Physics IGCSE Revision

Volume and Density

Density
Volume
Mass
=
m
=
V
(rho)
Volume and Density
How to find the volume of an irregular solid?
You need to fill up a measuring cylinder with
water and measure till where it is filled.
Then lower the irregular solid into the
measuring cylinder and measure how much
the water has risen.
Subtracting the two values that you have will
give you the volume of the substance.
Speed
Speed
Time
Distance
=
Velocity
Average
Acceleration
Time
Taken
Change in
velocity
=
v-u
=
t
a
v= final velocity
u=initial velocity
Negative
acceleration is
called deceleration
or retardation
Forces
A force is a push or a pull.
Force is measure in Newton's (N).
If no external forces are applied to an object:
- It will remain stationary
- It will keep moving at a constant speed.
What is Terminal Velocity?
It is when something is at its maximum speed.
Forces
Force Acceleration Mass = x
F a m = x
Friction
Friction is a force that stops two materials from
sliding across each other.
Static Friction resists the lateral (sideways)
movement of two objects.
Dynamic Friction is the friction between two
objects that are moving. It heats up the material.
When something is moved against the force of
friction the kinetic energy is changed into thermal
energy.
STATIC FRICTION IS GREATER THAN DYNAMIC
FRICTION
Gravitational Force
All the masses attract each other.
The greater the mass, the greater the force.
The closer the mass, the greater the force.
To every action there is an equal but opposite
reaction.
Gravitational Force
Weight Gravity Mass = x
W g m = x
The Parallelogram Rule
1. First you need to draw the two lines given to you. The
directions should be accurate and the length of each line
should be in proportion to the magnitude of each vector.
2. Then draw in two more lines to complete the
parallelogram.
3. Diagonal from O and then measure its length.
Centripetal Force
It is an inward force needed
to make an object move in a
circle.
More centripetal force is
needed if:
- Mass of the object is
increased
- Speed of the object is
increased
- Radius of the circle is
increased.
Moments
Moment of
a force
about a
point
Perpendicular
distance from
the pivot
Force
= x
The Principle of Moments
Clockwise moments = Anticlockwise moments
Hookes Law
A material obeys Hookes law if, beneath the
elastic limit, the extension is proportional to
the load.
Load Extension Spring
Constant
=
x
F k = x
Pressure
Pressure
Area
Force
=
Pressure in Liquids
Its in all directions
It increases with depth
It depends on the density of the liquid
It doesnt depend on the shape of the
container.
Pressure Gravity Density = x x Height
pressure
= x g
(rho)
x h
Hydraulic Jack*
Output Piston area
=
Input Force
Output Force
Input Piston area
Pressure in Air
Pressure decreases as you rise through it.
It acts in all directions.
Barometer: Measures atmospheric pressure
Manometer: Measures the pressure difference
Gas Law
When studying a gas, the following things should be
considered:
a) Pressure
b) Volume
c) Temperature
Gas Law:
For a fixed mass of gas the pressure times the volume
divided by the temperature is constant
PxV = Constant
T
Energy
Work
Done
Distance moved
in the direction
of the force
Force = x
W d F = x
Different Forms of Energy
Kinetic energy
Potential energy
Gravitational energy
Elastic energy
Chemical energy
Electrical energy
Nuclear energy
Thermal energy
Radiated energy
Energy
The law of conservation of energy
Energy cannot be made or destroyed, but it
can change from one form to another.
Kinetic Energy
=
m

v
2
Gravitational
potential energy
=
x g m x
h
V = Speed
Gain in kinetic energy is a loss in potential energy
Scalar and Vector Quantities
Scalar: has magnitude
but no direction
-Speed (magnitude of
velocity)
- Time
- Mass
Vector: has magnitude
and direction.
-Energy
-Displacement
-Velocity
-Acceleration
Efficiency and Power
Efficiency
Total energy
input
Useful Work
done
=
Power
Time Taken
Work done
=
Useful Power
Output
Speed Force =
x
Thermal Power Stations
Fuel burner
Nuclear reactor
Thermal
Energy
Boiler
Turbines Generator
Electricity
Fuel Oxygen +
Carbon
Dioxide
+
Water
+
Thermal
Energy
Thermal Power Stations Problems
Increased rate of global warming
Sulphur dioxide causes acid rain
Transporting fuels could lead to pollution due
to leaks
Radioactive wastes are very dangerous
Nuclear accidents
Power Schemes
1- Pumped storage scheme wind farms
2- Tidal power scheme
3- Hydroelectric power scheme
Energy Sources
Non-renewable
Coal, oil, natural gas
- Supplies are limited
- Carbon dioxide
concentration is
increasing
Nuclear fuels
- Expensive to build and
decommission
Renewable
Hydroelectric and tidal energy
- Expensive to build
- Few areas are suitable
- May cause environmental damage
Wind energy
- Large, remote, windy sites required
- Noisy, ruin landscape
Wave energy
- Difficult to build
Geothermal energy
- Deep drilling difficult and expensive
Solar energy
- Sunshine varies
- Solar cells difficult to transport
Thermal Effects
Solids-fixed volume and shape
Liquids-fixed volume but no fixed shape
Gases-no fixed shape and no fixed volume.
Internal energy: total kinetic and potential
energy of all atoms in a material.
Objects as the same temperature have the
same average kinetic energy per particle
Hotter material faster the particles movethe more internal energy it has
Absolute Zero
-273C= 0 Kelvin (0 K)
Kelvin Temperature/K = Celsius Temperature/C+273
This is the lowest temperature there is.
It is a thermodynamic scale. It is based on the
average kinetic energy of particles.
Thermal Effects
Thermal expansion: this is when a substance is
heated and its volume slightly increases.
The pressure law:
- When the Kelvin pressure doubles so does the pressure
- Pressure Kelvin temperature always has the same value
Thermal Conduction:
Conduction is the process by which thermal energy is
transferred from the hot end to the cold end as the faster
particles pass on their extra motion to particles along the
bar.
Thermal Effects
More thermal energy is transferred if :
- Temperature difference across the ends is
increased.
- Cross-sectional area of the bar is increased
- Length of the bar is reduced.
Convection
Hot air rises and cold
air sinks
Thermal Radiation
This is when things that absorb this radiation
are warmed up.
To increase the rate of evaporation
- Increase the temperature
- Increase the surface area
- Reduce humidity
- Blow air across the surface
Specific Heat Capacity
Energy
Transferred
= x
Specific
heat
capacity
mass
x
Temp
change
Energy
Transferred
=
x c m x

t
Specific heat capacity is
4200J/K kg for water
Latent Heat of Fusion
Energy
Transferred
mL =
Energy
Transferred
Specific Latent
Heat
Mass = x
Describing Waves
Amplitude
Wavelength
Transverse Waves
The oscillations are at right angles to the
direction of the wave.
For example light waves.
Longitudinal Wave
It consists of compressions and rarefactions.
Oscillations are in direction of travel.
For example: Sound waves.
( Rarefactions)
The Wave Equation
Speed
wavelength
Frequency =
x
V f = x
= Lambda
Wave Effects: Reflection
The waves are
reflected from the
surface at the same
angle they hit it.
Wave Effects: Refraction
Due to the plastic the
water becomes
shallower causing the
waves to slow down.
This effect is called
refraction.
Plastic
Wave Effects: Diffraction
Diffraction is when the light bends around
obstacles.
Wider gaps produce less defraction.
Sound waves
Sound waves are caused by vibration
Sound waves consist of Longitudinal waves.
- Compression passesAir pressure increases
-Rarefaction passesAir pressure decreases
Sound Waves
Sound waves need a medium to travel in. For
instance the air.
Sound waves can also be diffracted due to their
long wavelength.
They can be displayed on an oscilloscope. The
sound enters via the microphone, a metal plate
vibrates, these vibrations cause electrical
oscillations producing a wave front.
IT IS NOT A
PICTURE OF THE
SOUND WAVE
BECAUSE SOUND
WAVES ARE NOT
TRANSVERSE
Speed of Sound
Temperature of air: Sound travels faster
through hot air.
Does NOT depend on pressure: the pressure
may change but the speed of the wave will
remain the same
The speed of sound is different through
different materials.
Ultrasound: sounds above the range of human
hearing which is between 20Hz & 20kHz
How to Measure the speed of an
echo?
You could use:
- Echo-sounder
- Electronic tape measure (Works like an echo-
sounder)
- Radar
Speed
Time
Distance
=
To measure echo
Take note here the
distance is the
distance from to the
wall and then BACK !
Features of Light
1. Form of radiation
2. Travels in straight lines
3. Transfers energy
4. Transverse waves
5. Can travel through vacuum
6. 300,000 000 m/s
Law of reflection
i=r
i, r and normal lie on the same plane.
Total Internal Reflection
Anything greater than the critical angle does not
have a refracted ray. Which means that all the
light is reflected thus leading to TOTAL internal
reflection.
Lenses
Convex Lens
Concave Lens
Convex lenses are used in projectors
as they form large, inverted, real
images on the screen
When the object is less than F1
Original Object Refracted
Object
Refracted image is
-Upright
-Larger
-Virtual
-It is also on the same side as F1
When the object is at 2F1
Refracted image is
-At 2F2
-Inverted
-The same size
-Real
When the Object is between F1 and 2F1
Refracted image is
-Beyond 2F
-Inverted
-Larger
-Real
When the object is beyond 2F1
Refracted image is
-Between F2 and 2F2
-Inverted
-Smaller
-Real
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic waves are emitted when a
charged particle oscillate or loose energy in some
way.
Electricity
Rubbing materials does not MAKE charge, it only
separates charges that are already there.
Induced charge: this is the charge that appear
on an uncharged object because of the charged
object nearby.
Charge is
measured in
Coulombs.
Electricity*
Electrostatic precipitators: are fitted into
chimneys in order to reduce pollution
Electricity
When there are no ions in the air it is a good
electrical insulator.
When there are ions present in the air it is a
good conductor
Current is measured in amps.
Current
Current remains the same at all points round a
simple circuit.
Charge
Time
Current =
x
Conventional Current flows from positive to
negative.
Electron flow is from negative to positive.
Potential Difference (Voltage)
The highest potential difference is when it is
not in a circuit and it not supplying current.
This is also known as the Electromotive force.
In a simple circuit, the sum of the PDs across
the components is equal to the PD across the
battery.
Resistance
Resistance
Current (A)
PD (Voltage)
=
R
I
V
=
Ohms Law
The current is
proportional to
the PD.
How can resistance be increased?
1- Length : Doubling the length increases
resistance
2- Cross-sectional area: halving the surface area.
(thin wire is more resistance than a thick one)
3- Material
4- Temperature: resistance increases with
temperature
CIRCUITS
Parallel Circuit
- Gets full PD from the battery
- One bulb removed the other
still works
- Total current = Sum of the
currents in the branches.
- Resistance:
Series Circuits
- Bulbs share PD
- One bulb removed, the
other one goes out.
- Current through each
component is the same
- Resistance:
CIRCUITS
Parallel Circuit
Series Circuits
Power
Power
Time taken
Work done
=
Power
Power
Voltage
Current =
x
P V I = x
Power
Power
Resistance
Current =
x
P R I = x
2
2
Electrical Energy Equation
Energy
Transformed
Time
PD
=
x Current
x
E
t V
=
x I x
Brief Intro on Magnets
Magnetic material- is a type of material that
can be magnetized and is attracted to other
magnets.
Strong metals contain
1- iron
2- nickel
3- cobalt
They are called
Ferromagnetics
Iron and alloys of iron are
called ferrous. (Ferrous in
Latin means iron)
Aluminium, copper, and other
non-magnets are called non-
ferrous.
Properties of magnets:
Have a magnetic field around them
Has two poles exerting forces on other
magnets.
Like poles repel
Unlike poles attract
Attract magnetic materials by inducing
magnetismin them.
What is induced magnetism?
Some metals like iron and steel are attracted to other
magnets because if there is a magnet near by, they
themselves get magnetized. Magnetism is INDUCED in
them.
When steel is pulled away from a magnet, it keeps its
induced magnetism causing it to become a permanent
magnet.(hard magnet)
When iron is pulled away from a magnet, it looses its
induced magnetism meaning that iron was only a
temporary magnet.(soft magnet)
Magnetic Effects of Current
When an electric current is passed through a
wire an magnetic field is produced. The
features of this magnetic field are:
They are circles
Field is strongest close to the wire
Increasing current increases strength of field.
Right-hand grip rule
Electromagnets
These are types of magnets that can be
switched on and off.
Iron core
Coils
The strength of the magnetic field can be increased by:
- Increasing the current.
- Increasing the number of turns in the coil
Magnetic Relay
When electricity is passed through the coil end
wires, it induced a magnetic field in the iron
ROD. This attracts the iron STRIP causing both
metal contacts to touch.
Metal
contacts.
Circuit Breaker
Circuit breaker- it is an
automatic switch cutting off
the current within a circuit if
it rises above a specified
value.
- In the case on the left, the
pull of the electromagnet has
become so strong that it has
attracted the soft iron
armature. This causes the
contacts to open and stop the
current.
- If u press the reset button,
the contacts close once again.
Magnetic force on the current
Copper is a non-
magnet feels no
force of the magnet
But..
If it has a current
passing through it,
there will obviously be
a force on the wire.
The wire moves ACROSS
the field. It is not
attracted to it.
Force is increased if:
-Current is increased
-Stronger magnet is used
-Length of wire in field is
increased.
Flemings Left Hand Rule
Electric motors
A motor is made up from a coil of
wire which is positioned between
the two poles of the magnet.
When the current flows through
the coil, it creates a magnetic field.
This magnetic field that is
produced interacts with the
magnetic field produced by the 2
permanent magnets.
The combination of these two
magnetic fields exert a force,
pushing the wire at right angles to
the permanent magnetic field.
An electric motor transfers electrical energy to
kinetic energy.
Improve turning effect
Increasing Turning Effect
Increase the current
Use a stronger magnet
Increase the number of turns on the coil
Increase the area of the coil.
Electromagnetic Induction
A magnetic field can be used to produce
current.
When the wire is moved across the
magnetic field a small EMF(voltage) is
created. This is called electromagnetic
induction.
EMF is induced
Induced EMF increased by:
-Moving wire faster
-Using stronger magnet
-Increasing length of wire.
Induced Currents
Flemings right hand rule:
Difference between the left hand and the right hand rule:
-When current causes motionthe left hand rule applies
-When motion causes currentthe right hand rule applies
Generators
The coil rotates
Magnetic fields are cut
EMF is generated
Causes current to flow
Coil rotates upwards,
downwards, upwards
causing the current to
flow backwards,
forwards, backwards.
Increasing EMF:
- Increasing the number of
turns on coil
- Increasing area of coil
- Use stronger magnet
- Rotate coil faster
Coils and Transformers
Moving magnet induces EMF
Magnetic field SAME effect.
Mutual induction: when coils are magnetically
linked so that changing current in one coil
causes an induced EMF in the other.
Simple Transformer
- Alternating current flows
through primary coil
- This sets up an altering
magnetic field in the
core.
- Coils of the secondary
coil cut the altering
magnetic field thus
inducing an alternating
voltage in the output coil.
Turns in output coil
=
Input voltage
output voltage
Turns on input coil
Step-up and Step-down transformers
Step-up: this is when the
number of output coils is
greater than the number
of input coils which means
that there will be a greater
output voltage as opposed
to input voltage.
Step-down: this is when the
number of output coils is less
than the number of input coils
which means that there will be
less output voltage as opposed to
input voltage.
Power Through a Transformer
=
x
Output
current
Output
voltage
Input
voltage
x
Input
current
Generator (Electric Motor):
Current + Magnetic Field = Motion
Electromagnetic Induction:
Magnetic Field + Motion = Current
Thermionic Emission
Basically what happens in thermionic emission is
that the tungsten filament is heated to 2000
degrees Celsius. Some electrons that are hot
enough escape the surface of the white hot
surface. These then pass through the vacuum and
on the screen.
The Oscilloscope
The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope uses (as mentioned on
previous slide) an electron gun and the X and Y plates
to adjust where the stream of electrons go.
The X-Plates move the beam horizontally (Left or Right)
The Y-Plates move the beam vertically (Up or Down)
The Y-plates are connected to a Y input
terminal. These are connected to an AC
supply.
Examples of things that use electron beams:
- Television
- X-ray tube
Atoms
Nuclear Radiation
Alpha
Alpha particles are made of 2 protons and 2
neutrons.
This means that they have a charge of +2,
and a mass of 4.
Alpha particles are relatively slow and
heavy.
They have a low penetrating power - you
can stop them with just a sheet of paper.
Because they have a large charge, alpha
particles ionize other atoms strongly
Beta
Beta particles have a charge of
minus 1, and a mass of about
1/2000th of a proton. .
They are fast, and light.
Beta particles have a medium
penetrating power - they are
stopped by a sheet of aluminum
Beta particles ionize atoms that
they pass, but not as strongly as
alpha particles do.
Gamma
Gamma rays are waves, not particles.
This means that they have no mass and no
charge.
Gamma rays have a high penetrating power -
it takes a thick sheet of metal such as lead, or
concrete to reduce them significantly.
Gamma rays do not directly ionize other
atoms
We don't find pure gamma sources - gamma
rays are emitted alongside alpha or beta
particles. Strictly speaking, gamma emission
isn't 'radioactive decay' because it doesn't
change the state of the nucleus, it just carries
away some energy.
In a Magnetic Field
What is Background Radiation?
Background radiation comes from naturally
decaying substances such as soil, rocks, air,
food and drink.
It is detected by a Geiger Muller Tube
Radioactive decay- Alpha Decay
Radioactive decay- Beta Decay
Half-Life
This is the amount of time taken for the nuclei
of a radioactive substance to decay.
Nuclear Fusion
This does not take place on Earth so far. It is the process that powers the stars.
Nuclear Fission
What can Radioactivity be used for?
1. Tracers
2. Radiotherapy
3. Testing for cracks
4. Thickness monitoring
5. Carbon Dating- after an organism dies the amount of
C-14 inside it begins to decay. It can be used to find
out how old a substance is.
6. Dating Rocks
This is the physics syllabus Complete
Best of luck for
your IGCSE exams
IMPORTANT:
Come to school during study leave and ask your questions
EXTRA
NOT IN SYLLABUS
Important electronic components
1. Resistors keep currents + voltages at levels
desired by the electronic component
2. Capacitor store small amounts of electric
charge
3. Diodes allow the current to flow in only one
direction
4. Light-emittingg diodes (LED) glow when a
small current is passed through them.
Continued
5. Transistors used to amplify signals
6. Integrated circuits(micro-chips) contain complete circuits with :
a) Resistors
b) Transistors
c) Other components
7. Relays electromagnetic switches.
Diodes
Can be used to change AC to DC
Rectification
Lets forward parts of the AC through but
blocks the backwards part.
Forming a DC
Input
Output
1
resister
Potential Divider
A potential divider only delivers a portion of
the voltage.
Reed Switch
A reed switch is operated by a magnetic field.
Transistors as switches
It is a
semiconductor
device made of
silicon.
Emitter
Base
Collector
The NPN resistor
In the diagram above there are actually two circuits put together as one. The first
circuit is the one with the base and the emitter ( input circuit) and the second is
the circuit with the collector and the emitter (output circuit).
1. Two input connections joined togetherno current flow
2. Input the base greater than 0.6Vlamp switches on
3. 1000 ohm resister is present to protect the input to the resistor, allowing input to
be higher than 0.6V to 5V without harming transistor.
4. Little current is needed in the input circuit.
b
e
c
1000 ohms 6 V
Logic Gates