&

1.

+ i
+ i .

2
M(+, +)
M2(,)

M1(,)

M 1 (, ) M 2 (, ) + i + i
,
( + i ) + ( + i ) = ( + ) + ( + )i

M ( + , + ) .
, OM = OM 1 +OM 2 , :

2.

+ i
+ i .
y

2(,)

1(,)

x
( , )

3( , )

,
( + i ) ( + i ) = ( ) + ( )i

N ( , ) .
, ON = OM 1 OM 2 , :

3.

:
. i :
i 0 = 1,
i 1 = i,
i 2 = 1,
i 3 = i 2 i = i .
, :
i 4 = i 2 i 2 =1, i 5 = i 4 i =1 i = i, i 6 = i 4 i 2 =1 i 2 = 1, i 7 = i 4 i 3 =1 i 3 = i ,

17

, i 4 i . ,
i , = 4 + ,
4, :

i = i 4 +

4.

1
i

= i 4 i = (i 4 ) i = 1 i = i =
-1

=0

, = 1
, = 2
, = 3

z1 = + i z 2 = + i , :

z 1 + z 2 = z1 + z 2

z1 + z 2 = ( + i ) + ( + i ) = ( + ) + ( + )i

= ( + ) ( + )i = ( i ) + ( i ) = z1 + z 2

5.

z1 z 2 , . . .
| z1 z 2 | = | z1 | | z 2 |

| z1 z 2 | = | z1 | | z 2 | | z1 z 2 | 2 = | z 1 | 2 | z 2 | 2 ( z1 z 2 )( z1 z 2 ) = z1 z1 z 2 z 2

z1 z 2 z 1 z 2 = z 1 z1 z 2 z 2

1.

.
() f , x A
y. y f x
f ( x) .

2.

f g .

f g :

x A f ( x) = g ( x) .

3.

f g.
f, g , ,
f g, gof ,
( gof )( x ) = g ( f ( x ))
f (A)
f

24

f (x)
g(B)

A
g
x
A1

g( f (x))

g f

gof x f
f ( x ) g.

A1 = {x A | f ( x) B} .
gof A1 , f ( A) B .

17

4.

f (1) :

,
f ( x1 ) < f ( x 2 )

x1 , x 2 x1 < x 2 :

(. )

,
f ( x1 ) > f ( x 2 )

x1 , x 2 x1 < x 2 :
y

f (x2)

f (x2)

x x
1

5.

25

f (x1)

f (x1)

(. )

x1

(a)

x2

x
()

, ,

f :

x 0 A () , f ( x 0 ) ,
f ( x ) f ( x 0 ) x A

(. 27)

x 0 A () , f ( x 0 ) ,
f ( x) f ( x 0 )

x A

(. 27).

f (x0)
f (x)

27
Cf

f (x)
f (x0)

x0

Cf

(a)

6.

x0

()

11

f : A
:

x1 x 2 ,

1 1 , x1 , x 2 A
f ( x1 ) f ( x 2 ) .

:
(1)

f , ,:
,

x1 , x2 x1 < x2

f ( x1 ) f ( x2 )
,

x1 , x2 x1 < x2

f ( x1 ) f ( x2 )

17

f : A
x1 , x 2 A :

7.

1 1 ,

f ( x1 ) = f ( x 2 ) ,

x1 = x 2 .

f , g , h .

h( x) f ( x) g ( x) x 0

8.

lim h( x) = lim g ( x) = ,

x x0

x x0

lim f ( x) = .

x x0

( )

( )
> 0 , 0

lim = ,

, > 0

| | <

9.

f x 0
f x 0 x 0 .
f x 0 ,

lim f ( x ) = f ( x 0 )

x x0

10.

f
f ,
f.

11.

( , )
f ( , ) ,
(, ) .

12.

[ , ]
f [ , ] ,
(, )

17

lim f ( x) = f ( )

x +

13.

lim f ( x ) = f ( )

Bolzano
f , [, ] . :
[ , ] , ,
f

f ( ) f ( ) < 0 ,

, , x 0 (, ) ,

f ( x0 ) = 0 .
f ( x ) = 0

, , ,
( , ) .

14.

. Bolzano

64

f ()

B(, f ())

a
O

[, ] .
A( , f ( )) B ( , f ( ))

f (a)

x0

x0

x0

(, f ())

x x ,
f
.

Bolzano :
f ,
x x ,
. (. 65)
y

65

f (x)>0
O

O
f (x)<0

()

()

f
f .

17

66
2

f x.
, :
) f.
) ,
f .
f .

15.

f, [, ] .
:
[ , ]
f

f ( ) f ( )

, f ( ) f ( ) ,

x 0 ( , ) ,
f ( x0 ) =

f ( ) < f ( ) . f ( ) < < f ( ) .

g ( x) = f ( x) , x [, ] , :
[ , ]
g

g ( ) g ( ) < 0 ,

67

f ()

B(, f ())

y=
f (a)
O

( , f ())
a x0

x0

x0

g ( ) = f ( ) < 0
g ( ) = f ( ) > 0 .
, Bolzano, x 0 (, ) ,
g ( x 0 ) = f ( x 0 ) = 0 , f ( x 0 ) = .

17

16.

f [, ] , f [, ]
m.
, x1 , x 2 [, ] , , m = f ( x1 ) M = f ( x 2 )
,

m f ( x) M ,

x [ , ] .

f [, ]
[ m , M ] , m .

, :

A f
(, ) , ( , ) ,

= lim f ( x)
x +

B = lim f ( x) .
x

, , f ( , ) ,
( B, A)

17

1.

lim

x x0

A( x 0 , f ( x 0 )) C f .

f ( x) f ( x 0 )
,
x x0

C f ,
.
, A( x 0 , f ( x 0 ))

y f ( x 0 ) = ( x x 0 ) ,

2.

f
.
f x 0
,

lim

x x0

f ( x) f ( x 0 )
x x0

.
f x 0
:

f ( x) f ( x 0 )
.
x x0

f ( x 0 ) = lim

x x 0

3.

f ( x 0 ) .

f
, .

x x 0

f ( x) f ( x 0 ) =

f ( x) f ( x 0 )
( x x0 ) ,
x x0

f ( x) f ( x 0 )

lim [ f ( x ) f ( x 0 )] = lim
( x x 0 )
x x0
x x0
x x0

= lim

x x0

f ( x) f ( x 0 )
lim ( x x 0 )
x x0
x x0

= f ( x 0 ) 0 = 0 ,
f x 0 . ,

lim f ( x) = f ( x 0 ) , f

x x0

x 0 .

17

4.

f
f;
H f , , ,
x 0 A .

5.

f
( , ) ;
f ( , ) ,
x 0 ( , ) .

6.

f
[ , ] ;
f [ , ] ,
(, )

lim+

7.

f ( x ) f ( )

lim

f ( x) f ( )
.
x

. f
, (c) =0

, x 0 R, x x 0 :

f ( x) f ( x 0 )
c c
=
=0.
x x0
x x0
,

lim

x x0

f ( x) f ( x 0 )
=0,
x x0

(c ) = 0 .

8.

f(x)=x. f
R f (x)=1, ( x) =1

, x 0 R, x x 0 :

f ( x) f ( x 0 ) x x 0
=
=1 .
x x0
x x0
,

lim

x x0

f ( x) f ( x 0 )
= lim 1 = 1 ,
x x0
x x0

( x ) =1 .

17

9.

. f

, ( x ) = x 1

, x 0 R, x x 0 :

f ( x ) f ( x 0 ) x x 0 ( x x 0 )( x 1 + x 2 x 0 + + x 0 1 )
=
=
= x 1 + x 2 x 0 + + x 0 1
x x0
x x0
x x0
,

lim

x x0

f ( x) f ( x 0 )
= lim ( x 1 + x 2 x 0 + + x 0 1 ) = x 0 1 + x 0 1 + + x 0 1 = x 0 1
x x0
x x0
,

( x ) = x 1 .

10.

( x ) =

. f

1
2 x

, x 0 (0,+) , x x 0 :

f ( x) f ( x 0 )
=
x x0

x x0
x x0

x x0
( x x0 )

)(

x + x0
x + x0

)=

x x0
( x x0 )

x + x0

1
x + x0

lim

x x 0

f ( x) f ( x0 )
= lim
x x 0
x x0

( x ) =

1
2 x

1
x+

x0

1
2 x0

3.1 f ( x ) = x

11.

0.

. f

( x ) = x

x R h 0

f ( x + h) f ( x) ( x + h) x
x h + x h x
=
=
h
h
h

17

(h 1)
h
+ x
.
h
h
h
h 1
lim
=1 lim
=0 ,
h 0
h 0
h
h
f ( x + h) f ( x )
lim
= x 0 + x 1 = x .
h 0
h

= x

, ( x ) = x .

12.

. f

(x ) = x

x R h 0 :

f ( x + h) f ( x ) ( x + h) x x h x h x
=
=
h
h
h
h
h 1
x
,
h
h
f ( x + h) f ( x )
h
h 1

lim
= limx

limx
h 0
h 0
h
h
h

h 0
= x

= x 0 x 1 = x .

, (x ) = x .

13. f , g
f+g

( f + g ) ( x 0 ) = f ( x 0 ) + g ( x 0 )

x x 0 , :

( f + g )( x) ( f + g )( x 0 )
f ( x) + g ( x ) f ( x 0 ) g ( x 0 )
f ( x) f ( x 0 ) g ( x) g ( x 0 )
=
=
+
x x0
x x0
x x0
x x0
.
f , g x 0 , :

lim

x x 0

( f + g )( x) ( f + g )( x 0 )
f ( x) f ( x 0 )
g ( x) g ( x 0 )
= lim
+ lim
= f ( x 0 ) + g ( x 0 ),
x x0
x x0
x x0
x x0
x x0

( f + g ) ( x 0 ) = f ( x 0 ) + g ( x 0 ) .

17

14.

f ( x) = x ,

. f

f ( x ) =x 1 ,

( x ) =x 1

, x R * :

(1) x 1( x ) x 1
1
( x ) = =
=
= x 1 .
2
2
(x )
x
x

15.

f ( x) =x .

1
R 1 = R {x | x = 0} f ( x ) =
,
2 x
1
(x ) =
2 x

( x ) x x (x )
xx +xx
x
(x ) =
=
=
2
x
2 x
x

2 x + 2 x
1
.
=
2
x
2 x

16.

f ( x) = x ,

f ( x) =x

R Z (0,+)

, ( x ) = x 1

, y = x = e ln x u = ln x , y = e u . ,
1

y = (e u ) = e u u = e ln x = x = x 1 .
x
x

17.

f ( x ) = x , > 0 R

f ( x ) = x ln , ( x ) = x ln

, y = x = e x ln u = x ln , y = e u . ,
y = (e u ) = e u u = e x ln ln = x ln .

17

18.

f ( x) = ln | x | , x R * R *

(ln | x | ) =

1
x

1
,
x
x < 0 , ln | x | = ln(x ) , , y =ln(x )
1
1
1
y = (ln u ) = u =
(1) =
y = ln u . ,
u
x
x
x > 0 , (ln | x | ) = (ln x) =

(ln | x | ) =

u = x ,

1
.
x

19. x, y y=f(x),
y x
x, y y = f (x ) , f
x 0 , y x
x 0 f ( x 0 ) .

20.

Rolle

f :

[, ]
(, )
f ( ) = f ( )
f ( ) = 0

, , (, ) , :
y

18
(,f ())
(,f ())

(,f ())

, , , (, ) ,
C f M ( , f ( )) x.

17

21.

f :

[, ]
(, )
, , (, ) , :
f ( ) =

f ( ) f ( )

20

(,f ())

M(,f ())
A(a,f (a))

, , , (, ) ,
f M ( , f ( ))
.

22.

:
f .
f
f (x)=0 x ,
f .

x1 , x 2 f ( x1 ) = f ( x 2 ) .

x1 = x 2 , f ( x1 ) = f ( x 2 ) .

x1 < x 2 , [ x1 , x 2 ] f

. , ( x1 , x 2 ) ,

f ( ) =

f ( x 2 ) f ( x1 )
.
x 2 x1

(1)

, f ( ) = 0 ,, (1),

f ( x1 ) = f ( x 2 ) . x 2 < x1 , f ( x1 ) = f ( x 2 ) .
, , f ( x1 ) = f ( x 2 ) .

23.

:
f,g .

17

f,g
f (x)=g (x) x ,
c ,

f ( x ) = g ( x ) +c

f g
x

22

y=g(x)+c

y=g(x)
x

( f g ) ( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x) = 0 .
, , f g .
, C , x f ( x ) g ( x ) = c ,
f ( x ) = g ( x ) +c .

24.

f,
.

f ( x) > 0 x , f
.

f ( x) < 0 x , f
.

f ( x) > 0 .
x1 , x 2 x1 < x 2 .
[ x1 , x 2 ]

f ( x1 ) < f ( x 2 ) . ,

... ,

( x1 , x 2 ) , f ( ) =

f ( x 2 ) f ( x1 )
,
x 2 x1

f ( x 2 ) f ( x1 ) = f ( )( x 2 x1 )

f ( ) > 0

x 2 x1 > 0 ,

f ( x 2 ) f ( x1 ) > 0 ,

f ( x1 ) < f ( x 2 ) .
f ( x) < 0 .

25.

Fermat :

17

f x 0 .
f x 0 ,

f ( x 0 ) = 0

33

f (x0)

x0 x0 x0+

f x 0 . x 0
f , > 0 ,

( x0 , x0 + )

f ( x ) f ( x 0 ) , x ( x 0 , x 0 + ) . (1)
, , f x 0 ,

f ( x 0 ) = lim

x x0

f ( x) f ( x 0 )
f ( x) f ( x 0 )
= lim
.
x x0
x x0
x x0+

,
x ( x 0 , x 0 ) , , (1),

f ( x) f ( x 0 )
0 ,
x x0

f ( x 0 ) = lim

x x0

f ( x) f ( x 0 )
0
x x0

(2)

x ( x 0 , x 0 + ) , , (1),

f ( x) f ( x 0 )
0 ,
x x0

f ( x 0 ) = lim

x x0+

f ( x) f ( x 0 )
0.
x x0

, (2) (3) f ( x 0 ) = 0 .
.

(3)

, , f
, . ,
29 30,
f :
1. f .
2. f .
3. ( ).
f
, f .

17

26.

f
, f
;
f
. :
f
f ,
.

f
f ,
.

27.

f
f ( , ) ,
x 0 .

f (, x 0 ) ( x 0 , ) , ,
C f A( x 0 , f ( x 0 )) ,
A( x 0 , f ( x 0 )) f.

28.

lim f ( x)

x x0+

lim f ( x) +

x x0

x = x 0 f.

29.

lim f ( x) = ( lim f ( x ) = ) , y =
x

x +

30.

).

y = x + f
,

+ ,

lim [ f ( x ) ( x + )] = 0 ,

x +

17

lim [ f ( x) ( x + )] = 0 .

31.

del Hospital

lim f ( x) = 0 ,

x x0

lim

x x0

lim

lim g ( x) = 0 ,

x x0

x 0 R {, + }

lim

x x0

f ( x)
f ( x )
= lim
.
x

x
0 g ( x )
g ( x)

lim f ( x) = + , lim g ( x) = + , x0 R {, + }
xx

x x0

x x0

f ( x )
( ), :
g ( x )

2 (

0
0

f ( x )
( ), :
g ( x )

lim

x x0

f ( x)
f ( x )
= lim
.
g ( x ) x x0 g ( x )

17

1.

f .
f .
f .
f (1) F

F ( x ) = f ( x ) , x .

2.

: f
. F f ,
G(x)=F(x)+c,
,
f
G f
G(x)=F(x)+c,

G ( x ) = F ( x ) +c ,

c R,, f

G ( x ) = ( F ( x ) + c) = F ( x ) = f ( x) , x .

G
G ( x ) = f ( x ) ,

f . x F ( x ) = f ( x )

G ( x ) = F ( x ) , x .

, 2.6, c ,
G ( x ) = F ( x ) +c , x .

3.

f [, ] . G
f [, ] ,

f (t ) dt = G ( ) G ( )

F ( x ) = f (t ) dt

f [, ] . G f [, ] ,

c R ,

G ( x ) = F ( x ) +c .

(1),

x = ,

(1)

G ( ) = F ( ) + c = f (t )dt + c = c , c = G ( ) .

,
G ( x ) = F ( x ) +G ( ) ,
(

1)

17

, x = ,

G ( ) = F ( ) +G ( ) = f (t ) dt +G ( )

f (t ) dt = G ( ) G ( ) .

17