CE320: Steel Structures Design Sessional

What is a bridge?
A bridge is a structure built to span physical
obstacles such as a body of water, valley, or
road, for the purpose of providing passage
over the obstacle.
Types Bridges
Bridge Classification
Bridges are broadly classified based on following
three criteria
Material of Construction
Structural Form
Construction Technology
Use
Bridge Classification based on Material
of Construction

Reinforced Concrete
Prestressed Concrete ( Post-Tensions / Pre -
Tension)
Composite
Steel
Masonry

Bridge Classification based on
Structural Form

Arch Bridges
Masonry, concrete, steel
Many types
Truss
Through Type
Deck Type

Girder Bridges
Slab
Girder and Slab ( T Beam)
Box Girder (Single Cell/Multi Cell)
Cable Supported Bridges
Cable Stayed
Suspension
Extradosed Bridges
Mixed
Bridge Classification based on
Construction Methodology

Balanced Cantilever Bridges
Incremental Launched Bridges
Supported by scaffolding from bottom
Hanged from top gantry


Bridge Classification based on use

Traffic
Rail bridge
Pedestrian
Carrying water (aqueduct), pipeline


This type of bridge was
invented by the Romans.
They realised that a wedge
shaped stone called voussoirs
could carry heavy loads if
built in the shape of an arch
Locking stone
A wooden framework has to be built to support the stones while building the
arch bridge. After putting the locking stone in place the wooden frame is
removed and the arch should stand by itself.
Arch bridges
Originally Arch bridges were built using
materials such as stones and bricks that can
withstand compression. But many modern
bridges are built using concrete or steel. Strong
support is needed on each side of the arch to
stop it from spreading out.
Stone bridges
Steel
Concrete
Steel plate girder bridge

Girder bridges

Concrete deck-girder bridge

Box girder bridge

PC girder bridge

Suspension bridge

Cable stayed bridge

Extradosed bridge (Karnafuli)

Mixed bridge (Crescent lake)

Cable supported bridges

Aqueduct

Navigable Aqueduct

Water Bridge

Aqueduct and Water Bridges



The railway bridge over the river Forth in Scotland. An
example of a cantilever bridge.
Short beam
Tower bridge, London

Types of steel bridges
Truss
Arch
Cable supported
Girder
Plate girder
Box girder
Truss Bridges
Timber Truss Bridge
gcdranet.homelinux.com/davehonan/ bridges/il.html Cairo
Ohio River ferry and railroad bridge, Metropolis, IL
Steel bridges in
Bangladesh
Hardinge railway
bridge, Paksey
1910-12
Hardinge bridge,
Paksey, 1910-12
Bhairab railway
bridge, 1937
Kean bridge,
Sylhet
Portable steel bridges (PSB), commonly
know as Bailey Bridge. Also modular bridge.
PSB
Loads on bridges

TYPES OF LOADS
Loads considered in Bridge analysis are:

1. Gravity Loads
2. Lateral Loads
3. Forces due to deformation
4. Collision Loads

GRAVITY LOADS

Gravity loads are the loads caused by the weight
of an object on the bridge and applied in a
downward direction toward the center of the
earth. Such loads may be:

A. Permanent Gravity Loads
B. Transient Gravity Loads

A. Permanent Gravity Loads

Permanent gravity loads are the loads that remain on the bridge for
an extended period of time or for the whole service life.
Such loads include:

1. Dead load of structural components and non structural
attachments --------------------------------------- (DC)

2. Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities --- (DW)

3. Dead load of earth fill ---------------------------- (EV)

4. Earth pressure load ------------------------------- (EH)

5. Earth surface load --------------------------------- (ES)

6. Downdrag ------------------------------------------ (DD)
DEAD LOAD OF STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
AND NON-STRUCTURAL ATTACHMENTS (DC)

In bridges, structural components refer to the elements that are
part of load resistance system.

Nonstructural attachments refer to such items as curbs,
parapets, barriers, rails, signs , illuminators, etc. Weight of such
items can be estimated by using unit weight of materials and its
geometry.
Load factors per table A3.4.1-1 and A3.4.1-2 apply here. (From
AASHTO LRFD 1994 Bridge Design Specifications).

A. Permanent Gravity Loads
DEAD LOAD OF WEARING SURFACES AND UTILITIES (DW)

This load is estimated by taking the unit weight times the
thickness of the surface.

This value is combined with the DC loads per table A3.4.1-1
and A3.4.1-2 (From AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications).

The maximum and minimum load factors for the DC loads
are 1.25 and 0.90 respectively and for DW loads are 1.5 and
0.65 respectively .
A. Permanent Gravity Loads
DEAD LOAD OF EARTH FILL (EV)

This load must be considered for buried structures such as
culverts.

It is determined by multiplying the unit weight times the depth of
the materials.

Load factors per table A3.4.1-1 and A3.4.1-2 apply here. (From
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications).

EV has a maximum and minimum load factor of 1.35 and 0.9
respectively.

A. Permanent Gravity Loads

EARTH SURFACE LOAD (ES)

The earth surcharge load (ES) is calculated like the EV loads with
the only difference being in the load factors.

This difference is attributed to the variability.

Part or all of this load could be removed in the future or the
surcharge material (loads) could be changed.

ES has a maximum and minimum load factor of 1.5 and 0.75
respectively.



A. Permanent Gravity Loads
DRAGDOWN (DD)

It is the force exerted on a pile or drilled shaft due to the soil
movement around the element. Such a force is permanent and
typically increases with time.

Details regarding DD are outlined in AASHTO (LRFD 1994) Section
10, Foundations.









A. Permanent Gravity Loads
As the name implies these loads change with time and may be applied from
several directions or locations.

Such loads are highly variable.

Transient loads typically include gravity load due to the vehicular, rail or
pedestrian traffic as well as lateral loads such those due to wind, water, ice, etc.

Engineer should be able to depict

____ which of these loads is appropriate for the bridge under consideration

____ magnitude of the loads

____ how these loads are applied for the most critical load effect.




B. Transient Gravity Loads
For transient load each code has described the following criterion:

Design lanes

Vehicular Design loads

Fatigue Loads

Pedestrian Loads

Deck and Railing Loads

Multiple Presence

Dynamic Effects

Centrifugal Forces


B. Transient Gravity Loads

Number of lanes a bridge may accommodate must be established.

Two such terms are used in the lane design of a bridge:
a) Traffic lane
b) Design Lane.

Traffic Lane:
The traffic lane is the number of lanes of traffic that the traffic engineer
plans to route across the bridge. A lane width is associated with a traffic lane and is
typically 3.6 m.

Design Lane:
Design lane is the lane designation used by the bridge engineer for the live
load placement.
The design lane width may or may not be the same as the traffic lane.


DESIGN LANE












DESIGN LANES
According to AASHTO specifications,
AASHTO uses a 3m design lane and the vehicle is to be positioned
within that lane for extreme effect.
The number of design lanes is defined by taking the integer part of
the ratio of the clear roadway width divided by 3.6m.[A3.6.1.1.1]
The clear width is the distance between the curbs and/or barriers.
















VEHICULAR DESIGN LOADS
A study by the transportation Research Board (TRB) was used as the basis for the AASHTO
loads TRB (1990).
Loads that are above the legal weight and are /or length limits but are regularly allowed to
operate were cataloged. Those vehicles that were above legal limits but were allowed to
operate routinely due to grandfathering provisions are referred to as Exclusion Vehicles.
These exclusion trucks best represents the extremes involved in the present truck traffic.
For analysis, simpler model was developed which represents the same extreme load
effects as the exclusion vehicles.
This model consists of three different loads:
1.Design truck
2.Design tandem
3.Design Lane


Live load- Traffic load
H and HS
Loading
Standard
H Truck
Standard
H Truck
Lane Loading
Standard
HS Truck
Standard
HS Truck
IMPACT















LATERAL LOADS















Following forces are considered under lateral loads:

Fluid forces

Seismic Loads

Ice Forces



















FLUID FORCES















Fluid forces include
1. Water forces and
2. Wind forces.
The force on a structural component due to a fluid flow
(water or air) around a component is established by
Bernoullis equation in combination with empirically
established drag coefficients.
























WIND FORCES















The velocity of the wind varies with the elevation above the ground
and the upstream terrain roughness and that is why pressure on a
structure is also a function of these parameters.
If the terrain is smooth then the velocity increases more rapidly with
elevation.
The wind force should be considered from all directions and extreme
values are used for design.
Directional adjustments are outlined in AASHTO[A3.8.1.4].
The wind must also be considered on the vehicle. This load is 1.46
N/mm applied at 1.8 m above the roadway surface.[A3.8.1.3].

















WATER FORCES















Water flowing against and around the substructure creates
a lateral force directly on the structure as well as debris
that might accumulate under the bridge.
If the substructure is oriented at an angle to the stream
flow, then adjustments must be made. These adjustments
are outlined in the AASHTO [A3.7.3.2].
Scour of the stream bed around the foundation should also
be considered as it can result in the structural failure.
AASHTO [A2.6.4.4.1] outlines an extreme limit state for
design.




Wind forces as per BNBC
BNBC Chapter 6, 2.4
Table 6.2.20 Overall Pressure Coefficient C
P

for Trussed Towers

















SEISMIC LOADS
















Depending on the location of the bridge site, the
anticipated earthquake/seismic effects can govern the
design of the lateral load resistance system.

In many cases the seismic loads are not critical and other
lateral loads such as wind govern the design. This is true for
steel bridges.
















FORCES DUE TO DEFORMATION
In bridge we have to consider the following forces due to deformation:

1. Temperature

2. Creep and Shrinkage

3. Settlement






















COLLISION LOADS

Collision loads include:

1.Vessel Collision load
2.Rail Collision Load
3.Vehicle Collision Load






Other important loads
Fatigue load- particularly for steel bridges
Pedestrian load on side walk
Railing load
Description of the bridge
Note: one long single span for navigational channel,
other spans PC girders
Type: Warren
Span: 80-120m (according to student no)
Segments: 10
Height: 12m
Lanes: 2 (width 10m, with 1m sidewalk on each side)
Vehicle loading: HS20 Truck and Lane
Location: Lohalia river, Patuakhali (Odd rolls)
Surma river, Kanaighat, Sylhet (Even rolls)
Deck : 300mm RC deck (2320 kg/m
3
)
+ 75mm bituminous wearing (2250 kg/m
3
)
Sidewalk: 3.6 kN/m (250 lb/ft)
Railing: 0.36kN/m (25 lb/ft)

Bridge section showing deck

Plan at top level
Plan at bottom level

Member names
Plan at top level
Plan at bottom level
Arrangement
of Portal
Initial sections to start
Material grade: F
y
=345MPa
Top chord: Box section 600x450
Thickness 16-30mm (assume 25mm initially)
Bottom chord: Box section 600x450
Thickness 16-30mm (assume 25mm initially)
Diagonal: Box section 600x450
Thickness 16-30mm (assume 25mm initially)






Initial sections to start
Portal: Double angle 150x150x10


Bracings:
Top ---I section, depth 300, width 250,
thickness 10-12mm
Bottom ---I section, depth 300, width 250,
thickness 10-12mm
Cross beam
1300x320
Thickness
Flange 20-25mm
Web 10-15 mm
Initial sections to start
Initial sections to start

Longitudinal 800x220, Nos 5.
Thickness
Flange: 16mm
Web: 10mm
See a video

END OF CLASS 1
To be completed
Student will fix individual span, truss arrangements
Dead Load (self wt + RC deck + wearing+ sidewalk +
railing) calculation at each node
Wind load calculation at each node
Analyze truss for dead load


Design

Design












FATIGUE LOADS
















1. Under service load conditions, majority of trucks do not exceed the legal weight
limit. So it would be unnecessary to use the full live load model. Instead it is
accommodated by using a single design truck with the variable axle spacing of 9m
and a load factor of 0.75 as prescribed in table.[A3.4.1.1].
2. The number of stress load cycles is based on traffic surveys. In lieu of survey data,
guidelines are provided in AASHTO [A3.6.1.4.2]. The average daily truck traffic
(ADTT) in a single lane may be estimated as
ADTT
SL = p
(ADTT)
Where p is the fraction of traffic assumed to be in one lane as defined in table4.3.
















PEDESTRIAN LOADS








The AASHTO pedestrian load is 3.6 x 10
-3
MPa, which is applied to sidewalk that are integral
with a roadway bridge.
If load is applied on bridge restricted to pedestrian or bicycle traffic , then a 4.1 x 10
-3
MPa is
used.
The railing for pedestrian or bicycle must be designed for a load of 0.73 N/mm both
transversely and vertically on each longitudinal element in the railing system.[A13.8 and A18.9].
In addition as shown in the figure , the railing must be designed to sustain a single
concentrated load of 890 N applied to the top rail in any direction and at any location.













DECK & RAILING LOAD








The deck must be designed for the load effect due to design truck or design tandem ,
whichever creates the most extreme effect.
The deck overhang, located outside the facia girder and commonly referred to as the
cantilever is designed for the load effect of a uniform line load of 14.6 N/mm located 3m from
the face of the curb or railing as shown in the figure.







The gravity load for the deign of deck system are outlined in AASHTO[A3.6.1.3.3].
The vehicular gravity loads for decks may be found in AASHTO [A3.6.1.3].