1

Mathematics for Thermodynamics

Partial Differentiation

The first derivative of a function denotes the change of a function. The second derivative
denotes the change of the first derivative, etc When the function depends only on one
variable, the change described by a derivative depends only on the change of that single
variable. What is the case when we have a function that depends on two or more variables?
How would be able to describe the change of the function? We would have to specify a
change of the function with respect to the some other change, namely a change of one of the
variables. Thus, the case presented is the basis for partial differentiation. A partial
derivative is the derivative of a multi-variable function.

When one does a partial derivative on function, the other variables are considered as constants.
In the function,
3 5
h w t = we find a derivative with respect to w or with respect to t. If we want
the change with respect to w, then we want to make sure that we by changing t at the same
time. Therefore when we find the first derivative of h with respect to w, we will hold t
constant. The variable being held constant are indicated as subscripts. For example, the partial
derivative of h with respect to w is written as

2 5
t
h
3w t
w

=

NOTATION: Note that the script is used rather than d for the differentials. d is used
for single variable ordinary differentials and multi-variable partial differentials.
Continuing, what is the partial derivative of h with respect to t?

3 4
w
h
5w t
t

=

Example: What is
y,z
f
x

for the function
2 3 2
f x y 3y z = + ?
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 2 2 3 2
y,z
y,z y,z y,z
x y 3y z x y 3y z
f
2xy 0 2xy
x x x x

+

= = + = + =








Example What is
x,z
f
y

for the same function
2 3 2
f x y 3y z = + ?

( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 2 2 3 2
2 2 2
x,z
x,z x,z x,z
x y 3y z x y 3y z
f
x 9y z
y y y y

+

= = + = +








2
The chain rule for partial derivatives needs to be obeyed as well.

Example: Find
b
G
a

when
( )
2 2
G ln a 2ab b = + +

( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
2 2 2 2
b
a 2ab b
2a 2b
G 1
a a a 2ab b a 2ab b
+ +
+

= =

+ + + +


Implicit Differentiation

Sometimes we wish to take the derivative of a function with respect to a variable that is within
the function in a complicated way. For example, consider the following function.

2
lnx 3y 5y 1 = +

We wanted to take the derivative of y with respect to x using the method with which were
accustom, we would need to algebraically rearrange the equation to solve for y.

( )
2
5 25 12 1 lnx
y
6

=

With enough patience we can certainly find dy/dx; however, it would be better to use the more
sophisticated technique of implicit differentiation. Rather than doing algebra and then
differentiation (which is messy for both on the above function) we can do the differentiation
first and then the algebra to find the derivative. We will take the derivative of the function as
we originally found it keeping in mind that y depends on x.

( )
( )
( )
2
d d 1 dy dy
lnx 3y 5y 1 6y 5 0
dx dx x dx dx
1 dy dy 1
6y 5
x dx dx x 6y 5

= + = +



= =





If we desired we could substitute what we know for y into the expression, but often this final
step is not necessary. The above derivative took three steps using implicit differentiation.
Using our traditional methods would have been much more time consuming.










3
Second Derivatives

A second derivative can be thought of as two consecutive first derivatives. When we have a
multi-variable function, we have choice for partial first derivatives as discussed above. For
partial second derivative, we have even more choices. For a function that depends on three
variables, we have nine possible second derivatives. Consider a function Q(r, s, t). All of the
following are possible second derivatives.

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
, , , , , , , ,
r r s r t s r s s t t r t s t





where
2
2
s,t s,t
Q
Q
r r r

=




,
2
s,t r,t
Q
Q
r s r s

=




,
2
s,t r,s
Q
Q
r t r t

=




, etc

Example: Calculate all of the partial second derivatives for the function
( )
3 2 3
2 4
r s rv s v
Q r,s,v
v s r
= + +

2 3 2 3 2 2 3 3
2 2 4 2 5 2 6
s,v s,v s,v
Q r s rv s v 3r s v 4s v 6rs 20s v
r r r v s r r v s r v r

= + + = + = +





2 3 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2
2 4 2 2 4 2 2 5
s,v r,v s,v
Q r s rv s v r rv 3s v 3r v 12s v
r s r s v s r r v s r v s r

= + + = + =





2 3 2 3 3 3 2 3
2 4 3 4 3 5
s,v r,s s,v
Q r s rv s v 2r s 2rv s 6r s 2v 4s
r v r v v s r r v s r v s r

= + + = + + = +





2 3 2 3 3 2 2 2
2 2 4 2 2 4 3 4
r,v r,v r,v
Q r s rv s v r rv 3s v 2v 6sv
s s s v s r s v s r s r

= + + = + = +





2 3 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 2
2 4 2 5 2 2 5
r,v s,v r,v
Q r s rv s v 3r s v 4s v 3r v 12s v
s r s r v s r s v s r v s r

= + + = + =





2 3 2 3 3 3 3 2
2 4 3 4 3 2 4
r,v r,s r,v
Q r s rv s v 2r s 2rv s 2r 2rv 3s
s v s v v s r s v s r v s r

= + + = + + = +





2 3 2 3 3 3 3
2 2 4 3 4 4
r,s r,s r,s
Q r s rv s v 2r s 2rv s 6r s 2r
v v v v s r v v s r v s

= + + = + + = +





2 3 2 3 2 2 3 2 3
2 4 2 5 3 5
r,s s,v r,s
Q r s rv s v 3r s v 4s v 6r s 2v 4s
v r v r v s r v v s r v s r

= + + = + = +





2 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 2
2 4 2 2 4 3 2 4
r,s r,v r,s
Q r s rv s v r rv 3s v 2r 2rv 3s
v s v s v s r v v s r v s r

= + + = + = +






Note that
2 2
Q Q
r s s r

=



;
2 2
Q Q
r v v r

=



and
2 2
Q Q
s v v s

=




This interchangeability of mixed partial derivatives is one of the properties of partial
derivatives.
4
Operations with Partial Derivatives

Interchangeability of Mixed Partial Derivatives

2 2
z z
x y y x

=




2 2
U U
T V V T

=





2 2
y y y y
x x x x
f f f f
f f
x y x y x y y x y x y x

= = = = =






Inversion of Partial Derivatives

x
x
z 1
y y
z

=

p
p
H 1
T T
H

=

Example: Let
2 4
H p T =

2 4 2 3
p p
H
p T 4p T
T T

= =




1
4
2 4 4
2 2
H H
H p T T T
p p

= = =




1 1
3
4 4
4
2 2
p p
T H 1 1
H
H H p 4 p


= =





( ) ( )
1 3 1 1 3 3 3
2 3 2 4 4 2 3
2 4 2 2 2 4 4
1
3
p
4
4
2 p
H 1 1
4p T 4p H 4p p T 4p p T 4p T
T T
1 1
H
H
4 p


= = = = = =

Chain Rule

x
x x
z z w
y w y

=





V V V
A A T
S T S

=





Note that weve already had an example above. Heres another example.





5
Example: Find
y
f
x

for the function
2 2
x
f (x,y) lnsin
x y

=

+


This function has the form ( ) ( )
f g h x,y = .
2 2
x
h(x,y)
x y
=
+
, g(x,y) sinh = , f (x,y) lng =
( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
y y y
y
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
f f g h 1 x 1 2x
cos
x g h x x y x y x
x y
sin
x y
x x y 2x x y x
cot cot
x y x y
x y x y




= =

+ +

+


+


+

= =

+ +
+ +

Eulers Rule
- For functions that depend only on three variables.
- common situation in thermodynamics.

y x
z
x z y
1
y x z

=





T P H
H T P
1
P H T

=





- Note the cyclic relationship between the variables.

Example: Let
2 4
H p T =
2 4 4
T T
H
p T 2pT
p p

= =




1
4
2 4 4
2 2
H H
H p T T T
p p

= = =



1 1
3
4 4
4
2 2
p p
T H 1 1
H
H H p 4 p


= =





1
2
2 4 2
4 4
H H
H p T p p
T T

= = =



1
1 1 1
1
2
2 2 2
2
4 4 4 5 3
H H
H p H 1 1 4 2H
p H
T T T T 2 T T T

= = = =







( )
1 1
3 1 1 1 1
2 4
4 2 4
4 2 4 2 4
2 3
p H
T
H T p 1 1 2H
2pT H p TH p T p T 1
p H T 4 p T




= = = =














6
Total Differentials

An aside: The difference between a derivative and a differential.

Differential an infinitesimal change in a quantity.

Derivative a ratio of infinitesimals
the change of a quantity with respect to another quantity.

Total differential an infinitesimal change of a multi-variable function that accounts for
changes in all the variables.

The total differential of the function ( ) R , , , is

, , , ,
, , , ,
R R R R
dR d d d d



= + + +






The total differential describes how the quantities change when all of the variables are able to
change.

Example: What is the total differential for the following function ( ) p n,V,T :
2
2
nRT n a
p
V nb V
=

?

V,T n,T n,V
p p p
dp dn dV dT
n V T

= + +




( )
2
2 2 2
V,T V,T
p nRT n a RT nRTb 2na
n n V nb V V nb V
V nb

= = +





( )
2 2
2 2 3
n,T n,T
p nRT n a nRT 2n a
V V V nb V V
V nb

= = +





( )
2
2
n,V n,V
p nRT n a nR
T T V nb V V nb

= =





( ) ( )
( )
V,T n,T n,V
2
2 2 2 3
p p p
dp dn dV dT
n V T
RT nRTb 2na RT 2n a nR
dn dV dT
V nb V V V nb
V nb V nb

= + +





= + + + +














7
Exact Differentials

Consider a general expression for the differential of a three variable function, f (x,y)

( ) ( )
y
x
f f
df dx dy M x,y dx N x,y dy
x y

= + = +






df is an exact differential if and only if the following condition is met.
( ) ( )
x y
M x,y N x,y
y x

=





This condition is the same as requiring that


Example: Is the following differential exact:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
df M x,y dx N x,y dy y 2x 4 dx 2xy 4y 5 dy = + = + + + + ?

( )
( )
2
x x
M x,y
y 2x 4 2y
y y

= + + =




( )
( )
y
y
N x,y
2xy 4y 5 2y
x x


= + =






Therefore df is exact.

Aside: If df is exact, then
2 2 2
f xy x 4x 2y 5y = + + + .

Example: Is the following differential exact:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 2 2 2 2
dR M p,q dp N p,q dq p 3p q 7q dp 2pq 4p q 5p dq = + = + + + ?

( )
( )
3 2 2 2
p p
M p,q
p 3p q 7q 6p q 7
q q

= + =




( )
( )
2 2 2
q q
N p,q
2pq 4p q 5p 2q 8pq 5
p p

= + = +





( ) ( )
p q
M p,q N p,q
q p

, therefore dR is not exact.

Advantages of a differential being exact.

1. Line integral of differential does not depend on the path of integration.
2. If df is exact, f is known as a state function.

2 2
f f
x y y x

=



8
Line Integrals

Integrals are often pictured as the area under a curve. However, not all integrals are areas.
Sometimes integrals are used to calculate the length of a path. If the path is not flat, then an
integral can be used to find the effort needed to traverse the path. Such an integral is called a
line integral.

The simplest conception of a line integral is work. Mechanical work is defined as the energy
needed to move a force along a specified path. As an equation, work is defined as

w F dr =

where dr

is the differential path element. The path of integration is very important. In

general, different paths will yield different results.


Illustration: Consider the graphic at the right. Note that the
work against gravity going up and down the hill (red path)
will be different from the work against gravity going
around the hill (blue path).
- Note the change of energy is the same, but the amount
of work is different. We will be considering such
details later in the course.




Example: Calculate the work done against the force
2

F xyi y j = going from point (0,0) to the point (2,1) for the following paths:
a) straight line: y = x
b) y = x
2
c) taxicab path: (0,0) to (2,0) to (2,1)
d) x =2t
3
, y =t
2
t: 0 1

X t ( ) 2t
3
:= Y t ( ) t
2
:= y x ( )
1
4
x
2
:=
0 1 2
0
0.5
1
1
2
t
y x ( )
Y t ( )
t x , X t ( ) ,


A B
9
Surface plot of
2

F xyi y j = Contour plot of
2

F xyi y j =
M

M


For all paths, the solution of the problem begins as follows:

w F dr =

where

dr dxi dyj = +

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2

w F dr xyi y j dxi dyj xydx y dy = = + =

a) straight line: y = x

y = x dy = dx
( ) ( )
(2,1)
2 2
(0,0)
w xydx y dy xydx y dy = =



Using the relationship between x and y given by the path, we can substitute for one or the
other. Let us first substitute x for y and dx for dy

( ) ( )
2 (2,1) 2
2 2
(0,0) 0
2 2
2 2 2 3 2 3 3
0
0 0
1 1 1
w xydx y dy xydx y dy x x dx x dx
2 2 2
1 1 3 3 1 1 1
x x dx x dx x | 2 0 1
2 8 8 8 3 8 8


= = =






= = = = =






As mentioned above, we could have just as easily substituted 2y for x and 2 dy for dx

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(2,1) 1
2 2 2
(0,0) 0
1 1
2 2 2 3 1 3 3
0
0 0
w xydx y dy xydx y dy 2y y 2dy y dy
1
4y dy y dy 3y dy 3 y | 1 0 1
3
= = =

= = = = =




10
b) y = x
2

Lets substitute as to do the line integral as an integration of the x variable. Thus, substitute
x
2
for y and xdx for dy

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 (2,1) 2
2 2 2 2
(0,0) 0
2 2 2
3 5 3 5 4 2 6 2
0 0
0 0 0
4 4 6 6
1 1 1
w xydx y dy xydx y dy x x dx x xdx
4 4 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
x x dx x dx x dx x | x |
4 32 4 32 4 4 32 6
1 1 1 16 1 64 1 2
2 0 2 0 1
16 32 6 16 32 6 3 3


= = =






= = =



= = = =






Now lets substitute as to do the line integral as an integration of the y variable. Thus,
substitute x 2 y = and
1
2
dx y dy

=

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
(2,1) 1
2 2 2
(0,0) 0
1 1 1
3
2 2 2 1 3 1 3 3 3
0 0
0 0 0
dy
w xydx y dy xydx y dy 2 y y y dy
y
1 1 2
2ydy y dy 2ydy y dy y | y | 1 0 1 0
3 3 3

= = =




= = = = =






c) taxicab path: (0,0) to (2,0) to (2,1)

Well breakup the integration path into two pieces: (0,0) to (2,0), that is y =0 and
(2,0) to (2,1), that is, x =2.

Path 1: (0,0) to (2,0) y =0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(2,1) 2
2
2 2
(0,0) 0
w xydx y dy xydx y dy x 0 dx 0 0 0

= = = =




Path 2: (2,0) to (2,1) x =2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(2,1) 1 1
2
2 2 1
0
(0,0) 0 0
w xydx y dy xydx y dy 2y 0 2 dy 4dy 4y| 4

= = = = = =




d) x =2t
3
, y =t
2
t: 0 1

Do line integral using t as the integration variable. Thus, dx =6t
2
dt and dy =2t dt

( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
(2,1) 1
2
2 2 3 2 2 2
(0,0) 0
1
7 5 8 1 6 1
0 0
0
w xydx y dy xydx y dy 2t t 6t dt t 2tdt
1 1 12 2 3 1 9 2 7
12t dt 2t dt 12 t | 2 t |
8 6 8 6 2 3 6 6 6

= = =


= = = = = =

11
Example: Evaluate the following line integral
( )
2 2
x y dx 2xydy

using each of the

following paths from (0,0) to (1,2):
a) y =2x
2


( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1,2
1
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0,0 0
1 1 1 3 5
2 4 4 2 4 1 1
0 0
0 0 0
x y dx 2xydy x y dx 2xydy x 2x dx 2x 2x 4xdx
x x 1 11
x 4x dx 16x dx x dx 20x dx | 20 | 4
3 5 3 3
= =
= = = = =




b) x =t
2
, y =2t

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )( )
( )
1,2
1
2
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
0,0 0
1 1 1 6 4
5 3 3 5 3 1 1
0 0
0 0 0
x y dx 2xydy x y dx 2xydy t 2t 2tdt 2 t 2t 2dt
t x 1 11
2t 8t dt 8t dt 2t dt 16t dt 2 | 16 | 4
6 4 3 3
= =
= = = = =





c) straight line from (0,0) to (2,0), then straight line from (2,0) to (1,2)

Path 1: (0,0) to (2,0) i.e., y =0

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2,0
2
2
2 2 2 2 2
0,0 0
2 3 3
2 2
0
0
x y dx 2xydy x y dx 2xydy x 0 dx 2xy 0
x 2 8
x dx |
3 3 3
= =
= = = =

Path 2: (2,0) to (1,2) i.e., y =-2x +4

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1,2
1
2
2 2 2 2 2
2,0 2
1 1
2 2 2 2
2 2
3 2
1 1 1 3 3 2 2
2 2 2
x y dx 2xydy x y dx 2xydy x 2x 4 dx 2x 2x 4 2dx
x 4x 16x 16 dx 8x 16x dx 11x 32x 16 dx
x x 11 32
11 | 32 | 16x| 1 2 1 2 16 1 2
3 2 3 2
11 32 77 77 96
7 3 16 1 48 16
3 2 3 3 3
= = + +
= + + + = +
= + = +
= + = + ==


19
3
=

Path 1 +Path 2 =
8 19 11
3 3 3
=

12
The line integrals for all of the paths are identical. This happy coincidence is because
( )
2 2
df x y dx 2xydy = is an exact differential.

Lets perform the test for an exact differential, that is, if ( ) ( ) df M x,y dx N x,y dy = and
( ) ( )
x y
M x,y N x,y
y x

=



, then df is exact and the path of the line integral is will not
change its value. Then also, the function f is a state function.

( )
( )
2 2
x x
M x,y
x y 2y
y y

=




( )
( )
y
y
N x,y
2xy 2y
x x


=





( ) ( )
x y
M x,y N x,y
y x

=



df is exact and
3
2
x
f xy
3
= is state function.

Since f is a state function, all of the details done above are unnecessary. To find the change in
f, we only need to find f at the end point and subtract f at the beginning point, i.e.,
f =f(1,2) f(0,0).

( ) ( )
( )
( )( )
( )
( )( )
3 3
2 2
1 0
1 11
f f 1,2 f 0,0 1 2 0 0 4
3 3 3 3

= = = =





Series Expansions

In the pursuit to construct a relationship between physical quantities, we often find that using
simple functions is inadequate. To express the relationship as a mathematical equation, we
must resort to using approximations. One of the most common ways to approximate a function
is by using a Taylor series.

One-dimensional Taylor series

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 3
2 3
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
2 3
n
n
0
0
n
n 0
f x f x f x
1 1
f x f x x x x x x x
x 2! x 3! x
f x
1
x x
n! x

=

= + + + +

Using a Taylor series, we can fit k data points to a k
th
order polynomial.
Note: If x
0
=0, then series is called a Maclaurin series.



13
Uses of Taylor series

1) We can approximate a function as a polynomial series.

Example 1: Expand the function cos t about the point t 0 = .

( ) f 0 cos 0 1 = =
( )
0
t 0
df t
sin t| sin 0 0
dt
=

= = =



( )
2
0 2 2 2
t 0 2
d f t
cos t| cos 0
dt
=

= = =



( )
3
0 3 3
t 0 3
d f t
sin t| sin 0 0
dt
=

= = =



( )
4
0 4 4 4
t 0
4
d f t
cos t| cos 0
dt
=

= = =




( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
2 3 4
2 3 4
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 2 3 4
2 3 4
2 4
2 4
2 4
f t f t f t f t
1 1 1
f t f t t t t t t t t t
t 2! t 3! t 4! t
1 1 1
cos t 1 0 t 0 t 0 0 t 0 t 0
2! 3! 4!
1 t t
2 24

= + + + + +

= + + + + +

= + +

Example 2: Expand the function lnp about the point p 1 = .

( ) f 1 ln1 0 = =
( )
0
p 1
df p
1
| 1
dp p
=

= =



( )
2
0
p 1 2 2
d f p
1
| 1
dp p
=

= =



( )
3
0
p 1
3 3
d f p
1
2 | 2
dp p
=

= =



( )
4
0
p 1
4 4
d f p
1
6 | 6
dp p
=

= =





( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 4
2 3 4
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
2 3 4
2 3 4
2 3 4
f p f p f p f p
1 1 1
f p f p p p p p p p p p
p 2! p 3! p 4! p
1 1 1
lnp 0 1 p 1 1 p 1 2 p 1 6 p 1
2! 3! 4!
1 1 1
p 1 p 1 p 1 p 1
2 3 4

= + + + + +

= + + + + +
= + +

14
2) Create a polynomial function that fits a set of data points.

Example: Find an expression that relates the Darth Vader temperature scale to the Kelvin
scale given the data below.

Vader Kelvin
1 V 0 K
45 V 310 K
1291 V 10000 K

We need to find V =f(K).

First question: What point do we choose to expand about, i.e., what is x
0
?

We can choose any point, so lets choose the most convenient. How about x
0
=0?

For the first data point
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
2
0 0
0 0 0 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
f K f K
1
V f K f K K K K K
K 2! K
f 0 f 0
1
f 0 K 0 K 0
K 2! K
f 0 f 0
1
1V f 0 0 0 0 0 f 0
K 2! K
f 0 1V

= = + +


= + +


= + + =

=


For the second data point
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
f 0 f 0
1
V f 0 310 0 310 0
K 2! K
f 0 f 0
1
45V 1V 310 310
K 2! K
f 0 f 0
44V 310 48050
K K

= + +


= + +


= +



For the third data point
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
f 0 f 0
1
V f 0 10000 0 10000 0
K 2! K
f 0 f 0
1
1291V 1V 10000 10000
K 2! K
f 0 f 0
1290V 10000 50,000,000
K K

= + +


= + +


= +



15
We now have two equations and two unknowns. The two unknowns are the coefficients of the
Taylor series,
( ) ( )
2
2
f 0 f 0
,
K K



( ) f 0
0.1423
K

and
( )
2
6
2
f 0
2.670 10
K

Thus our function for temperature conversion between the Vader and Kelvin scale is
( ) ( )
1 6 2 2
V 1V 0.1423V K T 2.670 10 V K T

= +

What is the temperature in Vader for the melting point of steel, 3695 K?

( ) ( )
2
1 6 2
V 1V 0.1423V K 3695K 2.670 10 V K 3695K
1V 525.8V 36.5V 490.3V

= +
= + =


What is the temperature in Vader for the freezing point of oxygen, 50.5 K?

( ) ( )
2
1 6 2
V 1V 0.1423V K 50.5K 2.670 10 V K 50.5K
1V 7.2V 0.0V 8.2V

= +
= + =



Two-dimensional Taylor series

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )( )
( )
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
y x
2 2 2
2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
2 2
3 3
3 2
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
3 2
3 3
2
0 0 0 0
0 0 2 3
f x ,y f x ,y
f x,y f x ,y x x y y
x y
f x ,y f x ,y f x ,y
1
x x 2 x x y y y y
2! x x y y
f x ,y f x ,y
x x 3 x x y y
x x y
1
3!
f x ,y f x ,y
3 x x y y y
x y y

= + +




+ + +




+

+

+ +

( )
3
0
y



+

Note that the coefficients in front of the partial derivatives are the binomial coefficients.










16
Dimensional Analysis

Dimension is not the same as unit, though it is similar
- Dimension is broader object than unit

We classify the dependence of physical quantities upon a few, fundamental dimensions or
variables.

Dimension Examples of associated units
mass M kilograms, amu, slugs
length L meter, inches, Angstroms
time T seconds, years
temperature Kelvin, degrees Celsius, degrees Fahrenheit
charge Q coulomb, abcoulomb, statcoulomb

An arbitrary physical quantity is proportional to M L T Q


Examples:
Volume L
3

Momentum M L/T
Energy M L
2
/T
2

Dipole moment Q L
Entropy M L
2
/ T
2


Dimensional analysis is very helpful to check equations after a complicated derivation or
ensuring that a coefficient has the correct units.

Rules when dealing with quantities with dimensions

1.) Only quantities with the same dimension can be added or subtracted.

2.) Arguments of transcendental functions must be dimensionless.

Examples of transcendental functions
sin x, cos x, e
x
, ln x

Why is this true?
Transcendental functions can be written as series expansions.
2 3 4
x
x x x
e 1 x
2 6 24
= + + + + + (A Maclaurin expansion)
- x must be dimensionless to add members of series together.

3.) If x =y, then x and y must have the same dimension.

4.)
dx
dy
has the same dimension as
x
y
.

5.) xdy

has the same dimension as xy.

17
Example: What is the dimension of the gas constant, R?

3
2
2 2
2
F ML 1
V L
PV ML
A T L
PV nRT R R
nT nT T

= = = =



note: amount, i.e., number of moles, is dimensionless.
- Consider why this is true?


Example: Is the equation,
V
F
x

, dimensionally consistent?
2
ML
F
T

2
2
2
ML
V ML
T
x L T

= =

Yes, the equation is dimensionally consistent.