedResearch/ReformPlanforSecondaryEdu-
NationalCenterforPolicyAnalysis,299 cation—IntheTraditionoftheEight-YearStudy,”169
NationalCenterforPrivatization,202 “ADeclarationofInterdependence:EducationforaGlobal
National Center for Reconciliation and Educational Reform, Community,”133
343 agencyforhumanrelationstraining(brainwashing),38
National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 272, BicentennialIdeaBook,140–141
A78 andCatherineBarrett,139
National Center for Services Integration (NCSI) of Mathtec, DepartmentofEducation(U.S.),151
Inc.,443,441 EducationalPoliciesCommission(EPC),19–20
NationalCenterforStudentAspirations,431 andAnEducator’sGuidetoSchoolwideReform,434–436
NationalCenteronAdultLiteracy,440 asafederallycharteredassociation,8
NationalCenteronEducationandEmployment,245 fundingofprojects/organizations,96,A60
NationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomy(NCEE),83, andMaryHatwoodFutrell,236
218 MasteryinLearningProject,222–223,226–227
Index I–31
andNationalTrainingLaboratory(NTL),309 NationalInstituteonCareerMajors,424–425
NEA Special Committee on Instructional Technology NationalIssuesinEducation:Goals2000andSchool-to-Work
Report,174 (JohnF.Jennings),244,268,450n,452n
school-basedmanagement,137 publicationof,356–359
Today’sEducation,81,140–141 NationalLeagueofCities,77
NationalEducationGoals,278–279 NationalLegalCenterforthePublic,202
NationalEducationGoalsandStandards,A69–70,A74 “NationalNetworkforEducationalExcellence,”202
NationalEducationGoalsPanel(NEGP),286,315,316,317–318, NationalPTA,withCitizensforExcellenceinEducation,348
352–353 NationalQualiicationsFramework(NQF),399
National Education Goals Panel Community Action Toolkit, NationalRecoveryAct(NRA),95
Alerton(CharlotteIserbyt),A65–71 NationalResearchCouncil,212,386,416
NationalEducationGoalsProject(NEGP),286 NationalReview,360
NationalEducationInstitute,363 National School Boards Association (NSBA), 145–146, 290,
NationalEducationLongitudinalSurvey,A83 326,347–348
NationalEducationProgram,50 NationalSchoolConferenceInstitute(NSCI),453n
NationalEducationStatisticsAgendaCommittee,295–296 NationalSchool-to-WorkOfice,413–414,424–425
NationalEducator(The),14–15,109,144,149–150 NationalSchool-to-WorkOficeoftheUnitedStatesDepartment
NationalEmploymentLeadershipCouncil,344 ofEducation,403–405
NationalEndowmentfortheArts(NEA),A171 NationalSchoolVolunteerProgram,188,189
NationalEndowmentfortheHumanities(NEH),417 NationalScienceFoundation(NSF),132,417,A105,A143
NationalForumforEducationalAwareness,232–233 NationalScienceTeachersAssociation,A139
NationalFoundationforEducationalResearch,177 NationalSkillsStandardsBoard(NSSB),304,330,411–412
NationalGoalsPanel,338–339,359.SeeNationalEducation NationalSocietyfortheStudyofEducation,A48
GoalsPanel(NEGP) “National Support for Our Public Schools” (Paul Mort),
NationalGovernors’Conference,77 22–23
NationalGovernors’Association(NGA),194,254–255,299 NationalTaskForceonEducationalTechnology,233–234
“ARoadMapforRestructuringSchools,”270–271 NationalTaskForceonEducationDataElements,A82
andNationalCenterforServicesIntegration,443 NationalTeachersAssociation,8
and“StateofEducationCriticized—NonproitOrganization National Training Laboratory (NTL), 38–39, 296, 308–309,
Hired at Former Governor’s Urging Pinpoints Weak- A60
nesseswithinOhio’sAcademicSystem,”446 NationalUnityCampaign,376
andWilliamClinton,268 NationalVolunteer(The),372
NationalGuardandReserves,296–297 NationalYouthApprenticeshipAct,301
National Health Screening Council for Volunteer Organiza- Nation at Risk (A): The Imperative for Educational Reform,
tions,Inc.,189 xviii,227,A28,A144
NationalHomeEducator’sLeadershipConference,438 withActionforExcellenceandHighSchool,73,210
NationalInformationInfrastructureAdvisoryCouncil,381 publicationof,190
NationalInstituteforLearning,WorkandService,302 NationPrepared(A):Teachersforthe21stCentury,255–256,
NationalInstituteforLiteracy(NIFL),386–387 451n,A73
NationalInstituteofChildHealthandHumanDevelopment NatureofHumanConlicts(The)(AlexanderLuria),A59
(NICHHD),417 NaziGermany,150,221
NationalInstituteofEducation(NIE),98,137,A41,A159 Nebraska,135,144,194,417
creationof,117–119 NebraskaStateDepartmentofEducation,204
andEdwardCurran,125,161–162,192 NeedmorFund,152
funding of other projects/organizations, 144, 171, 174, negativereinforcers,186
201 Nelson,KentC.“Oz,”333
HowtoMeasureAttitudes,213 Nelson,O.A.,14–15
incorporation into Ofice of Educational Research and NetworkforEffectiveSchools,188,256–257,290
Improvement(OERI),152,211–213 Network for Outcome-Based Schools (William Spady),
andNationalCouncilonEducationalResearch,238 193–194
andResearchonInstructionTeam,172 NetworkofEducationalExcellence,220
andThomasSticht,215 “New AFT President Urges Members to Help Floundering
andWilliamG.Spady,143–144 Schools,”81
NationalInstituteofMentalHealth(NIMH),A145 “NewAge,”74,157–158,248–249,276
NationalInstituteonAlcoholAbuse,109 ofEasternmysticismandWesternoccultism,339
I–32
training,243 eulogyofWassilyLeontief,142–143
NewAmericanSchoolsDevelopmentCorporation(NASDC), “HowtoFixaCrowdedWorld:AddPeople,”388
161,179–180,293–294,297,298,336,A52 “Lessons—Inthequietworldofschools,atimebombis
establishmentof,290 setfor1993oncertifyingteachers,”255
andtheModernRedSchoolhouse,323 “RadicalTheoristTakesHisMessagetotheWorld,”237
andNextGenerationSchoolProject,436–437 “StudySays33%ofYoungAdultsAreIlliterate,”237–238
andSuccessforAll,416 “TheNewWorldOrder,”390–392
NewAtlanticInitiativeStatement,360 “TheSocialStudies:ARevolutionIson—NewApproach
NewBasics(The),413 is Questioning, Skeptical—Students Examine Various
“NewBiology,”28 Cultures,”108–109
NewCenturyDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage(The),1 “U.S.andSovietstoShareInsightsonComputers,”230
NewDeal,95 “WeekintheSubwayasCulturalExchange,”280
“NewDeinitionoftheEducatedMan(A),”23 “Who’llTeachKidsRightfromWrong—TheCharacterEdu-
NewEnglandMedicalCenter,344 cationMovementThinkstheAnswerIstheSchools”
“NewFederalism,”35 (RogerRosenblatt),351–352
NewGenerationofAmericanSchools,278–279 NewYorkUniversity,143
New Genesis: Shaping a Global Spirituality (Robert Muller), NewYorkWorld,10
260 NextGenerationSchoolProject,436–437
Newhouse,Bonnie,284–285 “NextGenerationSchoolProject(The),”167
NewHumanist,21 “NextStep:TheMinnesotaPlan”(PaulBerman),A42–43
NewInternationalEconomicOrder(NIEO),195 Nicaragua,237
NewJersey,144 Nichols,Margaret,264n
NewJerseyDepartmentofHumanServices,441 Niebuhr,Reinhold,205
Newman,Frank,408 1984(GeorgeOrwell),28,441,A26
“NewModelforTeacherEducation—WithFocusonContext NinthNationalSocietyforProgrammedInstructionConven-
andWorkplace:ProjectCouldBetterPrepareStudents” tion,101
(MichaelChilds),425 Nixon,Richard(President),117–119,358,443,A75
NewModelMe(The),124 Norberg,Kenneth,A35
Newport Harbor Ensign (The) (Corona del Mar, California), Nord,Warren,418–419
107–108 Normal School Section of the National Education Associa-
Newport-MesaUniiedSchoolDistrict,107–108 tion,10
News&Observer(The)(Raleigh,NorthCarolina),386 norm-referenced (competitive) testing, 159, 227, 286–287,
“NewSovietMan,”56 361–362
NewStandardsProject,330,369,417,A52–54 Norris,WilliamC.,176
NewsweekMagazine,298,299,371 NorthAmericanAssociationforMontessoriTeachers,15n
“NewTackTakenonReligioninSchools:GroupSeeksEndto NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA),279,291–292,
SecularBias,”418–419 304
NewTestament,22 impactoneducation,315–316
“NewTimesDemandsNewWays,”432–433 “TheEducationalImplicationsofNAFTA,”321
Newton,JesseH.,24 NorthAmericanMontessoriTeachersAssociationJournal,9
NewTransatlanticAgenda(NTA),359–361,411–412 NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO),66
“NewViewsoftheLearner:ImplicationsforInstructionand NorthCarolina,127,226
Curriculum,”148 North Central Association of Colleges and Schools (NCA):
“NewWorldDisorder(The),”205 Michigan Committee’s Outcomes Accreditation,
NewWorldOrder,7,346,361 239–240
“NewWorldOrder(The)”(A.M.Rosenthal),390–392 NorthCentralRegionalEducationalLaboratory(NCREL),273,
NewYork,144 309,432–433,441
NewYorkHeraldTribune,13 Northeast Association for Individualization of Instruction,
NewYorkStateDepartmentofEducation,441,A139 100
NewYorkTimes(The),13,52,67,382 NortheastOhioRoundtable,252
“Beijing Journal: Personal File and Worker Yoked for NorthernIllinoisUniversitySchoolofEducation,184–185
Life,”294 Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory (NWREL), 107,
“CarnegieFoundationSelectsaNewLeader,”80,371 173,199,328
“DeiningLiteracyDownward,”364 ACourseGoalsCollection,95,167
“EarlySchoolingIsNowtheRage,”443–444 as“deliverysystem”forGoals2000,369
Index I–33
and“Education&CommunityServices:EmergingIssues,” OficeofStrategicServices(OSS),38,47,143
423–424 OficeoftheGeneralCounsel,221
“NoticeofProposedRulemakingtoFurtherImplementSection OficeofVocationalandAdultEducation,272
439 of the General Education Provisions Act (Hatch Ohio,446–447
Amendment),”203–204 OhioDepartmentofEducation,364–366
Nouja,Victor,290–291 OhioStateBoardofEducation,369–370,373,403
Novak,Michael,377 OhioStateSchoolBoard,233–234
November,Alan,420 OhioStateUniversity,141
Novotney,JerroldM.,119 OldDominionUniversity,164
NovostiPressAgencyPublishingHouse,241 OldTestament,22
Now Is the Dawning of the New Age World Order (Dennis Olsen,ClarenceR.,85
Cuddy),298 Olson,Jeff,349
“NSBA.EndorsesAllAlternativestoTraditionalSchoolGov- Olson,Judy,249
ernance,”326 Olson,Lynn,235–236,323
NTLNewsletter,39 Olson,RichardK.,417
Nunn,Sam,376 Omaha2000,A68
Nunnary,John,416 Omicinski,John,341–342
OmnibusBudgetBillfor1999,A150
One-WorldGovernment,80,226,248–249,A6
OnPrinciple,140
O on-the-jobtraining,A99,A106–108
OpenClassroom(FollowThroughModel),181–182
O’Neal,Sharon,191 “Open Letter to Governor Voinovich and Members of the
O’Sullivan,John,360 GeneralAssembly(An),”364–366
O*Net,412 OpenSocietyFoundation,395
OBE/ML/DI,88,183,287 OperantBehaviorModiicationProject,109
“ObservingtheBirthoftheHatchAmendmentRegulations” operantconditioning,2,48,115,132
(BertGreene,MarvinPasch),220 andB.F.Skinner,199,238–239,295
OdessaPost,419 deinitionof,186
Oettinger,Anthony,183,330,A155 andIvanPavlov,160
Ofice of Air Research and Development of U.S. Air Force, schooluseof,407
A7 techniquesof,80–81
Ofice of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), theoryof,115
151,171,191 Oppenheimer,Todd,381–383
OficeofEducation(U.S.),154,A7,A39 OpportunitiesIndustrializationCenters,177
BureauofResearch,114 OR/EDLaboratories,409
fundingofprojects/organizations,120,128,213 Oregon,29,133,413,A112
JointDisseminationReviewPanel(JDRP),134–135 lawsuitchallengingeducationreforms,369
andLeonLessinger,127 OregonEducationActfortheTwenty-FirstCentury,337,369
andTerrellH.Bell,133 Oregonian(The),336–338,343–344
OficeofEducationalResearchandImprovement(OERI),63, OregonStateBoardofEducation,134–144
211,330,A81 OrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopmentof
andBrunoV.Manno,377 the Center for Educational Research and Innovation,
and Center for Educational Research and Innovation 35,191
(CERI),151,191 OrganizationofAmericanStates,63
andCharlotteIserbyt,xv,250 OrganizedCrimeControlAct,35
andChesterFinn,117–119,278 Orr,JamesF.,344
andFrankPorterGrahamChildDevelopmentCenter,394 Orton,Samuel,A57
fundingofprojects/organizations,202 Orwell,George,28
andMalcolmDavis,179 Osborne,RuthF.,98
andReadingExcellenceAct,387 Ostrander,Nancy,156–158,426–427
OficeofEducationalResearchandImprovement(OERI):An Ostrander,Sheila,156–158,426–427
Overview,169–170 “OurChildren:TheDrones”(AnnHerzer),A143–149
OficeofLibrariesandLearningTechnology,179–180 “OurEnglishSyllabus”(C.S.Lewis),158n
OficeofSpecialEducationPrograms(U.S.),A93 Outcome-BasedEducation(OBE),119
I–34
andB.F.Skinner,13,105,190 277–278
andCompetency-BasedEducation(CBE),73 ParentAction,441
connectiontoEffectiveSchoolsResearch,168 “Parental Involvement In Education” (James S. Coleman),
dangersof,339,340 300
deinitionof,233 parenteducationprograms,433–434
“drivingforce”of,353 parenting,113
emphasisonoutputs,37,142 “ParentReportCards,”433–434
irstexperimentwith,3–4 ParentsasTeachers(PAT),301–302,417,448
andfundingofH.R.6,286–287 “ParentsFear‘BigBrother’AspectofNewConcept”(Monica
linkedtoProgrammedInstruction,xxvi Lanza),125–126
andMasteryLearning,193–194,370 “ParentsTurntoTutors:RebellionagainstWholeLanguage”
NationalConferenceof(SecondAnnual),240–241 (RosalindRossi,SharonCotliar),366
oppositionto,302,352 “ParentsWhoCare,”209
andOutcomes,193,277–278,313–314 Parker,Alan,299
andremovalofCarnegieUnit,21 Parker,Kathleen,409–410
reportsoffailuresof,355–356 Parkyn,GeorgeW.,98
schoolviolenceasresultof,319 ParticipatoryDemocracy,85,111
andTerrellH.Bell,124–125 Partners for Quality Learning, 313–314. See also Mastery
inUtah,161,215 Learning
andWilliamSpady,201 PARTNERSHIP,189
Outcome-BasedEducationConference,240–241 PartnershipofKentuckySchoolReform,333
Outcome-Based Instructional Management: A Sociological Partnerships in Character Education Pilot Projects Program,
Perspective(WilliamSpady),181 421
Outcomes,193,233,277–278,313–314 “PartnersinaGlobalEconomyWorkingGroup,”411–412
OutcomesAccreditation,240 Pascarelli,JosephT.,125–126
Outcomes-DrivenDevelopmentalModel(ODDM)(JohnCham- Pasch,Marvin,220
plin),217,218 Passow,Harry,197
OutlineofEducationalPsychology,Revised(RudolphPintner Paton,William,33
etal.),1,6n PatrickHenryCollege,437–438
OutoftheNight:ABiologist’sViewoftheFuture(Hermann Patterson,Chris,383–385
Muller),35 Pavlov,Ivan,3,13,75
Ovard,Glen,100 andbehavioralpsychology,118,A58–60
“Overcoming Resistance and Facilitating Change: The NTL andclassicalconditioning,A123
Institute’sApproach,”309 andoperantconditioning,2
Overhold,GeorgeE.,3–4 andSovietpsychiatry,49
Overly,Norman,96 theoriesof,50,58,99
“PaymentforResults,”4
Pease,Marilyn,395–396
Peavey,Melia,344
P PeaveyElectronicsCorporation,344
Peccei,Aurelio,A169
PacerSystems,Inc.,344 PedagogyoftheOppressed(PauloFreire),237
PacesettersinInnovation,56,126,207 Pederson,Barbara,339
PacesettersinInnovation:CumulativeIssueofAllProjectsin Pedamorphosis,Inc.,152
OperationasofFebruary1969,84 Pennington,HilaryC.,327,A96
PaciicandManhattaninstitutes,202 Pennsylvania,133,144,399
Packard,Vance,A146 Pennsylvania’sContemporaryLifeCompetencies,134
Packer,Arnold,266–268,A46 Pennsylvania’sTenQualityGoals,A18–22
PaideaProposal(MortimerAdler),281 PennsylvaniaEducationalQualityAssessment,348–349,393
PaideiaProposal,226 PennsylvaniaStateBoardofEducation,A17–22
Palermini,Anthony,338 PennsylvaniaStateCollege,23
Paley,William,12 People’sRepublicofBulgaria,147
“Panel:MakeEducationCareer-Focused,”402 People’sRepublicofChina,296–297,338–339,A47
Papert,Seymour,251,382 People’sRepublicofHungary,147
“ParadigmChange:MoreMagicthanLogic”(JohnC.Hillary), People’sRepublicofPoland,147
Index I–35
“PeopleControlBlueprint”(CarolDenton),109 Plan for Evaluating the Quality of Educational Programs in
PeoplefortheAmericanWay(PAW),349–350 Pennslyvania(A):HighlightsofaReportfromEduca-
PeopleShapers(The)(VancePackard),A146 tionalTestingServices,69–70,A17–22
PeopleWeekly,29 Planned Change in Education: A Systems Approach (David
PepperdineUniversity,274 Bushnell,DonaldRappaport),68
Perelman,Lewis,139,179,303,A49–50 plannedeconomy,205,345–346.Seealsoschool-to-work
Perestroika,251 “PlanningIsSocialism’sTrademark”(MorrisZeitlin),134
Perfetti,CharlesA.,417 Planning,ProgrammingandBudgetingSystems(PPBS),xvi,
PerformanceAccountabilitySystemforSchoolAdministrators 65,76,84,87–88,142,453n,A41–45,A152.Seealso
(A)(TerrellH.Bell),124–125,A35–39 ManagementbyObjectives(MBO);TotalQualityMan-
Performance-BasedEducation(PBE),119 agement(TQM)
performance-Basedsystems,94,105,159 andElementaryandSecondaryAct(ESEA)of1965,72
Performance-BasedTeacherEducation(PBTE),214,A32–34 in“GeorgiaSchoolsOKTrackingSystems,”407–408
Performance-BasedTeacherEducation:WhatIstheStateofthe andManagementbyObjectives(MBO),124–125,168
Art?(StanleyElam),94,105,A32–34 MaryThompson’sspeechregarding,110–111
“permissiveeducation,”2 StateEducationalRecordsandReportsSeries(NCES),328
Perot,Ross,227 inusethroughoutalldepartmentsoffederalgovernment,
“PerpetuationofOurPoliticalInstitution,”44 55,73
Perpich,Rudy,299,300,A42 Plattner,Andy,A96
PersonalEthicsandtheFutureoftheWorld,252 Pluimer,Harold,173
Pestalozzi,JohannHeinrich,2 PointsofLight,179
Pett,Joel,92n “PoliciesonMissionsforEducationalResearchandDevelop-
PewCharitableTrusts,371 mentCenters,”210–213
PewPartnershipforCivicChange,374 “PolicyaboutPolicy:SomeThoughtsandProjections”(Luvern
Phelps,L.Allen,429,453n Cunningham),164–167
PhiDeltaKappa,220,A32 policyissues,164–167
PhiDeltaKappaPublications,105 PolicyStudiesAssociates,443
PhiDeltaKappan,94,139–140,154,A42 PoliticsofChange(The)(TPOC),200
PhiladelphiaFederationofTeachers,302 PolytechnicalEducation:AStep(RobertH.Beck),272,451n
PhiladelphiaRecord,31 polytechsystem,94,272,317
Philbrick,HerbertA.,49,50 Pomeroy,Wardell,39,48
PhilipDru:Administrator(EdwinMandellHouse),12 Pool,Bob,279
PhillipsDisplayComponents,344 Pool,IthieldeSola,303
PhilosophyofMankind(The),xvi PopePiusXII,138
phonicsinstruction,172,181–182,A156 Population and Family Planning in the People’s Republic of
andBeginningtoRead:ThinkingandLearningaboutPrint China,1971,104
(MarilynJagerAdams),417 populationcontrol,101–104,388
andWholeLanguage,A62–64,A93–94 PopulationCrisisCommittee,104
Physician’s Responsibility as a Leader (The) (Albert Lewis Porteous,David,250–251
Alesen),49 PortHuronManifesto,111
Piaget,Jean,A59,A63 PortlandPublicSchools,337
PicadomeElementary(Kentucky),305 Portugal,219–220,237
Pictor,John,A27 PositiveAttitudetowardLearning,124
Pierce,ChesterM.,113 positivereinforcers,186
Pierce,LawrenceC.,136–137 Powell,RayI.,131–132
Pierleone,RobertG.,101 Power,PhilipH.,A112
Pietersen,William,447 Powers,Stephanie,404
Pines,Marion,A46 Practitioner’sImplementationHandbook[series]:TheOutcome-
“PingHeardRoundtheWorld(The),”104 BasedCurriculum,2ndEd.(CharlotteDanielson),107,
Pino,Edward,100 158n,159,168,264n
Pintner,Rudolph,6n prayer,70
PlaceCalledSchool(A):ProspectsfortheFuture(JohnGood- PrecisionLearning,81
lad),151 “PreconditioningforAcceptanceofChange”(K.M.Heaton),
Planchon,PaulD.,A82 199–200
“PlanforAction(A),”451n PreliminaryModelsofGovernanceforKentucky,167
I–36
PrepareEducationalPlanners(OperationPEP),96 Project Stars (Students Taking Authentic Route to Success),
Pre-serviceTeacherEducationProgram,114 338
President’sAdvisoryCouncilonExecutiveOrganization,112 ProjectstoAdvanceCreativityinEducation(PACE),84,96,
President’sCouncilonSustainableDevelopment,313 126
President’sCommissiononHigherEducation,reportof,39 “PromisingTheoriesDieYoung,”223–225
President’sEconomicCouncil,458 Propaganda(EdwardBernays),12
President’sTaskForceonPrivateSectorInitiatives,175–176 Prophet,ElizabethClare,9
Pressey,S.J.,A11 “Proponents of Mastery Learning Defend Method after Its
PreventingReadingDificultiesinYoungChildren(Catherine RejectionbyChicago,”227
Snow,M.SusanBurns,PegGrifin),212,416–417 ProtectionofPupilRightsAmendment(PPRA),124,210–213,
Pribbenow,ChristineMaidl,429 243,250
Price,Eddie,320–321 andAnitaHoge/Pennsylvaniacase,348–349,A21
“PrimaryEducationFetish”(JohnDewey),6 Protestantism,32
PrimericaFoundation,245 “Psychiatry of Enduring Peace and Social Progress (The)”
PrinceGeorgesCountyPublicSchools,440 (BrockChisholm),36,42
“PrinciplesofProgramming”(RobertGlaser),A13–16 psychologicalexaminations,ofstudents,200
PrinciplesofTeachingBasedonPsychology(The)(EdwardLee Psychology(JohnDewey),5–6
Thorndike),5 Psychology (Wilbert James McKeachie, Charlotte Lackner
PritchardCommittee,320–321 Doyle),75
Pritchett,HenryS.,8 PsychologyAppliedtoTeaching(RobertBienter),99–100
privacy,138,297,A21 “Psychology’sBestKeptSecrets,”A57–64
“PrivateActs/PublicPolicy:AlfredKinsey,theAmericanLaw Psychosynthesis: A Manual of Principles and Techniques
Institute and the Privatization of American Sexual (RobertoAssagioli),73–74,229,264n
Morality”(DavidAllyn),49 psychotherapy,126
privateschools,184.Seealsovouchers PTA(Parent-TeacherAssociation),144
privatization,ofeducation,202,299–300,305 PublicEducationReligionStudyCenter,419
“PrivatizationorSocialization?”(CynthiaWeatherly),305 “PublicService,PublicSupport,PublicAccountability”(Ches-
Procter&Gamble,446 terFinn),184
ProilesinExcellence:1982–1983:SecondarySchoolRecognition “PurposesofAssessment(The),”407
Program:AResourceGuide,180 PursuingExcellence—AStudyofU.S.TwelfthGradeMathemat-
ProgrammedInstruction,xxvi icsandScienceAchievementinInternationalContext:
programmedlearning,174.Seealsocomputer-assistedinstruc- InitialFindingsfromtheThirdInternationalMathemat-
tion icsandScienceStudy(TIMMS),xiv
Programmed Learning: Evolving Principles and Industrial PuttingLearningFirst:GoverningandManagingtheSchools
Applications(JeromeP.Lysaught),61,A11–16 forHighAchievement,352
ProgramsthatWork(NationalDiffusionNetwork),130–131, “puzzlebox,”4.Seealsocomputers;Skinner’s“box”
158n
ProgressandFreedomFoundation,179,452n,A49
FirstAnnualMeeting,303
ProgressiveEducation,11,22–23 Q
ProgressiveEducationAssociation(PEA),11,12,20–23,89
asacommunistfront,14–15 QualityProgress,399
ProhibitionagainstFederalControlofEducation,Section432, Quayle,Dan,323,388–389
GeneralEducationProvisionsAct(GEPA),94–95 “QuayleBacksChurch-GovernmentPartnerships,”389
Project’81,133,144,154 QueensAviationHighSchool(NewYork),330
ProjectBASIC,204–205 Quenzer,Marla,276
ProjectBEST,170–171,A37–38 “QuestionofEffectiveness(A),”419–420
ProjectBEST:BasicEducationalSkillsthroughTechnology,67 Quigley,Carroll,12–13
ProjectBESTDisseminationDesignConsiderations,170–171
Project Follow Through, 75–76, 150, 181. See also Follow
Through
DirectInstructionModelsof,181–182,387,A91–93,A151 R
ProjectfortheRepublicanFuture,377
ProjectINSTRUCT,72,81,134–135,203–204,216–217 “RadicalTheoristTakesHisMessagetotheWorld,”237
ProjectRead,82-83 Rahberger,Quint,327
Index I–37
RajaYoga,157–158 Reece,Carroll,47
Randall,Ruth,236,A42 ReeceCommittee,46–48,232,239
RandCorporation(The),A24,A43 Reed,Jack,415–416
RandomHouse,156,197 Rees,NinaShikraii,428–429
RandSchoolofSocialStudies,8 Reeves,Douglas,420
Rappaport,Donald,68 “RegulatedCompetitionintheUnitedStates,”183
Rarick,JohnR.,15n RehabilitationCommission,384
Raths,Louis,21 Reid,Ethna,80–81,117,228
Raven,Bertram,67 and Exemplary Center for Reading Instruction (ECRI),
Ravitch,Diane,352,A128 A91,A152
Rayburn,Sam,48 meetingwithPresidentReagan,A156
Re:Learning,218,332–333 and Preventing Reading Dificulties in Young Children,
Projectof,333–334 416
Rea,Stephen,415 Reid,Kathleen,80
ReachfortheStars:AProposalforEducationReforminGeorgia Reid,Shauna,80
(MatthewJ.Glavin),285–287,451n Reiff,Judith,426
Reader’sDigest(The),248 “Reign of Terror—Impressions of KERA” (Eddie Price),
“ReaderRabbit”(readingprogram),382 320–321
ReadingEagle/Times(The),310,334 ReinventingtheFuture:GlobalGoalsforthe21stCentury(Rush-
ReadingExcellenceActof1998(H.R.2614),66,95,236,402, worthKidder),251–252
429 Reischauer,EdwinO.,83
anddirectinstruction,117,330 Reisen,M.S.,104
passingof,byCongress,386–388 Reisman,George,274
andphonicsreadingprograms,311 Reisman,Judith,39,53n
and Preventing Reading Dificulties in Young Children, Relations of Denominations to Colleges (Henry S. Pritchett),
416 8
relyingonSkinnerianmethodtoteachreading,xxvii religion,2,229
asresultofBecomingaNationofReaders,211–213 ReligionandEducationPartnership,438
resultsof,A126-129 “ReligionforaNewAge(A)”(JohnDunphy),192–193
supportfromRighttoReadFoundation,182 Religion, Values, and Peak Experiences (Abraham Maslow),
andtutoringcenters,366 229
Reading/LiteratureAssessment(1979–1980),177 ReligiousHeritageofAmerica,Inc.,419
ReadingMastery,A93–94,A151–152 ReligiousRight,354
ReadingsinIndustrialPsychology,23 Rennie,JohnC.,344
“Ready,READ!”(NicholasLemann),435–436 Reno,Janet,410,434
Reafirmation of Faith in Maine’s Public Schools (Margaret Rensi,Ed,344
Stubbs),354–355 “Reorganization of Government according to the Malcolm
Reagan,Billy,174 BaldridgeAwardCriteria,”92n
Reagan,Ronald,asGovernorofCalifornia,76,200,A64 Report from the State Committee on Public Education to the
Reagan,Ronald(President),161,205–206 California State Board of Education—Citizens for the
administrationof,91,118,237 21stCentury—Long-RangeConsiderationsforCalifornia
andthe“IndustrialPolicyDebate,”328 ElementaryandSecondaryEducation(JohnGoodlad),
andTerrellH.Bell,124–125,A39,A41 88–89
U.S.-SovietEducationAgreements,30,45,229–230,A140 ReportoftheStudy,TitleIII,ESEA(EmoryStoof),96
wishtoabolishEducationDepartment,A76 “ReportontheWorktowardNationalStandards,Assessments
“Reaganomics,”205 andCertiicates”(DianaM.Fessler),369–370
“Real-LifeSchoolEliminatesBooks,”383 ReporttothePresident’sCommissiononSchoolFinance,Issue
ReasonFoundation,202 #9,”StrategiesforChange,”207
“RecipeforEducationalDisaster,”448–449 ReporttothePresident’sCommissiononSchoolFinance(School
“RecommendationsforDelphiDiscussionGroups,”92n fortheFuture:TowardQualityandEqualityinAmerican
RecommendationsonAdultEducation,196 PrecollegiateEducation),106–107
“Red”China,50,149–150,221,398 RepositoryforGerminalChoice,35–36
Redenbach,Sandi,420 Republicans,162,205
RediscoveringtheMindoftheChild(WilliamE.Martin),120 RepublicofFinland,147
RedStaroverChina(EdgarSnow),104 RepublicofGreece,147
I–38
ResearchCenterforGroupDynamics,A60 Rogers,Spence,420
ResearchCommittee(The),19 Rogers,Tarenia,331
ResearchCommitteeonRecentSocialTrendstoImplementthe RoleofPsychiatryandLaw(ManfredS.Guttmacher),40
PlannedSociety,17 RoleoftheComputerinFutureInstructionalSystems,67
“Researchers Leery of Federal Plans for Collaboration—Fear RoleoftheSchoolintheCommunity(HowardW.Hickey,Curtis
‘Cooperative’LinkaPathto‘Intervention’,”236 VanVoorhees),85
ResearchforBetterSchools,Inc.,69,100,127,144,150 role-playing,132
ResearchonInstructionTeam,172 Rollins,Sid,100
Resnick,Lauren,177,247,330,A96,A112 Romney,George,176
ResolvingSocialConlicts(KurtLewin),A62 Roosa,Robert,112
Reston,James,67 Roosevelt,EdithKermit,82–83
results-basededucation,159 Roosevelt,Franklin(President),12,19
“ResultsoftheUseofMachinesforTestingandforDrillupon RooseveltHighSchool,337
LearninginEducationalPsychology”(JamesKenneth Root,Jane,100
Little),A8 Rosenblatt,Roger,351–352
RevisedCode(The),3–4 Rosenthal,A.M.,390–392
“Revised Report of Population Subcommittee, Governor’s Rosev.CouncilforBetterEducation,Inc.,263
Advisory Council on Environmental Quality” (Michi- Rossi,Rosalind,366
gan),101–104 Rouse,WilliamB.,327
RhodeIslandCollege,100 Rousseau,Jean-Jacques,1,2
RhodesScholarshipFund,12 Rowan,Brian,37,161,201,A159–166
Rice,Ken,401 RowanGaitherLecturesSeries,76
Rifkin,Jeremy,A167 Rowe,Lawrence,240
Right-to-Read,72.SeealsoDirectInstruction;ExemplaryCenter RoyalInstituteofInternationalAffairs,18
forReadingInstruction(ECRI) Rozynko,Vitali,109
RighttoReadFoundation(RRF),182,197,A154 Rudd,AugustineG.,A146
Riley,Richard,216,257,298,345,350 Rugg,Harold,11,12,21,31,64
andDianaM.Fessler,403 Ruopp,Faye,396–397
andgovernmentplantopreventschoolviolence,410 Russell,Bertrand,44–45
asGovernorofSouthCarolina,393–394 Russell,HermanJ.,344
andNationalIssuesinEducation,359 Russell,JamesEarl,4
andReligionandEducationSummit,438 Russia,10,44,221,292–294
andsixthStateofAmericanEducationspeech,447–448 cooperatingwithAmericaeducationally,266
and Together We Can: A Guide for Crafting a Pro-family implementinginternationaleducationrestructuring,188
SystemofEducationandHumanServices,439 “Russia Is the Model Country of International Bankers and
Risinger,C.Frederick,108–109 Industrialists Administered by the United Nations
Rivero,Carlos,447 HeadquartersinGeneva,Switzerland,”10
Rivlin,AliceM.,76,92n “RussianTeacherReviewsWorkinSAD[SchoolAttendance
“RoadMapforRestructuringSchools,”270–271 District]53”(BrendaSeekins),345–346
RoadtoRevolution(K.M.Heaton),92n Russinoff,Elisabeth,232
Robinson,Phil,224 RutherfordInstitute,401
Roche,George,238–239,364 Rutter,Michael,189
RochesterDemocratandChronicle,219 Ruzzi,BetsyBrown,A96
Rockefeller,David,141,302,A96,A112 Ryan,Carson,11
Rockefeller,JohnD.,7,8,9 Ryan,CharlesJ.,128
RockefellerArchiveCenter,49 Ryan,Kevin,219–220,264n,312
RockefellerBrothersFoundation,245 CenterfortheAdvancementofEthicsandCharacter,351,
Rockefellerendowments,5 421
RockefellerFoundation,19,35,40,47,152,176 Ryskind,Allan,A129
andCenterforEducationalInnovation,299
controlofeducation,10,11,13
andPeterC.Goldmark,Jr.,376
Roev.Wade,388 S
Rogers,Carl,115,117,A40–41
Rogers,Laura,301–302 SafeandDrugFreeSchoolsConference,410
Index I–39
SAFELearningSystems,92n,A27 “SchoolroomShufle:TrailinginEducationforYears,Kentucky
Salamon,LesterM.,287–288,377,A46 TriesRadicalReforms—Grades1through3BecomeOne
“Salem-KeizerTestScoresFall,”400 ClasswithNoTexts,Desks,orReportCards—SomePar-
Salser,CarlW.,98 ents,PrincipalsBalk”(SuzanneAlexander),304–305
Salte,Andrew,49 schools
Sandberg,JohnH.,153–154 charter,290,336,352,362–363
SanDiegoCitySchools,440 climateof,199
Sanford,Terry,73 essential,344–345
SantaAnaUniiedSchoolDistrict,433–434 familiesin,345
Santer,Jacques,359–361 innercity,362–363
Savannah-ChathamCountyYouthFuturesAuthority,441 magnet,155,317,448
SavetheChildrenInternational,416 model,251
Sawhill,Isabel,A46 associalratherthanindividualist,6
Sayare,Mitchell,344 statetakeoverof,298
Sayer,GeorgeJack,158n “Schools:IntotheFuture,”336–338
Sayre,Wallace,59 “SchoolsCanOfferHealthServices,”154–155
Scanlon,RobertG.,68,100,127 “SchoolSiteManagement”(LawrenceC.Pierce),136–137
Schaeffer,Francis,xxvi,123,185–186,A130 “Schools Learn Lessons in Efficiency from Business,”
Schafer,WilliamDonald,242–243 398–399
Schlaly,Phyllis,124,158n,A131 “SchoolsoftheFuture,”263
Schlesinger,ArthurJr.,13 “SchoolstoTryNewProgram,”111
Schmidt,BennoC.,297–298 “SchoolSystemoftheFuture”(PaulBrandwein),78
Schmitt,Bernadotte,12 School-to-Career.Seeschool-to-work
Schmitt,Clara,A62 School-to-CareerAcademyConference,413–414
Schmitt,MarshallL.,57 school-to-work,286,301,448
ScholasticAchievementTest(SAT),216,364 criticismsof,370
School’s Out: A Radical New Formula for the Revitalization DianaM.Fessler’soppositionto,403–405
ofAmerica’sEducationalSystem(LewisJ.Perelman), “GovernorwithPrinciplesWouldRejectSchool-to-Work,”
139,179,303,A49 430
SchoolBell,145–146 improvingeaseoftransitionintowork,425
schoolboardmembers(elected),roleof,165,364–366 “LeadingBusinessExecutivesCreateCounciltoPromote
schoolchoice,xxvii,458.Seealsovouchers S-T-WPrograms,”344
inHongKong,380 inmagnet/charterschools,317
increasingamountof,374–375 inMaine,271–272,355
SchoolClimateProile,199 andNationalInstituteonCareerMajors,424–425
SchoolCounselor(The),145,203 polytechsystem,94,272,317
“SchoolEffectivenessandImplicationsforSecondarySchool programswith,338
Improvement”(AlanCohen),173 andRussia,251,345–346
SchoolEffectivenessTrainingNetwork(SET/Net),238–239 “School-to-Work Academy: A ‘Model’ for Chaos,”
“SchoolExamsLikelytoHaveRussianOrigin,”334 412–413
“SchoolImprovement,”173 suggestionsforimplementing,245–247,266–268,406
SchoolingandTechnology,Vol.3,PlanningfortheFuture:A inTexas,383–385
CollaborativeModel,AnInterpretiveReportonCreative andTogetherWeCan,443
Partnerships in Technology—An Open Forum (Dustin inWisconsin,437
H.Heuston),213 “School-to-Work Academy: A ‘Model’ for Chaos” (Christine
SchoolingforaGlobalAge(JamesBecker),151,162 Burns),412–413
SchoolingintheUnitedStates(JohnGoodlad,M.FrancesKlein, School-to-WorkCareerInventoryandAssessments,414
JerroldM.Novotney),119–120 “School-to-Work Gets Poor Grade in Study” (Mark Shrug,
School-LinkedIntegratedServicesStudyGroup,440 RichardWestern),437
School of Darkness: The Record of a Life and of a Conlict School-to-WorkOpportunitiesAct,304,428,A74,A126
betweenTwoFaiths(BellaV.Dodd),53n historyof,357–359
“SchoolOficialsUpsetbyNewStatePlan,”234 andLearningforLife,389–390
SchooloftheFutureofElCentroFamiliarOficeoftheFamily inOregon,336–338
ServiceCenter(Houston,Texas),441 passingof,byCongress,317
“SchoolPlanSkipsovertheBasics”,361–362 School-to-WorkRevolution(The)(LynnOlson),271–272
I–40
School-to-WorkTransitionintheUnitedStates:TheCaseofthe “Seniors’ChurchAttendance,”279–280
Missing Social Partners—A Report of the Governance sensitivitytraining,107–108,126,131–132
andFinanceTeamoftheComparativeLearningTeams “SeparationofSchoolandState:WhyWeCannotSign”(Lynn
Project(RobertW.Gloveretal.),326–327 andSarahLeslie),176,452n
Schrag,Peter,A146 Serageldin,Ismael,A51
Schroeder,Lynn,156–158,426–427 “ServiceLearningProjectsMatchStudentswithNeedsinthe
Schultz,William,115 Salem-KeizerCommunity,”346–347
Schultze,CharlesL.,83 “SevenCardinalPrinciplesRevisited(The),”140–141
Schuster,Donald,427 SevenIntelligences(HowardGardner),340–341
Schutz,Mary,399 sexeducation,20,98,132,145,360–361
Schwartz,Judah,382 and The Change Agents’ Guide to Innovation in Educa-
Schwartz,Robert,A96 tion,280
Schwarz,Gretchen,354 andMathtech,Inc.,443
Science(magazine),A8 negativeeffectsof,203
Science,“metaphysicalexplanations,”122 “Sex Education—Student Syllabus No: 216786, correlated
“ScienceandCommonSense,”122 with M.I.P. 180800” (Lester A. Kirkendall, Ruth F.
Science and Human Behavior (B.F. Skinner), 28, 48, 53n, Osborne),98
77–78 SexualBehaviorintheHumanFemale(AlfredC.Kinsey),48
ScienceofLearningandtheArtofTeaching(The)(B.F.Skin- SexualBehaviorintheHumanMale(AlfredC.Kinsey),28,
ner),60,A8 39–40,48
“scientiicpedagogy.”SeealsoOutcome-BasedEducation SexualHabitsofAmericanMen:ASymposiumontheKinsey
Scott,F.Eugene,327 Report(AlbertDeutsch),39
Scott,Mark,327 Shalala,Donna,439
Scott,WilliamE.,21 “ShamanisticRitualsinEffectiveSchools”(BrianRowan),201,
Sculley,John,302,A72,A96,A112 264n,A159–166
SearchTechnology,Inc.,327 Shane,Harold,128,139–140
SecondAnnualModelSchoolsConference,330 Shanker,Albert,81,236,256,301,A130
andHighSchoolsThatWork,307–308 as President of American Federation of Teachers (AFT),
synopsisof,334–336 A128
Secretary’sCommissiononAchievingNecessarySkills(SCANS) Reach for the Stars: A Proposal for Education Reform in
(U.S.LaborDepartment),83,147,286,451n,A48 Georgia,285
creationofcommittee,266–268 Shannon,Thomas,290
NationalSkillsStandardsBoard,304 ShapingEducationalPolicy(JamesConant),73,210
andnewapproachestoassessment,330 Shaw,Peter,307–308
studentresumes,294 Sheehan,Geralyn,439
andThomasSticht,215,A155 Shepardson,Whitney,12
SecretRecordsRevealed:TheMen,theMoneyandtheMethods Shields,Dorothy,177
BehindtheNewWorldOrder(DennisCuddy),6n “ShockingBeliefsbehindEducationalStrategicPlanning(The)”
SecularHumanism,22 (MichaelJacques),353
SecularHumanismandtheSchools:TheIssueWhoseTimeHas “Shocking U.S. Agreements to Let Soviet and Red Chinese
Come(OnaleeMcGraw),21–22 EducatorsIndoctrinateAmerica’sChildren,”230
Seekins,Brenda,345–346 ShreveportJournal(The)(Louisiana),95–96
Seguin,Edouard,8 Shrug,Mark,437
self-esteemeducation.Seecharactereducation Shulman,Lee,79–80,235,371,A153
self-hypnosis,132,248 Siegelman,Jim,A146
self-revelation,207–208 SiemensCorporation,344
Selleck,Tom,351 Silber,John,418
semanticdeception,xvii,xviii,447 Silber,Kenneth,A35
Semenov,Alexey,250–251 SiliconSnakeOil:SecondThoughtsontheInformationHighway
SenateArmedServicesCommittee,376 (CliffordStoll),382
SenateJournalResolution#214(U.S.),101–104 Simonds,RobertL.,343,347–348,350
Senate Republican Policy Committee on Illiteracy (U.S.), Sinclair,Robert,100
284–285 Sinclair,Upton,8
Senese,Donald,169–170,191 site-basedmanagement,85
Senge,Peter,310 Sitte,Margaret,348–349
Index I–41
situationethics,132 andAmerica,24
Sizemore,Barbara,362–363 partyof,23
Sizer,Theodore,24–25,141,218,226,A43 stateof,148
andCoalitionofEssentialSchools,344–345 worldgovernmentof,205
SkillsandTasksforJobs:ASCANSReportforAmerica2000, SocialScienceResearchCouncil,18
A134 “Social Studies (The): A Revolution Is on—New Approach
skillsstandards,304 Is Questioning, Skeptical—Students Examine Various
Skinner,B.F.(BurrhusFrederic),3,13,61,146,217.Seealso Cultures,”108–109
DirectInstruction;MasteryLearning;operantcondition- SocialStudiesHorizons,275
ing;Outcome-BasedEducation SocietyforAccelerativeLearningandTeaching(SALT),427
B.F.Skinner:TheManandHisIdeas,77–78 SocietyforEffectiveAffectiveLearning(SEAL),427
behavioraltheories,122,A12–16 Socraticmethod,67,226,A7
BeyondFreedomandDignity,109,185–186,A26 Soholt,Sylvia,A70
andcomputers,88,319,381 Solzhenitsyn,Alexander,xiii,339
andDirectInstruction,75 “SomeResponsestotheLiteracyProblem”(WillardDaggett),
educationtheories,196–197 196
extentphilosphieshavespread,447 Soros,George,395,452n
functionsofgovernment,306 Source-BookforNewWaysofThinkinginEducation:AU.S.-
HowtoTeachAnimals,80 SovietGuide,A138
atIndianaUniversity,35 SouthCarolina,172,291
inluencesonothers,xxvi,269,303 “South Carolina Takes to Heart Coach’s Shot at ‘Horrible’
Man:ACourseofStudy(M:ACOS),114–115 Schools,”393–394
manandenvironment,beliefsof,185–186 SoutheastAsiaTreatyOrganization(SEATO),66
andProgrammedInstruction,xxvi SouthernEducationBoard(SEB),9
programmedlearning,beliefsof,99–100 SouthernEducationFoundation,399
TheScienceofLearningandtheArtofTeaching,60,A8 SouthernIllinoisUniversity,252
TechnologyofTeaching,81–82 SouthernLiving,274
andWaldenTwo,28,35,40–42,283,A146 SouthernRegionalEducationBoard(SREB),187–188,307
Skinner’s“box”(computer),69,88,319,A124–125,A128 SouthSt.PaulPublicSchools,131–132
Skinner’sReadingProgram,197 SovietAcademyofScience,30,A137,A139
“Skinner’sTeachingMachinesandProgrammingConcepts,” SovietCentralCommittee,241
A8 SovietChallengetoAmerica(The)(GeorgeCounts),18–19
Skinnerianmethodology,4,69,94 SovietEducationPrograms:Foundations,Curriculums,Teacher
andevolution,223 Preparation(WilliamK.Medlin,ClarenceB.Lindquist,
asmodelforeducationalaccountability,192 MarshallL.Schmitt)),57–58
andresults-basededucation,159 SovietPreschoolEducation(HenryChauncey),79
Skocpol,Theda,372 Soviets in the Classroom: America’s Latest Education Fad
Slavin,Robert,224–225,420,435–436 (CharlotteIserbyt),46,261–262,A136–142
“SmartcardsProjectForum,”411 SovietUnion,134,136,150,161,227–228
Smith,EugeneR.,21 patriotismof,58
Smith,Frank,A57,A64 psychiatryof,49
Smith,GeorgeW.,146 Spady,William,125,134,141,160,183,240
Smith,Marshall,A96 addresstoASCDHighSchoolFuturesPlanningConsortium
Smoot,Dan,92n III,284–285
Snow,CatherineE.,212,417 associationwithWillardDaggett,407
Snow,Edgar,104 ChoosingOutcomesofSigniicance,354
Snowe,Olympia,272 “Competency-BasedEducation:ABandwagoninSearchof
“SocialandPhilosophicalImplicationsofBehaviorModiica- aDeinition,”134–144
tion(The),”109 debatewithMichaelFarris,438
“SocialContract,”2 “EnsuringtheSuccessofAllStudentsTodayforTomorrow’s
SocialistFederalRepublicofYugoslavia,147 ChangingWorld,”272
SocialistRepublicofCzechoslovakia,147 FarWestLaboratory[forEducationalResearchandDevelop-
SocialistRepublicofRumania,147 ment],215–217,218
socialists,64 functionsofmasterylearning,182
(collectivist)systemof,7 HighSuccessNetwork,322,335,343
I–42
andMasteryLearning,331 trictsAreScoringVeryPoorlyinStatewideEvaluation,”
NationalInstituteofEducation(NIE),147 446–447
andOutcome-BasedEducation(OBE),37,181,193,201 stateregulationofschools,146
ProjectBEST,171 “StateRoleinGlobalEducationResourceGuideunderReview,”
andRobertSimonds,343,347–348 276
Spatz,Don,310 states,listof
Spayd,Elizabeth,268–269 involvedincharactereducation,351
SPEEDEExPress(ExchangeofPermanentRecordsElectroni- Southern,307
callyofStudentsandSchools),A47,A84 StatesmanJournal(The)(Oregon),346–347,400,408–409
Spencer,Carl,204 StateUniversityofNewYork,351
SpencerFoundation,152 “StatusofInternationalizationofEducation”(CharlotteIser-
Sperling,Gene,458 byt),A126–131
Spring,Bill,A96 Stefansen,Jim,116
Sputnik,53 Steiger,Fritz,299
Squires,Geoffrey,A35 Steinberg,Jacques,280
St.LouisCareerAcademy,412–413 Steiner,JesseF.,24
St.Mary’sUniversity,299 Steiner,Rudolph,9
St.PaulPioneerPress,422 Stenehjem,Robert(Bob),348–349
“StabbedintheBackontheFourthofJuly”(DanSmoot),67 StepbyStepprogram,394–395
Stachowski,Ernest,420 StephenReav.OhioDepartmentofEducation,415
StaffDataHandbook:Elementary,Secondary,andEarlyChild- StepstoBetterWriting:ASystematicApproachtoExpository
hood(1994),406,A81 Writing(GeneStanford),158
“StagesofMoralDevelopment,”130–131,421 Stern,David,429
Stalin,Josef,12 Stevens,William,108–109
Standardization of Postsecondary Education Electronic Data Stewart,Donald,A46
Exhcange(SPEEDE),306 Sticht,ThomasB.,146–147,215–216,A155
standardizedtests,234,402,432–433 andcareerpassports,268
standards andMasteryLearning,331
national,329 Stimson,Henry,12
performance,329 St.LouisGlobe-Democrat,234
“StandardsforOhioSchools:ComingTogethertoBuildaFuture St.LouisMetro,415–416
WhereEveryChildCounts,”369–370 Stoll,Clifford,382
Standard-Times (The) (New Bedford, Massachusetts), StoryoftheEight-YearStudy(The)(WilfordM.Aikin),20–21
395–396 “StrategicLearningConference:AToolKittoPowerBusiness
Stanford,Gene,StepstoBetterWriting:ASystematicApproach Performace(1999),”447
toExpositoryWriting,158 StrategicLearningModel,447
StanfordResearchInstitute,141 strategicplanning,353
StanfordUniversity,99,182,241,441,A24 “StrategicPlanningandFurtheringExcellenceinMillardPublic
grantfromCarnegieFoundation,235 Schools”(Nebraska),194
StantonElementarySchool,305 Strohmeyer,Jeremy,29
Star-Ledger(Newark,NewJersey),427–428,430–431 StructuredLearning,81
StateCapacityBuilding,171 Strum,Jerome,383
StateDepartmentPublication7277:TheUnitedStatesProgram Stubbs,Margaret,354–355
forGeneralandCompleteDisarmamentinaPeaceful Student Data Handbook: Elementary, Secondary, and Early
World,65 Childhood(1994),406,A81
“State Education Chief Pushes Revolutionary Plan for the students,xiii–xiv,281–284
Nation,”242–243 StudentsforaDemocraticSociety,111
StateHealthEducationProgram(SHEP),175 StudentsRecyclingUsedTechnology(STRUT),408–409
“StateofEducationCriticized—NonproitOrganizationHiredat StudentTeamLearning,226,233
FormerGovernor’sUrgingPinpointsWeaknesseswithin StudyofSchooling(The)(1973)(JohnGoodlad),397
Ohio’sAcademicSystem,”445–446 StudyofSchoolingintheUnitedStates(A)(1979)(JohnGood-
StateofKentucky’sEducationReformCommission,166–167 lad),119,151–152
“StateofPre-collegeEducationinMathematicsandScience,” StullBill,(AB293),76,107–108
182–183 Stupski,LawrenceJ.,344
“State Ranking of Schools Sure to Rankle: Many Area Dis- SubversiveInluenceintheEducationalProcess:Hearingsbefore
Index I–43
theSubcommitteetoInvestigatetheAdministrationof “TamaStory(The):EducationalTyrannyinIowa,”254
the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Tannebaum,Abe,197
LawsoftheCommitteeontheJudiciary:UnitedStates Taoism,22
Senate,45 TargetTeachingApproach(MadelineHunter),226
“SuccessEludes10-Year-OldAgency,”118,192 TaskForceReportonEffectiveSchoolingtotheHonorableJay
SuccessforAll,435–436 S.Hammond(Alaska),173
“Success with Coalition Reforms Seen Limited in Some Taubman,Al,344
Schools”(DebraViadero),326 TavistockInstitute,411–412
“Suggestions for Holding a Local Assembly on National tax-exemptfoundations,176–179,232,372
Goals,”60 “taxonomy,”A113–121
SuggestiveAccelerativeLearningandTeaching(SALT),340 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classiication of
Suggestology,156–158,340 Educational Goals, Handbook II, Affective Domain
SummitChristianAcademy,222–223 (BenjaminBloom,DavidKrathwohl,BertramMassie),
Superlearning (Sheila Ostrander, Lynn Schroeder, Nancy 29,52–53,65,69,187,A22,A89,A113
Ostrander),156–158 Taylor,FrederickWinslow,435–436
Superlearning2000(SheilaOstrander,LynnSchroeder,Nancy Taylor,Ray,409
Ostrander),426–427 Taylor,Robert,A35
“Survey of Former Pasco, Washington Teachers Gives Out- Teacher’sHandbook(The)(AmericanInstituteforCharacter
comes-BasedEducationInsights,”356 Education),229
“SusanKovalik’sIntegratedThematicInstruction,”339–341 teacheraccountability,4
“Suspicions about the Statewide Tests” (Jeff Jacoby), teacherbehaviormodiication,114–117
392–393 TeacherDevelopmentPre-ServiceModelofExcellenceInitia-
SustainableAmerica:ANewConsensusforProsperity,Opportu- tive,425
nityandHealthyEnvironmentfortheFuture,313 teachereducation,293
SutterHealthSystems,327 forCarnegie-MellonUniversity,153
Sutton,GenYvette,322–323 TeacherEducationConference(22ndAnnual),88
Suyin,Han,104 TeacherPreparationExperiencedSystematically,90
Svengalis,Cordell,275–277 “TeachersAreRecycled,”107–108
SwarthmoreCollege,12 Teachers’College.SeeColumbiaTeachers’College
Sweet,Robert,182,A154 “Teachers’ Group to Develop New Curriculum” (Karel Hol-
Swift,Josephine,109 loway),222–223
Swift,Kenneth,109 “TeachersInluenceStudentssValuesthroughWritingAssign-
SylvanLearningCenters,331,366 ments,”223
Sylwester,Robert,341 “TeachersTaughttoBe‘AgentsofSocialChange’,”126
SyracuseUniversity,A24 TeacherTrainingManual,A153
SystematicApproachforEffectiveness(SAFE),217,A27–28 “TeachingaboutReligion,”419
“SystematicThinkingforSocialAction,”76 TeachingasaMoralCraft(AlanTom),214–215
Systems Analysis for Educational Change: The Republic of “teachingmachines,”A7–8,A12–16
Korea,A30 “Teaching Machines and Human Beings” (John W. Blyth),
A9
TeachingMachinesandProgrammedLearning:ASourceBook
(A.A.Lumsdaine,RobertGlaser),60,A7–10,A13
T TeachingModels,233
“TeachingPolitics,”370–371
Taba,Hilda,21,115,117,208 teachtothetest,4,159,326,396–397
TacticsforThinking(RobertMarzano),248–249,261,264n, TeachYourChildtoReadin100EasyLessons,A151
312-313,419 “techademics,”308,449
“Tactics for Thinking Attacked in Washington, Indiana,” TechnicalandProfessionalSkillsStandards,A105
248–249 TechnicalAssistanceNetwork,443
TacticsTrainer’sManual,249 technology,128,138,187,213
Tagaart,Robert,273 “Children,Computers,andEducation,”250–251
TakingReligionSeriously(CharlesHaynes),418–419 inclassrooms,419–420
“TakingTechnicalAssistanceontheRoad,”394–395 Special Committee on Instructional Technology Report
Talking with Your Child about a Troubled World (Lynne (NEA),174
Dumas),A174 TechnologyofTeaching(B.F.Skinner),81–82
I–44
Teheranconference,12 Time(magazine),32,104,299
Tempus,Kent,253 TimeforResults:Governors’ReportonEducation,239
TenCommandments,21–22 “TimetoOverhaultheElementaryandSecondaryActof1965”
Tennessee,144 (NinaShikraiiRees),428–429
Tennesseev.JohnThomasScopes(ScopesMonkeyTrial),13 Time-Warner,297–298
Terman,LewisM.,A61 “ToB.F.SkinnerandJamesG.Holland,”109
“TestBoardTacklesSecrecyStigma”(JeffOlson),349 Toch,Thomas,73,209–210
tests,159,432–433,A154,A164–165 Today’sEducation(NationalEducationAssociation),81,92n,
Texas,124,144 140–141,172,182
TexasAlternativeDocument(TAD),417 Tofler,Alvin,128–129,179,180,303,A49–50
Texas Association for Supervision and Curriculum Develop- Tofler,Heidi,303
ment,227 TogetherWeCan:AGuideforCraftingaPro-familySystemof
TexasChristianAlertNetwork(TCAN),383–385 EducationandHumanServices,439,447–449
TexasEducationAgency,105,178,384 Toledo,Alejandro,99
TexasObjectivesforTotalAcademicLearning(TOTAL),227 Tomorrow’sEducator:AnAlternativetoToday’sSchoolPerson
TexasStudyofAdultFunctionalCompetency,183 (RonBarnes),181
TexasWorkforceCommission,384 “Tomorrow’sTechnologyinToday’sSchools”(DexterFletcher),
T-GroupTraining,132 174
Thatcher,Margaret,358 “ToOBEorNottoOBE?”(MarjorieLedell),322
ThatHideousStrength(C.S.Lewis),37 Torcasov.Watkins,22
T.H.E.Journal,250–251 Torkelson,Gerald,A35
Thelen,Herbert,114 ToSecureOurFuture:TheFederalRoleinEducation(NCEE),
“Theobold’sEightDrivingForces,”272 A73
TheosophicalPublishingHouse,9 “TotalEducationalGovernanceSystemforLifetimeLearning,
“ThereHasBeenaConspiracyofSilenceaboutTeaching:B.F. StructuralFeaturesandHighlights,”167
SkinnerArguesthatPedagogyIsKeytoSchoolReforms” “TotalitarianData-GatheringSystemPreparedbyU.S.Depart-
(SusanWalton),196–197 mentofEducation”(SamuelBlumenfeld),A81–89
“ThiefofAmericanIndividualism(The):TotalQualityManage- “TOTALPresentationSetforEducators,”227
mentandSchool-to-Work”(TimClem),A132–135 TotalQualityEducation(TQE),283
ThirdWave(The)(AlvinTofler),180 TotalQualityforSchools:ASuggestionforAmericanEducation
ThirtySchoolsTellTheirStory:EachSchoolWritesofItsPar- (JosephC.Fields),305–306
ticipationintheEight-YearStudy,21 TotalQualityManagement(TQM),xvi,88,119,124–125,451n,
“33ReligiousGroupsJoinRileyinSeekingGreaterFamilyRole A41.SeealsoManagementbyObjectives(MBO);Plan-
inSchools”(RobertC.Johnston),345 ning,ProgrammingandBudgetingSystem(PPBS)
Thomas,Augustus,13–14 basedonoperantconditioning,269
Thomas,Clarence,15n,243 andISO9000,399
Thomas,Donald,188,189,256–257,394,451n needtodenounce,457
“Education90:AFrameworkfortheFuture,”275 andW.EdwardsDeming,283
TheEmpoweredEducationalSystemforthe21stCentury— TowardaNewSustainableSociety:AnEconomic,Social,and
EstablishingCompetitiveness,Productivity,Accountabil- EnvironmentalAgendaforOurChildren’sFuture(James
ityandEquityinSouthCarolinaEducation,306–307 Garbarino),A167–176
visittoRussia,290–291 TowardaSovietAmerica(WilliamZ.Foster),17,19
ThomasB.FordhamFoundation,385 TowardsaConceptualModelofLife-LongEducation,98
Thomas Jefferson Research Center (TJRC), 228–229, 375, TowardWorldUnderstanding,44
389 TransatlanticCo-operationinInternationalEducation:Projects
ThomMcAnShoeCompany,344 oftheHandswerskammerKoblenzwithPartnersinthe
Thompson,Mary,110–111 UnitedStatesandintheEuropeanUnion(Karl-Jurgen
Thompson,Tommy,300 Wilbert,BernardEckgold),xx
Thompson,WilliamBoyce,10 “TransformingAmericanEducation:ReducingtheRisktothe
Thoreau,HenryDavid,41 Nation,”233–234
Thorndike,EdwardLee,5,13,14–15,75,89 transpersonalpsychology,74
ThousandDays(A)(ArthurSchlesingerJr.),13 TraverseCityRecord-Eagle,284–285
“ThreeKindsofKnowledge,”224 Tremaine,M.Maxine,10
TiananmenSquare,262,391,A141 Tri-CitiesFoundationforAcademicExcellence(TFAE),355
TibetanBookFund,51 Tri-CityHerald(The),401
Index I–45
Tri-CountyCourseGoalProject,107,167–168,238–239 (ClarenceStreit),357
TrilateralCommission,232 UnionofSovietSocialistRepublics,147
TriumphantDemocracyorFiftyYear’sMarchoftheRepublic, United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child,
358 433–434
Tri-UniversityProject,90 UnitedNations,65–66,97,191,195,A126
Trohanis,Pat,394–395 UnitedNations’UniversityforPeace,283
Trotman,Alan,344 “UnitedNationsandAlternativeFormulations—theHardRoad
Trotter,Andrew,419–420 toWorldOrder(The),”80
Truman,Harry(President),28,38,A129 UnitedNationsCharter,34
“TruthaboutHowWeAllHaveBeenHad(The)”(Charlotte UnitedNationsChildren’sFund(UNICEF),270
Iserbyt),A150–156 United Nations Conference on International Organization,
“TruthbehindOutcome-BasedEducation(The)”(GenYvette 12,27,38
Sutton),322–323,451n UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram(UNDP),270
“Trying to Catch Up on Their Reading: Tutors Find What UnitedNationsEducational,Scientiic,andCulturalOrganiza-
StudentsMiss,”331 tion(UNESCO),39,62,156,171,191
Tuchman,Barbara,xx agendaintheUnitedStates,316
Tucker,Marc,83,161,218 andconferenceinMaine,409
andHumanResourcesDevelopmentSystem,279,A71–80 ConventionagainstDiscrimination,57
andlettertoHillaryRodhmanClinton,452n coordinationofschool-to-workprogramsinschools,xix
and “National Alliance for Restructuring Education: educationcurriculumof,66
Schools—andSystems—forthe21stCentury,”A52–56 FoundationsofLifelongEducation,141–142
andNationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomy(NCEE), InternationalBureauofEducation,13,162
271,327,355,A112 InternationalStandardClassiicationofEducation(ISCED-
andnewapproachestoassessment,330 COM.75/WS/27),138–139
andschool-to-work,411–412 andlifelonglearning,98,183,352–353
socialistworkforceagenda,302 andmasterylearning,198,A127–128,A156
Tuition Tax Credits: A Responsible Appraisal (Barbara M. andReachfortheStars:AProposalforEducationReform
Morris),184 inGeorgia,287
Turkle,Sherry,382 roleintransformationofeducation,346
“21stCenturyReportCard,”284–285 andRonaldG.Havelock,A66
2020Newsletter(The)(IMTEC),260–261 work with Global Alliance for Transforming Education
Tyler,Ralph,21,72,141,152,169 (GATE),283
BasicPrinciplesofCurriculumandInstruction,43 andWorldConferenceonEducation,269–270,283
andCenterforAdvancedStudyintheBehavioralSciences, UnitedNationsPeaceForce,66
69,A22 UnitedParcelService,333
CrucialIssuesinTesting,A48 UnitedStatesArmsControlandDisarmamentAgency,65–66
“fatherofeducationassessment,”89 United States Coalition for Education for All (USCEFA),
“InvestinginBetterSchools,”83 289–290,308–309
“PurposesofAssessment(The),”407 U.S.CoalitionforEducationforAll:AHistory,321
TylerMorningTelegraph(Texas),227 UnitedStatesConferenceofMayors,77
Tyson,Harriet,400–401 UnitedStatesFreedomofInformationAct,415
UnitedStatesInformationAgency(USIA),11,231,359–361,
A140
United States-Soviet Agreements. See U.S.-Soviet Education
U Agreements
UnitedStatesSupremeCourt,95
Ulam,Adam,A137 United States-Ukraine Awards for Excellence in Teaching,
Umans,Shelly,110 419
“Understanding Outcome-Based Education” (Jerry L. Had- UnitedWayofAmerica,175–176,202,376
dock),367–368 UniversityofAlabama,351
“UnfoldingofanInternationalPartnership:AStoryofRussia UniversityofAuckland(NewZealand),99
andtheU.S.(The)”(BeauFlyJones),309 UniversityofCalifornia,205,227,A82,A139
uniforms,forpublicschools,334 atBerkeley,76,429
UnionCarbideCorporation,189 atLosAngeles,60,151,152,417
UnionNow:TheProposalforInter-Democracy—FederalUnion UniversityofChicago,5,141,165
I–46
UniversityofGeorgia,88,193,198,425 V
UniversityofHavana,136
UniversityofIllinois,76,149,A24
values
UniversityofLondon,99
clariicationof,132
UniversityofMaine,431
education,school-based,88,258–260,312
UniversityofMaryland(BaltimoreCounty),251
teachingof,184–185
UniversityofMaryland(CollegePark),371,376
writing,useoftoclarify,222–223
UniversityofMassachusetts,100,101
VanderbiltUniversity,202,298,377
UniversityofMichigan,xvi,75,A60,A66
VanVoorhees,Curtis,85
UniversityofMinnesota,311
Veatch,Jeannette,81
UniversityofNorthCarolina,394–395,418
Venn,Grant,128–130
UniversityofNotreDame,141
VerbalBehavior(B.F.Skinner),A57
UniversityofOregon,212,417
Verity,C.William,176
UniversityofOtago(NewZealand),98
VeteransEducation,384
UniversityofPennsylvania,223,417
Viadero,Debra,326
NationalCenteronAdultLiteracy,290
Victor-BostromFund,104
UniversityofPittsburgh,3,60,417,A12
“Viewing Reform Partnerships as Big Brother’s Intrusion”
LearningResearchandDevelopmentCenter,68,330,382,
(CharlotteIserbyt),338–339
417,A112
Villas,Paul,361–362
UniversityofRochester(NewYork),101
violence,423
UniversityofTexas,xx,133,191,417,A112
plansforprevention,410,448,453n
UniversityofVictoria(Canada),382
inschools,29,275,406
UniversityofVirginia,254
Virginia,144,316
UniversityofWashington,90
VisionoftheFuture(A)(MortimerAdler),280
UniversityofWisconsin,327
Visions,A47,A49
CenteronEducationandWork,429–430
Vitality,370
atMadison,429–430
vocabulary,asindicatorofintelligence,105–106
atMilwaukee,437
vocationaleducation,A77–78
UNUMCorporation,344
“VocationalProjectLauded,”408–409
Urban,WayneJ.,3–4
Vogeler,Robert,49,50
Urbanski,Adam,A112
Voinovich,George,446
“U.S.andSovietstoShareInsightsonComputers”(FredM.
Volkman,Barbara,339–341
Hechinger),230
VOLUNTEER,202
“U.S.AnnouncedExchangePrograms,”419
Vonnegut,Kurt,66
USAToday,398,422–423
Vorontsov,Albert,279
U.S.CoalitionforEducationforAll:AHistory,321
vouchers,299,A50
“USIA’sGrantsGotoSchoolsinNAFTANations,”315–316
Vygotsky,LevS.,324–326,A59–63
“U.S. Plan to ‘Take Over’ Grade Schools Intimated” (John
Steinbacher),90–91
U.S.-SovietEducationAgreements,11,30,53,104,241
activitiesassociatedwith,264n,309 W
detailsof,261–262
renewalof,258
Wagner,Daniel,290
resultsof,290,419
Wagner,RobertF.,A35,A112
andRobertMorris,45–46
Wagner,Timm,344
signingof,229–230
Walberg,HerbertJ.,169
U.S.-SovietTextbookStudyProject,A139
WalbridgeCaringCommunitiesProgram,441
Utah,161,174,201,316
WaldenTwo(B.F.Skinner),28,35,40–42,283,A146
UtahEducationAssociation,125,A41
Walker,CharlesR.,334
UtahGrant,215–217,218
WallStreetJournal(The),298
“UtahPerspectiveontheNationalEducationGoals(A)”(David
“Acclaimed Reforms of U.S. Education Are Popular but
E.Nelson),316
Unproven—TedSizer’sMethodsStressReasoningover
UtahSchoolBoardsAssociation,422–423
Rote:GainsAren’tMeasurable—AmbiguityandFaculty
UtahStateOficeofEducation,316,421
Battles,”344–345
Index I–47
“And You Thought American Schools Were Bad,” 244, Wellstone,Paul,415–416
359 WeMustTakeCharge,298
“InLittleton,Colorado,VotersExpelEducationFaddists,” Wertsch,James,A62
318 WesleyanUniversity,4
“Schoolroom Shuffle: Trailing in Education for Years, Western,Richard,437
Kentucky Tries Radical Reforms—Grades 1 through WesternBehavioralSciencesInstitute,111
3BecomeOneClasswithNoTexts,Desks,orReport WesternReserveUniversity,4
Cards—SomeParents,PrinicpalsBalk,”304–305 WestinghouseLearningCorp.,156
Walsh,Kevin,351 Weyrich,Paul,338
WalterD.CockingLecture,164 What Is Religion and Other Student Questions (Henry S.
Walton,Susan,196–197 Pritchett),8
Wanderer(The),82 “WhatIstheMarketModel?”,291–292
Ward,FrederickChampion,128 “WhatOtherCommunitiesAreDoing,NationalEducational
Ward,Jack,A27 Goal#1,”300
Warder,Michael,A140–141 WhatWorkRequiresofSchools(SCANS),450n
“WareStudentsAreDrawntoSwampyExperiment:Magnet WhatWorksinEducation,A152
SchoolMakesOkefenokeeItsLab,”317 “WhenIsAssessmentReallyAssessment?”(CynthiaWeath-
Warner,Carolyn,192 erly),452n,A44–51
WaronPoverty,197 “WhenJohnnyTakestheTest:HowYourChildIsIdentiied
Washington,D.C.,172,144 andTrackedtotheNationalDataBank—andBeyond”
WashingtonPost(The),13,146,205,268,A155 (MelanieFields,AnitaHoge,SarahLeslie),451n
“ChinaOrdersManualLaborforStudents:BeijingMoves WhileYouSlept:OurTragedyinAsiaandWhoMadeIt(John
AgaintoControlCitizenry,”262 Flynn),44
“CompetencyTestsSetin26Schools,”215–216 White,WilliamS.,176
“IndustrialPolicyUrgedforGOP,”328,A51 WhiteHouseConferenceonEducation(1955),52,59
“TryingtoCatchUponTheirReading:TutorsFindWhat WhiteHouseConferenceontheIndustrialWorld,112
StudentsMiss,”331 White House Workshop on Choice in Education (1989),
“TyingProfessionalPaytoProductivity,”268–269 299–300
WashingtonTimes(The),216,262,315–316,A137 “WhitePaper”(U.S.Dept.ofEducation),298
“Ahem,aboutthose100,000newcops...”,444–445 Whitla,Janet,290
“Character Education Catching on at Schools—Respect, Whitman,Christine,430-431
ResponsibilityEmphasized,”421–422 Whitmore,KayR.,A112
“ClassroomBrain-Watchers?”,409–410 Whittle,Chris,297-298
“CongresstoExpandEducationSavings,”401–402 “Who’llTeachKidsRightfromWrong—TheCharacterEdu-
interviewwithMichaelFarris,437–438 cationMovementThinkstheAnswerIstheSchools,”
“NewTackTakenonReligioninSchools:GroupSeeksEnd 351–352
toSecularBias,”418–419 “Who’sIn,Who’sOut,”99
“Panel:MakeEducationCareer-Focused,”402 Who’sWhoinAmerica,142
“Real-LifeSchoolEliminatesBooks,”383 “wholechild,”2
“WhytheEducationDepartmentMustGo,”350 Wholelanguage,270,325–326,A93–94
Watson,Goodwin,21 versusDirectInstruction,A129–130
Watson,JohnB.,99–100,A58,A123–125 versusphonicsinstruction,A62
Watson,ThomasJ.,35 setuptofail,387
WayneStateUniversity,382 Whole Language/OBE Fraud (The) (Samuel Blumenfeld), 6,
WealthandPoverty(GeorgeGilder),303 A57–64
Weatherly,Cynthia,305,317–318,452n,A44–51 “WhyNotAdoptChina’sPopulationGoals?”,104
WebberEnergyFuels,431 “WhytheEducationDepartmentMustGo”(GordonS.Jones),
“WeekintheSubwayasCulturalExchange”(JacquesStein- 350
berg),280 WhyThingsAretheWayTheyAre(EricaCarle),53n
WeightofGloryandOtherAddresses(The),158n “WhyWeWentforMicrosandWhatOurCommunityHadto
Weil,Marsha,114–117,208 SayaboutIt”(BillyReagan),174
Weinberger,Caspar,205,328,A51 “WidelyMixedTestResultsLeaveSomeinKentuckyPuzzled”
Weisberg,Alan,327 (LonnieHarp),316
WelcometotheMonkeyHouse(KurtVonnegut),66 Wiggins,Grant,344–345
WelfareReformAct,A109 Wilbert,Karl-Jurgen,xx
I–48
Wilhelm,Georg,xvii World Institute for Computer-Assisted Teaching (WICAT),
Wilkinson,Bruce,367–368 213
Will-BurtCompany,344 WorldofMankind,xvi
WilliamAlansonWhiteMemorialLectures,36 WorldSurveyofEducation,99
Williams,Brian,447 WorldWarI,47
Williams,Ken,414 WorldWarII,28,35,143,151
WilliamsburgCharter,377,419 programfor“justanddurable”peaceafter,32–33
“WillRepublicansBetrayAmericabyVotingforMarcTucker’s Wormser,ReneeA.,48
HumanResourcesDevelopmentSystem:H.R.1617and Wright,Linus,299
S.143?”(SamuelBlumenfeld),A72–80 W.T. Grant Foundation’s Commission on Work, Family, and
Wilson,Doug,437 Citizenship,250
Wilson,Iva,344 Wu,Hei-tak,99
Wilson,Woodrow(President),12,47 Wundt,Wilhelm,1,2,4,89,121
Winger,JeriJ.,176 Wyman,ThomasH.,176
Winslow,C.E.A.,42 Wyoming,128
Wirtz,Willard,128,177–179,244
WisconsinPolicyResearchInstitute,437
Wolf,RichardM.,A48
Woman’sOpportunitiesinChristianIndustryandBusiness(A) X
(HenryS.Pritchett),8
Wood,JohnT.,43 XeroxCorporation,255,269
Wood,RegnaLee,307
Woodson,Robert,Sr.,377
Woolfolk,Peter,404
WorkforceDevelopmentActof1995(S.143),370,A72–75 Y
WorkforceDevelopmentPartnership,A79
WorkforceInvestmentAct(H.R.1385),415–416 YaleBushCenter,443
“WorkforceInvestmentActPutsAmericaonRoadtoFascism— YaleUniversity,42,46,A60–61
Hillary’sGlobalVillageandtheNewWorldOrderAre Yeany,Russell,425
OficiallyInstitutedbyCongress”(JimDay),415 year-roundschools,85,155,443,448
workforce training, 190, 387, 431, 438. See also school-to- Yivisaker,Paul,303
work yoga,248,340
WorkingBrain(The)(AlexandrLuria),248 YoungCommunistLeague,31,50
WorkingConferenceonInformationTechnologyinEducation YoungParentsAlert,14–15
Management(ITEM),409 “Young People Are Getting Dumber” (David Hawkins),
“Work World 2000: An International Strategy for School-to- 105–106
WorkTransitions,”360 YouthCommunityServiceProgram,347
WorldAffairsCouncilofPhiladelphia(The),132 Ysseldyke,JamesE.,311
WorldAhead(The):ALookatBusinessin1990,112
WorldBank,219–220,269,390,A51,A74
andInternationalLoanAgreementguidelines,400
“WorldClassEducation,”275 Z
“WorldClassSchoolsandtheSocialStudies”(CordellSven-
galis),275–277 Zanotti,David,252
WorldConferenceonEducationforAll,269–270,283,289 Zeitlin,Morris,134
WorldCoreCurriculum(RobertMuller),25,54n,260 Zeyden,Louis,A27
WorldCouncilofChurches,33,205 Zienau,Nick,292–294,312–313
WorldCouncilonGiftedandTalentedChildren,152–153 ZienauConsulting,313
“WorldDeclarationonEducationforAll,”269–270 Zorinsky,Edward,200
WorldEducation,Inc.,290
WorldEducationAssociation,18
WorldEducationforAllForumSecretariat,450n
WorldFederationofEducationAssociations(WFEA),13–14
WorldFutureSociety,A24
WorldHealthOrganization,xix,36,42
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