Anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae Autoantibodies in Autoimmune

Diseases: from Bread Baking to Autoimmunity

Maurizio Rinaldi & Roberto Perricone & Miri Blank &
Carlo Perricone & Yehuda Shoenfeld
#Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
Abstract Saccharomyces cerevisiae is best known as the
bakers and brewers yeast, but its residual traces are also
frequent excipients in some vaccines. Although anti-S. cer-
evisiae autoantibodies (ASCAs) are considered specific for
Crohns disease, a growing number of studies have detected
high levels of ASCAs in patients affected with autoimmune
diseases as compared with healthy controls, including anti-
phospholipid syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus, type
1 diabetes mellitus, and rheumatoid arthritis. Commensal
microorganisms such as Saccharomyces are required for
nutrition, proper development of Peyers aggregated lym-
phoid tissue, and tissue healing. However, even the com-
mensal nonclassically pathogenic microbiota can trigger
autoimmunity when fine regulation of immune tolerance
does not work properly. For our purposes, the protein data-
base of the National Center for Biotechnology Information
(NCBI) was consulted, comparing Saccharomyces mannan
to several molecules with a pathogenetic role in autoimmune
diseases. Thanks to the NCBI bioinformation technology
tool, several overlaps in molecular structures (50100 %)
were identified when yeast mannan, and the most common
autoantigens were compared. The autoantigen U2 snRNP B
was found to conserve a superfamily protein domain that
shares 83 % of the S. cerevisiae mannan sequence.
Furthermore, ASCAs may be present years before the diag-
nosis of some associated autoimmune diseases as they were
retrospectively found in the preserved blood samples of
soldiers who became affected by Crohns disease years later.
Our results strongly suggest that ASCAs role in clinical
practice should be better addressed in order to evaluate their
predictive or prognostic relevance.
Keywords Anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae autoantibodies
.
Autoimmune diseases
.
Molecular mimicry
.
Autoantigenicity
.
Vaccines
Introduction
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, also known as the bakers or
brewers yeast, has long been utilized to ferment the sugars
of rice, wheat, barley, and corn to produce alcoholic bev-
erages, and in the baking industry to raise dough. Thousands
of years ago, yeasts accidentally contaminated flour or
drinks, and the results were pleasant for the people who
tasted them. As a consequence, we are now commonly
exposed to yeast [1]. Nonetheless, anti-S. cerevisiae anti-
bodies (ASCAs), directed against the phosphopeptido-
mannan part of the cell wall of the yeast, have been
identified as an important and specific serological marker
for Crohns disease (CD) [2]. Furthermore, ASCAs were
detected retrospectively as being present years before CD
clinical onset in 31.3 % of preserved blood samples of
Israeli Defence Force soldiers compared to none of the
controls [3].
The pathogenic significance of ASCAs is not yet fully
understood, but molecular mimicry of self-antigens remains
a possibility. Although ASCAs are considered specific for
CD, a growing number of studies have individually identi-
fied high levels of ASCAs in other autoimmune diseases
such as antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) [2], systemic
M. Rinaldi
:
R. Perricone
Rheumatology, Allergology and Clinical Immunology,
Department of Internal Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata,
Rome, Italy
M. Blank
:
Y. Shoenfeld (*)
Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical
Center, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University,
Ramat Gan, Tel Aviv, Israel
e-mail: shoenfel@post.tau.ac.il
C. Perricone
Reumatologia, Dipartimento di Medicina Interna e Specialit
Mediche, Sapienza Universit di Roma, Rome, Italy
Clinic Rev Allerg Immunol
DOI 10.1007/s12016-012-8344-9
lupus erythematosus (SLE) [4], diabetes mellitus type 1 [5],
and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) [6].
In recent decades, the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases
has increasingly come to be understood as a multifactorial
process which develops through the interaction of the pebbles
of genetic, immunological, environmental, and hormonal fac-
tors which combine to compose the complex mosaic of auto-
immunity [710]. Evidence of the association between ASCAs
and autoimmune disorders has increased over the past two
decades, and to the best of our knowledge, this is the first
review aimed at discussing these findings and providing the
molecular background for further studies.
Environment/Infections and Autoimmunity
The immune system is exposed to different antigens from
the very first stages of its development and maturation.
Positive selection allows weakly self-binding lymphocytes
to survive, while negative selection leads to the accomplish-
ment of the death program for cells interacting too tightly
with immunogenic molecules, with the aim of maintaining
self-tolerance. Only a very small minority of lymphocytes
will survive and interact with several microbial antigens that
could potentially cause pathology. The burden of infections
dealt with from childhood makes every individuals micro-
bial pattern unique [11]. Microbial agents can induce auto-
immunity through four main mechanisms [12]: (1)
molecular mimicry is perhaps the most likely mechanism
and occurs when shared epitopes (carbohydrate, protein/
peptides, or DNA) in the pathogen and hosts molecular
structures cross-react in the presence of an active immune
response. Cross-reactivity is confirmed by the association
between the pathogen and the autoimmune disease, the
elicitation of the specific immune response, active immuni-
zation or autoantigen-induced disease in animal models, and
passive immunization if the disease occurs either after autor-
eactive T cell or autoantibody administration in animal
models. (2) Epitope spreading is the distinction from the
original shared sequence after an antigen is processed and
presented on the cell surface by antigen-presenting cells
(APCs) which results in a new autoreactive response direct-
ed against the neo-epitope, as occurs for rheumatoid factor
(RF) mimicking collagen or laminin in chronic rheumatic
heart disease [13]. (3) Bystander activation is based on the
release of sequestered antigens as a consequence of tissue
damage, usually due to viral infections, and involves autor-
eactive lymphocytes previously not committed. Further-
more, a pro-inflammatory microenvironment can switch on
an autoimmune response in a bystander manner, killing
adjacent healthy cells too [14]. (4) Persistent activation of
the immune response, particularly during recurrent viral load
increases, can lead to autoimmunity. Indeed, in mixed
cryoglobulinemia, chronic HCV infection causes prolonged
stimulation of the immune system which can drive the
activation of the humoral immune response to produce
monoclonal and polyclonal autoantibodies [15]. Toll-like
receptors (TLRs), as an important part of the innate immu-
nity and as effector molecules leading to the adaptive im-
mune response, can detect fungal, viral, and bacterial
pathogens that expose their conserved pathogen-associated
molecular patterns [18]. The lack of TLR3 in mice has been
associated with an ineffective immune response to CMV,
while rare human mutations in TLR3 or UNC93B and in
interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 4 or MyD88 result
in recessive susceptibility to HSV-1 encephalitis and recur-
rent bacterial infections, respectively [16]. The role of TLRs
has only very recently been considered important in dealing
with fungal infections, particularly by yeasts such as Can-
dida spp.; TLR1, TLR3, TLR4, and TLR6 are all involved
in the MyD88 molecular downstream pathway, transducing
fungal danger signals [17]. Notably, TLR3 stimulation
was linked with the improvement of T1D in models and
experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis before the
L412F variant of TLR3 had been found in patients with
chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis (in the absence of po-
tentially related AIRE, LYP, dectin 1, or CARD9 mutations)
[16]. The mucosal surface is the main localization site of the
recently defined CD4
+
Th17 lymphocytes which release IL-
17, involved in the response to extracellular bacterial and
fungal infections. Saprophytic microbial flora is likely to
maintain the delicate Th17-T regulatory (Treg) balance in
gut-associated lymphoid tissue, one of the most important
human barriers to external environmental factors. Nonethe-
less, dysregulated IL-17 secretion drives immune-mediated
pathology in the gut, notably inflammatory bowel disease
(IBD) [19]. Thus, even the commensal nonclassically path-
ogenic microbiota can trigger autoimmunity when fine reg-
ulation of immune tolerance does not work properly [20].
Dietary components can also impact on Th17 activity since
gliadin-specific Th17 cells have been characterized from
biopsies of celiac patients [21], and vitamin D receptor-
deficient experimental models were found to develop more
severe IBD with IL-17 overexpression [22]. There is a lack of
data concerning the effect that dietary intake of the brewer
and bakers yeast S. cerevisiae may induce on Th17 cells.
Currently, Th17 cells are deemed to play a role in the devel-
opment and relapse of many autoimmune diseases, especially
multiple sclerosis, RA, CD, and psoriasis [18]. Inflammation
and cell stress amplify posttranscriptional regulation mecha-
nisms increasing expression of microRNAs (miRNAs).
MicroRNAs are emerging as posttranscriptional regulators
of many biological processes including cellular proliferation,
differentiation, and apoptosis with clinical implications for
cancer and autoimmune diseases [23]. TNF-, IFN-, and
several TLRs can induce miR155 in macrophages [24], and its
Clinic Rev Allerg Immunol
overexpression has also been described in response to the
eukaryotic yeast cells of Candida albicans [25]. Furthermore,
miRNAs, especially miR155, are also involved in maintaining
the proper T cell-dependent humoral response, certainly by
modulating the release of cytokines and possibly through
other mechanisms as well [26]. In a recent study by Iborra et
al. increased miRNA expression was found in IBD, and the
expression of miR192 and miR21 was also related to ulcerative
colitis disease activity compared with healthy controls [23]. A
prominent role, among several infective agents associated with
autoimmune diseases, has been recognized for viruses and
bacteria. Persistent EpsteinBarr virus (EBV) infection is
linked with RA, where the EBV DNA load can increase by
up to tenfold, and with SLE, where impaired T cell function
was reported in addition to latently infected peripheral B cells
[27]. Moreover, anti-EBV viral capsid and anti-EBV nuclear
antigen 1 antibodies were also detected in almost all patients
with multiple sclerosis (MS), and titers become two- to three-
fold higher than those of controls during the third decade of
life, increasing in line with the MS risk [28]. Concerning
bacterial infections, in a prospective study, half of 246 patients
with inflammatory arthritis were found positive for RF, and
their anti-Proteus mirabilis IgM and IgA titers were signifi-
cantly higher than those in other groups of patients. Currently,
there are no studies reviewing the impact of environmental
exposure to fungal antigens on autoimmunity. However,
Shinohara et al. induced coronary arteritis (a hallmark of
Kawasaki arteritis) in mice by intraperitoneal injection of
C. albicans water-soluble fraction, and the disease has been
related to the activation of the complement lectin pathway
[29], possibly through mannan-binding lectin (MBL), a
pattern recognition molecule [30]. MBL can bind mannan
which is a fungal cell wall antigenic element notably
exposed on the yeast cell surface of S. cerevisiae. The
detection of ASCAs typically associated with CD, perhaps
more than just an epiphenomenon, may also be implicated
in the pathogenesis of IBD [31]. Interestingly, C. albicans
is able to induce the production of ASCAs (but S. cerevisiae
does not elicit the reverse), as tested in rabbit experimental
models and as shown by immunohistochemical stains from
biopsies of patients with diagnosed systemic candidiasis [32].
Immunological Aspects and Assays
Yeasts are known as biological machines capable of produc-
ing antigenic components for vaccines needed to elicit pro-
tective immune responses. A question arises: is S. cerevisiae
immunogenic itself? The use of Saccharomyces-based ther-
apeutic vaccines is supported by the evidence of their ability
to stimulate tumor or viral-specific CD4 and CD8 T cell
responses. Heat-killed S. cerevisiae seems to be an attractive
carrier because it can express different antigens and is cost-
effective as it provides danger signals that lead dendritic
cells (DCs) to maturation without the need of additional
adjuvants. The phagocytosis of the yeast by DCs is triggered
by the immunogenic cell wall molecules, such as -1,3-D-
glucan and mannan, which induce critical signals usually
associated with microbial infection. This event represents
the first step, and it is followed by antigen degradation and
the presentation of their fragments on the APC surface by
MHC I and MHC II molecules, interacting with the TCR
and inducing co-stimulatory signals to lead the adaptive T
cell (CD8
+
or CD4
+
)-mediated response [33, 34]. S. cerevi-
siae is an effective inducer of innate and adaptive cellular
immunity, and recombinant yeast cells (GI-5005) can lead to
a potent antigen-specific proliferative and cytotoxic T cell
response associated with Th1-type cytokine secretion [35].
Commensals such as Saccharomyces are required for nu-
trition, proper development of Peyers aggregated lymphoid
tissue, and tissue healing. However, it is possible that in the
proinflammatory pathological microenvironment that charac-
terizes many immune-mediated diseases, notably IBD, the
alteration of the finely regulated interaction between APCs,
the nonclassically pathogenetic microbiota, and Th17 cells in
the gut could trigger autoimmunity [20]. Moreover, MyD88,
as an adaptor molecule shared by most TLRs, has been proven
to play a key role in antifungal defense by several in vivo
studies, underlining the relevance of TLRs in the host inter-
action with fungal microbial antigens [36].
The subsequent development of the humoral immune
response leads to the production by B lymphocytes and
plasma cells of antibodies against the yeast, so it is not yet
clear whether it might simply represent an epiphenomenon
or could have a direct pathogenic role through a co-
stimulatory CD80/86-CD28-mediated effect. Indeed, it is
plausible that in a proinflammatory state, a mechanism of
molecular mimicry involving the eukaryotic microorganism
and self-antigens takes over. Furthermore, infection by C.
albicans can induce the production of ASCAs in humans,
while Saccharomyces does not lead to the production of
antibodies to C. albicans [29].
On the other hand, concerns have been raised regarding
the current safety of vaccines due to the presence of adju-
vants. Since heat-killed Saccharomyces can act like com-
mon adjuvants such as squalene, aluminum, and silicone
(Table 1) when injected together with preventive vaccines,
there is a risk of inducing an autoimmune disorder by
administering Saccharomyces-based therapeutic or even
preventive vaccines instead of traditional ones [3739]. It
is very difficult to find the ideal compromise between im-
mune system stimulation and modulation. Indeed, proce-
dures used to manufacture vaccines for hepatitis B and/or
hepatitis A result in products that contain no more than 1
5 % residual yeast proteins (Recombivax HB, Engerix B;
Merck & Co.) [40]. Although the risk/benefit analysis still
Clinic Rev Allerg Immunol
indicates ensuring that vaccinations are used, we now face
the challenge of developing risk-free vaccines.
Indeed, an additional risk is that of developing the re-
cently identified syndrome, namely, autoimmune/inflamma-
tory syndrome induced by adjuvants [37] that comprises
several medical conditions characterized by hyperactive im-
mune responses accompanied by a similar array of signs and
symptoms. Since adjuvants are the common ground that
could possibly induce autoimmune or autoinflammatory
diseases in humans, the use of immunogenic matter as an
adjuvant, such as S. cerevisiae, should be carefully evaluated.
ASCAs were found in several autoimmune diseases by
means of ELISA tests used for the quantitative measurement
of IgG- and IgA-class autoantibodies against mannan of S.
cerevisiae in human sera or plasma. The assessment of
ASCAs by ELISA resulted in 5079 % sensitivity and 74
93 % specificity in Australian CD patients, depending on the
commercial kits used [41].
ASCAs are directed against the cell wall mannan
(phosphopeptidomannan) of the yeast S. cerevisiae. IgG as
well as IgA ASCAs are held to be highly specific for CD.
However, the determination of ASCAs is also reliable in
other autoimmune disorders besides CD [3]. In a normal
range study with serum samples from healthy blood donors,
ASCA tests for either IgG or IgA subclasses were consid-
ered positive at a titer of >10 U/ml.
Nevertheless, positive results should be interpreted in the
light of the patients clinical status. It is recommended that
each laboratory establishes its own normal and pathological
Table 1 Vaccines containing S. cerevisiae as an adjuvant
Vaccines containing S. cerevisiae Extract Protein
DTaP-HepB-IPV (Pediatrix)
Hip/Hep B (Comvax)
Hep B (Engerix-B)
Hep B (Recombivax)
HepA/HepB (Twinrix)
Meningococcal (Menveo)
Pneumococcal (Prevnar)
Pneumococcal (Prevnar13)
Typhoid (oral Ty21a)
HPV (Gardasil)

Figs. 15 Sequence bars are displayed as a group of bars in various

shades of gray, each representing a result sequence that shows the
position(s) where the result sequence is similar to the input sequence.
Sequence bars showtheir score range by color shade variation, according
to the alignment scores color key. The most similar hits are upmost
(200). Fig. 1 a Conserved domains for chain B anti-citrullinated peptide
collagen type 2. Clusters of different arrowheads which belong to specific
hits included in a superfamily protein domain are shown such as the
heterodimer interface (polypeptide binding site) on conserved domain
IgC_L that compose the conserved feature mapped on the query se-
quence. b Distribution of two hits for chain B anti-citrullinated peptide
collagen type 2 compared to mannan. The alignments result came from
the process of matching amino acid residues from both biosequences. In
this sequence matching, consistent homology was detected showing the
existing degree of similarity between the considered molecular structures.
Fig. 2 a Conserved domains for U2 snRNP B. Clusters of different
arrowheads which belong to specific hits included in a superfamily
protein domain are shown, namely, the RNA recognition motif (RRM)
also known as RNA-binding domain (RBD) or ribonucleoprotein (RNP)
domain, one of the most plenteous protein domains in eukaryotes. Com-
positionally biased region not used in this domain database search is
highlighted on the query sequence. b Distribution of the hit for U2 snRNP
B compared to mannan. In this sequence match, a very high homology
was detected showing the existing degree of similarity between the
considered molecular structures. Fig. 3 a Conserved domains for ICAM
1 which play a central role in intercellular adhesion have been detected;
the Ig2_ICAM-1-like-specific hit, included in the immunoglobulin su-
perfamily protein domain, is displayed. Compositionally biased regions
not used in this domain database search are highlighted on the query
sequence. b Distribution of the hit for ICAM 1 compared to mannan. Fig.
4 a Conserved domains for -enolase 1, a glycolytic enzyme, have been
detected compared to mannan. Clusters of different arrowheads which
belong to specific hits included in the triosephosphate isomerase or
TIM_phosphate_binding superfamily protein domain are shown such as
dimer interface on conserved domain enolase; 37 of 37 of the residues
that compose this conserved feature have been mapped to the query
sequence. b Distribution of five hits for -enolase 1. In this sequence
match, a very high homology was detected showing the existing degree of
similarity between the considered molecular structures. Fig. 5 a Con-
served domains for anti-cardiolipin/beta-2-glycoprotein-I immunoglobu-
lin light chain variable region have been detected compared to mannan.
Compositionally biased region not used in this domain database search is
highlighted on the query sequence. b Clusters of different arrowheads
which belong to specific hits included are shown. In this sequence match,
a very high homology was detected showing the existing degree of
similarity between the considered molecular structures such as the antigen
binding site on conserved domain IgV_L_lambda where 6/6 residues that
compose this conserved feature have been mapped to the query sequence
Table 2 Link between rheumatoid arthritis-associated antigens and
ASCAs
Autoimmune
disease
ASCA Antigens
(Homo sapiens)
Comparison to
mannan; accession
no. EDV13046.1
IgG IgA Identities Positives
Rheumatoid
arthritis
Neg Pos RF 5/10, 50 % 6/10, 60 %
Anti-citrullinated
collagen type2
3/6, 50 % 6/6, 100 %
gp130-RAPS 4/5, 80 % 4/5, 80 %
EIF4G1 6/8, 75 % 7/8, 88 %
Bip/GRP78 5/7, 71% 5/7, 71%
The main autoantigens in RAwith the highest sensitivity and specificity
have been considered with the relative percentage of sequence identities
and/or positive substitutions. Accession number EDV13046.1 is a code
which corresponds to mannan molecular structure in the NCBI database,
which was considered the referring element for each comparison
RF rheumatoid factor, RAPS rheumatoid arthritis antigenic peptide-
bearing soluble form, EIF4G1 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4
gamma 1, Bip/GRP78 glucose-regulated protein 78
Clinic Rev Allerg Immunol
Clinic Rev Allerg Immunol
ranges for serumASCAs. The lower detection limit for ASCA
ELISA was determined at 1 U/ml. The solid phase is coated
with mannan from S. cerevisiae (ORG 545 ASCA IgG/IgA,
ORGENTEC Diagnostika GmbH, Germany). Therefore, the
ASCA test kits only recognize autoantibodies specific for this
phosphopeptide [3].
Database Searching Method and Results
For our purposes, we consulted the protein database of the
National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), com-
paring mannan of Saccharomyces to several molecules with a
pathogenetic role in autoimmune diseases. We focused on
specific and significant results (highest identity/positivity),
displaying them in tables by pathological conditions. The
related graphics showthe location of the positive match, along
sequence bars composed of ranges with different color shades,
according to the resulting score.
We also evaluated the expectation or expect value (E value);
this represents the number of different alignments with scores
equivalent to or better than what is expected to occur by chance
in a database search. The lower the E value, the more significant
is the score and the alignment [54]. The E values for our results
range between 0.17 and 9.90 with a mean of 3.11. This reliability
index supports and reinforces the evidence of our findings.
Autoimmune Diseases Associated with S. cerevisiae
The association between infectious and autoimmune diseases has
been widely described, and S. cerevisiae may represent another
dowel in this parquetry puzzle. In one study, ASCA IgA, IgG,
and IgM levels were measured with ELISA in 30 patients
affected with RA and in 152 healthy adult controls. ASCA IgA
prevalence was significantly higher in RApatients (40 %) than in
healthy subjects (5.3 %). In RA patients, ASCA IgA levels
strongly correlated with C-reactive protein (CRP) (r=0.695; p<
0.01) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (r=0.708; p<0.01) [6].
As shown in Table 2, we observed significant similarities be-
tween the sequence of autoantigens (Fig. 1a, b) and mannan
expressed by the cell wall of S. cerevisiae.
In another study, serum samples from healthy volunteers
(n=152) and patients with SLE (n=40) were compared for
ASCA IgA, IgG, and IgM levels using ELISA. The
prevalence of ASCA IgG, but not IgM and IgA, was signifi-
cantly raised in active SLE patients (57.5 %) compared to
healthy controls (8.5 %) (Fig. 2c). ASCA IgG levels in SLE
patients during remission were relatively lower, indicating a
possible correlation with disease activity [4]. Several SLE
autoantigens have been found to share sequences with yeast
mannan, and U2 snRNP B (Fig. 2a, b) shows the best match
(Table 3).
ASCAs, Autoimmunity, and Atherosclerosis
The role of local and general inflammation in atherosclerosis is a
major area of interest. In a casecontrol study, the ASCA IgG
and IgA levels of patients with acute myocardial infarction
(AMI) were compared with those of controls to investigate the
possible role of ASCAs in atherosclerosis. AMI was diagnosed
by electrocardiography and serial enzymes. Elevated ASCA
IgA and IgG levels were found, suggesting that ASCA positiv-
ity in AMI could represent a useful marker for atherosclerotic
plaque instability. It might also provide a link between inflam-
matory processes and increased cardiovascular risk. Interesting-
ly, one of the most significant sequence matches with mannan is
ICAM-1 (Fig. 3a, b). ICAM-1 and P-selectin (Table 4) are
crucial molecules for transendothelial migration of leukocytes,
playing an important role in the process of atherogenesis, espe-
cially in patients with chronic systemic inflammatory autoim-
mune diseases [42]. The role of macrophages expressing the
LOX1 receptor for oxidized LDL is well-known in the patho-
genesis of atherosclerosis, but more recently, a distinction has
been proposed for the cells involved in the atherogenic process,
especially when it is accelerated by systemic inflammatory
Table 3 Link between systemic lupus erythematosus-associated anti-
gens and ASCAs
Autoimmune
disease
ASCA Antigens
(H. sapiens)
Comparison to
mannan; accession
no. EDV13046.1
IgG IgA Identities Positives
Systemic lupus
erythematosus
Pos Neg SSA (Ro), 5/10, 50 % 6/10, 60 %
SSB (La) 6/13, 46 % 9/13, 69 %
snRNPSm D3 6/11, 55 % 7/11, 64 %
SmN 5/15, 33 % 8/15, 53 %
U2 snRNP B 5/6, 83 % 5/6, 83 %
The percentages of sequence identities and/or positive substitutions can
express the extent to which the protein sequences are related
Table 4 Link between acute myocardial infarction-associated antigens
and ASCAs
Autoimmune
disease
ASCA Antigens
(H. sapiens)
Comparison to
mannan; accession
no. EDV13046.1
IgG IgA Identities Positives
Cardiovascular
diseases, acute
myocardial
infarction
Pos Pos P-selectin 8/15, 53 % 11/15, 80 %
Intercellular
adhesion
molecule-1
4/4, 100 % 4/4, 100 %
Myosin 5/8, 63 % 7/8, 88 %
The percentage of sequence identities and/or positive substitutions can
express the extent to which the protein sequences are related
Clinic Rev Allerg Immunol
disease: type 1 (M1) macrophage cells with a proinflammatory
effect (expressing high levels of CD8086, IL23, and MHC II)
and type 2 CD163
+
(M2) cells displaying a Th2-like phenotype
(widely represented in atherosclerotic lesions of the vascular
intimal layer). The M2a macrophage subtype is activated by
signaling molecules such as IL-4 and IL-13 with anti-
inflammatory and pro-B cell growth and activation properties.
They are also characterized by the expression of mannose
receptors and the production of TGF-, dectin 1, MBL,
and IL-10 (among other secretory products), thus promot-
ing immunoregulation, tissue remodeling, and fibrosis in-
duction. Moreover, the dominance of the M1 over the M2
phenotype has been associated with progression of athero-
sclerotic disease [43].
In a randomized trial, Saccharomyces boulardii oral ad-
ministration in patients with heart failure (NYHA III)
ameliorated gastrointestinal symptoms (constipation,
postprandial fullness, flatulence, and dyspepsia), lowering
CRP, leukocyte count, and echocardiographic left atrial di-
ameter compared to placebo. Increased ASCA levels were
also reported in several studies on Behets disease in which
a prevalence of 44 % was shown in patients with intestinal
involvement, compared with 3 % in patients without gastro-
intestinal symptoms [44]. Alpha-enolase 1 (Fig. 4a, b) is
known as an autoantigen in Behets disease with ocular
involvement (uveitis). As reported in Table 5, the similarity
of sequences suggests the presence of shared epitopes in
different kinds of rheumatic conditions with immunologic
ocular involvement. Cross-reactive epitopes on 2-
glycoprotein-I (2GPI) and S. cerevisiae (Fig. 5a, b; Table 6)
were also found by our group in patients with APS. Anti-
2GPI antibodies were affinity purified from ASCA-
positive APS patients and were proven to bind mannan in
a dose-dependent manner [2]. Encompassing different auto-
immune disorders associated with ASCA positivity
[5, 4553], we discovered other autoantigens that might
cross-react with antibodies against mannan of S. cerevisiae
(Table 7); the percentages of sequence identities (ID) and/or
positive substitutions (PS) were pointed out for transgluta-
minase (ID and PS 60 %) in celiac disease, GAD65 (ID
35 %, PS 57 %) and zinc transporter 8 (ID 43 %, PS 57 %)
for diabetes mellitus type 1, proteinase3 (ID 57 %, PS 86 %)
and myeloperoxidase (ID 71 %, PS 86 %) for vasculitis,
soluble liver/pancreas antigen (ID 40 %, PS 80 %) for
autoimmune hepatitis, calprotectin or protein S100-A8 for
Crohns disease (ID 60 % PS 100 %), and thyroglobulin (ID
35 %, PS 52 %) and thyroid peroxidase (ID and PS 71 %)
for autoimmune thyroid disease.
Performing our database research of shared epitopes, we
found very interesting results with regard to systemic scle-
rosis (SSc) (Table 8); high percentages of sequence
Table 5 Link between Behets disease, immunologic ocular disease-
associated antigens, and ASCAs
Autoimmune
disease
ASCA Antigens
(H. sapiens)
Comparison to
mannan; accession
no. EDV13046.1
IgG IgA Identities Positives
Behets disease Pos Pos -Enolase 1 6/8, 75 % 6/8, 75 %
Granulysin
NKG5
4/7, 57 % 4/7, 57 %
Immunologic
ocular disease
Pos Pos Rhodopsin 4/8, 50 % 5/8, 63 %
Glycosamino 5/10, 50 % 7/10, 70 %
Glycan
Xylose kinase
-Enolase 1 6/8, 75 % 6/8, 75 %
Retinal S-Ag 6/12, 50 % 8/12, 67 %
The percentage of sequence identities and/or positive substitutions can
express the extent to which the protein sequences are related
Table 6 Link between antiphospholipid syndrome-associated antigens
and ASCAs
Autoimmune
disease
ASCA Antigens
(H. sapiens)
Comparison to
mannan; accession
no. EDV13046.1
IgG IgA Identities Positives
Antiphospholipid
syndrome
Pos Pos 2-Glycoprotein-1
precursor
7/18,
39 %
11/18,
56 %
Annexin A5 5/8,
63 %
5/8,
63 %
Anti-CL/-2GPI
Ig light chain
variable region
7/11,
64 %
8/11,
73 %
The percentage of sequence identities and/or positive substitutions can
express the extent to which the protein sequences are related
Table 7 Link between AID-associated antigens and ASCAs
Autoimmune
disease
ASCA Antigens
(H. sapiens)
Comparison to
mannan; accession
no. EDV13046.1
IgG IgA Identities Positives
Celiac disease Neg Pos Transglutaminase 6/10, 60 % 6/10, 60 %
Diabetes
mellitus
type 1
Pos Pos GAD65 8/23, 35 % 13/23, 57 %
Zinc transporter 8 6/14, 43 % 8/14, 57 %
Vasculitis Pos Pos Soluble liver/
pancreas antigen
4/10, 40 % 8/10, 80 %
Crohns
disease
Pos Pos Calprotectin
(protein S100-A8)
3/5, 60 % 5/5, 100 %
Autoimmune
thyroid
disease
Neg Pos Thyroglobulin 8/23, 35 % 12/23, 52 %
Thyroid peroxidase 5/7, 71 % 5/7, 71 %
The percentage of sequence identities and/or positive substitutions can
express the extent to which the protein sequences are related
Clinic Rev Allerg Immunol
identities and/or positive substitutions were pointed out for
RNA polymerase III (ID 50 %, PS 67 %), U3-snRNP or
fibrillarin (ID and PS 75 %), U3sn-RNP or matrix
metalloproteinase-10 (ID and PS 75 %), hU3-55 kDa (ID
71 %, PS 86 %), nucleophosmin B23 or nucleolar phospho-
protein B23 or numatrin (ID 50 %, PS 88 %), and major
centromere autoantigen B (ID and PS 57 %). Indeed, data
suggest seeking out ASCAs in SSc (mean E value=3.77).
Conclusion and Perspectives
This review provides the background and the evidence
needed for further studies on the ability of ASCAs to bind
autoantigens in several associated diseases, at least for the
highest significant results (high identity and positivity with
low E values). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first
review focusing on the relationships between ASCAs and
autoimmune diseases, including the molecular aspects.
Since S. cerevisiae is characterized by the ability to elicit
an adaptive immune response, even inducing autoreactive
antibody production against mannan, we wonder about the
potential limitations of administering vaccines containing S.
cerevisiae plus adjuvants. It is important to consider new
challenges and new vaccination issues in preventive
medicine.
ASCAs may be present years before the diagnosis of
some related autoimmune diseases as they have been
retrospectively detected in the preserved blood samples
of soldiers who became affected with CD years later.
Even bearing in mind the fact that S. cerevisiae is a
common bakers and brewers yeast, we cannot suggest
a preventive yeast-free diet, but perhaps, some clinical
conditions might benefit from a reduction in yeast
exposure.
The importance of improving and better defining the
clinical use and reliability of ASCA tests in clinical prac-
tice for autoimmune diseases should certainly be under-
lined. ASCA positivity should be addressed in patients
with different clinical courses who may deserve closer
management of comorbidities, especially concerning in-
creased cardiovascular risk.
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