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! =+0
! S+1
2
! C+0
2
! and
=C1
@
. )/*
The metals iron! .inc! copper! silver! and lead commonly occur in their compounds as 'e
2@
! 'e
0@
!
Dn
2@
! Cu
2@
! Ag
@
! and 6b
2@
ions. )/*
#n covalent bonds between atoms of different electronegativity the electrons are shared unequally<
such a bond is nown as a "polar bond. )/!2! 1*
Ceat is a form of energy. )0*
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,nergy can be transferred by radiation. Badiant energy can be absorbed! reflected! or transmitted by
matter. )2*
Temperature is a measure of the average inetic energy of the particles present! whereas heat is a
measure of the total amount of inetic energy present. )0*
Air is a mi(ture of gases4 nitrogen )EFG by volume*! o(ygen )2/G*! argon )9.7G*! and carbon
dio(ide )9.90G*. )/*
Reactions
A chemical change involves the formation of a new substance and is accompanied by the gain or
loss of energy. )0*
Chemical equations can be written to describe a chemical change. )/! 2! 0! 1! 2*
#onic equations that omit non5reacting species! commonly nown as "spectator ions! can be written.
)/! 2! 0! 1! 2*
>hen a substance burns in air it combines with o(ygen. )/*
Salts containing sodium! potassium! ammonium! or nitrate ions are soluble in water. )/! 2*
#f an ionic substance dissolves in water! the ions dissociate with each ion surrounded by water
molecules. )/! 2*
An insoluble ionic substance forms as a precipitate when solutions containing the ions are mi(ed. )0! 2*
Self5ionisation occurs in water to a small degree! giving rise to low concentrations of +C
and C0+
@
)C
@
* ions. )2*
Acids are compounds or ions that donate protons! whereas bases are compounds or ions that
accept protons. )/! 1*
Common acids include hydrochloric acid )CCl*! nitric acid )C=+0*! and sulfuric acid )C2S+1*. )/! 2!
0! 1*
Acids react with metal o(ides and hydro(ides to produce a salt and water! and with carbonates to
produce a salt! water! and carbon dio(ide. )/! 2! 0*
An aqueous solution can be described as acidic! alaline )basic*! or neutral on the basis of the
concentration of C
@
ions in the solution. )/! 1! 2*
An aqueous solution can be described as acidic! alaline )basic*! or neutral on the basis of its pC.
)/! 1! 2*
Ammonia is a base. )/! 1! 2*
+(idation is defined as the gain of o(ygen! the loss of electrons! or the increase in o(idation number.
)2! 0! 1*
Beduction is defined as the loss of o(ygen! the gain of electrons! or the decrease in o(idation
number. )2! 0! 1*
+(idation and reduction are complementary processes. )2! 0! 1*
>hen electrons are transferred in a reaction! half5equations can be written for the gain and the loss
of electrons< full equations can be written by combining two half5equations. )2! 0! 1*
3etals differ in their tendency to lose electrons< more reactive metals lose electrons more easily. )0*
6otassium! sodium! and calcium react with water to form hydrogen gas! hydro(ide ions! and ions of
the metal. )0*
3agnesium! .inc! and iron react with dilute acids to form hydrogen and salts of the metals. )0*
#f a metal readily loses electrons )is readily o(idised*! its ion does not readily gain electrons )is not
easily reduced*. )0*
A more reactive metal is able to donate electrons to the ion of a less active metal. )0*
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+(idation number is a useful means of identifying redo( reactions. )0*
Carbon Chemistry
+rganic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds. )1*
Cydrocarbons are compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen. )0! 1*
Cydrocarbons are commonly used as fuels! the products of complete combustion being water and
carbon dio(ide. )0! 1*
The molecular formula shows the atoms present in a molecule of a substance. The structural
formula of a compound shows unambiguously the arrangement of the atoms. )/! 1*
Alanes and alenes are named systematically. )1*
A functional group is the reactive part of an organic molecule. )1*
Compounds with the same functional group undergo similar reactions. )1*
The alyl component of an organic compound is generally unchanged in an organic reaction. )1*
#somers are different compounds that have the same molecular formula. )1*
A ben.ene ring occurs in many compounds< it is a reasonably unreactive group. )1*
Compounds e(isting as small molecules are liely to be more soluble than larger molecules of a
similar nature. )1*
Chemical Calculations
The quantities of different substances can be conveniently compared by the use of the mole as a unit. )2*
The molar mass of a substance can be derived by the addition of the relative atomic masses of the
elements present! with the answer e(pressed in grams. )2*
The amount of a substance )in moles* is related to the mass! m )in grams*! and the molar mass! M
)in g mol
H5/
*. )2*
The molar concentration )or molarity*! c )in mol &
H5/
*! of a solution is related to the amount of solute! n
)in moles*! and the volume of the solution! V )in litres*. )2*
The concentration of a solution can be related to the mass of solute )in grams* and the volume of the
solution )in litres*. )2*
The relative amounts )in moles* of substances reacted or produced during a reaction are indicated
by the coefficients in the balanced equation for the reaction. )2*
?iven the equation for a reaction! the quantity of one reactant or product involved in a chemical
reaction can be used to determine the quantity of another. )2*
=umerical answers are limited by the least accurate data used in the calculation. )2*
&arge and small quantities are more conveniently e(pressed by means of scientific notation. )2*
Calculators frequently display scientific notation in different ways. )2*
Substances vary in density! which is the mass of material per unit volume. )2*
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