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Nineteenth Century
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NHC Home TeacherServe Divining America '(th Century &ssay:
The American )e%ish &*perience through the Nineteenth Century: +mmigration an"
Acculturation
)onathan D. Sarna an" )onathan Gol"en
Bran"eis ,niversity
-National Humanities Center
.ins to online resources
/ors cite"
American )e%ish history commence" in '0(1 %ith the e*pulsion of )e%s from Spain.
This action set off a perio" of intense )e%ish migration. Seeing to escape the clutches
of the Holy +n2uisition3 some )e%s in the si*teenth century sought refuge in the young
Calvinist repu4lic of The Netherlan"s. A century later3 hun"re"s of their "escen"ants
crosse" the ocean to settle in the ne% Dutch colony of Recife in Bra5il3 %here )e%ish
communal life 4ecame possi4le for the first time in the Ne% /orl". /hen 6ortugal
recapture" this colony in '7803 its )e%s scattere". Refugees sprea" through the Dutch
Cari44ean3 4eginning fresh )e%ish communities. A 4oatloa" of a4out 19 )e%s saile" into
the remote Dutch port of Ne% Amster"am an" re2ueste" permission to remain. This
mare" the 4eginning of )e%ish communal life in North America.
Colonial )e%s never e*cee"e" one tenth of one percent of the American population3 yet
they esta4lishe" patterns of )e%ish communal life that persiste" for generations.
:irst3 most )e%s live" in cosmopolitan port cities lie Ne% !or an" Ne%port %here
opportunities for commerce an" tra"e a4oun"e"3 an" people of "iverse 4acgroun"s
an" faiths live" si"e 4y si"e.
Secon"3 many early American )e%ish lea"ers an" institutions %ere Sephar"ic3 meaning
that their origins trace" to the )e%ish communities of the +4erian peninsula. Sephar"ic
)e%s maintaine" cultural hegemony in )e%ish life into the early nineteenth century3
although 4y then Ashena5i )e%s3 meaning )e%s %ho trace" their origins to Germany3
ha" long 4een more numerous.
Thir"3 )e%s organi5e" into synagogue;communities. Savannah3 Charleston3
6hila"elphia3 Ne% !or3 an" Ne%port each ha" one synagogue that assume"
responsi4ility for the religious an" communal nee"s of all local )e%s.
The American Revolution mare" a turning point not only in American )e%ish history3
4ut in mo"ern )e%ish history generally. Never 4efore ha" a ma<or nation committe" itself
so "efinitively to the principles of free"om an" "emocracy in general an" to religious
free"om in particular. )e%s an" mem4ers of other minority religions coul" "issent from
the religious vie%s of the ma<ority %ithout fear of persecution. )e%s still ha" to fight for
their rights on the state level3 an" they continue" to face various forms of pre<u"ice
nation%i"e. Ho%ever3 many )e%s 4enefite" materially from the Revolution an"
interacte" freely %ith their non;)e%ish neigh4ors. Having she" 4loo" for their country
si"e 4y si"e %ith their Christian fello%s3 )e%s as a group felt far more secure than they
ha" in colonial "ays. They asserte" their rights openly an"3 if challenge"3 "efen"e"
themselves 4oth vigorously an" self;confi"ently.
+n the nineteenth century3 American )e%s3 seeing to strengthen )u"aism against its
numerous Christian competitors in the maretplace of American religions3 intro"uce"
various religious innovations3 some of them 4orro%e" from their neigh4ors. !oung )e%s
in Charleston3 "issatisfie" %ith the =apathy an" neglect= they sa% manifeste" to%ar"
their religion3 some%hat influence" 4y the sprea" of ,nitarianism3 fearful of Christian
missionary activities that ha" 4egun to 4e "irecte" to%ar" local )e%s3 an"3 a4ove all3
passionately concerne" a4out )e%ish survival in a free society3 create" the 4reaa%ay
=Reforme" Society of +sraelites for 6romoting True 6rinciples of )u"aism Accor"ing to +ts
6urity an" Spirit.= This %as America>s first Reform congregation3 %ith an a44reviate"
service3 vernacular prayers3 an" regular sermons. Tra"itional congregations also
=6rotestanti5e"= some of their practices3 intro"ucing regular &nglish sermons an" more
"ecorous mo"es of %orship.
?ean%hile3 communal lea"ers3 le" 4y the Tra"itionalist )e%ish religious lea"er of
6hila"elphia3 +saac .eeser3 emulate" an" a"apte" 6rotestant 4enevolent an" e"ucation
techni2ues;;Sun"ay schools3 hospitals3 the religious press3 charita4le societies3 an" the
lie;;in or"er to strengthen )u"aism in the face of pressures upon )e%s to convert.
Among other things3 .eeser pro"uce" an Anglo;)e%ish translation of the Bi4le3 foun"e"
a )e%ish pu4lication society3 an" e"ite" a )e%ish perio"ical3 The @cci"ent an" American
)e%ish A"vocate3 %hich attempte" in its pages to unite the "iverse voices of the
American )e%ish community. He also rallie" his community to respon" to inci"ents of
anti;)e%ish persecution aroun" the %orl".
&ven though Ashena5ic )e%s outnum4ere" Sephar"ic )e%s as early as 'A1B3 the first
German )e%ish immigrants <oine" Sephar"ic synagogues rather than foun"ing their o%n
institutions. As poverty3 persecution3 an" political "isillusionment s%ept through Central
&urope in the first half of the nineteenth century3 German an" 6olish )e%ish immigration
to America s%elle". Distinctly German;speaing )e%ish institutions multiplie". )e%s also
move" 4eyon" the &astern sea4oar" at this time3 seeing opportunities in the frontier
communities of the ?i"%est3 South3 an" /est.
+n the 'C0Bs3 in contrast to the early American mo"el of synagogues run 4y a ha5an
DcantorE or lay lea"ership3 immigrant ra44is 4egan to assume the pulpits of American
synagogues. Some sought to promote @rtho"o*y3 %hile others merge" the i"eology of
German )e%ish Reform %ith the practices of American 6rotestant "enominations an"
create" a ne% American version of Reform )u"aism. Ra44i +saac ?ayer /ise of
Cincinnati3 a lea"er of American Reform )u"aism3 sought to "evelop a ?inhag;America
DAmerican liturgical customE that %oul" unite )e%s aroun" mo"erate Reform )u"aism.
The foun"ing of the ,nion of American He4re% Congregations D'CA9E an" He4re%
,nion College D'CA8E in Cincinnati sought to actuali5e his vision. But even as ra44is
hope" to unite the community3 the greatest legacy of the so;calle" =German perio"= is
actually )e%ish religious "iversity. By the Civil /ar3 every American )e%ish congregation
ha" at least t%o synagogues3 an" ma<or ones ha" four or more.
@rtho"o* )e% an" ,.S. Navy engineer
6ossi4ly 4rothers3 an @rtho"o* )e% an" a ,.S. Navy engineer pose in Ne% !or City
"uring the Civil /ar.
Courtesy of Ro4ert ?arcus
The Civil /ar "ivi"e" )e%s much as it "i" the nation as a %hole. There %ere )e%s in the
North an" )e%s in the South3 )e%s %ho supporte" slavery an" )e%s %ho con"emne" it3
)e%s %ho fought for the ,nion an" )e%s %ho fought for the Confe"eracy. +f in many
respects the Civil /ar affecte" )e%s much as it "i" other Americans3 there %ere
nevertheless three features of the struggle that affecte" )e%s uni2uely.
:irst3 %artime tensions le" to an upsurge of racial an" religious pre<u"ice in America3
an" )e%s3 4oth in the North an" in the South3 prove" to 4e convenient scapegoats. &ven
famous Americans slippe" into anti;Semitic stereotypes %hen they meant to con"emn
one )e% alone.
Secon"3 )e%s in the North Dnot in this case the SouthE ha" to fight for their right to have
a )e%ish army chaplain;;no easy tas3 since 4y la% an army chaplain ha" to 4e a
=regularly or"aine" minister of some Christian "enomination.= Although 6resi"ent
.incoln himself urge" that this la% 4e amen"e"3 it too heavy )e%ish lo44ying an" over
a year of har" %or until the amen"ment to the la% %as passe".
Thir"3 an" most shocing of all to )e%s3 they ha" to face the most s%eeping anti;)e%ish
official or"er in all of American history;;General @r"er No. ''3 pu4lishe" on Decem4er
'A3 'C713 that e*pelle" all )e%s from General Grant>s military "epartment. An irate an"
highly pre<u"ice" response to %artime smuggling an" speculating3 crimes engage" in 4y
)e%s an" non;)e%s alie3 it met %ith forceful )e%ish protests. /ithin eighteen "ays3
thans to 6resi"ent .incoln3 the or"er %as revoe".
+n the 'CCBs3 the profile of )e%ish immigration to the ,nite" States %as profoun"ly
change" 4y the pogroms "irecte" against the )e%s of Russia3 lea"ing to an infusion of
young &astern &uropean )e%s %ho %ere religiously tra"itional an" spoe !i""ish Fthe
historical language of Ashena5ic )e%sG a "ialect of High German that inclu"es some
He4re% elementsH. S%ept into a ne% an" alien culture3 cut off from love" ones left
4ehin"3 an" in many cases force" to violate religious tenets once hel" "ear3 immigrants
fre2uently spent lifetimes trying to reconcile %hat they ha" left 4ehin" %ith %hat they ha"
gaine". ?any curse" Colum4us an" %on"ere" alou" if their travail %as <ustifie". A fe%
returne" to &urope. But in the %ae of the infamous $ishinev pogrom of '(B9 an"
su4se2uent persecutions in Russia an" else%here3 the promise of American life shine"
ever 4righter. By '(103 close to t%o million &astern &uropean )e%s ha" immigrate" to
America>s shores.
+nitially many native an" German;4orn )e%s in America looe" "o%n on these
ne%comers as social inferiors an" felt am4ivalent to%ar" them. They sa% themselves
outnum4ere"3 feare" that
Greeting car" for Rosh Hashanah
Greeting car" for Rosh Hashanah F)e%ish Ne% !earH3 ca. '(BB
Translation of the He4re%:
=An" !ou %ill cast all of their sins into the "epths of the sea= D?icah A:'(E
Courtesy )aco4 Ra"er ?arcus Center of the American )e%ish Archives
immigration %as provoing antisemitism3 an" %orrie" that the &ast &uropeans %oul"
never assimilate. !et3 4a" as feelings sometimes 4ecame3 most of these )e%s continue"
to %or long an" har" on 4ehalf of the &ast &uropeans. The latter3 mean%hile3 strongly
i"entifie" %ith American society an" la4ore" to Americani5e. +n the t%entieth century3
%hen issues such as immigration restriction an" 4ills aime" at a4rogating America>s
commercial treaty %ith Russia arose3 German )e%s an" &astern &uropean )e%s stoo"
shoul"er to shoul"erG they planne" strategy together. Bon"s of inship3 in the en"3
prove" far stronger than petty in;group s2ua44les.
Gui"ing Stu"ent Discussion
Not%ithstan"ing the small si5e of the )e%ish community in early America3 it is important
to emphasi5e to stu"ents that American )e%s of the eighteenth an" nineteenth
centuries3 lie their counterparts in the larger society3 esta4lishe" patterns that
su4se2uent generations carefully follo%e". American )u"aism3 at this time3 4ecame 4oth
voluntaristic an" pluralistic. +n America a )e%>s faith %as not registere" %ith the state3 as
it %as in most of &urope3 an" o4servance "epen"e" upon the in"ivi"ual. +n a sense3
there came to 4e as many )u"aisms as there %ere )e%s. .ie so many of their
6rotestant counterparts3 )e%s resiste" the hierarchical religious authority structures of
&urope. No nation%i"e =chief ra44i= emerge" an" no religious organi5ation %iel"e"
unchallenge" authority. +nstea"3 a spectrum of )e%ish religious movements compete"
for a"herents3 each insisting that its strategy alone provi"e" hope for American
)u"aism>s survival. ,ltimately3 of course3 each strategy sought to 4alance 4et%een
American norms an" values an" the sometimes conflicting "eman"s of )e%ish tra"ition;;
a 4alancing act familiar to any num4er of minority groups in the ,nite" States.
/hile 6rotestant practices inevita4ly influence" the "irection of American )e%ish
religious life3 )e%s monitore" 6rotestant missionary efforts %ith caution. Activities that
6rotestants vie%e" as 4enevolent Dlie offering money an" free e"ucation to the )e%ish
poorE seeme" provocative to )e%s3 almost in"ucements to convert. )e%s also too
affront at the "istinctions that some 6rotestants "re% 4et%een the =mythical )e%s= that
they learne" a4out in church an" the =)e%s ne*t "oor= %ho seeme" altogether "ifferent.
&"ucators can effectively use these themes to "iscuss intergroup relations3 stereotypes3
an" the tensions 4et%een ma<ority an" minority in the American e*perience.
The story of )e%ish immigration to America can 4e incorporate" into 4roa"er
"iscussions concerning immigration an" the promise of American life. Stu"ents shoul"
un"erstan" the manifol" challenges that immigrants face" as they sought to pursue
free"om an" opportunity %hile still seeing to retain their cultural i"entity. They shoul"
also e*plore the am4ivalence so commonly felt to%ar" immigrants3 even 4y those %ho
themselves "escen"e" from similar roots an" share" the immigrants> heritage an" faith.
Historians De4ate
A central 2uestion in American )e%ish history concerns the relative influence of @l" an"
Ne% /orl" patterns on American )e%s3 a "e4ate that echoes the longstan"ing
controversy over %hether or not America itself is historically uni2ue. +n terms of the
Reform ?ovement in )u"aism3 some scholars thus vie% it as mostly an offshoot of
German Reform )u"aism3 %hile others are more impresse" 4y its "istinctively American
2ualities. Similarly3 some vie% nineteenth;century American )e%ish history as a %hole
as an =encounter %ith emancipation3= there4y "efining it in terms of a central para"igm in
&uropean )e%ish history;;the struggle of )e%s to gain full civil rights in &urope in the late
'CBBs. @ther scholars are more impresse" 4y the "ifferences 4et%een the &uropean
an" American )e%ish situations. American )e%ry3 they insist3 %as =post;emancipation=
from the start.
A "ifferent in" of 2uestion concerns the nature of nineteenth;century )e%ish
immigration to the ,nite" States. &arlier historians spoe of three immigration %aves;;
the Sephar"ic perio"3 the German perio"3 an" the &ast &uropean perio". ?ore recent
scholars have challenge" this perio"i5ation. Not only are there vast overlaps 4et%een
the "ifferent perio"s D&ast &uropean )e%s foun" their %ay to America even in colonial
"aysE3 4ut %e no% no% that )e%ish immigration %as much more variegate" an"
comple* than once 4elieve"3 involving )e%s from many "ifferent lan"s. +n the mi"
nineteenth century3 for e*ample3 there %ere more 6olish;)e%ish immigrants to America
than German ones. At least one historian a"vocates "ropping the earlier perio"i5ation
altogether to focus on the full century of )e%ish immigration3 4eginning in 'C1B3 that
transforme" American )e%ry from a tiny community of some 93BBB )e%s to a community
that %as more than one thousan" times larger;;in"ee"3 the largest )e%ish community in
the %orl".
:or other ey issues in American )e%ish history3 as %ell as an e*tensive 4i4liography3
see )onathan D. Sarna3 e".3 The American )e%ish &*perience: A Rea"er D1" e".3 '((AE.
6rimary sources may 4e foun" in )aco4 R. ?arcus3 The )e% in the American /orl": A
Source Boo D'((7E an" ?orris ,. Schappes3 A Documentary History of the )e%s in the
,nite" States3 '780;'CA8 D9r" e".3 '(A'E. The most thorough scholarly treatment of
colonial American )e%ry is )aco4 Ra"er ?arcus>s The Colonial American )e% D'(ABE.
:or a recent 4riefer treatment3 see &li :a4er3 A Time for 6lanting: The :irst ?igration3
'780;'C1B D'((1E. @n the Revolutionary perio"3 Samuel Re5nec>s ,nrecogni5e"
6atriots: The )e%s in the American Revolution D'(A8E provi"es a helpful narrative3 an"
)onathan D. Sarna3 Benny $raut3 an" Samuel $. )oseph3 e"s.3 )e%s an" the :oun"ing
of the American Repu4lic D'(C8E contains the ma<or "ocuments. :or a goo" overvie% of
the early national perio"3 see the first volume of )aco4 Racer ?arcus3 ,nite" States
)e%ry3 'AA7;'(C8 D'(C(E. Biographies of lea"ing American )e%s of this perio" inclu"e
)onathan D. Sarna3 )acsonian )e%: The T%o /orl"s of ?or"ecai Noah D'(C'E3 Gary 6.
Iola3 +saac Har4y of Charleston3 'ACC;'C1(: )e%ish Reformer an" +ntellectual D'((0E3
an" .ance Sussman3 +saac .eeser an" the ?aing of American )u"aism D'((8E.
The ey 2uestions concerning Central &uropean )e%ish immigration revolve aroun"
religion an" i"entity. Avraham Barai>s Branching @ut D'((0E an" Naomi /. Cohen>s
&ncounter %ith &mancipation: The German )e%s in the ,nite" States3 'C9B;'('0 D'(C0E
"escri4e continuities an" "iscontinuities 4et%een the American an" German )e%ish
e*periences3 %hile .eon )ic3 The Americani5ation of the Synagogue3 'C1B;'CAB D'(A7E
traces the "evelopment of American )u"aism as a process of in"igenous religious
innovation. Hasia Diner in A Time for Gathering: The Secon" ?igration3 'C1B;'CCB
D'((1E offers a 4roa"er portrayal of this perio"3 paying attention to Alsatian an" 6olish
)e%s3 as %ell as to issues of gen"er. The ey volume on the Civil /ar is Bertram /.
$orn3 American )e%ry an" the Civil /ar D1". e".3 '(ABE.
Because most of the contemporary American )e%ish community "escen"s from &astern
&uropean )e%ish immigrants3 much of the literature of American )e%ish history
"ocuments their story. +rving Ho%e>s /orl" of @ur :athers D'(A7E synthesi5es much of
%hat %as no%n to that time. ?ore recently3 Susan Glenn>s Daughters of the Shtetl
D'((BE captures the challenges that face" )e%ish immigrant girls3 particularly in the la4or
movement. )onathan D. Sarna3 6eople /al on Their Hea"s: ?oses /ein4erger>s
=)e%s an" )u"aism in Ne% !or= D'(C'E maes availa4le an @rtho"o* ra44i>s
perspective on America from 'CCA. :inally3 Daniel Soyer3 )e%ish +mmigrant Associations
an" American +"entity in Ne% !or3 'CCB;'(9( D'((AE focuses on the immigrants
themselves an" ho% they =e*ercise" a high "egree of agency in their gro%ing
i"entification %ith American society.=
.ins to online resources
.ist of %ors cite" in the essay
)onathan Sarna is the )oseph H. J Belle R. Braun 6rofessor of American )e%ish History
in the Department of Near &astern an" )u"aic Stu"ies at Bran"eis ,niversity. +n a""ition
to his pu4lications cite" in this essay3 he is the co;e"itor of ?inority :aiths an" the
6rotestant ?ainstream D,niversity of +llinois 6ress3 '((AE an" The )e%s of Boston
D'((8E. He e"its Bran"eis Stu"ies in American )e%ish History3 Culture an" .ife %ith the
,niversity 6ress of Ne% &nglan"3 an" co;e"its the American )e%ish Civili5ation Series
at /ayne State ,niversity 6ress. He is currently %riting a ne% history of American
)u"aism to 4e pu4lishe" 4y !ale ,niversity 6ress.
)onathan Gol"en is a research an" teaching assistant %ith 6rofessor Sarna at Bran"eis
,niversity an" also a teaching assistant %ith 6rofessor )ay Harris at Harvar" ,niversity.
He hol"s an ?.A. in )e%ish e"ucation from He4re% College in Boston. He recently co;
authore" an article %ith 6rofessor Sarna on note%orthy events in )u"aism in '((C for
the '((( /orl" Boo !ear Boo.
A""ress comments or 2uestions to 6rofessor Sarna an" ?r. Gol"en through
TeacherServe =Comments an" #uestions.=
The :oreign ?issionary ?ovement K American )e%ish &*perience through the '(th
Century K ?ormonism an" the American ?ainstream K &vangelicalism3 Revivalism3 an"
the Secon" Great A%aening K &vangelicalism as a Social ?ovement K American
A4olitionism an" Religion
Religion in the Civil /ar: The Southern 6erspective K Religion in the Civil /ar: The
Northern 6erspective
K African American Christianity3 6t. + K African American Christianity3 6t. ++ K
Roman Catholics an" +mmigration in '(th Century America K
'(th Century .ins
Getting Bac to !ouComments an" #uestions$ey%or" Search
Seventeenth an" &ighteenth Centuries Nineteenth Century T%entieth Century
Divining America: Religion in American History
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