National Policy On High Temperature Thermal Waste Treatment and Cement Kiln Alternative Fuel Use

NATIONAL POLICY ON HIGH TEMPERATURE
THERMAL WASTE TREATMENT AND CEMENT

KILN ALTERNATIVE FUEL USE

CEMENT PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY IN SOUTH
AFRICA AND AN EVALUATION OF THEIR ABILITY
TO CO-PROCESS AFRs AND TREAT HAZARDOUS
WASTES

Report No : 66011-xx
Project No : E1101
Date : 5/11/2007
Author : Dr Kre Helge Karstensen

Dr. Kre Helge Karstensen
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Table of content

Table of content ........................................................................................................................... 2
Acronyms and abbreviations - General ...................................................................................... 3
Glossary ........................................................................................................................... 8
1. Cement kiln technology an introduction .......................................................................... 9
1.1 Long rotary kilns............................................................................................................ 11
1.1.1 Long wet kilns................................................................................................. 11
1.1.2 Long dry kilns with chains.............................................................................. 11
1.2 Grate preheater kilns ...................................................................................................... 12
1.3 Suspension preheater kilns............................................................................................. 12
1.4 Shaft preheater kilns....................................................................................................... 13
1.5 Two stage cyclone preheater kilns ................................................................................. 13
1.6 Four stage cyclone preheater kilns................................................................................. 14
1.7 Four to six stage cyclone preheater kilns with precalciner ............................................ 15
2. Consumption of energy and best available techniques for production a summary ... 16
2.1 Options for resource reduction....................................................................................... 17
2.2 Best available techniques for cement production........................................................... 18
3. Fuels storage, preparation and firing ................................................................................ 20
3.1 Alternative fuels storage, preparation and firing............................................................ 21
4. Normal emission levels and BAT for emission prevention .............................................. 25
4.1 Pollution reduction......................................................................................................... 25
4.2 Selection of BATs for controlling emissions................................................................. 27
4.3 BAT and BEP for controlling and minimising PCDD/PCDF emission ........................ 29
5. Utilisation of alternative fuels and raw materials in modern cement production
an introduction ......................................................................................................................... 30
6. Evaluation of South African cement plants....................................................................... 34
6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 34
6.2 Main findings ................................................................................................................. 36
6.3 A summary..................................................................................................................... 46
7. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 49
8. References and bibliography .............................................................................................. 51

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Acronyms and abbreviations - General

AFR Alternative fuel and raw material
APCD Air pollution control device
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
AWFCO Automatic waste feed cut-off
BAT Best available techniques
BEP Best environmental practise
BHF Bag house filter
BIF Boiler and industrial furnace
Btu British thermal unit
o
C Degree Celsius
CAA Clean Air Act
CEMBUREAU European Cement Association
CEMS Continuous emissions monitoring system
CEN European Standardisation Organisation
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
CKD Cement kiln dust
Cl
2
Molecular chlorine
CSI Cement Sustainability Initiative
DL Detection limit
CO Carbon monoxide
CO
2
Carbon dioxide
DE Destruction efficiency
Dioxins A term/abbreviation for polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and
polychlorinated dibenzofurans (see also PCDD/Fs)
DRE Destruction and removal efficiency
Dscm Dry standard cubic meter
EC European Commission
EF Emission factor
e.g. For example
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPER European Pollutant Emission Register

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ESP Electro static precipitator
EU European Union
FF Fabric filter
g Gram
GC-ECD Gas chromatography with electron capture detector
GC-MS Gas chromatography with mass spectrometry
HAPs Hazardous air pollutants
HCB Hexachlorobenzene
HCI Hydrogen chloride
HF Hydrofluoric acid
i.e. That is
IPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control
I-TEF International Toxicity Equivalency Factor
I-TEQ International Toxic Equivalent
IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
J Joules
K (Degree) Kelvin
kcal Kilocalorie (1 kcal = 4.19 kJ)
kg Kilogramme (1 kg = 1000 g)
kJ Kilojoules (1 kJ = 0.24 kcal)
kPa Kilo Pascal (= one thousand Pascal)
L Litre
lb Pound
LCA Life cycle analysis
LOD Limit of detection
LOl Loss of ignition
LOQ Limits of quantification
m
3
Cubic meter (typically under operating conditions without
normalization to, e.g., temperature, pressure, humidity)
MACT Maximum Achievable Control Technology
MJ Mega joule (l MJ= 1000 kJ)
mg/kg Milligrams per kilogram
MS Mass spectrometry
mol Mole (Unit of Substance)

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Na Sodium
NA Not applicable
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
ND Not determined/no data (in other words: so far, no measurements available)
NESHAP National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
ng Nanogram (1 ng = 10
-9
gram)
Nm
3
Normal cubic metre (101.3 kPa, 273 K)
NH
3
Ammonia
NO
x
Nitrogen oxides (NO+NO
2
)
NR Not reported
N-TEQ Toxic equivalent using the Nordic scheme (commonly used in the
Scandinavian countries)
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
O
2
Oxygen
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PCA Portland Cement Association (USA)
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyls
PCDDs Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins
PCDFs Polychlorinated dibenzofurans
PCDD/Fs Informal term used in this document for PCDDs and PCDFs
PIC Product of incomplete combustion
pg Picogram (1 pg = 10
-12
gram)
PM Particulate matter
POHC Principal organic hazardous constituent
POM Polycyclic organic matter
POP Persistent organic pollutants
ppb Parts per billion
ppm Parts per million
ppmv Parts per million (volume basis)
ppq Parts per quadrillion
ppt Parts per trillion
ppt/v Parts per trillion (volume basis)
ppm Parts per million

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QA/QC Quality assurance/quality control
QL Quantification limit
RACT Reasonably Available Control Technology
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RDF Refuse derived fuel
RT Residence time
sec Second
SINTEF Foundation for Industrial and Scientific Research of Norway
SNCR Selective non catalytic reduction
SiO
2
Silicon dioxide
SCR Selective catalytic reduction
SO
2
Sulfur dioxide
SO
3
Sulfur trioxide
SOx Sulfur oxides
SQL Sample quantification limit
SRE System removal efficiency
t Tonne (metric)
TCDD Abbreviation for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorobidenzo-p-dioxin
TCDF Abbreviation for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorobidenzofuran
TEF Toxicity Equivalency Factor
TEQ Toxic Equivalent (I-TEQ, N-TEQ or WHO-TEQ)
TEQ/yr Toxic Equivalents per year
THC Total hydrocarbons
TOC Total organic carbon
tpa Tonnes per annum (year)
TRI Toxics Release Inventory
TSCA Toxics Substances Control Act
UK United Kingdom
US United States of America
US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
VDZ Verein Deutsche Zementwerke
VOC Volatile organic compounds
VSK Vertical shaft kilns
WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development

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WHO World Health Organization
y Year
% v/v Percentage by volume
g/m
3
Micrograms per cubic meter
g Microgram

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Glossary

AFR Alternative fuel and raw materials, often wastes or secondary products
from other industries, used to substitute conventional fossil fuel and
conventional raw materials.

Cementitious Materials behaving like cement, i.e. reactive in the presence of
water; also compatible with cement.

Co-processing Utilisation of alternative fuel and raw materials in the purpose
of energy and resource recovery.

Dioxins Together with PCDD/Fs used as term/abbreviation for
Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and Polychlorinated
dibenzofurans in this document

DRE/DE Destruction and Removal Efficiency/Destruction Efficiency.
The efficiency of organic compounds destruction under
Combustion in the kiln.

Kiln inlet/outlet Were the raw meal enters the kiln system and the clinker leaves
the kiln system.

Pozzolana Pozzolanas are materials that, though not cementitious in themselves,
contain silica (and alumina) in a reactive form able to combine with
lime in the presence of water to form compounds with cementitious
properties. Natural pozzolana is composed mainly of a fine, reddish
volcanic earth. An artificial pozzolana has been developed that
combines a fly ash and water-quenched boiler slag.

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1. Cement kiln technology an introduction

Cement clinker is the intermediate product in the manufacture of the hydraulic binding agent
Portland cement. By means of a single thermal treatment, a mixture of non-hydraulic naturally
occurring minerals limestone/chalk, quartz, clays and feldspars is transformed into an
intimate mixture of hydraulically active minerals alite, belite, aluminate and ferrite.

This thermal treatment of heating and cooling which is responsible for this transformation is
called clinkering and involves peak material temperatures of 1450 C. The thermal process
contains the following major process steps:

20 to 900 C, with removal of all kinds of H
2
O, heating up of material;

600 to 900 C, with the calcination (CO
2
driven out);

800 to 1450 C, with the completion of reactions, recrystallisation of alite and belite.

Ever since the rotary kiln was introduced around 1895, it became the central part of all
modern clinker producing installations. The previously used vertical shaft kiln is still used for
production of hydraulic lime, but only in few countries for cement clinker in small scale
plants.

The first rotary kilns were long wet kilns, where all of the heat consuming thermal process
takes place in a rotary kiln with a length to diameter (L/D) ratio of around 30 to 38, with
several support stations.

With the introduction of the dry process, optimisation led to technologies which allowed
drying, preheating and calcining to take place in a stationary installation instead of the rotary
kiln.

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The principle of the rotary kiln, invented by Frederick Ransome in England (patented in
1895), is still the central part for all industrial cement clinker production lines. No other type
of equipment has been found to suit the needs of the sintering process better, where the kiln
charge is partially liquid and sticky.

The rotary kiln consists of a steel tube with a length to diameter (L/D) ratio between 10 and
38, supported by two to seven or more support stations. The inclination of 2.5 to 4.5%
together with a drive to rotate the kiln about its axis at 0.5 to 4.5 revolutions per minute,
allows for a slow internal material transport.

In order to withstand the very high peak temperatures (gas: 2000 C, material: 1450 C), the
entire rotary kiln is lined with different types of heat resistant bricks (refractories). Most long
and some short kilns are equipped with internals (chains, crosses, lifters) to improve heat
transfer.

Major cost items of kiln operation are consumption of refractories and internals (mainly
chains) as well as general maintenance such as alignment of support stations and girth drives.
Other critical areas are the seals between the rotary kiln and the stationary installation at both
ends.

One common property of all rotary kiln systems is the long retention time in the high
temperature zone of gas and material.

The major environmental impact of cement kiln systems can be summarised as follows:

emission of combustion gas, CO
2
, vapour, dust, air pollutants and noise;

generation of dust (in some cases);

consumption primarily of combustibles, but also of power, refractories and steel;

the inherent potential for environmentally sustainable elimination of a large variety of
wastes.

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1.1 Long rotary kilns

Long rotary kilns can be fed with slurry, crushed filter cakes, nodules or dry meal and are thus
suitable for all process types.

The largest long kilns have L/D of 38, diameter of 7.5 m and length of 230 m. Such huge
units produce around 3600 t/d using the wet process (Belgium, US, former Soviet Union).

Long rotary kilns are designed for drying, preheating, calcining and sintering, so that only the
feed system and cooler have to be added.

1.1.1 Long wet kilns

Wet process kilns, used since 1895, are the oldest type of rotary kilns for producing cement
clinker. Because homogenisation was easier to perform with liquid material, wet raw material
preparation was initially applied. Wet kiln feed contains typically 30 to 40% of water which is
required to maintain liquid properties of the feed. This water must then be evaporated in the
specially designed drying zone at the inlet section of the kiln where a significant portion of
the heat from fuel combustion is used.

This technology has high heat consumption with the resulting emission of high quantities of
combustion gas and water vapour.

1.1.2 Long dry kilns with chains

Long dry kilns were developed in the US based on batch type dry homogenising systems for
raw material preparation. Due to their simplicity, they became popular and were used for
about 50% of the installed capacity. Because of the high fuel consumption, particularly
without heat exchanging internals, only few of them have been installed in Europe.

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High heat consumption leads also to high kiln exit gas temperature requiring water injection
before the ID fan. Therefore numerous long dry kilns have been equipped with dedusting
cyclones making them actually into one-stage suspension preheaters.

Unlike with the wet kiln, dust return is technically easy to arrange, but often results in high
external dust cycles.

Units of up to 5000 t/d with kiln dimensions of LxD = 7.5x260m were projected, however
only up to 2000 t/d kilns were actually built.

1.2 Grate preheater kilns

Grate preheater technology, perhaps better known as Lepol kilns, was invented in 1928 and
represented the first approach to let part of the clinkering process take place in an innovative
piece of equipment allowing the reduction of the rotary kiln to a L/D ratio of 11 to 16.

Nodules made from dry meal on a nodulizer disc (semi-dry process) or from wet slurry filter
cakes in an extruder (semi-wet process) are fed onto a horizontal travelling grate where
mainly preheating takes place.

In order to achieve optimum thermal efficiency, the semi-wet grate preheaters can be
equipped with triple pass gas systems and cooler waste air is used for raw material drying.

Maximum unit size built is 3300 t/d for a semi-wet kiln system.

1.3 Suspension preheater kilns

A significant development was the invention of the suspension preheater in the early 1930s.
Preheating and even partial calcination of the dry raw meal takes place by maintaining the

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meal in suspension with hot gas from the rotary kiln. Considerably larger contact surface
allows almost complete heat exchange, at least theoretically. Following different philosophies,
a variety of solutions were initially installed by the cement kiln suppliers.

1.4 Shaft preheater kilns

Shaft preheaters were built in numerous cases when suspension preheater technology was
introduced. Due to its theoretically superior heat exchange (according to the counter current
principle), several suppliers applied that technology. However, due to the difficulty of even
distribution of meal to gas, actual performance was far worse than expected, and the
technology using only shaft stages was eventually abandoned in favour of hybrid systems
with cyclone stages or pure multi-stage cyclone preheaters.

Other than the pure shaft preheaters, which were usually equipped with dedusting cyclones,
there was also a variety of hybrids with both shaft and cyclone stages. Many of those hybrids
are still in operation, however most of them have been converted to pure cyclone preheaters.

A shaft stage is considerably less sensitive to build-up problems than a cyclone stage, which
can be beneficial for the bottom stage in cases where excessive quantities of circulating
elements (chlorides, sulfur, alkalis) are present. Hybrid preheaters with a bottom shaft stage
are still available for new plants.

Typical capacities of shaft preheater kilns were up to 1500 t/d, whereas hybrid systems can
produce 3000 t/d and more.

1.5 Two stage cyclone preheater kilns

The cyclone preheater with 2 stages was often applied to convert wet kilns to dry process, or
for new plants with high inputs of circulating elements (sulfur, chloride, alkalis) before kiln
gas bypass technology was developed.

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The 450 to 500 C hot exhaust gas must be cooled with air before entering the kiln ID fan and
can then be used for raw material drying.

1.6 Four stage cyclone preheater kilns

The four stage cyclone preheater kiln system was standard technology in the 1970s. Many
plants were built in the 1000 to 3000 t/d range, some of them equipped with planetary coolers.

The exhaust gas with a temperature of around 330 C is normally used for raw material
drying.

Pressure drop across the preheater is about the same as for a modern 5-stage preheater with
precalciner because of the older cyclone design used in earlier years.

When the meal enters the rotary kiln, calcination is already about 30% completed.

In earlier years, insurmountable problems were encountered with four stage preheaters where
excessive inputs of circulating elements (chlorides, sulfur, alkalies) from feed and/or fuel
occurred. Highly enriched cycles of those elements lead to build-ups in cyclone and duct
walls frequently causing blockages and kiln stops of several days duration. Only the kiln gas
bypass solved the problem later on, however at cost of higher heat and material consumption
as well as the need for dust disposal.

Almost all four stage suspension preheaters have a rotary kiln with three supports, which has
been the standard concept after about 1970. Sizes from 3.5 to 6 m diameter have been built
with L/D ratios being in the range of 13 to 16.

Mechanically simpler than the long wet and dry kilns, it is probably the most widely applied
kiln type today.

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1.7 Four to six stage cyclone preheater kilns with precalciner

Kiln systems with 5 cyclone preheater stages and precalciner (PC) are considered standard
and BAT technology for ordinary new plants.

The size of a new plant is primarily determined by predicted market developments, but also
by economy of scale. Typical unit capacity for new plants in Europe today is 3000 to 5000 t/d.
Technically, larger units with up to 15,000 t/d are possible, and three 10,000 t/d kilns are
currently in operation in fast growing Asian markets.

A 5-stage preheater-precalciner kiln with 3000 t/d is used as basis for the relative performance
figures.

Earlier precalciner systems had only 4 preheater stages with accordingly higher exhaust gas
temperature and fuel consumption.

Where natural raw material moisture is low, 6 stage preheaters can be the preferred choice,
particularly in combination with bag filter dedusting.

Where excessive inputs of circulating elements exist, a kiln gas bypass is required to maintain
continuous kiln operation. However, due to the different gas flow characteristics, a bypass has
a much higher efficiency than a straight preheater kiln.

In spite of the fact that the meal enters the kiln 75 to 95% calcined, most precalciner kilns are
still equipped with a rotary kiln with a calcining zone, i.e. with a L/D of 13 to 16 like the
straight preheater. Largest preheater/precalciner kilns with three supports are in operation for
10,000 t/d in Thailand, with DxL of 6.0 x 96 to 100m.

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2. Consumption of energy and best available techniques for
production a summary

Cement manufacturing is an energy intensive process. The specific thermal energy
consumption of a cement kiln varies between 3000 and 7500 MJ per ton of clinker, depending
on the basic process design of the plant.

The dominant use of energy in cement manufacture is as fuel for the kiln. The main users of
electricity are the mills (raw grinding, finish grinding, cement mills and coal mills) and the
exhaust fans (kiln/raw mill and cement mill) which together account for more than 80% of
electrical energy usage. On average, energy costs, in the form of fuel and electricity, represent
50% of the total production cost involved in producing a tonne of cement. Electrical energy
represents approximately 20% of this overall energy requirement.

The theoretical energy use for the burning process (chemical reactions) is about 1700 to 1800
MJ/tonne clinker. The actual fuel energy use for different kiln systems is in the following
ranges (MJ/tonne clinker):

about 3000 for dry process, multi-stage cyclone preheater and precalciner kilns;

3100-4200 for dry process rotary kilns equipped with cyclone preheaters;

3300-4500 for semi-dry/semi-wet processes;

up to 5000 for dry process long kilns;

5000-6000 for wet process long kilns;

3100-4200 for vertical shaft kilns.

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The actual use of energy for the production of one ton of clinker is from 70 to 250 percent
higher than the theoretical energy need. This clearly shows the potential for improvement of
energy use through upgrades and process optimisation.

The specific electrical energy consumption ranges typically between 90 and 130 kWh per ton
of cement.

2.1 Options for resource reduction

A technique to reduce energy use and emissions from the cement industry, expressed per unit
mass of cement product, is to reduce the clinker content of cement products. This can be done
by adding fillers, for example sand, slag, limestone, fly-ash and pozzolana, in the grinding
step. In Europe the average clinker content in cement is 80-85 %. Many manufacturers of
cement are working on techniques to further lower the clinker content. One reported
technique claims to exchange 50% of the clinker with maintained product
quality/performance and without increased production cost. Cement standards define some
types of cement with less than 20 % clinker, the balance being made of blast furnace slag.

Ordinary Portland cement is composed of 95-100 % of Clinker. Portland pozzolana cement II
B-P however contains only 65-79 % of clinker, i.e. to produce 1 ton of II/B-P you need 650
kg of clinker compared to 950 kg of clinker for the ordinary Portland cement. This is not only
saving raw materials but also reduces the CO
2
emission which will related to the same ratio,
i.e. 950/650 = 1.46 times more CO
2
emission for the production of ordinary Portland cement
compared to the II/B-P cement.

Recycling of collected dust to the production processes lowers the total consumption of raw
materials. This recycling may take place directly into the kiln or kiln feed (alkali metal
content being the limiting factor) or by blending with finished cement products.

The use of suitable wastes as raw materials can reduce the input of natural resources, but
should always be done with satisfactory control on the substances introduced to the kiln
process.

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Kiln systems with 5 cyclone preheater stages and precalciner are considered standard
technology for ordinary new plants, such a configuration will use 2900-3200 MJ/tonne
clinker. To optimise the input of energy in other kiln systems it is a possibility to change the
configuration of the kiln to a short dry process kiln with multi stage preheating and
precalcination. This is usually not feasible unless done as part of a major upgrade with an
increase in production. The application of the latest generation of clinker coolers and
recovering waste heat as far as possible, utilising it for drying and preheating processes, are
examples of methods which cut primary energy consumption.

Electrical energy use can be minimised through the installation of power management
systems and the utilisation of energy efficient equipment such as high-pressure grinding rolls
for clinker comminution and variable speed drives for fans.

Energy use will be increased by most type of end-of-pipe abatement. Some reduction
techniques will also have a positive effect on energy use, for example process control
optimisation.

2.2 Best available techniques for cement production

Technological advancement of the cement industry will concentrate on the further
development of new technology, on the utilization of secondary materials and other
supplementary cementitious materials. In recent years, improvement of cement production
lines with precalcining systems includes the new homogenization technology, new preheating
and precalcining systems with the capacity of up to ten thousand tons of cement per day,
various new types of crushing and grinding systems, new operation and management systems,
new environmental protection measures such as the use of new bag dust collector and low
NO
x
burner. The utilization of secondary materials and supplementary cementitious materials
may save huge amounts of natural resources.

Dry preheater/precalciner kilns are regarded to be the best available techniques (BAT) and to
constitute the Best Environmental Practise (BEP). These technologies are also the most

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economically feasible option, which constitutes a competitive advantage and thereby
contributes to gradually phase out older, polluting and less competitive technologies.

For new plants and major upgrades the best available techniques for the production of cement
clinker is a dry process kiln with multi-stage preheating and precalcination. A smooth and
stable kiln process, operating close to the process parameter set points, is beneficial for all
kiln emissions as well as the energy use. This can be obtained by applying:

- Process control optimisation, including computer-based automatic control
systems.

- The use of modern fuel feed systems.

Minimising fuel energy use by means of:

- Preheating and precalcination to the extent possible, considering the existing
kiln system configuration.

Careful selection and control of substances entering the kiln can reduce emissions and
when practicable, homogenous raw materials and fuels with low contents of sulfur,
nitrogen, chlorine, metals and volatile organic compounds should be selected.

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3. Fuels storage, preparation and firing

Three different types of conventional or fossil fuels are used in cement kiln firing in
decreasing order of importance:

pulverized coal and petcoke;

(heavy) fuel oil;

natural gas.

Conventional fuels are today increasingly substituted by non-conventional, non- fossil
(gaseous, liquid, pulverized, coarse crushed) alternative (or secondary) fuels for resource
efficiency and economical reasons.

In order to keep heat losses at minimum, cement kilns are operated at lowest reasonable
excess oxygen factors. This requires highly uniform and reliable fuel metering as well as the
fuel being present in a form which allows for easy and complete combustion (fuel preparation
process and fuel storage).

These conditions are fulfilled by all pulverized, liquid and gaseous fuels, be it conventional or
alternative fuels. The main fuel input (65 85%) has therefore to be of this type whereas the
remaining 15 35% may be fed in coarse crushed or lumpy form.

Fuel feed points to the kiln system are:

via the main burner at the rotary kiln outlet end;

via a feed chute at the transition chamber at the rotary kiln inlet end (for lump fuel);

via fuel burners to the riser pipe;

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via precalciner burners to the precalciner;

via a feed chute to the precalciner (for lump fuel);

via a mid-kiln valve to long wet and dry kilns (for lump fuel).

The fuel introduced via the main burner to the hot zone of the rotary kiln therein produces the
main flame with flame temperatures around 2000 C. For process optimisation reasons the
flame has to be adjustable within limits.

The flame is shaped and adjusted by the so called primary air (10 15% of total combustion
air) through interaction of the outer axial air ring channel as well as of the conical inner air
ring channel of the (main) burner

3.1 Alternative fuels storage, preparation and firing

Alternative fuels can be subdivided into five classes:

Gaseous alternative fuels, for example coke oven gases, refinery waste gas, pyrolysis
gas, landfill gas, etc.

Liquid alternative fuels, for example low chlorine spent solvents, lubricating as well as
vegetable oils and fats, distillation residues, hydraulic oils, insulating oils, etc.

Pulverized, granulated or fine crushed solid alternative fuels, for example ground
waste wood, sawdust, planer shavings, dried sewage sludge, granulated plastic, animal
flours, agricultural residues, residues from food production, fine crushed tyres, etc.

Coarse crushed solid alternative fuels, for example crushed tyres, rubber/plastic waste,
waste wood, reagglomerated organic matter, etc.

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Lump alternative fuels, for example whole tyres, plastic bales, material in bags and
drums, etc. Gaseous, liquid, and finely pulverized alternative fuels can be fed to the
kiln system via any of the feed points mentioned in the previous chapter. Coarse
crushed and lump fuels can (with some exceptions) be fed to the transition chamber or
to the mid-kiln valve only.

Alternative fuels preparation is usually performed outside the cement plant by the supplier or
by specialist organizations. The preparation processes are therefore not dealt with here.

So alternative fuels only need to be stored at the cement plant and then proportioned for
feeding them to the cement kiln.

Since alternative fuel supplies tend to be variable in rapidly developing waste material
markets it is often recommended to design alternative fuel plants as multi- purpose plants
from the very beginning.

Figure 1 Multi purpose plant for liquid AFRs

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Figure 2 Multi purpose plant for granulated AFRs

Figure 3 Multi purpose plant for lump AF

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Figure 4 Tyre handling concept

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4. Normal emission levels and BAT for emission prevention

Average emission data (long term average values) from European rotary cement kilns in
operation are summarised in the table below. The figures given are representative of the
ranges within which kilns normally operate. Due to the age and design of the plant, the nature
of the raw materials, etc., individual kilns may operate outside these ranges.

Table 1 Long term average emission values from European cement kilns

Emission mg per standard cubic meter [mg/Nm
3
]
Dust 20 200
NO
x
500 2000
SO
2
10 2500
Total organic carbon (TOC) 10 100
CO 500 2000
Fluorides < 5
Chlorides < 25
PCDD/F < 0.1 [ng/Nm3]
Heavy metals:
- class 1 (Hg, Cd, Tl) < 0.1
- class 2 (As, Co, Ni, Se, Te) < 0.1
- class 3 (Sb, Pb, Cr, Cu, Mn, V, Sn) incl. Zn < 0.3

4.1 Pollution reduction

Major emissions from cement manufacturing plants traditionally are airborne pollutants and
powered dust from the kiln and its emissions. Pollutants are mainly particulates from a
number of solid processing and handling operations, CO
2
, SO
2
and NO
2
.

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Relatively speaking, SO
2
and NO
2
.emissions from cement industries are small, and they
represent less than 2% of the total emitted of these compounds in USA and Europe. In recent
years, as a result of advanced control technology and equipment design, such as electro static
precipitator and bag filter facilities, significant progress has been reached in reducing air
emissions from the cement industrial sector. For a new plant today, air pollution emissions are
significantly lower than those from typical facilities built 30-40 years ago.

World wide, the cement industry produces about 5 % of global manmade CO
2
(Worrell et al,
2001). As the industry produces an equal weight of CO
2
and clinker, any cost imposed on the
reduction of CO
2
emission to the atmosphere and any management plan can have a significant
impact on the industrys financial performance. At the present rate of many CO
2
management
expenses on the market - in the range of $ 10 to $ 25/ton and expected to rise as the public
demand its treatment - many cement enterprises will not be able to foot the bill, unless their
production capacities are increased and are big enough to bear the cost.

Increasing the use of alternative fuels and raw materials can reduce the use of virgin materials
including limestone and petroleum products, and can reduce CO
2
emission and production
costs. Alternative and substituted materials as fly ash from power plants, steel mill slugs, and
pozzolanic substances can be used in cement to replace some of the limestone, and the quality
of the product is not affected in applications.

The following measures are recommended with regards to achieve emission reduction:

1. A well defined emission inventory and reporting process with emission
reduction cost estimates;

2. A program for effective communication with the local stakeholders including
regulatory personnel;

3. A program to define the emission reduction targets and timetable;

4. In order to win confidence, the industry needs an effective way of monitoring
and reporting emissions which can address the safety concerns of the public
and product quality concerns of the users.

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4.2 Selection of BATs for controlling emissions

Best available techniques can be selected which may be of broadly equal applicability on a
new installation for the abatement of the different potential pollutants. For this purpose a new
installation is assumed to be a modern dry process kiln of large capacity. Selection of a
particular BAT from the clusters of BATs will require evaluation of the factors relevant to a
particular case.

Many BATs are only suitable for dry preheater process plants and, where appropriate,
references are made to long dry or wet kilns.

High dust emissions, before abatement, are inherent in the process. So too are NO
x
emissions
but these can also be influenced by the plant equipment used and the way the plant is
operated. The potential for emissions of SO
2
, VOC and dust is primarily dependent on the
nature of the raw materials.

Assessment of BAT for existing plants is more complex than for new plants because of the
greater variety in the processes and equipment designs in use, space and layout restrictions,
etc., as well as the nature of the raw materials. These factors can have a very marked effect on
the costs of applying abatement techniques and so the availability of a BAT is affected. This
means that a wider range of BATs needs to be available and evaluated for each case. It also
means that it will often not be economically viable to achieve the emission standards that can
be achieved with a new plant.

When evaluating alternative investments at an existing plant, it is important that the remaining
economic value of existing pollution equipment is added to the investment cost, if the existing
pollution control equipment to be replaced is still efficiently operable.

Emissions from cement manufacture essentially have no cross-media impact as there are
rarely significant emissions to land or water. Abatement techniques for emissions to air can be
interlinked in two main respects. Control of kiln burning to minimise SO
2
emission can

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increase NOx formation, and vice versa, so an operating balance has to be struck. Secondly
some techniques may abate more than one type of emission.

The degree of abatement achievable, particularly for primary reduction measures, is not
accurately predictable.

Electrostatic precipitators (EPs) and bag filters (BFs) are BAT for dust emissions from both
kilns and clinker coolers. For cement mills, efficiently operable EPs continue to be used.
When they have to be replaced, as when new abatement equipment has to be built, bag filters
are BAT. Costs preclude bag filters from being installed for kilns and coolers of existing
installations if electrostatic precipitators are already fitted.

For new kilns, one cluster of BATs for NO
x
control may be identified as:

optimisation of clinker burning process;

expert system for kiln operation;

low NO
x
burner;

multi-stage combustion in pre-calciners (dry kilns only);

add water to flame or fuel to kiln;

selective non-catalytic reduction (dry process) (SNCR).

SNCR is distinguished by relatively limited operational experience but abatement efficiency
can be quite high. Add water to flame or fuel to kiln may enable the use of alternative fuels to
reduce NO
x
. Optimisation of clinker burning process can also contribute to SO
2
reduction. For
new kilns an emission level of 500 mg/Nm3 (long term average) should be achievable.

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4.3 BAT and BEP for controlling and minimising PCDD/PCDF emission

The following primary measures are considered to be most critical in avoiding the
formation and emission of PCDD/F from modern cement kilns and seems in most cases to be
sufficient to comply with an emission level of 0.1 ng PCDD/F I-TEQ/Nm
3
:

Quick cooling of kiln exhaust gases to lower than 200
o
C in long wet and long dry
kilns without preheating. In modern preheater and precalciner kilns this feature is
already inherent in the process design.

Limit or avoid alternative raw material feed as part of raw-material-mix if it includes
organics.

No alternative fuel feed during start-up and shut down.

Monitoring and stabilisation of critical process parameters, i.e. homogenous raw mix
and fuel feed, regular dosage and excess oxygen.

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5. Utilisation of alternative fuels and raw materials in modern
cement production an introduction

In the burning of cement clinker it is necessary to maintain material temperatures of up to
1450 C in order to ensure the sintering reactions required. This is achieved by applying peak
combustion temperatures of about 2000 C with the main burner flame. The combustion gases
from the main burner remain at a temperature above 1200 C for at least 5-10 seconds. An
excess of oxygen typically 2-3 % is also required in the combustion gases of the rotary
kiln as the clinker needs to be burned under oxidising conditions. These conditions are
essential for the formation of the clinker phases and the quality of the finished cement.

The retention time of the kiln charge in the rotary kiln is 20-30 and up to 60 minutes
depending on the length of the kiln. The figure below illustrates the temperature profiles for
the combustion gases and the material for a preheater/precalciner rotary kiln system. While
the temperature profiles may be different for the various kiln types, the peak gas and material
temperatures described above have to be maintained in any case. The burning conditions in
kilns with precalciner firing depend on the precalciner design. Gas temperatures from a
precalciner burner are typically around 1100 C, and the gas retention time in the precalciner
is approximately 3 seconds.

Under the conditions prevailing in a cement kiln i.e. flame temperatures of up to 2000 C,
material temperatures of up to 1450 C and gas retention times of up to 10 seconds at
temperatures between 1200 and 2000 C all kinds of organic compounds fed to the main
burner with the fuels are reliably destroyed. The combustion process in the main flame of the
rotary kiln is therefore complete. No (hydrocarbon type) products of incomplete combustion
can be identified in the combustion gases of the main burner at steady-state conditions.

The cement manufacturing process is an industrial process where large material volumes are
turned into commercial products, i.e. clinker and cement. Cement kilns operate continuously
all through the year 24 hours a day with only minor interruptions for maintenance and
repair. A smooth kiln operation is necessary in a cement plant in order to meet production
targets and to meet the quality requirements of the products. Consequently, to achieve these

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goals, all relevant process parameters are permanently monitored and recorded including the
analytical control of all raw materials, fuels, intermediate and finished products as well as
environmental monitoring.

With these prerequisites i.e. large material flow, continuous operation and comprehensive
process and product control, the cement manufacturing process seems to be well suited for co-
processing by-products and residues from industrial sources, both as raw materials and fuels
substitutes and as mineral additions. The selection of appropriate feed points is essential for
environmentally sound co- processing of alternative materials, i.e.:

Raw materials: mineral waste free of organic compounds can be added to the raw meal
or raw slurry preparation system. Mineral wastes containing significantly quantities of
organic components are introduced via the solid fuels handling system, i.e. directly to
the main burner, to the secondary firing or, rarely, to the calcining zone of a long wet
kiln (mid-kiln).

Fuels: alternative fuels are fed to the main burner, to the secondary firing in the
preheater/precalciner section, or to the mid-kiln zone of a long wet kiln.

Mineral additions: mineral additions such as granulated blast furnace slag, fly ash
from thermal power plants or industrial gypsum are fed to the cement mill. In Europe,
the type of mineral additions permitted is regulated by the cement standards.

In addition to regulatory requirements, the cement producers have set up self- limitations such
as

To prevent potential abuse of the cement kiln system in waste recovery operations

To assure the required product quality

To protect the manufacturing process from operational problems

To avoid negative impacts to the environment, and

To ensure workers health and safety.

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Figure 5 Gas and material profiles in cyclone preheater/precalciner system
in compound operation (CEMBUREAU, 1999)

The cement manufacturing process is a large materials throughput process with continuous
operation and comprehensive operational control. Therefore, it has a large potential for co-
processing a variety of materials from industrial sources.

Wastes and hazardous wastes in the environment represent a challenge for many countries,
but cement kiln co-processing can constitute a sound and affordable recovery option. Cement
kilns can destroy organic hazardous wastes in a safe and sound manner when properly
operated and will be mutually beneficial to both industry, which generates such wastes, and to
the society who want to dispose properly of such wastes in a safe and environmentally
acceptable manner. The added benefit of non renewable fossil energy conservation is
important, since large quantities of valuable natural fuel can be saved in the manufacture of
cement when such techniques are employed.

Since the early 70s, and particularly since the mid 80s, alternative i.e. non-fossil raw
materials and fuels derived mainly from industrial sources have been beneficially utilised in

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the cement industry for economic reasons. Since that time, it has been demonstrated both in
daily operations and in numerous tests that the overall environmental performance of a
cement plant is not impaired by this practice in an appropriately managed plant operation.

Cement kilns make full use of both the calorific and the mineral content of alternative
materials. Fossil fuels such as coal or crude oil can be substituted by combustible materials
which otherwise would often be landfilled or incinerated in specialised facilities.

The mineral part of alternative fuels (ashes) as well as non-combustible industrial residues or
by-products can substitute for part of the natural raw materials (limestones, clay, etc.). All
components are effectively incorporated into the product, and with few exceptions no
residues are left for disposal. The use of mineral additions from industrial sources substituting
clinker saves both raw material resources and energy resources as the energy intensive clinker
production can be reduced.

With the substitution of fossil fuels by (renewable) alternative fuels, the overall output of
thermal CO
2
is reduced. A thermal substitution rate of 40% in a cement plant with an annual
production of 1 million tons of clinker reduces the net CO
2
generation by about 100,000 tons.
Substitution of clinker by mineral additions may be more important as both thermal CO
2
from
fossil fuels and CO
2
from the decarbonation of raw materials is reduced.

Since only moderate investments are needed, cement plants can recover adequate wastes at
lower costs than would be required for landfilling or treatment in specialised incinerators. In
addition, public investment required for the installation of new specialised incinerators would
also be reduced. Substitute materials derived from waste streams usually reduce the
production cost in cement manufacturing, thus strengthening the position of the industry
particularly with regard to imports from countries with less stringent environmental
legislation. It will also facilitate the industrys development of technologies to further clean
up atmospheric emissions.

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6. Evaluation of South African cement plants

The objective of this study has been to compare the cement kiln technology used
internationally and that currently used in South Africa and to evaluate their ability to co-
process AFRs and treat hazardous wastes in these kilns.

6.1 Introduction

Ten out of eleven South African cement plants was visitited in the period August to October
2007. Most South African cement plants have expressed interest in replaceing fossil fuel and
virgin raw materials with alternative fuels and raw materials (AFR) and developed subsequent
environmental impact assessments (EIAs). Some plants are not going to use AFRs.

The South African cement industry is characterized by cement plants that vary in age from
recently commissioned plants (some are under construction) to plants built in the early
1930s, all of which incorporate old and new technologies. All South African cement plants
produce Portland cement and blended cement products such as CEM I, and more recently
CEM II and CEM III products, which are also the most common manufactured cement
products in South Africa. Portland cement is a fine, typically grey powder comprised of
dicalcium silicate, tricalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate, and tetracalcium alumino-ferrite,
with the addition of 2-5% calcium sulphate (gypsum). Different types of Portland cements can
be created depending on the application, as well as the chemical and physical properties
desired.

The exacting nature of Portland cement manufacture requires some 80 separate and
continuous operations, the use of large-scale heavy machinery and equipment, and large
amounts of heat and energy. Large volumes of fossil fuels (in solid and liquid form) are
required to maintain high combustion levels in kilns. Coal, hard coal, coke, and pet coke are
used in this process. The capital investment per worker in the cement industry is among the

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highest in all industries. All local cement produces have to comply with the European Norm
Standards for cementitious products.

Figure 6 South Africas cement industry facilities (derived from CNCI report)
The figure is from Vincenzo, 2004 (source unknown to the author).

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6.2 Main findings

The main findings of the visits can be summarized as follows:

The South African cement industry consists of four main companies, Pretoria Portland
Cement (PPC), Natal Portland Cement (NPC-Cimpor), Lafarge, & Holcim-Afrisam.
They have 11 plants and 20 kilns, distributed all over the country. At least two new
kilns are under construction and some are planned.

Figure 7 Nathal Portland Cement, Port Shepstone. A new modern kiln is soon
ready for operation (preheater tower on the right).

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Current production in the kilns planning to use AFR is approximately 8 million tons of
clinker per year and the production capacity may increase by as much as 60% by
2014.

Current coal use in the kilns planning to use AFR is approximately 1.3 mill t/y.

Current electricity use of the kilns planning to use AFR is approximately 1 mill
MWh/y.

Figure 8 Pretoria Portland Cement, Port Elizabeth

The South African cement industry uses a mix of older long dry kilns (with and
without limited preheating) and modern short dry kilns with preheating (some with

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precalciner). The best available technique for the production of cement clinker today is
a dry process kiln with multi-stage preheating and precalcination.

Kilns without preheating of the raw material require more energy.

All the visited plants are either using electro static precipitator or bag filters for dust
removal and seem to be in compliance with local regulation. The Provincial emission
limits vary widely; the emission limits for dust is generally higher in South Africa than
in Europe.

Figure 9 Holcim Ulco

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The environmental performance of the plants visited is variable, especially on the dust
and NO
x
emissions. It can be expected that the plants will be within normal emissions
levels when it comes to the major air pollutans (see table 1).

Figure 10 Lafarge Licthenburg

Most of the cement companies have implemented an environmental management
system and are certified according to ISO 14001.

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Some of the long dry kilns have no exit gas conditioning or cooling before the gas
enters to the air pollution control device (electro static precipitator), implying that the
temperature will be in the range of 200-400
0
C, which under unfavorable conditions
may contribute to the formation and release of dioxins; this should be checked.

Figure 11 Pretoria Portland Cement Slurry

All the plants recive electricity from the grid, i.e. Escom. Most of the plants said they
experience dips in power with subsequent process and air pollution control instability.

The water supply seems to be limited in some plants but may only be a concern for
future expansions.

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The plants seem to have variable or inconsistent monitoring and reporting
requirements (varies with and within the province).

Some plants only measure the main air pollutants, as dust, SO
2
and NO
x
, which is
often more for process than environmental control.

Some plants have implemented a comprehensive measurement surveillance of their
stack emissions, consisting of the latest continuous emission monitors (CEMs)
installed in the stacks for on-line measurements of the main air pollutants. These
companies also do independent sampling and analysis of trace pollutants like acid
gases, heavy metals and dioxins on a regular basis.

Figure 12 Holcim Dudfield

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Some kilns have already used alternative fuels and raw materials (AFR) for some
years (started 2001-2002), specifically spent pot lining (SPL) from the Aluminum
Industry. They generally use both fractions, i.e. the carbon fraction which can contain
6-14 MJ/kg of energy, and the refractory fraction, which contains alternative raw
materials components as aluminium and silica. Both fractions contain however
cyanide, fluoride and sodium; the last two elements can cause problems in the process
and the quality if not properly controlled.

Figure 13 Pretoria Portland Cement Dwaalboom. A new line and preheater tower is
under construction.

Some kilns use boiler and fly ash as an alternative raw material or mineral substitute,
but these are often blended with cement and needs not to be processed.

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All the cement companies have a dedicated AFR-organisation in place but will need to
develop necessary laboratory capacity for input control.

Figure 14 Control room at PPC Hercules, Pretoria.

Most of the plants lack equipment for receiving, preparation/pre-treating and feeding
AFR and eventually hazardous wastes. Most of the cement companies have enough
space in their premises to allow AFR-activities, but safety and environmental
protection must follow high standards.

There seems to be no regulation in place for storage and pre-treatment of AFRs (and
hazardous wastes).

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Figure 15 PPC Riebeck, Western Cape. Long dry kiln without exit gas conditioning/
cooling. No plans to use AFRs.

Figure 16 PPC Riebeck, Western Cape. Long dry kiln with exit gas conditioning/
cooling (kiln to the left). No plans to use AFRs.

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Most plants are located far away from industrial areas and waste generation centers
and its questionable if large scale transport of AFRs and hazardous wastes, at least to
to some of these plants, will be economic viable.

Several kilns are using planetary cooler.

With increasing costs of energy and raw materials, as well as stricter emission
regulation, it can be expected that some of the existing South African kilns will be
closed and replaced with modern and energy efficient technology.

Figure 17 PPC De Hoek, Western Cape.

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6.3 A summary

All of the kilns visited could, from a technical standpoint, be able to co-process AFRs and
treat hazardous wastes adequately, provided that they were able to prepare and feed the
materials properly, i.e. expose them for high enough temperatures etc. (see chapter 5).

Compared with international technology, for example in Europe, many of the South African
kilns, especially the long dry without preheating or exit gas conditioning, are old with low
energy efficiency and low environmental performance. It is doubtful if its economical
feasible to upgrade these kilns and improve the performance significantly.

Most of the new South African kilns are comparable to international performance
standards, i.e. equipped with preheaters (and calciner), efficient clinker coolers and raw mills,
exit gas conditioning, sufficient air pollution abatement capacity, on-line emission monitors,
and independent measurements of for example dioxins. It would probably be economic
feasibile to upgrade all of the new South African kilns to comply with for example the EU
emission limit values (those who are not already).

Inherent kiln features is however not enough to be qualified to co-process AFRs and treat
hazardous wastes adequately seen from an institutional and social point of view. The plants
will need qualified and skilled employees to manage AFRs and hazardous wastes, as well as
health, safety and environmental issues; they will need adequate emergency and safety
equipment and procedures, and regular training; they will need authorised and licensed
collection, transport and handling systems; they will need safe and sound receiving, storage,
preparation and feeding facilities; they will need adequate laboratory facilities and equipment
for AFR and hazardous waste acceptance and feeding control; and they would need to
demonstrate the destruction performance of hazardous wastes through test burns.

A summary of the the gross production and consumtion data and the environmental
performance for the kilns visited, are given on the next two pages (not all of these plants plan
to use AFR). Company name and kiln location is given at the top of the column.

Company
Plant location/name Ulco
Kiln # #2 #3 #5 #1 #2 #2 #3
Clinker production (t/y) ~780000 ~1100000 ~130000 587153 uc 664 983 675 349
Coal consumption (t/y) ~130000 ~160000 ~170000 74793 109552,0 109248,8
Electricity consumption (MWh/y) ~110000 43804
Energy consumption (MJ/t clinker) <5.000 <4.000 <4.000 3,52 3924 3825
Kiln type / Process technology FLS/DS2 FLS/PC4 Polysius PC4 4 PH 4 PH/PC air through air separator
Exit gas cooling/conditioning Conditioning tower Conditioning tower Conditioning tower Yes Yes 135C 140C
By-pass No No No No No no no
Air Pollution Control Device's) Bag Filter Bag Filter EP ESP Bag house OldhamEP1000 OldhamEP1000
Temperature in APCD / stack (
0
C) ~160/~150C ~160/~150C ~160/~150C 130 112C 139C
Dust recovery(?) 99,997% 99,997% >98% Yes, back to kiln Recovered dust fed back into process.
On-line emission gas monitoring (system and parameters) Opsis/Durag Opsis/Durag Opsis/SICK yes not available not available
Emissions: Dust (mg/Nm
3
) - Average value and number of measurements 14 (CEM) 9 (CEM) 129 (CEM) 70 - continuous 73 daily 95- daily
NO
x
(mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 590 (CEM) 450 (CEM) 680 (CEM) 540 - continuous 1000 (weekly) 950 (weekly)
SO
2
(mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 40 (CEM) 8 (CEM) 3 (CEM) 2.8 - continuous 0 (weekly) 0 (weekly)
VOC / TOC (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 4.6(CEM) 3 (CEM) 2 (CEM) 25 - once off in 2003 Not measured
HCl (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 9.7 (CEM) 10.8 (CEM) 13 (CEM) 0 - once off in 2002 Not measured
HF (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements n/a <1 (CEM) <1 (CEM) 0 - once off in 2002 Not measured
PCDD/PCDF (ng TEQ/Nm
3
) - Average value and number of measurements 0,0023 0,0016 0,0065 0.001 once off in 2002 Not measured
PCBs (ng TEQ/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 0,0000 0,0013 0,0013 .001 - once off in 2002 Not measured
Heavy metals (g/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements See attachment See attachment See attachment 2336 - once off in 2002 Not measured in gas but dust.
Co-processing AFR and/or mineral substitutes (types and volumes t/y) Nil Nil Nil No No AFR
Infrastructure and equipment for AFR-handling, pre-treatment and feeding Limited Limited Limited No No AFR
Environmental management system, e.g. ISO 14001 Certified Certified Certified redited for ISO 14001 in 2004 Lafarge environmental standards.
Reliable and adequate electricity supply (?) Yes - Eskom Yes - Eskom Yes - Eskom Yes
Reliable and adequate water supply (?) Yes - Own Yes - Own Yes - Own Yes
Laboratory for quality control Yes Yes Yes Yes
Laboratory for control of AFR (?) Partial Partial Partial No No AFR
Afrisam
Dudfield
~150000
NPC-Cimpor
Simuma
Yes, Boreholes
yes
Lafarge
LIC
214 874
Yes, Eskom supply

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Plant location/name
Kiln #
#5 #6 #7 #8 #4 #5 #5 #6 #1 #2 #1 #2
Clinker production (t/y)
155000 155000 295000 776000 169000 357000 357000 450000 621000 1024000
Coal consumption (t/y)
Electricity consumption (MWh/y)
Kiln type / Process technology
Long Dry Long Dry 1 St PH 4 St PH 1 St PH 4 St PH 4 St PH 4 St PH 5 St PH 6 St PC (ILC)
Exit gas cooling/conditioning
No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
By-pass
No No No No No No No No No No
Air Pollution Control Device's)
ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP Bag House
Temperature in APCD / stack (
0
C)
250 250 318 120 130 130 125 112 150 80
Dust recovery(?)
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
On-line emission gas monitoring (system and parameters)
Dust Dust Dust Opsis Dust Opsis Dust Opsis Dust Opsis
Emissions: Dust (mg/Nm
3
) - Average value and number of measurements
250 250 100 80 200 120 150 150 150 150
NOx(mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 1400 1400 800 700 1400 1200 900 800 1400 1000
SO2 (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 200 200 130 <10 10 10 180 180 1,7 1,7
VOC / TOC (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements
HCl (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements
<1 2 2 6 Not Available
HF (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements
<0.4 <0.1 <0.1 0,4 Not Available
PCDD/PCDF (ng TEQ/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements
PCBs (ng TEQ/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements
Heavy metals (g/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements
Co-processing AFR and/or mineral substitutes (types and volumes t/y)
None None
SPL
Volume N/A
SPL
Volume N/A
SPL
Volume N/A
SPL
Volume N/A
None None
SPL
Volume N/A
SPL
Volume N/A
Infrastructure and equipment for AFR-handling, pre-treatment and feeding
None None Feeding Feeding Feeding Feeding Feeding Feeding
Environmental management system, e.g. ISO 14001
Reliable and adequate electricity supply (?)
Reliable and adequate water supply (?)
Laboratory for quality control
Laboratory for control of AFR (?)
Jupiter De Hoek Riebeeck Dwaalboom Port Elizabeth
Reliable Reliable
Not available
Slurry Hercules
Not available
Not available
ISO 14001
Reliable - Power outages 1 per month
28000
Not Available
Yes
Integrated into plant Lab Integratd
Not Available
Reliable
ISO 14001
Yes
130000
Not available
Not available
30
1400
Not Available
Not Available
Not Available
Not available
Not Available
Not Available
#3
Not
considere
d due to
the fact
that the
kiln will
not use
Secondary
Fuels
80000
ISO 14001
Reliable
Reliable
Not Available
ISO 14001
Reliable
Reliable
Not Available
Not Available
Not Available
Not Available
Yes
Not applicable
Not applicable
130000
Not Available
Not Available
Not Available
Yes
Integratd
90000
270
Yes
Dust
Reliable
200
Reliable
SPL
Volume N/A
Feeding
ESP
Not Available
ISO 14001
12
<0.5
Not Available
Not Available
Long Dry Kiln
No
No
#4
197000
Not
considered
due to the fact
that the kiln
will not use
Secondary
Fuels
274000 110000 120000 250000
Yes
Integratd
50000

7. Conclusion

The objective of this study has been to compare the cement kiln technology used
internationally and that currently used in South Africa and to evaluate their ability to co-
process AFRs and treat hazardous wastes in these kilns.

The South African cement industry consists of four main companies, Pretoria Portland
Cement (PPC), Natal Portland Cement (NPC-Cimpor), Lafarge, & Holcim-Afrisam. They
have 11 plants and 20 kilns, distributed all over the country. At least two new kilns are under
construction and some are planned. Current production in the kilns planning to use AFR is
approximately 8 million tons of clinker per year and the current coal consumption is
approximately 1.3 mill t/y.

Cement kilns have proven to be effective means of recovering value from waste materials and
co-processing in cement kilns is now an integral component in the spectrum of viable options
for treating hazardous and industrial wastes, mainly practised in developed countries. A
modern preheater cement kiln possess many inherent features which makes it ideal for
hazardous waste treatment; high temperatures, long residence time, surplus oxygen during and
after combustion, good turbulence and mixing conditions, thermal inertia, counter currently
dry scrubbing of the exit gas by alkaline raw material (neutralises all acid gases like hydrogen
chloride), fixation of the traces of heavy metals in the clinker structure, no production of by-
products such as slag, ashes or liquid residues from exit gas cleaning and complete recovery
of energy and raw material components in the waste. The most effective way of reducing raw
material consumption, energy use and emissions from the cement industry is to reduce the
clinker content of cement products by using secondary raw materials and mineral additives;
then both thermal CO
2
from fossil fuels and CO
2
from the decarbonation of raw materials are
reduced.

The cement industry has capacity to treat a significant part of South Africa's own waste and
all companies are today interested in co-processsing. The joining of the cement industry to the
waste management needs in South Africa could, under a well managed and controlled
environment, provide a viable, economical and environmentally sound mean of treating many

khk@sintef.no
Page 50 of 75
hazardous and non-hazardous industrial wastes. Some of the cement companies are planning
to build blending platforms for waste fuel in Durban and Gauteng and some kilns have
already been useing alternative fuels and raw materials (AFR) for some years, specifically
spent pot lining (SPL) from the Aluminum Industry. Some kilns use boiler and fly ash as an
alternative raw material and mineral substitute.

Compared with international technology, for example in Europe, many of the South African
kilns, especially the long dry without preheating or exit gas conditioning, are old with low
energy efficiency and low environmental performance. It is doubtful if its economical
feasible to upgrade these kilns and improve the performance significantly.

Most of the new South African kilns are comparable to international performance
standards, i.e. equipped with preheaters (and calciner), efficient clinker coolers and raw mills,
exit gas conditioning, sufficient air pollution abatement capacity, on-line emission monitors,
and independent measurements of for example dioxins. It would probably be economic
feasibile to upgrade all of the new South African kilns to comply with for example the EU
emission limit values (those who are not already).

All of the kilns visited would, from a technical standpoint, be able to co-process AFRs and
treat hazardous wastes. Inherent kiln features, as high temperatures and long residence
time, is however not enough to be qualified to co-process AFRs and treat hazardous wastes
adequately seen from an institutional and social point of view. The plants will need qualified
and skilled employees to manage AFRs and hazardous wastes, as well as health, safety and
environmental issues; they will need adequate emergency and safety equipment and
procedures, and regular training; they will need authorised and licensed collection, transport
and handling systems; they will need safe and sound receiving, storage, preparation and
feeding facilities; they will need adequate laboratory facilities and equipment for AFR and
hazardous waste acceptance and feeding control; and they would need to demonstrate the
destruction performance of hazardous wastes through test burns.

Those kilns who have conducted dioxin and furan measurements show very low levels. No
laboratory can however perform this analysis in South Africa for the time being.

khk@sintef.no
Page 51 of 75

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