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Introduction
Load Resistance
Post-quake survivor
Macro- and micro-structure of trees Annual consumption by category
! 2009 population: 6.8X 10
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Annual Resource consumption
Small spans in stone. Brittle material. Weak in tension.
Tensile Strength of Materials
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Innovations in Design: The Arch
! Discovery of the arch
made longer spans in
stone possible
Stresses in a Cable
Stresses in Building Components
Compressive and tensile stresses in building components.
Stresses in a Suspension Bridge
Compressive and tensile stresses in a suspension bridge.
Calculating Stress in a Cable
P = force, A= cross-sectional area of the member


f =
Force
=
P
Area A
f =
500
=
2,550
psi
= 2.55 ksi
0.196
If the force applied on the cable is 500 lb and if the diameter of the cable
is 0.5 in. (cross-sectional area 0.196 in.
2
), the tensile stress in the cable is
Compressive and Tensile Strengths of Materials
Load Resistance
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Strength of Material
! If the applied force on a member results in its
failure, the stress in the member at failure is
referred to as the ultimate stress (a.k.a. ultimate
strength or strength of material).
! Example: If the cable in the previous example fails
when the applied tensile force is 1,000 lb, the
tensile strength of the cables material is
f =
1,000
= 5,100 psi = 5.1 ksi
0.196
Compressive Strength of Concrete
Determining Ultimate Strength
Assume the sample tested in
previous image failed when
load reached 115 kips.


Compressive Strength =
Load at failure
=
115
= 4,100 psi = 4.1 ksi
Area of cylinder 28.27
Compressive Strength of Masonry
Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
Measures Tensile Strength of Steel Specimen
Deformation
! Deformation: Change of length in a member
caused by a tensile or compressive stress
! =
Change in length
=
"
Original length L
Strain (!)= Relative change in length
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Ultimate Strain Values
Steel
Aluminum
Wood
Concrete
Masonry
0 0.5% 1.0% 15%
35%
Approximate values of ultimate strain for selected materials (not to scale)
Ductility and Brittleness
Load Resistance
Ductile Materials
! Materials with large deformations at failure
! Ultimate strain ! 0.5%
! Steel (equal strength in tension & compression)
! Warning before failure
Brittle Materials
! Materials with little or no deformation at failure
! Ultimate strain " 0.5%
! Brick, stone and glass
! No visual warning before failure
Malleable Materials
! Materials that can be shaped by hammering,
forging, pressing and rolling
! Not always ductile
Yield Strength of Materials
Load Resistance
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Yield Strength of Metals
! Stress-strain diagram
for low-carbon steel
(not to scale)
! Y = yield point
! U = ultimate strength
! F = failure point
Elasticity and Plasticity
Load Resistance
Elastic Material
! Material which when deformed under load,
recovers its original shape when the load is
removed
Plastic (Inelastic Material)
! Material that does not recover its original shape
when the load is removed after it has deformed
! Materials that are elastic up to a particular yield
stress value, and plastic thereafter
!Steel
!Aluminum
Elastic-plastic materials
Modulus of Elasticity
Load Resistance
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Modulus of Elasticity
Stress
= E
Strain
Stress-strain Diagram of Concrete
Bending Strength of Materials
Load Resistance
Bending Strength
Location of Neutral Axis
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Stress Distribution on Small Length of
Beam
I-Section Beams
Steel, wood, and concrete I-section beams
Structural Efficiency
Strategies to improve the structural efficiency of members subjected to bending.
Steel Reinforcement in Concrete
Steel reinforcement in concrete increases bending strength.
Types of Stresses
Types of stresses that may exist in a structural member
Shear Stress
The deformation caused by a shear (tangential) force on a member
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Shear Strength of Materials
Load Resistance
Shear Stress
(a) Shear stress
Force
Area
=
2.0
4.0
= =500 psi = 0.5 ksi
2.0
2(0.196)
(b) Shear stress = 5.1 ksi =
The deformation caused
by a shear force on a
member illustrates that
shear stress is a
combination of tensile
stress along one diagonal
and compressive stress
along the other diagonal
of the member.
Deformation Caused by Shear
Force
Steel stirrups in a
reinforced concrete beam
are used to increase the
beams shear strength.
Steel Stirrups
Bearing Strength of Materials
Load Resistance
The effect of lateral
confinement on the
compressive (crushing)
strength of concrete.
The compressive strength
of (a given batch of)
concrete increases as the
confining stress on it is
increased.
Lateral Confining Stress
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A concrete cylinder
(shown in plan and
elevation) tested to
failure under lateral
confinement.
Lateral Confining
Local crushing due to
settlement (bearing
failure)
Local Crushing
Bearing Plates
Bearing plates prevent local crushing
Low bearing stress designs
Structural Failures
Load Resistance
Failure mode of a member
under axial compression
(compressive failure).
This mode of failure occurs
in a short, squat member
made of brittle material
such as concrete, brick or
stone. Compressive
failure is abrupt.
Sudden/Catastrophic Compression
Failure
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Failure of a member in
tensiontensile failure. If
the member is made of a
ductile material, such as
steel or aluminum, tensile
failure is gradual and is
generally preceded by
necking of the member,
and hence a large
deformation.
Tensile Failure
Buckling of a slender
member. The more
slender the member, the
smaller its buckling load.
Buckling Failure
Stud Blocking
Solid blocking in a wood frame wall to prevent the buckling of studs
Lateral Buckling
Blocking Prevents Buckling
Lateral buckling of
slender beams or joists. In
wood floor joists (which
are quite slender), lateral
buckling is prevented by
using solid blocking
between joists.
Horizontal Ties in Columns
Horizontal ties in a
reinforced concrete
column prevent the
buckling of vertical
reinforcement due to the
compressive load on the
column.
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Structural Safety
Load Resistance
Safety Margin vs. Factor of Safety
Safety Margin =
Actual Strength
Required Strength
Factor of Safety =
Failure Stress
Allowable Stress