1--

( )
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DIRECTIONAL RELAY 2 --
bus bar-generators -transformer . directional relay
over current relay
(fault) relay
(fault)
C.B relay relay
directional relay : .
over current relay 1 --
Instantaneous directional relay--2
bus bar
BUSBAR DIFFRENTIAL RELAY 3 --
voltage supervision relay .
HVHRC 4 --
High Voltage High Rupturing Capacity fuse :
.
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18 --What is the IP standard "Protection degrees of enclosures
IP
ex. IP 543

 "5" dust
"4" " water or "liquid
"3" mechanical impact

mechanical impact
19 -- ANSI DEVICE NUMBERS
:
NO.2 MEANS TIME DELAY
NO.21 MEANS DISTANCE
NO.25 MEANS SYNCHRONISM-CHECK
NO.27 MEANS UNDERVOLTAGE
NO.30 MEANS ANNUNCIATOR
NO.32 MEANS DIRECTIONAL POWER
NO.37 MEANS UNDERCURRENT OR UNDERPOWER
NO.38 MEANS BEARING
NO.40 MEANS FIELD
NO.46 MEANS REVERSE-PHASE
NO.47 MEANS PHASE-SEQUENCE VOLTAGE
NO.49 MEANS THERMAL
NO.50 MEANS INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT
NO.51 MEANS AC TIME OVER CURRENT
NO.59 MEANS OVER VOLTAGE
NO.60 MEANS VOLTAGE BALANCE
MEANS PRESSURE (MECHANICAL PROTECTION) NO.63
NO.64 MEANS APPARATUS GROUND
NO.67 MEANS AC DIRECTIONAL OVER CURRENT
NO.68 MEANS BLOCKING
NO.69 MEANS PERMISSIVE
NO.74 MEANS ALARM
NO.76 MEANS DC OVER CURRENT
NO.78 MEANS OUT-OF-STEP
NO.79 MEANS AC RECLOSING
NO.81 MEANS FREQUENCY
NO.85 MEANS CARRIER OR PILOT-WIRE
NO.86 MEANS LOCK OUT
NO.87 MEANS DIFFERENTIAL
NO.94 MEANS TRIPPING
20 --
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connect load

connect load
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demand load
connect load
diffarcity factor factor

.
recepticals bye 3 wire not 2wire as Egypt 27 --

 short hot and neutral only

.

.
ground short ground
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:
. Recovery voltage:
. Resitriking voltage:
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.
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.
. Resitriking voltage
. 1.5
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.
:
3phase fault
3phase to ground fault
As Symmetrical fault:
.
:
Single phase to ground fault
Two phase to ground fault
Phase to phase fault
) (Fault current If Zero sequence impedance:
) (Neutral point ) (Fault
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Source impedance
.
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,
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phase Short circuit 2 ,
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single line diagram 1 -
wiring diagram - 2
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Frequency load shedding 54 --

When the load increase ------------------the frequency decrease
when the load decrease ------------------the frequency Increase
Frequency Governor



/ speed governor
stability frailer

: How the voltage affect by Reactive Power??55

Answer: The voltage affects directly with the reactive power in the
power systems so if the reactive power increased the voltage increase
and vise versa when the reactive power decrease the voltage decrease.
56 --

= () / 3


.
phase .
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.
load bank resistor --57
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magnetic field electric field , 66 --
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67 --
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68 --
short

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69 --

(KNEE POINT)

(KNEE POINT) .
70 -- fuse&CB

CB FUSE
FUSE &CB
( PROTECTION COORDINATION)
71 -- Faults
Fault In Electrical Power System:
1- Multi-phase Short Circuit "High Current will flow
a- Balanced three phase Fault
b- Single Phase - to - ground Fault
c- Double phase to ground Fault
d- Phase to phase Fault
Single Phase - to - ground Fault % 85

.

joints .
2- Open Circuit/Phases "No current"
3- Contacts with Ground "Isolated system or High Impedance grounded system

_________________
/



1 -- Why cables are not used for long distance transmission?
Cables are not used for long distance transmissions due to their large charging
currents.
2 -- Mention the 3 main parts of the cable?
Conductor, dielectric, sheath
3 -- What is the function of conductor?
Conductor provides the conducting path for the current.
4 - .What is the function of sheath in cables?
The sheath does not allow the moisture to enter and protects the cable from all
external influences like chemical or electrochemical attack, fire etc.

5 -- Mention the conductor materials in cables?

Copper, Aluminium
All occupies greater space than copper for a given conductance.
Both are high electrical conductivity.
6 -- What is the purpose of stranding of conductors?
Stranding increases the cable. It has flexibility. Resistance of the
7 -- Define the segmental conductors.
The stranded wires which are compacted by the rollers to minimize the air spaces
between the individual wires are called segmented conductors. Here the conductor
size is reduced for a given conductance.

8. State the properties of insulating materials.

It should have high insulation resistance, high dielectric strength, and good
mechanical properties, non-hygroscopic, capable of being operated at high
temperatures, low thermal resistance and low power factor.
9. Mention the commonly used power cables.
Impregnated paper, Polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene
10. Mention the advantages of PVC over paper insulated cables.
Reduced cost and weight, Insulation is resistant to water, Simplified jointing,
increased flexibility No plumbing required.
11. State the merits of paper insulated cables.
High current carrying capacity, long life and greater reliability
12. Where polythene cables are used?
-being non-hygroscopic used in cables for submarines and damp soil.
- being lighter used as aerial cables for vertical installations.
13. State the advantages of polythene insulators.
They are non-hygroscopic, light in weight, low dielectric constant, low loss factor
and low thermal resistance.

14. By what materials cable sheaths are made?

Lead sheaths and Aluminums sheaths.

15. In what way Al sheaths are superior to lead sheaths?

Al sheaths are smaller in weight, high mechanical strength, greater conducyivity,
cheap, easy to manufacture and install, withstands the required gas pressure
without reinforcement.
16. Where CSA sheath is used in cables?
Corrugated seamless aluminums sheath is used in high voltage oil filled cables and
telephone lines.
17. Why it is used?
It is used because it is very flexible and easily by repeated bending the sheath is
not distorted and it is not damaged. It has lesser weight and reduced thickness.
18. Why protective covering is done in cables?
To protect the cables from mechanical damage, corrosion and electrolytic action
when laid direct in the ground the protective covering is made.
19. By what material protective covering is made?
Bitumen &Bituminized materials, PVC and layers of fibrous materials.

20. What is meant by serving of a cable?

Layers of fibrous material permitted with waterproof compound applied to the
exterior of the cable is called serving of a cable.
21. Why armoring is done in the cables?
To protect the sheath from mechanical damage.
22. Why armoring is not done in single core cables?
The presence of magnetic material within the alternating magnetic field of a single
core cable produces excessive losses. Hence single core cables are left unarmored
with non-magnetic materials like tin-bronze or silicon-bronze tapes or wires.
23. Why Al is used as an armour material?

It has non-magnetic properties, high conductivity and mechanical strength.

24. What is meant by grading of cables?
The method of equalizing the stress in the dielectric of the cable is called the
grading of cables.

25.Mention the methods of cables.

Capacitance grading and intersheath grading.
26.Why the capacitance of the cable is very high than the capacitance of the
overhead lines?
The distance between the conductors are small. The distance between the cores
and the earthed sheath is also small. The permittivity of the cable insulation is 3 to
5 times greater than that of air insulation.
27.Write the expression of the capacitance of a single core cable.
( (2)
----------- = C=q/v
( ln(R/r)

28.What is meant by charging current of a cable?

The capacitance of a cable determines the charging current. The charging current
restricts the use of cables on EHV lines. The current carrying capacity of an a.c
cable is also reduced by the charging current.
29.Why power loss occurs in the dielectric of a cable?
-due to conductivity of insulation
-Dielectric hysteresis or dielectric absorption.
-Ionization or corona

30. Why all transmission and distribution systems are 3 phase systems?
A 3 phase a.c circuit using the same size conductors as the single phase circuit can
carry three times the power which can be carried by a 1 phase circuit and uses 3
conductors for the 2 phases and one conductor for the neutral. Thus a 3 phase
circuit is more economical than a 1 phase circuit in terms of initial cost as well as
the losses. Therefore all transmission and distribution systems are 3 phase
systems.
31. Why the transmission systems are mostly overhead systems?
Because of the cost consideration, the transmission systems are mostly overhead
systems.
32.Why all overhead lines use ACSR conductors?
ACSR conductors comprises of hard drawn aluminium wires stranded around a
core of single or multiple strand galvanized steel wire. They provides the

necessary conductivity while the steel provides the necessary mechanical

strength. Has less corona loss. The breaking load is high and has less weight.
33.Why transmission lines are 3 phase 3 wire circuits while distribution lines are 3
phase 4 wire circuits?
A Balanced 3 phase circuit does not require the neutral conductor, as the
instantaneous sum of the 3 line currents are zero. Therefore the transmission lines
and feeders are 3 phase 3 wire circuits. The distributors are 3 phase 4 wire circuits
because a neutral wire is necessary to supply the 1 phase loads of domestic and
commercial consumers.
34.Why overhead line conductors are invariably stranded?
They are stranded to make them flexible during erection and while in service.

35 . Stat the advantages of interconnected systems.

Any area fed from one generating station during overload hours can be fed from
another power station and thus reserved capacity required is reduced, reliability of
supply is increased and efficiency is increased.
36. What is a ring distributor?
A ring distributor is a distributor which is arranged to form a closed circuit and is
fed at one or more than one point.
37. State any two advantages of ring main system.
Less voltage fluctuations at consumers terminals.Less copper is required as each
part of the ring carries less current than in radial system.
38. Mention the disadvantages of a 3 wire system
In 3 wire system a third wire is required.The safety is partially reduced.A balancer
is required and therefore cost is increased.
39. What are the advantages of a 3 wire dc distribution system over a 2 wire dc
distribution system?
If 3 wire system is used to transmit the same amount of power over the same
distance with same efficiency with same consumer voltage we require 0.3125
times copper as required in 2 wire system.

40. Mention the differences between 3 wire and 3 phase 4 wire distribution
system?
3 phase 3 wire is employed for balanced loads, but 3 phase 4 wire is employed for
unbalanced loads.
3 phase 3 wire is used for transmission but 3 phase 4 wire is used for distribution
of power to consumers.
41. State kelvins law.
The annual expenditure on the variable part of the transmission system should be
equal to the annual cost of energy wasted in the conductor used in that system.
42. State any two limitations of kelvins law.
It is difficult to estimate accurately the annual charge on the capital outlay. It

does not give the exact economical size of the conductor.

43. Define resistance of the transmission line.

It is defined as the loop resistance per unit length of the line in a single phase
system. In 3 phase system it is defined as the resistance per phase.
44. Define inductance of a line.
It is defined as the loop inductance per unit length of the line.Its unit is henrys per
meter.

45. Define capacitance of a line.

It is defined as shunt capacitance between the two wires per unit line length. Its
unit is farads per meter.
46. What is skin effect?
The steady current when flowing through the conductor ,does not distribute
uniformly, rather it has the tendency to concentrate near the surface of the
conductor. This phenomenon is called skin effect.
47. Why skin effect is absent in dc system?
The steady current when flowing through a conductor distributes itself uniformly
over the whole cross section of the conductor.That is why skin effect is absent in
dc system.
48. What is the effect of skin effect on the resistance of the line?
Due to skin effect the effective area of cross section of the conductor through
which current flow is reduced. Hence the resistance of the line is increased when
ac current is flowing.
49. On what factors the skin effect depend?
Nature of the material, Diameter of the wire , Frequency and shape of the wire.

50. Define symmetrical spacing.

In 3 phase system when the line conductors are equidistant from each other then
it is called symmetrical spacing.
51. What is the necessity for a double circuit line?
To reduce the inductance per phase and to increase the efficiency.
52. Mention the factors governing the inductance of a line.
Radius of the conductor and the spacing between the conductors.
53. Define a neutral plane.
It is a plane where electric field intensity and potential is zero.
54. Define proximity effect.
The alternating magnetic flux in a conductor caused by the current flowing in a
neighbouring conductor gives rise to a circulating current which cause an apparent
increase in the resistance of the conductor.This phenomenon is called as proximity
effect.

55. What is the effect of proximity effect?

It results in the non uniform distribution of current in the cross section, and the

increase of resistance.
56. What is a composite conductor?
A conductor which operates at high voltages and composed of 2 or more
subconductors and run electrically in parallel are called composite conductors.
57. What is a bundle conductor?
It is a conductor made up of 2 or more sub conductors and is used as one phase
conductors.
58. Mention the advantages of using bundled conductors.
Reduced reactance, reduced voltage gradient , reduced corona loss .reduced
interference
59. What is corona?
The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas in an
overhead line is called corona.

60. Mention the factors affecting corona.

Atmosphere,conductor size, spacing between conductors and line voltage.
61.Define critical disruptive voltage.
It is defined as the minimum phase voltage at which corona occrus.
62. Define visual critical voltage.
It is the minimum phase voltage at which corona appears all along the line
conductors.
63. State any two merits of corona.
Reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.System performance is
improved.
64. Give the two demerits of corona.
The transmission efficiency is affected. Corrosion occurs.
65. Mention the methods of reducing corona effect.
By increasing the conductor size and conductor spacing.
. Why ACSR conductors are used in lines?
If the size of the conductor is larger corona effects are reduced and reduces the
proximity effect.Hence they are used in lines.
67. Define medium lines.
Lines having length between 60 and 150 km and line voltages between 20 and
100kv are called medium lines.
68.Define short lines.
Lines having lengths below 60km and voltages below 20kv are called short lines.
69.Mention the limitations of end condenser method.
This over estimates the effects of line capacitance.It is assumed to be lumped or
concentrated.
70. Mention the demerits of HVDC transmission.
Electric power cannot be generated at high dc voltages.
The dc voltages cannot be stepped up for transmission of power at high voltages.
The dc switches and circuit breakers have their own limitations.

71. What are the advantages of high voltage ac transmission.

The power can be generated at high voltages.

The maintenance of ac substation is easy and cheaper.
72. Mention the disadvantages of high voltage ac transmission.
An ac line requires more copper than a dc line.
The construction of an ac line is more complicated than a dc transmission line.
Due to skin effect in the ac system the effective resistance of the line is increased.
73. Mention the limitations of using very high transmission voltage.
The increased cost of insulating the conductor.
The increased cost of transformers ,switch gears and other terminal apparatus.
74. Mention the terminal equipments necessary in HVDC system.
Converters, mercury arc valves and thyristors.
75. Define sag of a line.
The difference in level between the points of supports and the lowest point of the
conductor is called as sag.

76. Mention the factors that affect sag in the transmission line.
Weight of the conductor,length of the span , working tensile strength and the
temperature.
77. What is the reason for the sag in the transmission line?
While erecting the line , if the conductors are stretched too much between
supports then there prevails an excessive tension on the line which may break the
conductor. In order to have safe tension in the conductor a sag in the line is
allowed.
78. Mention the methods of laying the cables.
Direct laying , draw in system and solid system
79. Mention the advantages of direct laying of cables.
It is simple and cheaper method.It gives the best conditions for dissipating the
heat generated in the cables.
80. State any 2 disadvantages of direct laying method.
Localisation of fault is difficult . It cannot be used in congested areas where
excavation is inconvenient.
1. What are the functions of protective relays
To detect the fault and initiate the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate
the defective element from the rest of the system, thereby protecting the system
from
damages consequent to the fault.
2. Give the consequences of short circuit.
Whenever a short-circuit occurs, the current flowing through the coil increases to
an
enormous value. If protective relays are present , a heavy current also flows
through the
relay coil, causing it to operate by closing its contacts.The trip circuit is then
closed , the
circuit breaker opens and the fault is isolated from the rest of the system. Also, a
low

voltage may be created which may damage systems connected to the supply.
3. Define protected zone.
Are those which are directly protected by a protective system such as relays,
fuses or switchgears.If a fault occurring in a zone can be immediately detected
and or
isolated by a protection scheme dedicated to that particular zone.
4. What are unit system and non unit system?
A unit protective system is one in which only faults occurring within its
protected zone are isolated.Faults occurring elsewhere in the system have no
influence
on the operation of a unit system.A non unit system is a protective system which
is
activated even when the faults are external to its protected zone.
5. What is primary protection?
Is the protection in which the fault occurring in a line will be cleared by its
own relay and circuit breaker.It serves as the first line of defence.
6. What is back up protection?
Is the second line of defence , which operates if the primary protection
fails to activate within a definite time delay.
7. Name the different kinds of over current relays.
Induction type non-directional over current relay,Induction type directional
over current relay & current differential relay.
8. Define energizing quantity.
It refers to the current or voltage which is used to activate the relay into
operation.
9. Define operating time of a relay.
It is defined as the time period extendind from the occurrence of the
fault through the relay detecting the fault to the operation of the relay.
10. Define resetting time of a relay.
It is defined as the time taken by the relay from the instant of isolating
the fault to the moment when the fault is removed and the relay can be reset.
11. What are over and under current relays?
Overcurrent relays are those that operate when the current in a line exceeds a
predetermined value. (eg: Induction type non-directional/directional overcurrent
relay,
differential overcurrent relay)whereas undercurrent relays are those which
operate
whenever the current in a circuit/line drops below a predetermined value.(eg:
differential
over-voltage relay)
12. Mention any two applications of differential relay.
Protection of generator & generator transformer unit; protection of large motors
and busbars .
13. What is biased differential bus zone reduction?
The biased beam relay is designed to respond to the differential current in terms
of its fractional relation to the current flowing through the protected zone. It is
essentially
an over-current balanced beam relay type with an additional restraining coil. The

restraining coil produces a bias force in the opposite direction to the operating
force.
14. What is the need of relay coordination?
The operation of a relay should be fast and selective, ie, it should isolate the fault
in the shortest possible time causing minimum disturbance to the system. Also, if
a relay
fails to operate, there should be sufficiently quick backup protection so that the
rest of the
system is protected. By coordinating relays, faults can always be isolated quickly
without serious disturbance to the rest of the system.
15. Mention the short comings of Merz Price scheme of protection applied to a
power transformer.
In a power transformer, currents in the primary and secondary are to be
compared.
As these two currents are usually different, the use of identical transformers will
give
differential current, and operate the relay under no-load condition. Also, there is
usually a
phase difference between the primary and secondary currents of three phase
transformers.
Even CTs of proper turn-ratio are used, the differential current may flow through
the
relay under normal condition.
16. What are the various faults to which a turbo alternator is likely to be
subjected?
Failure of steam supply; failure of speed; overcurrent; over voltage; unbalanced
loading; stator winding fault .
17. What is an under frequency relay?
An under frequency relay is one which operates when the frequency of the system
(usually an alternator or transformer) falls below a certain value.
18. Define the term pilot with reference to power line protection.
Pilot wires refers to the wires that connect the CTs placed at the ends of a power
transmission line as part of its protection scheme. The resistance of the pilot wires
is
usually less than 500 ohms.
19. Mention any two disadvantage of carrier current scheme for transmission line
only.
The program time (ie, the time taken by the carrier to reach the other end-upto
.1% mile); the response time of band pass filter; capacitance phase-shift of the
transmission line .
20. What are the features of directional relay?
High speed operation; high sensitivity; ability to operate at low voltages; adequate
short-time thermal ratio; burden must not be excessive.
21. What are the causes of over speed and how alternators are protected from it?
Sudden loss of all or major part of the load causes over-speeding in alternators.
Modern alternators are provided with mechanical centrifugal devices mounted on
their
driving shafts to trip the main valve of the prime mover when a dangerous over-

speed
occurs.
22. What are the main types of stator winding faults?
Fault between phase and ground; fault between phases and inter-turn fault
involving turns of the same phase winding.
23. Give the limitations of Merz Price protection.
Since neutral earthing resistances are often used to protect circuit from earthfault
currents, it becomes impossible to protect the whole of a star-connected
alternator. If an
earth-fault occurs near the neutral point, the voltage may be insufficient to
operate the
relay. Also it is extremely difficult to find two identical CTs. In addition to this,
there
always an inherent phase difference between the primary and the secondary
quantities
and a possibility of current through the relay even when there is no fault.
24. What are the uses of Buchholzs relay?
Bucholz relay is used to give an alarm in case of incipient( slow-developing)
faults in the transformer and to connect the transformer from the supply in the
event of
severe internal faults. It is usually used in oil immersion transformers with a
rating over
750KVA.
25. What are the types of graded used in line of radial relay feeder?
Definite time relay and inverse-definite time relay.
26. What are the various faults that would affect an alternator?
(a) Stator faults
1, Phase to phase faults
2, Phase to earth faults
3, Inter turn faults
(b)
1, Earth faults
2, Fault between turns
3, Loss of excitation due to fuel failure
(c) 1, Over speed
2, Loss of drive
3, Vacuum failure resulting in condenser pressure rise, resulting in
shattering of the turbine low pressure casing
(d) 1, Fault on lines
2, Fault on busbars
27. Why neutral resistor is added between neutral and earth of an alternator?
In order to limit the flow of current through neutral and earth a resistor is
introduced between them.
28. What is the backup protection available for an alternator?
Overcurrent and earth fault protection is the backup protections.
29. What are faults associated with an alternator?
(a) External fault or through fault

(b) Internal fault

1, Short circuit in transformer winding and connection
2, Incipient or slow developing faults
30. What are the main safety devices available with transformer?
Oil level guage, sudden pressure delay, oil temperature indicator, winding
temperature indicator .
31. What are the limitations of Buchholz relay?
(a) Only fault below the oil level are detected.
(b) Mercury switch setting should be very accurate, otherwise even for
vibration, there can be a false operation.
(c) The relay is of slow operating type, which is unsatisfactory.
32. What are the problems arising in differential protection in power transformer
and how are they overcome?
1. Difference in lengths of pilot wires on either sides of the relay. This is
overcome by connecting adjustable resistors to pilot wires to get equipotential
points on the pilot wires.
2. Difference in CT ratio error difference at high values of short circuit currents
that makes the relay to operate even for external or through faults. This is
overcome by introducing bias coil.
3. Tap changing alters the ratio of voltage and currents between HV and LV sides
and the relay will sense this and act. Bias coil will solve this.
4. Magnetizing inrush current appears wherever a transformer is energized on its
primary side producing harmonics. No current will be seen by the secondary.
CTs as there is no load in the circuit. This difference in current will actuate the
differential relay. A harmonic restraining unit is added to the relay which will
block it when the transformer is energized.
33. What is REF relay?
It is restricted earth fault relay. When the fault occurs very near to the neutral
point of the transformer, the voltage available to drive the earth circuit is very
small,
which may not be sufficient to activate the relay, unless the relay is set for a very
low
current. Hence the zone of protection in the winding of the transformer is
restricted to
cover only around 85%. Hence the relay is called REF relay.
34. What is over fluxing protection in transformer?
If the turns ratio of the transformer is more than 1:1, there will be higher core loss
and the capability of the transformer to withstand this is limited to a few minutes
only.
This phenomenon is called over fluxing.
35. Why busbar protection is needed?
(a) Fault level at busbar is high
(b) The stability of the system is affected by the faults in the bus zone.
(c) A fault in the bus bar causes interruption of supply to a large portion of the
system network.
36. What are the merits of carrier current protection?
Fast operation, auto re-closing possible, easy discrimination of simultaneous
faults .

37. What are the errors in CT?

(a) Ratio error
Percentage ratio error = [(Nominal ratio Actual ratio)/Actual ratio] x 100
The value of transformation ratio is not equal to the turns ratio.
(b) Phase angle error:
Phase angle _ =180/_[(ImCos _-I1Sin _)/nIs]
38. What is field suppression?
When a fault occurs in an alternator winding even though the generator circuit
breaker is tripped, the fault continues to fed because EMF is induced in the
generator
itself. Hence the field circuit breaker is opened and stored energy in the field
winding is
discharged through another resistor. This method is known as field suppression.
39. What are the causes of bus zone faults?
_ Failure of support insulator resulting in earth fault
_ Flashover across support insulator during over voltage
_ Heavily polluted insulator causing flashover
_ Earthquake, mechanical damage etc.
40. What are the problems in bus zone differential protection?
_ Large number of circuits, different current levels for different circuits for
external faults.
_ Saturation of CT cores due to dc component and ac component in short
circuit currents. The saturation introduces ratio error.
_ Sectionalizing of the bus makes circuit complicated.
_ Setting of relays need a change with large load changes.
41. What is static relay?
It is a relay in which measurement or comparison of electrical quantities is made
in a static network which is designed to give an output signal when a threshold
condition
is passed which operates a tripping device.
42. What is power swing?
During switching of lines or wrong synchronization surges of real and reactive
power flowing in transmission line causes severe oscillations in the voltage and
current
vectors. It is represented by curves originating in load regions and traveling
towards relay
characteristics.
43. What is a programmable relay?
A static relay may have one or more programmable units such as microprocessors
or microcomputers in its circuit.
44. What is CPMC?
It is combined protection, monitoring and control system incorporated in the static
system.
45. What are the advantages of static relay over electromagnetic relay?
o Low power consumption as low as 1mW
o No moving contacts; hence associated problems of arcing, contact bounce,
erosion, replacement of contacts
o No gravity effect on operation of static relays. Hence can be used in

vessels ie, ships, aircrafts etc.

o A single relay can perform several functions like over current, under
voltage, single phasing protection by incorporating respective functional
blocks. This is not possible in electromagnetic relays
o Static relay is compact
o Superior operating characteristics and accuracy
o Static relay can think , programmable operation is possible with static
relay
o Effect of vibration is nil, hence can be used in earthquake-prone areas
o Simplified testing and servicing. Can convert even non-electrical
quantities to electrical in conjunction with transducers.
46. What is resistance switching?
It is the method of connecting a resistance in parallel with the contact space(arc).
The resistance reduces the restriking voltage frequency and it diverts part of the
arc
current. It assists the circuit breaker in interrupting the magnetizing current and
capacity
current.
47. What do you mean by current chopping?
When interrupting low inductive currents such as magnetizing currents of the
transformer, shunt reactor, the rapid deionization of the contact space and blast
effect
may cause the current to be interrupted before the natural current zero. This
phenomenon
of interruption of the current before its natural zero is called current chopping.
48. What are the methods of capacitive switching?
Opening of single capacitor bank
Closing of one capacitor bank against another
49. What is an arc?
Arc is a phenomenon occurring when the two contacts of a circuit breaker
separate under heavy load or fault or short circuit condition.
50. Give the two methods of arc interruption?
_ High resistance interruption:-the arc resistance is increased by elongating, and
splitting the arc so that the arc is fully extinguished
_ Current zero method:-The arc is interrupted at current zero position that
occurs100 times a second in case of 50Hz power system frequency in ac.
51. What is restriking voltage?
It is the transient voltage appearing across the breaker contacts at the instant of
arc
being extinguished.
52. What is meant by recovery voltage?
The power frequency rms voltage appearing across the breaker contacts after the
arc is extinguished and transient oscillations die out is called recovery voltage.
53. What is RRRV?
It is the rate of rise of restriking voltage, expressed in volts per microsecond. It is
closely associated with natural frequency of oscillation.
54. What is circuit breaker?
It is a piece of equipment used to break a circuit automatically under fault

conditions. It breaks a circuit either manually or by remote control under normal

conditions and under fault conditions.
55. Write the classification of circuit breakers based on the medium used for arc
extinction?
_ Air break circuit breaker
_ Oil circuit breaker
_ Minimum oil circuit breaker
_ Air blast circuit breaker
_ SF6 circuit breaker
_ Vacuum circuit breaker
56. What is the main problem of the circuit breaker?
When the contacts of the breaker are separated, an arc is struck between them.
This arc delays the current interruption process and also generates enormous heat
which
may cause damage to the system or to the breaker itself. This is the main problem.
57. What are demerits of MOCB?
_ Short contact life
_ Frequent maintenance
_ Possibility of explosion
_ Larger arcing time for small currents
_ Prone to restricts
58. What are the advantages of oil as arc quenching medium?
It absorbs the arc energy to decompose the oil into gases, which have
excellent cooling properties
It acts as an insulator and permits smaller clearance between line conductors
and earthed components
59. What are the hazards imposed by oil when it is used as an arc quenching
medium?
There is a risk of fire since it is inflammable. It may form an explosive mixture
with arc. So oil is preferred as an arc quenching medium.
60. What are the advantages of MOCB over a bulk oil circuit breaker?
It requires lesser quantity of oil
It requires smaller space
There is a reduced risk of fire
Maintenance problem are reduced
61. What are the disadvantages of MOCB over a bulk oil circuit breaker?
o The degree of carbonization is increased due to smaller quantity of oil
o There is difficulty of removing the gases from the contact space in time
o The dielectric strength of the oil deteriorates rapidly due to high degree of
carbonization.
62. What are the types of air blast circuit breaker?
_ Arial-blast type
_ Cross blast
_ Radial-blast
63. What are the advantages of air blast circuit breaker over oil circuit breaker?
o The risk of fire is diminished
o The arcing time is very small due to rapid buildup of dielectric strength
between contacts

o The arcing products are completely removed by the blast whereas oil
deteriorates with successive operations
64. What are the demerits of using oil as an arc quenching medium?
The air has relatively inferior arc quenching properties
The air blast circuit breakers are very sensitive to variations in the rate of rise
of restriking voltage
Maintenance is required for the compression plant which supplies the air blast
65. What is meant by electro negativity of SF6 gas?
SF6 has high affinity for electrons. When a free electron comes and collides with
a neutral gas molecule, the electron is absorbed by the neutral gas molecule and
negative
ion is formed. This is called as electro negativity of SF6 gas.
66. What are the characteristic of SF6 gas?
It has good dielectric strength and excellent arc quenching property. It is inert,
non-toxic, noninflammable and heavy. At atmospheric pressure, its dielectric
strength is
2.5 times that of air. At three times atmospheric pressure, its dielectric strength is
equal to
that of the transformer oil.
67. Write the classifications of test conducted on circuit breakers.
_ Type test
_ Routine test
_ Reliability test
_ Commissioning test
68. What are the indirect methods of circuit breaker testing?
o Unit test
o Synthetic test
o Substitution testing
o Compensation testing
o Capacitance testing
69. What are the advantages of synthetic testing methods?
The breaker can be tested for desired transient recovery voltage and RRRV.
Both test current and test voltage can be independently varied. This gives
flexibility to the test
The method is simple
With this method a breaker capacity (MVA) of five time of that of the
capacity of the test plant can be tested.
70. How does the over voltage surge affect the power system?
The over voltage of the power system leads to insulation breakdown of the
equipments. It causes the line insulation to flash over and may also damage the
nearby
transformer, generators and the other equipment connected to the line.
71. What is pick up value?
It is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to
operate.
72. Define target.
It is the indicator used for showing the operation of the relay.
73. Define reach.

It is the distance upto which the relay will cover for protection.
74. Define blocking.
It means preventing the relay from tripping due to its own
characteristics or due to additional relays.
75. Define a over current relay.
Relay which operates when the current ia a line exceeds a
predetermined value.
76. Define an under current relay?
Relays which operates whenever the current in a circuit drops below a
predetermined value.
77. Mention any 2 applications of differential relays.
Protection of generator and generator-transformer unit: protection of
large motors and bus bars
78.Mention the various tests carried out in a circuit breaker at HV labs.
Short circuit tests, Synthetic tests& direct tests.
78. Mention the advantages of field tests.
The circuit breaker is tested under actual conditions like those that occur in the
network.
Special occasions like breaking of charging currents of long lines ,very short line
faults ,interruption of small inductive currents etc can be tested by direct testing
only.
79. State the disadvantages of field tests.
The circuit breaker can be tested at only a given rated voltage and network
capacity.
The necessity to interrupt the normal services and to test only at light load
conditions.
Extra inconvenience and expenses in installation of controlling and
measuring equipment in the field.
80. Define composite testing of a circuit breaker.
In this method the breaker is first tested for its rated breaking capacity at a
reduced voltage and afterwards for rated voltage at a low current.This method
does not
give a proper estimate of the breaker performance.
81. State the various types of earthing.
Solid earthing, resistance earthing , reactance earthing , voltage transformer
earthing and zig-zag transformer earthing.
82. What are arcing grounds?
The presence of inductive and capacitive currents in the isolated neutral system
leads to formation of arcs called as arcing grounds.
83. What is arc suppression coil?
A method of reactance grounding used to suppress the arc due to arcing
grounds.
84. State the significance of single line to ground fault.
In single line to ground fault all the sequence networks are connected
in series. All the sequence currents are equal and the fault current magnitude is
three
times its sequence currents.
85. What are symmetrical components?

It is a mathematical tool to resolve unbalanced components into balanced

components.
86. State the three sequence components.
Positive sequence components, negative sequence components and zero
sequence components.
87. Define positive sequence component.
-has 3 vectors equal in magnitude and displaced from each other by an angle
120 degrees and having the phase sequence as original vectors.
88. Define zero sequence component.
They has 3 vectors having equal magnitudes and displaced from each
other by an angle zero degees.
89. State the significance of double line fault.
It has no zero sequence component and the positive and negative sequence
networks are connected in parallel.
90. Define negative sequence component.
It has 3 vectors equal in magnitude and displaced from each other by an angle
120 degrees and has the phase sequence in opposite to its original phasors.
91. State the different types of faults.
Symmetrical faults and unsymmetrical faults and open conductor faults.
92. State the various types of unsymmetrical faults.
Line to ground ,line to line and double line to ground faults
93. Mention the withstanding current in our human body.
9mA
94. State the different types of circuit breakers.
Air ,oil,vacuum circuit breakers.
95. Define per unit value.
It is defined as the ratio of actual value to its base value.
96. Mention the inductance value of the petersons coil.
L=1/3wc2
97. Define single line diagram.
Representation of various power system components in a single line is
defined as single line diagram.
98. Differentiate between a fuse and a circuit breaker.
Fuse is a low current interrupting device. It is a copper or an
aluminium wire.Circuit breaker is a high current interrupting device and it act as a
switch
under normal operating conditions.
99. How direct tests are conducted in circuit breakers?
Using a short circuit generator as the source.
Using the power utility system or network as the source.
100. What is dielectric test of a circuit breaker?
It consists of overvoltage withstand test of power frequency
lightning and impulse voltages.Testa are done for both internal and external
insulation
with switch in both open and closed conditions.