Electronics Ch1

CHAPTER 1 ELECTRONICS AND SEMICONDUCTORS
Chapter Outline
1.1 Signals
1.2 Frequency Spectrum of Signals
1.3 Analog and Digital Signals
1.4 Amplifiers
1.5 Circuit Models for Amplifiers
1.6 Frequency Response of Amplifiers
1.7 Intrinsic Semiconductors
1 8 Doped Semiconductors
NTUEE Electronics L. H. Lu 1-1
1.8 Doped Semiconductors
1.9 Current Flow in Semiconductors
1.10 The pn Junction with Open-Circuit Terminals
1.11 The pn Junction with Applied Voltage
1.12 Capacitive Effects in the pn Junction
1.1 Signals
Signal processing
Signals can be of a variety of forms in order to carry information from the physical world.
It is most convenient to process signals by electronic system, therefore, the signals are first converted into
an electric form (voltage or current) by transducers.
Signal
Processor
Input Signal
(voice, speed,
pressure, etc.)
Output Signal
(voice, speed,
pressure, etc.)
Transducer Transducer
Electric Signals Electric Signals
t
v(t)
t
v(t)
Signal sources
Thevenin form: (voltage source v
s
+ series resistance R
s
)
Presenting the signal by voltage form.
Is preferred when R
s
is low.
Norton form: (current source i
s
+ shunt resistance R
s
)
Presenting the signal by current form.
Is preferred when R
s
is high.
In electronics systems, the signal is taken from one of the two forms for analysis.
Two forms are interchangeable with v
s
(t) = i
s
(t) R
s
.
1.2 Frequency Spectrum of Signals
Sinusoidal signal
In time domain, a sinusoidal signal is given as: v
a
(t) = V
a
sin(et +u )
Can be characterized by its amplitude (V
a
), frequency (e) and phase (u )
Any time-domain signal can be expressed by its frequency spectrum.
Periodic signal Fourier series
Non-periodic signal Fourier transform
Periodic signal
The fundamental frequency of periodic signal is defined as e
0
= 2t /T.
A periodic signal can be expressed as the sum of sinusoids at harmonic frequencies (ne
0
) by Fourier series.
1 1 4V
V
a
T
t
v
a
(t)
...) 5 sin
5
1
3 sin
3
1
(sin
4
) (
0 0 0
+ + + = t t t
V
t v e e e
t
Time-domain representation Frequency-domain representation
Non-periodic signal
The Fourier transform is applied to a non-periodic function of time.
The spectrum of a non-periodic signal contains all possible frequencies.
Frequency-domain representation Time-domain representation
1.3 Analog and Digital Signals
Signal classification
Analog signal: signal can take on any value.
Digital signal: can only take on finite quantization levels.
Continuous-time signal: defined at any time instant.
Discrete-time signal: defined only at the sampling instants.
Sampling: the amplitude is measured at equal time intervals.
Quantization: represent the samples by a finite values.
Quantization error:
Difference between sampled value and quantized value.
Can be reduced by increasing the quantization levels
Continuous-time analog signal
v(t)
t
Discrete-time analog signal Sampling
Can be reduced by increasing the quantization levels.
Data conversion
Analog-to-digital converter (ADC):
Digital-to-analog converter (DAC):
A/D
converter
.
.
.
b
0
b
1
b
N-1
+
v
A
Analog
input
Digital
output
D/A
converter
.
.
.
b
0
b
1
b
N-1
+
v
D
Analog
output
Digital
input
v
A
= v
D
+ quantization error
1 1
1
0
0
2 .... 2 2

+ + =
N
N D
b b b v
3,3,3,2,3,3
Digital signal
Quantization error
t
Quantization
3
2
1
0
t
t
1.4 Amplifiers
Gain of amplifiers
Voltage gain A
v
v
O
/ v
I
Current gain A
i
i
O
/ i
I
Power gain A
p
v
O
i
O
/ v
I
i
I
Amplifier gains are dimensionless (ratio of similarly dimensioned quantities).
Voltage and current gain can be positive or negative depending on the polarity of the voltage and current.
The gain is frequently expressed in decibels:
Voltage gain A
v
(dB) 20 log | A
v
|
Current gain A
i
(dB) 20 log | A
i
|
Power gain A (dB) 10 log | A | Power gain A
p
(dB) 10 log | A
p
|
Gain > 0 dB | A | > 1 (amplification)
Gain < 0 dB | A | < 1 (attenuation)
The polarity of the voltage and current is not shown in dB expression.
Amplifier power supplies
Amplifiers require dc power supplies.
P
dc
= V
CC
I
CC
+ V
EE
I
EE
P
dc
+ P
I
= P
L
+ P
dissipated
q (efficiency) = (P
L
/ P
dc
)100%
Transfer characteristics of linear amplifier
The plot of output response vs. input transfer characteristics
For linear amplifier, the transfer characteristics is a straight line
passing the origin with slope = A
v
.
It is desirable to have linear amplifier characteristics for most of
the applications.
Output waveform is an enlarged copy of the input: v
O
(t) = A
v
v
I
(t)
No higher power terms of v
I
at the output.
Amplifier saturation Amplifier saturation
Practically, the amplifier transfer characteristic remains linear
over only a limited range of input and output voltages.
The amplifier can be used as a linear amplifier for input swing:
L
/A
v
s v
I
s L
+
/A
v
v
O
= A
v
v
I
For input larger than the swing limitation, the output waveform
will be truncated, resulting in nonlinear distortion.
The nonlinearity properties can be expressed as:
v
O
= a
0
+ a
1
v
I
+ a
2
v
I
2
+ a
3
v
I
3
..
Nonlinear transfer characteristics and biasing
In practical amplifiers the transfer characteristic may exhibit nonlinearities of various magnitude.
The nonlinearity characteristics will result in signal distortion during amplification.
In order to use the circuit as a linear amplifier:
Use dc bias to operate the circuit near the middle of the transfer curve quiescent point.
Superimpose the time-varying (ac) signal on the dc bias at the input.
Be sure that the signal swing is sufficiently small for good linear approximation.
The time-varying (ac) components at the output is the desired output signal.
Slope = A
v
v
O
(t)
v
I
(
t
)
v
O
v
I
Q
V
I
V
O
) ( ) ( t v V t v
i I I
+ =
) ( ) ( t v V t v
o O O
+ =
) ( ) ( t v A t v
i v o
=
Q at
I
O
v
dv
dv
A

| =
Symbol convention:
dc quantities: I
C
, V
D
Incremental (ac) quantities: i
c
(t), v
d
(t)
Total instantaneous (ac + dc) quantities: i
C
(t), v
D
(t)
i
C
(t) = I
C
+ i
c
(t)
v
D
(t) = V
D
+ v
d
(t)
1.5 Circuit Models for Amplifiers
Concept of equivalent circuit
Practical amplifier circuit could be rather complex
Use a simplified model to represent the properties and behavior of the amplifier
The analysis results do not change by replacing the original circuit with the equivalent circuit
Voltage amplifiers
A simplified two-port model is widely used for unilateral voltage amplifiers
Voltage Amplifier
The model is composed of three components:
Input resistance (R
i
): the resistance by looking into the input port
Output resistance (R
o
): the resistance by looking into the output port
Open-circuit voltage gain (A
vo
): the voltage gain (v
o
/v
i
) with output open-circuit
Circuit analysis with signal source and load:
Voltage gain:
Overall gain:
Ideal voltage amplifier: R
i
= and R
o
= 0
o L
L
vo
i
o
v
R R
R
A
v
v
A
+
=
o L
L
vo
s i
i
s
o
v
R R
R
A
R R
R
v
v
G
+ +
=
Circuit parameters in the amplifier model
The model can be used to replace any unilateral amplifier by proper circuit parameters
The parameters can be obtained by circuit analysis or measurement
Analysis (measurement) of the input resistance:
The resistance by looking into the input port v
i
x
The resistance by looking into the input port
(find i
x
for a given v
x
or find v
x
for a given i
x
)
Analysis (measurement) of the output resistance:
Set v
i
= 0 by input short
The resistance by looking into the output port
(find i
x
for a given v
x
or find v
x
for a given i
x
)
Analysis (measurement) of the open-circuit voltage gain:
Given v
x
at input
Find open-circuit output voltage v
o
v
o
is divided by v
x
v
x
v
x
v
x
i
x
v
o
R
i
v
x
/i
x
R
o
v
x
/i
x
A
vo
v
o
/v
x
Cascade amplifier
Multiple stages of amplifiers may be cascaded to meet the application requirement
The analysis can be performed by replacing each stage with the voltage amplifier model
Buffer amplifier Buffer amplifier
Impedance mismatch may result in a reduced voltage swing at the load
Buffer amplifier can be used to alleviate the problem
The gain of the buffer amplifier can be low (~1)
The buffer amplifier has high input resistance and low output resistance
Amplifier types
Voltage amplifier: gain of interest is defined by v
o
/v
i
(V/V)
Current amplifier: gain of interest is defined by i
o
/i
i
(A/A)
Transconductane amplifier: gain of interest is defined by i
o
/v
i
(O
-1
)
Transimpedance amplifier: gain of interest is defined by v
o
/i
i
(O)
Amplifier models
Voltage Amplifier Current Amplifier
Unilateral models
The amplifier models considered are unilateral; that is, signal flow only from input to output.
The model is simply and easy to use such that analysis can be simplified.
Not all amplifiers are unilateral and more complicated models may be needed for the analysis.
Transimpedance Amplifier Transconductance Amplifier
Circuit analysis for amplifiers
v
o
= A
vo
v
i
R
L
/ (R
L
+R
o
)
v
o
/ v
s
= A
vo
[R
i
/(R
i
+R
s
)][R
L
/(R
L
+R
o
)]
i
o
= G
ms
v
i
R
o
/ (R
L
+R
o
)
i
o
/ v
s
= G
ms
[R
i
/(R
i
+R
s
)][R
o
/(R
L
+R
o
)]
Voltage Amplifier Transconductance Amplifier
o s vo
[
i
(
i s
)][
L
(
L o
)]
For ideal case (R
i
, R
o
0): v
o
/ v
s
= A
vo
o s ms
[
i
(
i s
)][
o
(
L o
)]
For ideal case (R
i
, R
o
): i
o
/ v
s
= G
ms
Current Amplifier Transimpdeance Amplifier
i
o
= A
is
i
i
R
o
/ (R
L
+R
o
)
i
o
/ i
s
= A
is
R
s
R
o
/ [(R
L
+R
o
)(R
i
+R
s
)]
For ideal case (R
i
0, R
o
): i
o
/ i
s
= A
is
v
o
= R
mo
i
i
R
L
/ (R
L
+R
o
)
v
o
/ i
s
= R
mo
R
s
R
L
/ [(R
L
+R
o
)(R
i
+R
s
)]
For ideal case (R
i
0, R
o
0): v
o
/ i
s
= R
mo
1.6 Frequency Response of Amplifiers
Measuring the amplifier frequency response
Applying a sinusoidal signal to a linear amplifier, the output is sinusoidal at the same frequency.
Amplifier transfer function can be obtained by varying the
input sinusoidal frequency (e) and measuring the output:
Magnitude: |T(e)| = V
o
/ V
i
Phase: ZT(e) = |
Amplifier bandwidth
The bandwidth is defined within 3dB from the flat gain.
For signal containing components outside the bandwidth, the output waveform will be distorted.
Evaluating the amplifier frequency response
Complex frequency
Replace inductance L with a reactance or impedance sL
Replace capacitance C with a reactance or impedance 1/sC
Calculate the transfer function with physical frequency T(s) = V
o
(s)/V
i
(s)
Replace the complex frequency s with je for the evaluation
Physical frequency
Replace inductance L with a reactance or impedance jeL
Replace capacitance C with a reactance or impedance 1/jeC
Calculate the transfer function with physical frequency T(e) = V
o
(e)/V
i
(e)
Low-pass High-pass

Time constant:t = 1/RC Time constant:t = L/R Time constant:t = 1/RC Time constant:t = L/R

Single-time-constant networks
The single-time-constant (STC) network is composed of one reactive component and one resistance.
Most STC networks can be classified into two categories: low-pass (LP) and high-pass (HP).

Low-pass STC
RC j C j R
C j
j V
j V
j T
i
o
e e
e
e
e
e
+
=
+
= =
1
1
/ 1
/ 1
) (
) (
) (
0
/ 1
) ( form General
e e
e
j
K
j T
+
=
2
0
) / ( 1
| ) T(j | Magnitude
e e
e
+
=
K
) / ( tan ) ( Phase
0
1
e e e

= Z j T
R L j L j R
R
j V
j V
j T
i
o
/ 1
1
) (
) (
) (
e e e
e
e
+
=
+
= =
High-pass STC
RC j C j R
R
j V
j V
j T
i
o
e e e
e
e
/ 1
1
/ 1 ) (
) (
) (
=
+
= =
e e
e
/ 1
) ( form General
0
j
K
j T
=
2
0
) / ( 1
| ) T(j | Magnitude
e e
e
+
=
K
) / ( tan ) ( Phase
0
1
e e e

= Z j T
L jR L j R
L j
j V
j V
j T
i
o
e e
e
e
e
e
/ 1
1
) (
) (
) (
=
+
= =
1.7 Intrinsic Semiconductors
Covalent bond
Each valence electron of a silicon atom is shared by one of its four nearest neighbors.
Electrons served as covalent bonds are tightly bound to the nucleus.
Electron-hole pair
At 0K, no free carriers are available
Si behaves as an insulator.
At room temperature, a small amount of covalent bonds will be broken by the thermal energy
electron-hole pair generation as free carriers.
Both electrons and holes are free to move
can contribute to current conduction can contribute to current conduction.
Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductor
For intrinsic semiconductor at thermal equilibrium, generation and recommendation rate are equal.
The conductance of intrinsic semiconductor is proportional to the carrier concentration
The carrier concentration is given by
n = p = n
i
(intrinsic carrier concentration)
np = n
i
2
n
i
2
(T) = BT
3
e
Eg /kT
n
i
increases as temperature increases
n
i
decreases as temperature decreases
Intrinsic carrier concentration for Si at roomtemperature: n
i
= 1 510
10
/cm
3
Intrinsic carrier concentration for Si at room temperature: n
i
1.510 /cm
Extrinsic semiconductor
Extrinsic (doped) semiconductor = intrinsic semiconductor + impurities
According to the species of impurities, extrinsic semiconductor can be either n-type or p-type.
n-type semiconductor
The donor impurities have 5 valence electrons are
added into silicon.
P, As, Sb are commonly used as donor.
Silicon atom displaced by a donor atom.
Donor ions are bounded in the lattice structure and
thus donate free electrons without contributing holes thus donate free electrons without contributing holes.
By adding donor atoms into intrinsic semiconductor,
the number of electrons increases (n > p)
n-type semiconductor.
Majority carrier: electron
Minority carrier: hole
p-type semiconductor
The acceptor impurity has 3 valence electron (Boron).
Silicon atom displaced by a trivalent impurity atom.
The boron lacks one valence electron. It leaves
a vacancy in the bond structure.
This vacancy can accept electron at the expense of
creating a new vacancy.
Acceptor creates a hole without contributing
free electron.
By adding acceptor into intrinsic semiconductor By adding acceptor into intrinsic semiconductor,
the number of holes increase (p > n)
p-type semiconductor.
Majority carrier: hole
Minority carrier: electron
Carrier concentration
Charge neutrality:
Particles with positive charge:
p: hole concentration (mobile)
N
D
: donor concentration (immobile)
Particles with negative charge:
n: electron concentration (mobile)
N
A
: acceptor concentration (immobile)
Local charge density:
v
= q (N
A
n + N
D
+ p )
Charge neutrality (positive charge = negative charge): N
A
+ n = N
D
+ p Charge neutrality (positive charge negative charge): N
A
+ n N
D
+ p
Mass-action law
np = n
i
2
for semiconductor under thermal equilibrium
For n-type semiconductor
For p-type semiconductor
n = N
D
+ p
np = n
i
2
] )
2
( 1 1 [
2
2
D
i D
N
n N
n + + =
n n p
i
/
2
=
if N
D
n
i

D i
N n p /
2
~
D
N n ~
p = N
A
+ n
np = n
i
2
] )
2
( 1 1 [
2
2
A
i A
N
n N
p + + =
p n n
i
/
2
=
if N
A
n
i

A i
N n n /
2
~
A
N p ~
1.9 Current Flow in Semiconductors
Free carriers in semiconductors
Mobile particles with positive or negative charges: electrons and holes
The transportation of carriers results in current conduction in semiconductors.
Carrier drift
Thermal motion in the absence of electric field:
The direction of flight being changed at each collision with the heavy, almost stationary ions.
Statistically, a electron has a random thermal motion in the crystal structure.
Net displacement over a long period of time is zero no net current flow (I = 0).
Thermal motion under electric field E:
The combined motion of electron under electric field has a randomcomponent and a drift component The combined motion of electron under electric field has a random component and a drift component.
Still, no net displacement due to random motion component over a long period of time.
The drift component provides the electron a net displacement.
Drift is the carrier movement due to the existence of electric field.
Mobility
F = qE a = F /m
*
(m
*
is the effective mass of electron)
Assume the time interval between collision is t
coll
and the drift velocity immediately after the collision is 0.
Then the average velocity of the electron due to the electric field is:
Mobility indicates how fast an electron/hole can move under certain electric field intensity.
n
is used to specify the mobility of electron.
Similarly,
p
is used to specify the mobility of hole.
In most cases electron mobility is larger than hole mobility in a semiconductor
E t
m
qE at
drift v
coll
coll
d = = =
*
2 2
) ( ) /Vsec cm (
2
2
*
m
qt
E
v
coll d
= =
In most cases, electron mobility is larger than hole mobility in a semiconductor.
Carrier drift in semiconductor
Semiconductor parameters:
Electron concentration: n (1/cm
3
)
Electron mobility:
n
(cm
2
/V)
Hole concentration: p (1/cm
3
)
Hole mobility:
p
(cm
2
/V)
Dimensions:
Cross-section area: A (cm
2
)
Length: L (cm)
Drift current in semiconductor
Electron current:
Time interval for electrons flowing across L: T = L /v
d
= L /
n
E (sec)
Total electron charge: Q
n
= qnAL (Coulomb)
Electron drift current I
n,drift
= Q
n
/T = qnAL /T = qn
n
EA (A)
Current density J
n,drift
= I
n,drift
/A = qn
n
E (A/cm
2
)
Hole current:
Time interval for holes flowing across L: T = L /v
d
= L /
p
E (sec)
Total hole charge: Q
p
= qpAL (Coulomb)
Hole drift current I
d if
= Q /T = qpAL /T = qp EA (A) Hole drift current I
p,drift
Q
p
/T qpAL /T qp
p
EA (A)
Current density J
p,drift
= I
p,drift
/A = qp
p
E (A/cm
2
)
The electron current and hole current are in the same direction
Total drift current density: J
drift
= J
n,drift
+ J
p,drift
= (qn
n
+ qp
p
)E = oE
Conductivity o = qn
n
+ qp
p
(Ocm)
1
Ohms Low
I = JA = oEA = oVA /L = V /R (A)
R = L /oA = L /A (O)
Carrier diffusion
Diffusion is a manifestation of the thermal random motion of particles.
Section I: total # = 6 (3 moving to the left and 3 moving to the right)
Section II: total # = 4 (2 moving to the left and 2 moving to the right)
Net flux: 1 moving across the interface from section I to section II.
Statistically, a net carrier flow from high to low concentration region in a inhomogeneous material.
I II
dx
dp
qD J
p diff p
=
) (
dn
D J
Einstein Relation: D
p
/
p
= D
n
/
n
= kT/q = V
T
(thermal voltage).
Total diffusion current density
Both electron and hole diffusion contribute to current conduction.
Total diffusion current density:
dx
dp
qD
dx
dn
qD J J J
p n diff p diff n diff
= + =
) ( ) (
dx
dn
qD J
n diff n
=
) (
D
n
: diffusion constant (diffusivity) of e
D
p
: diffusion constant (diffusivity) of h
+
Graded semiconductor
For a non-uniform semiconductor, the doping concentration is represented as N
D
(x).
The mobile carrier will diffuse due to the non-uniform distribution.
The uncompensated space charge will build up a field (potential) for the system to reach equilibrium.
No net current flows at any point under equilibrium.
Therefore, the built-in potential can be derived under thermal equilibrium
between points with different doping concentration.
Built-in potential
from hole concentration
Built-in potential
from electron concentration
x
n(x)
Electron diffusion
dx
dV
dx
dp
p
V
E
T
= =
dx
dp
D E p
p p
=
p
dp
V dV
T
=
0 = =
dx
dp
qD E qp J
p p p

T
V V
e p p
/
2 1
21
=
2
1
1 2 21
ln
p
p
V V V V
T
=
T
V V
e n n
/
2 1
21
=
dx
dV
dx
dn
n
V
E
T
= =
dx
dn
D E n
n n
=
n
dn
V dV
T
=
0 = + =
dx
dn
qD E qn J
n n n

1
2
1 2 21
ln
n
n
V V V V
T
=
N
D
(x)
E = 0
x
Electron diffusion
Electron drift
E
excess negative
mobile charge
excess positive
fixed charge
n(x)
N
D
(x)
1.10 The pn Junction with Open-Circuit Terminals
Physical structure of a pn junction
Close contact of a n-type semiconductor and a p-type semiconductor
A two-terminal electron device with anode and cathode
pn-junction in contact
Majority carriers are crossing the interface (diffusion) and recombined in the other side of the junction.
Leaving uncompensated space charges N
D
+
and N
A
depletion region.
In depletion region, electric field (potential) builds up due to the uncompensated space charges.
The built-in potential behaves as an energy barrier, resulting in reduction of the majority carrier diffusion.
This field will also result in minority carrier drift across the interface in the opposite direction to diffusion.
p-type: doping concentration: N
A
mobility
p
n-type: doping concentration N
D
mobility
n
pn-junction formation (thermal equilibrium)
Depletion region increases due to majority carrier diffusion across the junction.
The built-in potential from uncompensated space charge increases, resulting in reduction of diffusion.
Minority carriers are swept across the junction in the presence of the built-in field drift current.
Equilibrium is reached when J
diff
and J
drift
are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
No net current flows across the junction.
n-type (N
D
) p-type (N
A
)
E
hole diffusion
J
p
= 0
Neutral
Region
Neutral
Region
Depletion
Region
hole drift
electron diffusion
electron drift
p
J
n
= 0
2
0
0
0
0
0
ln ln ln | |
i
D A
T
n
p
T
p
n
T
n
N N
V
p
p
V
n
n
V V = = =
V
0
p-type
n-type
The depletion region
Step graded junction (abrupt junction) is used for analysis.
Carriers are fully depleted in the depletion region.
Neutral region in n-type and p-type outside depletion region.
Built-in potential: V
0
= V
T
ln (N
A
N
D
/n
i
2
)
Poissons equation:
Derivation of pn-junction at equilibrium:
Si
dx
dE
dx
V d
c
v
= =
2
2
( ) / / /
p A n D
x qN x qN E dx E
x qN x qN
= = =
=
}
c c c
Charge density (
v
)
Electric field (E)
For N
A
>> N
D
:
For N
D
>> N
A
:
( )
( )
2
max 0
max
/ ln 2 / ) (
/ / /
i D A T p n
Si p A Si n D Si v
n N N V x x E V Edx V
x qN x qN E dx E
= + = =
= = =
}
}
c c c
D
Si
qN
V
W
0
2c
~
Potential of electron
Electrostatic potential (V)
A D
D A Si
D A A
D Si
D A D
A Si
p n
N N
N N
q
V
N N qN
N V
N N qN
N V
x x W
+
=
+
+
+
= + =
0 0 0
2
) (
2
) (
2 c c c
A
Si
qN
V
W
0
2c
~
Carrier distribution
Neutral n-type region:
Majority carrier n
n
= n
n0
= N
D
Minority carrier p
n
= p
n0
= n
i
2
/N
D
Neutral p-type region:
Majority carrier p
p
= p
p0
= N
A
Minority carrier n
p
= n
p0
= n
i
2
/N
A
Depletion region:
n = 0
p = 0 p 0
No net current flows across the junction
1.11 The pn Junction with an Applied Voltage
Depletion region
Forward bias: V
F
reduces the depletion region and the energy barrier.
Reverse bias: V
R
increases the depletion region and the energy barrier.
Charge density (
v
)
x
n
x
p
qN
D
x
Charge density (
v
)
x
n
x
p
qN
D
x
Forward bias (V = V
F
) Reverse bias (V = V
R
)
Si p A Si n D
x qN x qN E c c / /
max
= =
qN
A
Electric field (E)
x
n
x
p
E
max
x
x
x
n
x
p
V
0
+V
R
qN
A
Electric field (E)
x
n
x
p
E
max
x
x
x
n
x
p
V
0
V
F
A D
A D Si
N N
N N
q
V V
W
+
=
) ( 2
0
c
) (
) ( 2
0
D A D
A Si
D A
A
n
N N qN
V V N
W
N N
N
x
+
=
+
=
c
) (
) ( 2
0
D A A
D Si
D A
D
p
N N qN
V V N
W
N N
N
x
+
=
+
=
c
Minority carrier distribution due to junction bias
Minority carrier distribution is influenced by the junction bias
Diffusion currents exist due to non-uniform carrier distribution
Junction bias condition:
Zero bias (equilibrium): V = 0
Forward bias: V = V
F
Reverse bias: V = V
R
Minority carrier distribution:
10
18
p
p0
n
n0
V
10
18
10
10
10
2
p
p0
n
n0
p
n0
n
p0
V
0
V
0
x
n
x
p
Zero Bias
Forward Bias
0
/ ) (
/
0
0
/ ) (
/
0
) 1 ( ) (
) 1 ( ) (
p
L x x
V V
p p
n
L x x
V V
n n
n e e n x n
p e e p x p
n p
T
p n
T
+ =
+ =
+

t
n
(t
p
): excess-minority-carrier lifetime
L
n
= \D
n
t
n
(L
p
= \D
p
t
p
): diffusion length
Boundary condition:
p
n
(x = x
n
) = p
p0
exp[(V
0
V)/V
T
] = p
n0
exp(V/V
T
)
p
n
(x = ) = p
n0
n
p
(x = x
p
) = n
n0
exp[(V
0
V)/V
T
] = n
p0
exp(V/V
T
)
n
p
(x = ) = n
p0
10
10
10
2
p
n0
n
p0
V
0
V
0 V
F
V
F
x
n
x
p
10
18
10
10
10
2
p
p0
n
n0
p
n0
n
p0
V
0
V
0
V
R
V
R
x
n
x
p
Reverse Bias
0 0
) ( ) (
p p p
Junction current density
Assume no carrier generation and recombination within the depletion region:
J
n
(x
p
) = J
n
(x
n
) and J
p
(x
p
) = J
p
(x
n
)
J
n
in p-type side and J
n
in n-type side can be obtained by:
Total junction current: J(x) = J
n
(x) + J
p
(x) = J
n
(x
p
) + J
p
(x
p
) = J
n
(x
p
) + J
p
(x
n
)
) 1 ( ) (
) 1 ( ) (
/ 0
/ 0
= =
= =
T
p
T
n
V V
n
p n
x
p
n p n
V V
p
n p
x
n
p n p
e
L
n qD
dx
dn
qD x J
e
L
p qD
dx
dp
qD x J
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) (
/ / 0 0
=
|
|
|
|
+ = + =
kT qV
s
kT qV n p p n
n p p n
e J e
p qD n qD
x J x J J
The I-V characteristics of the pn junction
The junction current depends on the junction voltage
The junction current is proportional to the junction area
The junction current is given by
Saturation current:
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
|
.
\
s
p n
n p p n
L L
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
A n
n
D p
p
i
n
p n
p
n p
s
N L
D
N L
D
qAn
L
n D
L
p D
qA I
2 0 0
) 1 (
/
=
kT qV
s
e I I
Reverse breakdown
Breakdown voltage: a reverse junction bias V
R
= V
Z
A large reverse current flows when reverse bias exceeds V
Z
For breakdown voltage < 5V Zener breakdown.
For breakdown voltage > 5V avalanche breakdown.
Breakdown is nondestructive if the power dissipation is limited.
Zener breakdown
The strong electric field in the depletion region breaks covalent bonds, generating electron-hole pairs.
Generated electrons are swept into the n side and holes are swept into the p side for a reverse current.
Zener breakdown normally takes place for pn junction with high doping concentration Zener breakdown normally takes place for pn junction with high doping concentration.
Avalanche breakdown
The minority carriers that cross the depletion region gain sufficient kinetic energy due to the field.
The carriers with high kinetic energy break covalent bonds in atoms during collision.
More carriers are accelerated by the field for avalanche reaction.
Avalanche normally takes place first for pn junction with low doping concentration.
1.12 Capacitive Effects in the pn Junction
Depletion or junction capacitance
The depletion width is controlled by the terminal voltage.
The change of terminal voltage (dV) will result in dQ at the
edge of the depletion region capacitance.
The junction capacitance due to space charge is C
j
= dQ/dV
R
.
C
j
can also be estimated by a parallel-plate capacitor:
0
) (
2
V V
N N
W
R
A D Si
+
+
=
c
( )
A D
A D
R
Si
R
n D
R
j
N N
N N
V V
V q
A
dV
w qAN d
dV
dQ
C
+ +
= = =
) ( 2
0
0
c
Under forward bias conditions, Wreduces larger C
j
.
Under reverse bias conditions, Wincreases smaller C
j
.
General formula for depletion capacitance for arbitrary doping profile:
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
1
1
2
) (
V N N
N N q
A C
V
V
C
V V N N
N N q
A
w
A
C
N N q
D A
D A Si
j
R
j
R D A
D A Si
dep
Si
j
R
A D
+
=
+ =
+ +
= =
c
c c
m
R
j j
V
V
C C ) 1 (
0
0 0
+ =
Diffusion capacitance
Excess minority carrier stored in neutral region will change with the terminal voltage capacitance.
By integration the excess minority carriers at both sides:
Small-signal diffusion capacitance:
I I I I
D
L
I
D
L
Q Q Q
T n n p p n
n
n
p
p
p
n p
t t t = + = + = + =
2
2
I
V dV
dQ
C
e I e I I Q
T
T
d
V V
s T
kT qV
s T T
T
) (
/ /
t
t t t
= =
= ~ =
C
d
is large under forward bias conditions.
C
d
is neglected under reverse bias conditions.

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CHAPTER 1 ELECTRONICS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

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