CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter discussed obviously about several fields involved in this project and
it will help us to discuss about the development of adjustable speed drive (ASD) and
discuss on function block of ASD in details.

2.2 ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVE DEVELOPMENT

Electric machines have now been in existence for over a century. Electric motor
is to drive mechanical loads by converting electrical energy. In the absence of any
control, electric motors operate at essentially a constant speed (Ned Mohan, 2012).



Figure 2.1: Traditional flow control systems.

Source: Ned Mohan 2012
2



Figure 2.2: ASD-based flow control systems.

Source: Ned Mohan 2012

Traditionally, motors were operated uncontrolled, running at constant speeds,
even in applications where efficient control over their speed could be very
advantageous. As Figure 2.1 illustrates, in a pump driven at a constant speed, a
throttling valve controls the flow rate. In the process of industry today, electronically
controlled adjustable speed drives (ASDs), shown in Figure 2.2, control the pump speed
to match the flow requirement. Systems with adjustable speed drives are much easier to
automate and offer much higher energy efficiency and lower maintenance than the
traditional system with throttling valves (Ned Mohan, 2012).

Figure 2.3 below shows the block diagram of an electric motor drive. In response
to an input command, electric drives efficiently control the speed and/or the position of
the mechanical load. The controller, by comparing the input command for speed and/or
position with the actual values measured through sensors, provides appropriate control
signal to the power-processing unit (PPU) consisting of power semiconductor devices
(Ned Mohan, 2012). The power processing unit gets its power from the utility source
with single-phase or three-phase sinusoidal voltages of a fixed frequency and constant
amplitude. The power-processing unit, in response to the control inputs, efficiently
converts these fixed-form input voltages into an output of the form that is optimally
suited for operating the motor. The input command to the electric drive may come from
a process computer, which considers the objectives of the overall process and issues a
command to control the mechanical load. However, in general-purpose application,
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electric drives operate in an open-loop manner without any feedback (Ned Mohan,
2012).



Figure 2.3: ASD-based flow control systems

Source: Ned Mohan 2012

2.2.1 Adjustable Speed Drive Using Dc Motor

A basic DC drive control system generally contains a drive controller and DC
motor as shown in Figure 2.4 (DriveMotorBasics, 2008). The controls allow the
operator to start, stop, and change direction and speed of the motor by turning
potentiometers or other operator devices. These controls may be an integral part of the
controller or may be remotely mounted. The drive controller converts a 3-phase AC
voltage to an adjustable DC voltage, which is then applied to a DC motor armature
(DriveMotorBasics, 2008).


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Figure 2.4: DC Drive control system

Source: DriveMotorBasics 2008

The speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to armature voltage and
inversely proportional to motor flux which is known as a function of field current,
either armature voltage or field current can be used to control speed (DriveMotorBasics,
2008). Depending on its application, the DC motor drive may be required to respond
quickly and may also be operated in all 4-quadrants as shown below figure 2.5
(Wikipedia,2010).



Figure 2.5: Four-quadrant operation

Source: Wikipedia 2010

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The motor is armature voltage controlled for constant torque-variable HP
operation up to base speed. Above base speed the motor is transferred to field current
control for constant HP -reduced torque operation up to maximum speed as showed in
figure 2.6 (DriveMotorBasics, 2008).



Figure 2.6: Constant Torque and Horsepower Curves

Source: DriveMotorBasics 2008

Among the advantages for DC motor drives is the fact that DC drive technology
is simpler than the AC drive technology. It has been in existence for a long time and is
well known. DC motor drives have good efficiency through the speed range. DC
controllers smaller than adjustable frequency drives, but the motors are larger than
induction motors (www.PAControl.com). Disadvantages of the DC motor drives are the
fact the DC motor is not always available or is not considered a shelf item. A tack
generator for good speed regulation is a requirement. If tach loss occurs, the drive may
run away to full speed. The power factor decreases with speed. Bypass is not possible
because of the construction of the DC motor. Full power conversion of all power
supplied to the motor is required by the controller. Larger power devices are required
(www.PAControl.com).

2.2.2 Adjustable Speed Drive Using Ac Motor

In AC motor drives, motors are primarily of two types. There are induction
motors which are the workhorses of the industry and the sinusoidal-waveform,
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permanent-magnet synchronous motors which are mostly used for high-performance
applications in small power ratings (Ned Mohan, 2003). AC motor drives are also
known by various other names such as adjustable speed drives (ASD) or adjustable
frequency drives (AFD) or variable frequency drives (VFD) or variable speed
drives (VSD) or frequency converters (FC). AC motor drive converts fixed voltage and
frequency into a variable voltage and frequency output (Dave Polka, 2003).



Figure 2.7: The main components of an AC drive: rectifier, DC circuit and inverter

Source: http://www.vacon.com 2011

Figure 2.7 shows the main components of an AC drive. The AC drive is supplied
by the electrical network via a rectifier. The rectifier unit can be uni- or bidirectional.
When unidirectional, the AC drive can accelerate and run the motor by taking energy
from the network. If bidirectional, the AC drive can also take the mechanical rotation
energy from the motor and process and feed it back to the electrical network. Moreover,
The DC circuit will store the electrical energy from the rectifier for the inverter to use.
In most cases, the energy is stored in high-power capacitors. In addition, the inverter
unit takes the electrical energy from the DC circuit and supplies it to the motor. The
inverter uses modulation techniques to create the needed 3-phase AC voltage output for
the motor. The frequency can be adjusted to match the need of the process. The higher
the frequency of the output voltage is, the higher the speed of the motor, and thus, the
output of the process (http://www.vacon.com).


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Figure 2.8 shows a simple application with a fixed speed fan using a motor
starter. The three-phase motor starter can be replaced by a VFD, allowing the fan to be
operated at variable speed (Dave Polka, 2003).



Figure 2.8: Simple VFD for fan application

Source: Dave Polka 2003

The air outlet damper can be fixed open, if the fan operates at virtually any
speed required where below the maximum motor speed. Using the fixed speed motor
starter method, the only means of varying the air out was by adjusting the air outlet
damper (Dave Polka, 2003).

As indicated earlier, a VFD controls two main elements of a motor. There are
speed and torque. The speed of a motor is conveniently adjusted by changing the
frequency applied to the motor. The VFD adjusts the output frequency, thereby
adjusting the speed of the motor. The torque of a motor is controlled by a basic
characteristic of every motor that is the volts per hertz ratio (V/Hz). A review of this
ratio is shown in figure 2.9 (Dave Polka, 2003).

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Figure 2.9: AC Motor linear volts per hertz ratio

Source: Dave Polka 2003

The types of motors that AC drives control are normally operating at constant
speed. Enabling the user to control the speed of motor potentially gives him various
benefits in terms of process control, system stress and energy savings. Adjusting speed
as a means of controlling a process such as, smoother operation, acceleration control,
different operating speed for each process, compensate for changing process variables,
allow slow operation for setup purposes, adjust the rate of production, allow accurate
positioning and control torque or tension. An AC motor drive often uses less energy
than an alternative fixed speed mode of operation (http://www.vacon.com).

2.3 PWM CONTROLLER

To generate PWM controller need two kind of signals that are control signal and
high frequency carrier signal as shown in figure 2.10. The triangular signal is the carrier
or switching frequency of the inverter. The modulation generator produces a sine wave
signal that determines the width of the pulses, and therefore the RMS voltage output of
the inverter (G. Ledwich, 1998).

9



Figure 2.10: Pulse-Width Modulation

Source: msd101 1997

Figure 2.10 illustrates the simplest analog form of generating fixed frequency
PWM is by comparison with a linear slope waveform such as a sawtooth. As seen in
figure the output signal goes high when the sine wave is higher than the sawtooth. This
is implemented using a comparator whose output voltage goes to logic HIGH when ne
input is greater than the other.

2.3.1 Control Signal

Control signal also called as modulation signal. Control generator produces a
sine wave signal that determines the width of the pulses. Process of control signal
means of changing an electrical signal, such as by superimposing the signal's
characteristics onto a carrier wave so that it carries the information contained in the
signal. On other words, Modulation is the process of superimposing the information
contents of a modulating signal on a carrier signal which is of high frequency by
varying the characteristic of carrier signal according to the modulating signal (Haitham
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Abu-Rub, Atif Iqbal, Jaroslaw Guzinski, 2012). Modulation Index indicates the depth
of modulation. As the amplitude of the modulating signal increases, modulation index
increases. Of course, this can be easily accomplished and would result in a reference
waveform suitable for use in an adjustable speed AC motor drive (Dave Polka, 2003).

2.3.2 High-Frequency Carrier Signal

The triangular signal is the carrier or switching frequency of the inverter. The
sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) method also known as the triangulation, sub harmonic, or
sub-oscillation method, is very popular in industrial applications. A high-frequency
triangular carrier wave V
c
is compared with a sinusoidal reference V
r
of the desired
frequency. The intersection of V
c
and V
r
waves determines the switching instants and
commutation of the modulated pulse.

The PWM scheme is illustrated in figure 2.11, in which Vc the peak value of
triangular carrier wave and Vr that of the reference or modulating signal. The figure
shows the triangle and modulation signal with some arbitrary frequency and magnitude.
In the inverter, the switches are controlled based on the comparison of control signal
and the triangular wave which are mixed in a comparator. When sinusoidal wave has
magnitude higher than the triangular wave the comparator output is high, otherwise it is
low.



Figure 2.11: PWM scheme

Source: Wiley 2010
11

2.4 VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER (VSI) AND CURRENT SOURCE
INVERTER

2.4.1 Voltage Source Inverter

The voltage source inverter (VSI) controls the voltage and frequency to the
motor to produce variable speed operation. The distinguishing characteristics between
this type of inverter and the PWM inverter is the scheme used to control the voltage.
VSI inverters control the voltage in a separate section from the output section used for
frequency generation. Usually, the voltage control is done using a phase-controlled
input bridge rectifier circuit at the input of the inverter. The frequency control is
accomplished by an output bridge circuit that switches the variable voltage to the motor
at the desired frequency. These drives are available from fractional horsepower to about
500hp. The inverter can achieve efficiencies of 90% at full speed and full load. If the
inverter fails, the motor can still be operated directly across the incoming line for
continued operation. The inverter can adapt its operation to prevent overloads caused by
accelerating the high-inertia loads found in some applications (Rex Miller & Mark
R.Miller, 2008).
To deliver variable voltage to the inverter, the input rectifier section or front-end
consists of a controllable rectifier as SCRs. The control logic fires the SCRs at the
appropriate time during the sine wave, thereby providing the variable voltage to the DC
bus. Figure 2.12 shows a block diagram of a VSI drive (Dave Polka, 2003).



Figure 2.12: VSI drive block diagram

Source: Dave Polka, 2003
12

Installation of this type of inverter is simple. Just three power leads to the motor
are used. No tach feedback is required, and the drive can be located large distances
from the motor being controlled. The drive can be tested and operated without requiring
a motor to be connected. More than one motor can be operated from the same inverter.
Also, the inverter is not sensitive to changing the combination of motors operated as
long as the total load current does not exceed the inverters rated current (Rex Miller &
Mark R.Miller, 2008).

There are some drawbacks to the VSI inverter. The initial cost of the inverter
system is high. The total power delivered to the motor must be converted by the
inverter. This requires high-power components such as transistors, tyristors within the
inverter. The inverter has a large portion of sophisticated circuits that require skilled
technicians for service (Rex Miller & Mark R.Miller, 2008).

2.4.2 Current Source Inverter

The current source inverter (CSI) controls the current output to the motor. The
actual speed of the motor is sensed by the use of other circuits. This is then compared to
the reference speed and an error is used to generate a demand for more or less current to
the motor. The output switching devices, usually SCRs, are switched at the desired
frequency to steer the current to the motor. Current source inverters are available in a
wide range of horsepower but most often are found in the range of 50hp and above (Rex
Miller & Mark R.Miller, 2008).

To deliver variable voltage to the inverter, the input-rectifier section also consists
of a controllable rectifier as SCRs. The control logic fires the SCRs at the appropriate
time during the sine wave, thereby providing the variable voltage to the DC bus. Figure
2.13 shows a block diagram of a CSI drive (Dave Polka, 2003).

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Figure 2.13: CSI block diagram

Source: Dave Polka, 2003

This type of inverter is used on a standard induction motor and is readily
available, reliable, and easy to repair. If the inverter fails, the motor can be operated
directly across the incoming line for continued operation. The inverter can adapt its
operation to prevent overloads caused by accelerating the high-inertia loads found in
some applications. The current control limits fault currents that will minimize damage
on a major fault or over-load condition. This inverter may require tachometer feedback
for regulation. A tack generator must be added and is not a standard option for
induction motors. If the tack feedback signal is lost during operation, the drive may run
away to full speed. The inverter has to be matched to the motors electrical
characteristics. The inverter is sensitive to those characteristics, and improper operation
may occur if the motor is replaced with a different type or size (Rex Miller & Mark
R.Miller, 2008).

The inverter design requires the motor to be connected to operate at all. The
inverter cannot be run or tested without the motor. The inverter cannot be run or tested
without the motor. The inverter uses a phase-controlled rectifier for current control.
This method produces low power factor at low speeds. The size of the major
components usually causes these inverters to be the largest of the drives in overall size.
All the power delivered to the system may go through a conversion within the inverter.
Large power devices must be used to handle this (Rex Miller & Mark R.Miller, 2008).


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2.5 3-PHASES INDUCTION MOTOR

The three-phase induction motor which is also called an asynchronous motor is
the most commonly used type of motor in industrial applications. In particular, figure
2.14 shows the cut sectional view of the squirrel-cage design which is the most widely
used electric motor in industrial applications
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_motor).



Figure 2.14: Cut sectional view of the induction motor

Source: WEG 2011

2.5.1 Principles of Operation

The electrical section of the three-phase induction motor consists of the fixed
stator or frame, a three-phase winding supplied from the three-phase mains and a
turning rotor. There is no electrical connection between the stator and the rotor. The
currents in the rotor are induced via the air gap from the stator side. Stator and rotor are
made of highly magnetizable core sheet providing low eddy current and hysteresis
losses (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_motor).



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2.5.2 Voltage/Frequency (V/F) Control of Induction Motor

Voltage/frequency (V/F) control is a model of a scalar control method which is
equivalent to constant. This method is the simplest way for controlling induction
machine. In this type of control, a constant ratio between the voltage magnitude and
frequency is maintained. This is to keep it constant and is the optimal flux in the
machine. The V/f control of the induction motor (IM) model is shown in figure 2.15. It
consists of the motor model and the control system model. (Haitham Abu-Rub et al.,
2012).



Figure 2.15: V/f scalar control of an induction motor

Source: Haitham Abu-Rub, Atif Iqbal, Jaroslaw Guzinski 2012

Squirrel cage IM (and other types of AC machines) cannot be controlled as easily
as they can be in the case of separately excited DC motor. For all types of control, the
magnitude flux and produced torque should be decoupled for maintaining linearity
between input and output and for achieving high dynamic drive. In the case of AC
machines, the dynamic models are non-linear and more complex than those in DC
machines (Haitham Abu-Rub et al., 2012).

In typical AC drive systems, two motor phase currents and the DC bus voltage
are measured. The measured currents are transformed using the Clarke transformation
block into a stationary frame. The PI controllers compare the command values with the
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measured components (after transformation) and command proper values to establish
the desired condition. The outputs of the controllers are transformed from a rotating to a
stationary frame using the Park transformation. The commanded signals of the stator
voltage are sent to the pulse width modulation (PWM) block (Haitham Abu-Rub et al.,
2012).

2.6 FEEDBACK CONTROLLER

2.6.1 PID Controller

Most ASD applications require the AC motor to run at a specific speed as set by
the keypad, speed potentiometer, or analog input. Some drives provide an alternative
option that allows precise process control through a set point controller or PID mode of
operation. Many adjustable speed drives come equipped with a built-in proportional-
integral-derivative (PID) controller. The PID loop is used to maintain a process
variable, such as speed, as illustrated in Figure 2.16. The desired speed, or set point, and
the actual speed values are input to a summation point. These two signals are opposite
in polarity and yield a zero error or deviation whenever the desired speed equals the
actual speed (Frank D. Petruzella, 2010).



Figure 2.16: PID Loop

Source: Frank D. Petruzella 2010
17

If the two signals differ in value, the error signal will have a positive or negative
value, depending on whether the actual speed is greater or less than the desired speed.
This error signal is input to the PID controller. The terms proportional, integral, and
derivative describe three basic mathematical functions then applied to the error signal.
The PID output reacts to the error and outputs a frequency to try to reduce the error
value to zero. The controllers job is to make the speed adjustments quickly, with a
minimum of overshoot or oscillations. Tuning the PID controller involves gain and time
adjustments designed to improve performance and result in a fast response with a
minimum overshoot, allowing the motor to settle in quickly to the new speed. Some
drives have a PID auto tune function designed to ease the tuning process (Frank D.
Petruzella, 2010).