MECHANICS OF MACHINES

Plane Motion:
When the motion may be confined to one plane then it is called as plane
motion. There are two types
rectilinear motion - In rectilinear the motion is along a straight path.
curvilinear motion - It is in circular path.

Simple Harmonic Motion ( SHM ):

For a body to execute SHM, it should satisfy the following two conditions.
Its acceleration is always directed towards the center called as the mean position.
The acceleration is proportional to the distance from that point.
The following are the basic concepts to be worth noting.

Amplitude: Maximum displacement of a body from its mean position.
Time Period: Is the time taken for the complete revolution. Tp = 2
Frequency: Number of cycles per second.


Center of Percussion:
Also called as the center of oscillation. It is the point at which a blow may
be struck on a suspended body so that the reaction at the support is zero.


Simple Mechanisms:

Types of Links: There are three types of links. They are

- Rigid link
- Flexible link and
- Fluid link.

Structure:

It is an assemblage of a number of members having no relative motion
between them and are meant for carrying loads. E.g.. Bridge, Truss and Machine
Frames.

Difference Between a Machine and Structure:

* In machines, the parts move relative to one another, but in structure, it is not
so.
* Machine transforms energy to useful work, but in structure there is no such
things.
* Links in machines transmit power and motion. But links of structure transmit
force.

Types of Motion

1. Completely Constrained Motion: In this the motion is limited to a definite
direction, irrespective of direction of force. E.g.. Piston and cylinder
2. Incompletely Constrained Motion: Here the motion between a pair takes place
in more than one direction.
3. Successfully Constrained Motion: When the motion between the elements is
such that the completed constrained motion is not completed by itself, but a
external source. E.g.: Shaft in a foot bearing.

Kinematics Pair:

Two elements in contact in a machine is called a pair. If the relative motion
between them is completely constrained, then it is called kinematic pair.

Classification of Kinematic Pairs:

a. Sliding Pair :- Piston and cylinder ( Example of CCM )
b. Turning Pair :- Two elements of a pair are such that one element turns about
the fixed axis of another element.
c. Rolling Pair :- One element rolls over another fixed element. E.g.. Roller and Ball
bearing.
d. Screw Pair :- One element can turn about the other by means of screw threads
E.g.. Bold and nut.
e. Spherical Pair :- One element is spherical in shape, turns or swivels about
another fixed element. E.g.. Car mirror attachment.


Lower Pair:- When two elements of a pair have surface contact during
relative motion, then it is called as lower pair. E.g.. Sliding, shaft in bearings,
turning and Screw pairs.

Higher Pair:- When two elements in the pair have line or point contact when
relative motion takes place and the relative motion between them is partly
turning and sliding then it is a higher pair.

E.g.. - Belt and rope drives.
- Cam and
- Ball and roller Bearings.

Kinematic Chain: When the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way that the last
link is joined to the first link to transmit definite motion. It is a combination of
kinematic pairs, joined in such a way that each link forms a part of the pair and
the relative motion between the links is in CCM or SCM.

Mechanism:

When one link in a kinematic pair is fixed then the chain is called a
mechanism. It is used for transmitting or transforming motion. A simple
mechanism contains around four links and a complex mechanism contains more
than 4 links.

Friction:

Laws of Dynamic Friction:
Force of friction always acts opposite to direction of motion.
For moderate speed, force of friction is constant but decreases slightly at higher
speeds.
Laws of Fluid Friction:
Friction force reduces with increase in temperature.
The force of friction is different for different lubrication substance.
Screw friction:

Threads are of two types. They are V-Threads and Square threads. V
threads are stronger and offer more frictional resistance to motion. V-Threads are
used in nuts and bolts. Square threads are used in Screw jacks.

Simple Pendulum:
In its simples form this type of pendulum has a heavy bob, suspended at
the end of a light inextensible, flexible string and the other end of the string is
rigidly fixed to wall. 'm' is the mass of the bob and 'l' is the length of
string. Following laws of simple pendulum are important.
Law of isochronism: It states that the time period (t) of simple pendulum does not
depend on its amplitude of vibrations, and remain the same provided the angular
acceleration does not exceed 4.
Law of mass: States that the time period of a simple pendulum does not depend
upon the mass of the body suspended at the free end of the string.
Law of length: states that the time period of a simple pendulum is proportional
to l, where l is the length of the string.
Law of gravity: states that the time period of simple pendulum is inversely
proportional to g.
Hence the time period t = 2 l / g
Belt Drives:

Belts are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of a
pulley. When the driver rotates, it carries the belt due to grip between its surface
and the belt. The belt in turn carries, the driven pulley which starts rotating. The
grip between the pulley and the belt is obtained by friction. This friction grip if
required is increased by tightening the belt. The amount of power transmitted
depends upon
Tension under the belt.
Velocity of belt. and
Arc of contact.
Leather, Rubber, cotton and Balata are the materials used for belt. Flat
belt, V-Belt and round belt are the different types of belt. The following are the
common terms used in belts.

Slip: This is caused because of less friction. The effect is that, it educes the overall
velocity ratio.

S
1
- % Slip in driver belt.
S
2
- % Slip in driven belt.

The speed ratio is given by

N
2
/ N
1
= ( d
1
+ t ) / ( d
2
+ t ) x ( 1 - S / 100 )

Creep: When the belt passes from slack side to the tight side, a certain portion of
belt extends and contracts again when moving from tight to slack side. Because of
this, there is a relative motion between belt and pulley called creep.

V- Belts:

These belts are used when two pulleys are nearby each other. The
included angle is usually 30
o
-40
o
. In order to have good grip the V-Belt is in
contact with side faces of the groove.

Chain Drives:

The advantage of chain drive are that it prevents slipping. Steel chains are
used. The chains are made of rigid links, which are hinged together. They wrap
around the driving and driven wheels. The wheels are also called sprocket and
resemble spur gears.

Pitch of Chain: It is the distance between the hinge center of one link and the
hinge center of the adjacent link.

Gears:

Following are the different types of gears.

Parallel Gears: The shafts are parallel. Spur gears are where the teeth is parallel
to axis of wheel. But in helical gears the teeth are inclined at an angle to the
axis. A double helical gear is called as herringbone gears.

Non Parallel and Intersecting Gears: Bevel and Helical bevel gears are the
examples.

Non Parallel and Non Intersecting Gears: Spiral Gearing.

Terms Used in Gears:
S.
No
Terms Definition
1 Pitch Circle A imaginary circle which by pure rolling action would give the
same motion as the actual gear.
2 Pitch Circle
Diameter
The diameter of Pitch circle. Gears are specified by this PCD.
3 Addendum The radial distance between the PCD and top of tooth. Addendum
circle is drawn through the top of teeth and concentric to PC.
4 Deddendum The radial distance been the PC and bottom of teeth.
5 Circular Pitch The distance measured from the circumference of the pitch circle
from a point in one tooth, to the corresponding point in next
tooth.
6 Module it is the ratio of PCD to the number of teeth.
7 Diametrical pitch Inverse of Module.
8 Total depth Addendum + Deddendum
9 Tooth Thickness Width of the tooth measured along pitch circle.
10 Face of Tooth Surface of gear above the pitch surface.
11 Flank of Tooth Surface of gear above the pitch surface.

System of Gear Teeth:
14.5
o
Composite System.
14.5
o
Full depth involute system.
20
o
Full depth involute system.
20
o
Stub involute system.
Gear ratio = T / t = Teeth on Wheel / Teeth on pinion.

Gear Trains:

Two or more gears are made to mesh with each other to transmit power
from one shaft to another shaft. Such a combination is called as gear train.
Simple gear train
compound gear train
Reverted gear train
Epicyclic gear train.
Flywheel:

It acts as a reservoir which stores energy when the energy supply is more
than requirement and releases it during the period when required energy is less
than supply.

Coefficient of Fluctuation of Speed in Flywheel :

The difference between Max. and Min speeds is called as Maximum
fluctuation of speed. The ratio between max. fluctuation of speed and mean
speed is called as Coefficient of Fluctuation of Speed.
Cs = 2 ( N
2
- N
1
) / ( N
2
+ N
1
)

1 / Cs = m =Coefficient of steadiness.

Energy stored in a fly wheel = mk
2
w
2
Cs

Governors :

The function is to regulate the mean speed of the engine with changes in
load. The governor automatically controls the supply of working fluid to the
engine with the varying load conditions and keeps the mean speed with the
certain limits. Governors are broadly classified into Centrifugal governors and
Inertia governors.

Centrifugal governors :
The main principle of working of the centrifugal governor is based upon the balancing
of centrifugal force on the rotating balls by an equal and opposite radial force, known as the
controlling force.
Pendulum Type - Watt governor
Load type
Dead weight governors - Proel and portel governors.
Spring controlled governors - Hartnell, hartung governors, Wilson-hartnell and
Pickering governors.
Inertial governors :
They operate on different principle .Governor balls are arranged that the
inertia forces caused by an angular acceleration & retardation of the governor
shaft tend to alter their position. The obvious advantage of this type of governor
is quick response to load variation .This advantage is offset however by the
practical difficulty of arranging for complete balance of the revolving parts of the
governor.
Equilibrium speed: Is the speed at which the governor balls are at complete
equilibrium and the sleeve does not tend to move up or down.

Sensitiveness: If there is more displacement in sleeve for the same speed then the
governor is said to be sensitive. It is equal to

2 ( N
2
- N
1
) / ( N
2
+ N
1
)

Hunting: In this the governor switches between the maximum and minimum
position.
Lubrication :
The different types of lubrication between two surfaces having relative
motion can be classified as
Fluid film lubrication
Boundary lubrication
Extreme boundary lubrication
Surface contact of the sliding members
Fluid film lubrication:
In this the moving or sliding surfaces are separated from each other by a
thick film of fluid which is at least 1000 angstrom thick so that direct surface-to-
surface contact and welding of junctions rarely occurs. This is also called as
hydrodynamic lubrication.
Fluid friction is considerably less than metallic friction and under such
circumstances, the viscosity of the fluid plays an important role in the design
parameters of the bearing. It is very clear that the lubricant chosen should have
the minimum viscosity under the working conditions. At the same time it should
remain in place and separate the surfaces. The co-efficient of friction in such
cases should be as low as 0.001 to 0.03. Fluid film lubrication prevails when there
is high relative velocity between sliding surfaces. In a journal bearing the
lubricating oil covers the irregularities of shaft as well as the bearing surfaces and
the metal surfaces do not come into direct contact with each other.
Boundary lubrication:
This is also called as thin film lubrication. when t he relative velocity
between the two sliding surfaces is very low, the fluid film will not be able to
support the total load and under such circumstances boundary lubrication is
done.
The clearance space between the moving surface is lubricated with a
lubricating oil., a thin layer of which is adsorbed, on both the metallic
surfaces. These layers avoids direct metal-to-metal contact. The value of co-
efficient of friction is usually, 0.05 to 0.15.
The friction phenomena in this case is complicated and no exact theory is
available for boundary lubricated bearings. However it has been found that
certain metals and lubricants with less friction compared to others have the same
viscosity improve the performance of such bearings.
Extreme boundary lubrication:
When the moving surfaces are under very high pressure and speed, a high
local temperature is attained and under such condition the fluid film is completely
broken because of decomposition or vapoursation and there is direct metal to
metal contact at that high spots of the sliding materials. High load and speed in
turn generates heat with the following mentioned effects.
Welded junction and metal tearing.
Deformation and seizure of surfaces.
Change in physical and chemical properties of metals and lubricants that renders
lubricants ineffective.
The mechanism of this type of lubrication is given below. Special additives
that are capable of withstanding very high load and temperatures are added to
the lubricants. These additives react with metallic surfaces at prevailing high
temperatures to form metallic chlorides, sulphides or phosphides. These metallic
compound posses high melting points and serve as good lubricant under high
temperature and pressure conditions. If by chances, the low shear strength films
are broken by the rubbing action of moving parts, they are immediately
replenished. Since a chemical reaction takes place in this lubrication, the metal
surface under goes certain wear.
The function of lubricant is to reduce the loss of energy, to reduce surface
deformation, war and tear, to increase the efficiency of engine, to reduce the
frictional heat and thus prevents the expansion of metals, to reduce the
maintenance cost of a machine etc.
Application of Liquid Lubricants:
Mechanical devices to supply lubricants are called lubricators. A simple
form of lubricator is a container mounted over a bearing or other part and
provided with a hole or an adjustable valve through which the lubricant is gravity-
fed at the desired rate of flow. Wick-feed oilers are placed under moving parts,
and by pressing against them they feed oil by capillary action. Horizontal bearings
are frequently oiled by a rotating ring or chain that carries oil from a reservoir in
the bearing housing and distributes it along the bearing through grooves or
channels. Bath oiling is useful where an oil-tight reservoir can be provided in
which the bearing journal may be submerged; the pool of oil helps to carry away
heat from contact surfaces. Splash-oiling devices are used where gears, bearings,
or other parts contained in housings have moving parts that dip into the lubricant
and splash it on the bearings or into distribution channels. Centralized oiling
systems usually consist of a reservoir, pump, and tubes through which oil is
circulated, while heaters or coolers may be introduced to change the viscosity of
the lubricant for various parts of the system. Many oiling operations are
automatically synchronized to start and stop with the machinery.

Application of Semisolid and Solid Lubricants:
Grease lubricants are semisolid and have several important
advantages. They resist being squeezed out, they are useful under heavy load
conditions and in inaccessible parts where the supply of lubricant cannot easily be
renewed, and they tend to form a crust that prevents the entry of dirt or grit
between contact surfaces. Grease is a mixture of a lubricant and a thickener;
often it is made from a mineral oil and a soap. It may be applied in various ways:
by packing enclosed parts with it, by pressing it onto moving parts from an
adjacent well, by forcing it through grease cups by a spring device, and by
pumping it through pressure guns. Solid lubricants are especially useful at high
and low temperatures, in high vacuums, and in other applications where oil is not
suitable; common solid lubricants are graphite and molybdenum disulfide.
CAM:

Is a rotating machine element which transmits oscillating or reciprocating
motion to the follower. They have line contact and constitutes higher pair.
According to the type of follower they are classified as
Knife edge follower.
Roller follower.
Flat faced follower and
Spherical faced follower.
The four types of motion of follower are
Uniform Velocity
Uniform acceleration
SHM and
Cycloidal motion.
Types of Vibrations:
Free ( or natural ) vibration.
Forced vibration and
Damped vibration.
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