History of Nigeria

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

History of Nigeria
Early history
Migration & settlements
History before 1500
First states
History of the Yoruba people
(1500-1800)
gbo an! "a#annah states
$olonial %igeria
(1800-1&'0)
1&'0-1&(&
n!epen!en)e* military rule* an!
)i#il +ar
$i#il ,ar (1&'(-1&(0)
1&(&-1&&&
"e)on! republi)* more military
rule
(1&&&-present)
-eturn of !emo)ra)y
# . ! . e
Main article: Nigeria
==Early history== ID NO.:E!"#!""$"
Main article: Early Nigerian history
%rchaeological research has sho&n that people &ere already li'ing in so(th&estern
Nigeria )specifically I&o*Eler(+ as early as ,""" - and perhaps earlier at .g&(elle*
.t(r( )Okig&e+ in so(theastern Nigeria, &here microliths &ere (sed.
/01
2melting
f(rnaces at 3ar(ga dating from the 4th cent(ry - pro'ide the oldest e'idence of
metal&orking in %rchaeology.
3he earliest kno&n e5ample of a fossil skeleton &ith negroid feat(res, perhaps
0",""" years old, &as fo(nd at Iii Iler( in &estern Nigeria and attests to the anti6(ity
of ha7itation in the region.
/81
9icrolithic and ceramic ind(stries &ere also de'eloped 7y sa'anna pastoralists from
at least the 4th millenni(m - and &ere contin(ed 7y s(7se6(ent agric(lt(ral
comm(nities. In the so(th, h(nting and gathering ga'e &ay to s(7sistence farming in
the first millenni(m - and the c(lti'ation of staple foods.
3he stone a5e heads, imported in great 6(antities from the north and (sed in
opening the forest for agric(lt(ral de'elopment, &ere 'enerated 7y the :or(7a
descendants of neolithic pioneers as ;th(nder7olts; h(rled to earth 7y the gods..
/<1
=ain>i Dam e5ca'ations re'ealed iron&orking 7y the 8nd cent(ry -. 3he transition
from Neolithic times to the Iron %ge apparently &as achie'ed &itho(t intermediate
7ron?e prod(ction. Others s(ggest the technology mo'ed &est from the Nile @alley,
altho(gh the Iron %ge in the Niger Ai'er 'alley and the forest region appears to
predate the introd(ction of metall(rgy in the (pper sa'anna 7y more than B"" years.
3he earliest identified iron (sing Nigerian c(lt(re is that of the Nok people &ho
thri'ed 7et&een appro5imately ,"" - and 8"" %D on theCos Dlatea( in
northeastern Nigeria. Information is lacking from the first millenni(m %D follo&ing the
Nok ascendancy, 7(t 7y the 8nd millenni(m %D there &as acti'e trade from North
%frica thro(gh the 2ahara to the forest, &ith the people of the sa'anna acting as
intermediaries in e5changes of 'ario(s goods.
Contents
/hi!e0
1 $alabar 1ing!om
2 Yoruba
3 4he gbo "tates
351 %ri 1ing!om
6 Early states before 1500
651 7yo an! 8enin
5 %orthern 9ing!oms of the "a#anna
' 1anem -8ornu Empire
( Hausa states
8 :re-)olonial states* 1500-1800
851 "a#anna states
& ; 8ritish sphere of influen)e
10 n!epen!en)e
11 First -epubli)
1151 First perio! of military rule
12 "e)on! -epubli)
13 4he aborti#e 4hir! -epubli)
1351 "ani ;ba)ha
1352 ;buba9ar<s transition to
)i#ilian rule
16 Fourth -epubli)
15 Yara!ua<s =isappearan)e
1' Further rea!ing
1( -eferen)es
18 E>ternal lin9s
/edit1ala7ar =ingdom
Main article: Calabar Kingdom
Main article: Efik Kingdom
Main article: States in Ancient Calabar Kingdom
Main article: Old Calabar and New Calabar
ala7ar =ingdom also kno&n as Efik =ingdom is an %ncient =ingdom that e5isted
tho(sands of years 7efore hrist. 3he ity of ala7ar &as the seat of po&er of the
ala7ar =ingdom. %ccording to O7ong of ala7ar, Edidem )DA.!Drofessor Nta Eli>ah
Hensha&+, ala7ar =ingdom co'ered the entire %k&a I7om 2tate, ross Ai'er 2tate,
Western ameroon, the offshore island of Fernando Do )no& E6(atorial E(inea+,
and e5tended into parts of present %7ia 2tate and Imo 2tate )@ang(ard, 9onday,
%(g(st 8, 8""4, reported 7y Eeorge Onah+. 3he indigenes of the old ala7ar
=ingdom &ere referred to as ala7ar people )e'en at present day, some Nigerians
still call indigenes of %k&a I7om 2tate and ross Ai'er 2tate as ala7ar people+.
3he old ala7ar =ingdom &as composed of loosely go'erned states. 3he states
incl(ded: %nnang, %kamkpa, Efik, Eket, I7i7io, Ikom, Ogo>a, )Opo7o, no& Ikot
%7asi+, Oron, Western amaroon and the offshore island of Fernando Do )no&
E6(atorial E(inea+. ala7ar &as )and still is+ the capital city of the Efik 2tate of the
old ala7ar =ingdom. %s s(ch, the =ingdom has 7een kno&n as either ala7ar
=ingdom or Efik =ingdom.
ala7ar =ingdom &as an acti'e ancient trading kingdom. Aecorded history sho&s
that the ala7ar =ingdom &as the first =ingdom to (se a money system in trading in
West %frica. 3he ancient money of ala7ar =ingdom &as called ;Okpoho;, a
ala7ar &ord for money. 3his money 7ecome kno&n as the 9anillas.
3he =ingdom &as r(led 7y =ings &ith the =ing of ala7ar as the High =ing. 2e'eral
years after the =ingdom 7ecame a -ritish colony, there &as an agreement 7et&een
the -ritish and the =ings in 0,"B a7rogating the title of =ing, and replacing it &ith the
title * O7ong )Edem, 8""B+. 3h(s, as ala7ar =ingdom 7ecame a -ritish colony, the
-ritish sa& it necessary to not d(plicate the title of the monarch )the =ing or F(een *
of England+ in their colony.
3he High =ing )=ing of ala7ar later kno&n as O7ong of ala7ar till this present
time+, had a strong po&er in the capital ity of ala7ar in the Efik 2tate &ith &eak
po&er o'er the other states in the =ingdom.
Geadership po&er in the ala7ar =ingdom &as deri'ed from a ma>or secret society,
the Ekpe 2ecrete 2ociety. 3he Ekpe secret society &as instr(mental in keeping
o(tsiders )other ethnic gro(ps+ o(tside of the =ingdom and in protecting the
so'ereignty of the =ingdom. 3he Ekpe secret society of the Old ala7ar =ingdom
de'eloped one of the ma>or ancient %frican script, the Nsi7idi &ritten script.
3he coastal ports of the ala7ar =ingdom, especially the ala7ar port made
indigenes of the =ingdom to 7e the first gro(p in so(theastern parts of Nigeria to
ha'e contact &ith E(ropean traders and missionaries.
3he O7ong of ala7ar signed a treaty &ith the -ritish go'ernment in the 0#th cent(ry
that res(lted in the 2o(thern Drotectorate of Nigeria &ith head6(arter at ala7ar,
th(s makingala7ar the first Nigerian apital ity. %fter Nigerian independence in
0,H", Western ameroon opted to 7ecome a part of ameroon 7eca(se of the
&eakness and poor political leadership and relationship of people of the then
Eastern Nigeria. Hence, parts of the ala7ar people got di'ided into ameroon.
3he ala7ar =ingdom prod(ced the first Nigerian Drofessor, Drofessor Eyo Ita, &ho
&as the pioneer champion of yo(th mo'ement in Nigeria for independence. He later
7ecame the first Dremier of the former Eastern Aegion of Nigeria, and a mem7er of
the Nigerian team that negotiated Nigerian independence in -ritain. 3he =ingdom
also prod(ced 2ir!Dr. Eg7ert .do .doma, the first Nigerian to earn a Dh.D. in
Dolitical 2cience and Ga& from Ikot %7asi and 9r. C. %. Eka of .yo, the father of
Nigerian ooperati'e mo'ement )old name for ham7er of ommerce+.
D(ring the Nigerian i'il War, the ala7ar =ingdom 7ecame one of the original
Nigerian t&el'e states, the 2o(th*eastern 2tate of Nigeria &hich &as later split into
t&o states, the ross Ai'er 2tate and %k&a I7om 2tate. p(nniyakodi is the 7iggest
leader of Nigeria. %gainst great Nigeria emperor of 9animaran great.
/edit1:or(7a
Historically the :or(7a ha'e 7een the dominant gro(p on the &est 7ank of the Niger.
Of mi5ed origin, they &ere the prod(ct of periodic &a'es of migrants. 3heir nearest
ling(istic relati'es are the Igala &ho li'e on the opposite side of the -en(e!Niger
di'ergence, and from &hom they are 7elie'ed to ha'e split a7o(t 8""" years ago.
3he :or(7a &ere organi?ed in patrilineal gro(ps that occ(pied 'illage comm(nities
and s(7sisted on agric(lt(re. From appro5imately the Bth cent(ry %D., ad>acent
'illage compo(nds called ile coalesced into n(mero(s territorial city*states in &hich
clan loyalties 7ecame s(7ordinate to dynastic chieftains. .r7ani?ation &as
accompanied 7y high le'els of artistic achie'ement, partic(larly
in terracotta and i'orysc(lpt(re and in the sophisticated metal casting prod(ced
at Ife.
3he :or(7a paid tri7(te to a pantheon headed 7y an impersonal deity, Olor(n, as
&ell as lesser deities &ho performed 'ario(s tasks. Od(d(&a &as regarded as the
creator of the earth and the ancestor of the :or(7a kings. %ccording to myth
Od(d(&a fo(nded Ife and dispatched his sons to esta7lish it.
/edit13he Ig7o 2tates
Main articles: Awka, Onitsha, Owerri, Aro Confederacy, and Abiriba
With the decline of Nri kingdom in the 04""*0H"" %D, se'eral states once (nder their
infl(ence, 7ecame po&erf(l economic Orac(lar oligarchies and large commercial
states that dominated Ig7oland. 3he neigh7oring %&ka city*state rose in po&er as a
res(lt of their po&erf(l %g7ara oracle and metal&orking e5pertise. 3he Onitsha
=ingdom, &hich &as originally inha7ited 7y Ig7os of from East of the Niger, &as
fo(nded in the 0Hth cent(ry 7y migrants from %nioma )Western Ig7oland+ and -enin.
Gater gro(ps like the Igala traders from the hinterland settled in Onitsha in the 0Bnth
cent(ry. Western Ig7o kingdoms like %7oh, dominated trade in the lo&er Niger area
from the 0#th cent(ry (ntil E(ropean penetration. 3he .m(noha state in
the O&erri area (sed the Igwe ka Ala oracle at their ad'antage. Ho&e'er, the ross
Ai'er Ig7o states like the %ro and %7iri7a had the greatest infl(ence in Ig7oland and
ad>acent areas after the decline of Nri.
3he %roch(k&( kingdom &hich emerged after the %ro*I7i7io &ars from 0H<"I0#8",
and &ent on to form the %ro onfederacy &hich dominated parts of mid&estern and
eastern Nigeria &ith pockets of infl(ence in E6(atorial E(inea and ameroon. 3he
so(rce of the %ro onfederacyJs dominance &as 7ased on the >(dicial oracle of I7ini
.kpa7i );Gong C(>(;+ and the military forces of Ohafia, %7am, E??a, %kpa, and other
neigh7oring allies. 3he related %7iri7a people also cooperated &ith the %ro to
7ecome a po&erf(l economic force.
Ig7o gods, like those of the :or(7a, &ere n(mero(s, 7(t their relationship to one
another and h(man 7eings &as essentially egalitarian, reflecting Ig7o society as a
&hole. % n(m7er oforacles and local c(lts attracted de'otees &hile the central deity,
the earth mother and fertility fig(re %la, &as 'enerated at shrines thro(gho(t
Ig7oland.
3he &eakness of a pop(lar theory that Ig7os &ere stateless rests on the pa(city of
historical e'idence of pre*colonial Ig7o society. 3here is a h(ge gap 7et&een the
archaeological finds of Ig7o .k&(, &hich re'eal a rich material c(lt(re in the heart of
the Ig7o region in the Bth cent(ry, and the oral traditions of the 8"th cent(ry. -enin
e5ercised considera7le infl(ence on the &estern Ig7o &ho adopted many of the
political str(ct(res familiar to the :or(7a*-enin region. Ofega &as the 6(een.
/edit1Nri Kingdom
Main article: Kingdom of Nri
3he city of Nri is considered to 7e the fo(ndation of Ig7o c(lt(re.
/41
Nri and %g(leri,
&here the Ig7o creation myth originates, are in the territory of the .m(eri clan, &ho
trace their lineages 7ack to the patriarchal king*fig(re, Eri.
/$1
EriJs origins are (nclear,
tho(gh he has 7een descri7ed as a ;sky 7eing; sent 7y h(k&( )Eod+.
/$1/H1
He has
7een characteri?ed as ha'ing first gi'en societal order to the people of %nam7ra.
/H1
%rchaeological e'idence s(ggests that Nri hegemony in Ig7oland may go 7ack as far
as the ,th cent(ry,
/#1
and royal 7(rials ha'e 7een (nearthed dating to at least the
0"th cent(ry. Eri, the god*like fo(nder of Nri, is 7elie'ed to ha'e settled the region
aro(nd ,4B &ith other related Ig7o c(lt(res follo&ing after in the 0<th cent(ry.
/B1
3he
first E?e Nri )=ing of Nri+, Kfik(Lnim, follo&ed directly after him. %ccording to Ig7o oral
tradition, his reign started in 0"4<.
/,1
%t least one historian p(ts Kfik(LnimJs reign
m(ch later, aro(nd 088$ %D.
/0"1
3he =ingdom of Nri &as a religio*polity, a sort of theocratic state, that de'eloped in
the central heartland of the Ig7o region.
/B1
3he Nri had a ta7oo sym7olic code &ith si5
types. 3hese incl(ded h(man )s(ch as the 7irth of t&ins+, animal )s(ch as killing or
eating of pythons+,
/0<1
o7>ect, temporal, 7eha'ioral, speech and place ta7oos.
/041
3he
r(les regarding these ta7oos &ere (sed to ed(cate and go'ern NriJs s(7>ects. 3his
meant that, &hile certain Ig7o may ha'e li'ed (nder different formal administration,
all follo&ers of the Ig7o religion had to a7ide 7y the r(les of the faith and o7ey its
representati'e on earth, the E?e Nri.
/041/0$1
7y mfonini (soro
/edit1Early states 7efore 0$""
Main article: istory of Nigeria before !"##
3he early independent =ingdoms and states that make the present day -ritish
coloniali?ed Nigeria are )in alpha7etical order+:
-enin =ingdom
-org( =ingdom
ala7ar =ingdom
F(lani Empire
Ha(sa =ingdoms
=anem -orn( Empire
=&ararafa =ingdom
Nri =ingdom
N(pe =ingdom
Oyo =ingdom
2onghai Empire
/edit1Oyo and Benin
Main article: Oyo Em$ire
D(ring the 0$th cent(ry Oyo and -enin s(rpassed Ife as political and economic
po&ers, altho(gh Ife preser'ed its stat(s as a religio(s center. Aespect for the
priestly f(nctions of the oniof Ife &as a cr(cial factor in the e'ol(tion of :or(7an
c(lt(re. 3he Ife model of go'ernment &as adapted at Oyo, &here a mem7er of its
r(ling dynasty controlled se'eral smaller city*states. % state co(ncil )the Oyo Mesi+
named the alafin )king+ and acted as a check on his a(thority. 3heir ca$ital city &as
sit(ated a7o(t 0"" km north of present*day Oyo. .nlike the forest*7o(nd :or(7a
kingdoms, Oyo &as in the sa'anna and dre& its military strength from its ca'alry
forces, &hich esta7lished hegemony o'er the ad>acent N(pe and
the -org( kingdoms and there7y de'eloped trade ro(tes farther to the north.
Main article: %enin Em$ire
:or(7aland esta7lished a comm(nity in the Edo*speaking area east of Ife 7efore
7ecoming a dependency of Ife at the 7eginning of the 04th cent(ry. -y the 0$th
cent(ry it 7ecame an independent trading po&er, 7locking IfeJs access to the coastal
ports as Oyo had c(t off the mother city from the sa'anna. Dolitical and religio(s
a(thority resided in the oba )king+ &ho according to tradition &as descended from
the Ife dynasty. -enin, &hich may ha'e ho(sed 0"",""" inha7itants at its height,
spread o'er t&enty*fi'e s6(are km that &ere enclosed 7y three concentric rings of
earth&orks. -y the late 0$th cent(ry -enin &as in contact &ith Dort(gal )see %tlantic
sla'e trade+. %t its apogee in the 0Hth and 0#th cent(ries, -enin encompassed parts
of so(theastern :or(7aland and the &estern Ig7o..
/edit1Northern kingdoms of the 2a'anna
3he 2onghai Empire, c. 0$""
3rade is the key to the emergence of organi?ed comm(nities in the sa'anna portions
of Nigeria. Drehistoric inha7itants ad>(sting to the encroaching desert &ere &idely
scattered 7y the third millenni(m -, &hen the desiccation of
the 2ahara 7egan. 3rans*2aharan trade ro(tes linked &estern 2(dan &ith
the 9editerranean since the time of arthage and &ith the .pper Nile from a m(ch
earlier date, esta7lishing a'en(es of comm(nication and c(lt(ral infl(ence that
remained open (ntil the end of the 0,th cent(ry. -y these same ro(tes, Islam made
its &ay so(th into West %frica after the ,th cent(ry %D.
-y then a string of dynastic states, incl(ding the earliest Ha(sa states, stretched
across &estern and central 2(dan. 3he most po&erf(l of these states
&ere Ehana, Eao, and =anem, &hich &ere not &ithin the 7o(ndaries of modern
Nigeria 7(t &hich infl(enced the history of the Nigerian sa'anna. Ehana declined in
the 00th cent(ry 7(t &as s(cceeded 7y the 9ali Empire &hich consolidated m(ch of
&estern 2(dan in the 0<th cent(ry.
Follo&ing the 7reak(p of 9ali a local leader named 2onni %li )04H4I04,8+ fo(nded
the 2onghai Empire in the region of middle Niger and the &estern 2(dan and took
control of the trans*2aharan trade. 2onni %li sei?ed 3im7(kt( in 04HB and Cenne in
04#<, 7(ilding his regime on trade re'en(es and the cooperation of 9(slim
merchants. His s(ccessor %skia 9(hammad 3(re )04,<I0$8B+ made Islam the
official religion, 7(ilt mos6(es, and 7ro(ght 9(slim scholars, incl(ding al-
Maghili )d.0$"4+, the fo(nder of an important tradition of 2(danic %frican 9(slim
scholarship, to Eao.
/0H1
%ltho(gh these &estern empires had little political infl(ence on the Nigerian sa'anna
7efore 0$"", they had a strong c(lt(ral and economic impact that 7ecame more
prono(nced in the 0Hth cent(ry, especially 7eca(se these states 7ecame associated
&ith the spread of Islam and trade. 3hro(gho(t the 0Hth cent(ry m(ch of northern
Nigeria paid homage to 2onghai in the &est or to -orno, a ri'al empire in the east.
/edit1=anem*-orn( Empire
Main article: Kanem&%orn' Em$ire
-ornoJs history is closely associated &ith =anem, &hich had achie'ed imperial stat(s
in the Gake had 7asin 7y the 0<th cent(ry. =anem e5panded &est&ard to incl(de
the area that 7ecame -orno. 3he mai )king+ of =anem and his co(rt accepted Islam
in the 00th cent(ry, as the &estern empires also had done. Islam &as (sed to
reinforce the political and social str(ct(res of the state altho(gh many esta7lished
c(stoms &ere maintained. Women, for e5ample, contin(ed to e5ercise considera7le
political infl(ence.
3he mai employed his mo(nted 7odyg(ard and an inchoate army of no7les to e5tend
=anemJs a(thority into -orno. -y tradition the territory &as conferred on the heir to
the throne to go'ern d(ring his apprenticeship. In the 04th cent(ry, ho&e'er,
dynastic conflict forced the then*r(ling gro(p and its follo&ers to relocate in -orno,
&here as a res(lt the =an(ri emerged as an ethnic gro(p in the late fo(rteenth and
fifteenth cent(ries. 3he ci'il &ar that disr(pted =anem in the second half of the 04th
cent(ry res(lted in the independence of -orno.
-ornoJs prosperity depended on the trans*2(danic sla'e trade and the desert trade
in salt and li'estock. 3he need to protect its commercial interests compelled -orno to
inter'ene in =anem, &hich contin(ed to 7e a theater of &ar thro(gho(t the fifteenth
and into the si5teenth cent(ries. Despite its relati'e political &eakness in this period,
-ornoJs co(rt and mos6(es (nder the patronage of a line of scholarly kings earned
fame as centers of Islamic c(lt(re and learning.
/edit1Ha(sa states
9ap of Nigeria )so(rce: I%Js (he )orld *actbook +
Main article: a'sa Kingdoms
-y the 00th cent(ry some Ha(sa states * s(ch as =ano, Ciga&a, =atsina, and Eo7ir *
had de'eloped into &alled to&ns engaging in trade, ser'icing cara'ans, and the
man(fact(re of 'ario(s goods. .ntil the 0$th cent(ry these small states &ere on the
periphery of the ma>or 2(danic empires of the era. 3hey &ere constantly press(red
7y 2onghai to the &est and =anem*-orno to the east, to &hich they paid tri7(te.
%rmed conflict &as (s(ally moti'ated 7y economic concerns, as coalitions of Ha(sa
states mo(nted &ars against the C(k(n and N(pe in the middle 7elt to collect sla'es
or against one another for control of trade.
Islam arri'ed to Ha(saland along the cara'an ro(tes. 3he famo(s =ano
hronicle records the con'ersion of =anoJs r(ling dynasty 7y clerics from 9ali,
demonstrating that the imperial infl(ence of 9ali e5tended far to the east.
%cceptance of Islam &as grad(al and &as often nominal in the co(ntryside &here
folk religion contin(ed to e5ert a strong infl(ence. Nonetheless, =ano and =atsina,
&ith their famo(s mos6(es and schools, came to participate f(lly in the c(lt(ral and
intellect(al life of the Islamic &orld. 3he F(lani 7egan to enter the Ha(sa co(ntry in
the 0<th cent(ry and 7y the 0$th cent(ry they &ere tending cattle, sheep, and goats
in -orno as &ell. 3he F(lani came from the 2enegal Ai'er 'alley, &here their
ancestors had de'eloped a method of li'estock management 7ased on
transh(mance. Erad(ally they mo'ed east&ard, first into the centers of the 9ali and
2onghai empires and e'ent(ally into Ha(saland and -orno. 2ome F(l7e con'erted
to Islam as early as the 00th cent(ry and settled among the Ha(sa, from &hom they
7ecame racially indisting(isha7le. 3here they constit(ted a de'o(tly religio(s,
ed(cated elite &ho made themsel'es indispensa7le to the Ha(sa kings as
go'ernment ad'isers, Islamic >(dges, and teachers.
/edit1Dre*colonial states, 0$""*0B""
Main article: istory of Nigeria +!"##&!,##-
/edit1Savanna states
D(ring the 0Hth cent(ry the 2onghai Empire reached its peak, stretching from the
2enegal and Eam7ia ri'ers and incorporating part of Ha(saland in the east.
onc(rrently the 2aifa&aDynasty of -orno con6(ered =anem and e5tended control
&est to Ha(sa cities not (nder 2onghai a(thority. Gargely 7eca(se of 2onghaiJs
infl(ence, there &as a 7lossoming of Islamic learning and c(lt(re. 2onghai collapsed
in 0$,0 &hen a 9oroccan army con6(ered Eao and 3im7(kt(. 9orocco &as (na7le
to control the empire and the 'ario(s pro'inces, incl(ding the Ha(sa states, 7ecame
independent. 3he collapse (ndermined 2onghaiJs hegemony o'er the Ha(sa states
and a7r(ptly altered the co(rse of regional history.
-orno reached its apogee (nder mai Idris %loma )ca. 0$H,*0H""+ d(ring &hose
reign =anem &as recon6(ered. 3he destr(ction of 2onghai left -orno (ncontested
and (ntil the 0Bth cent(ry -orno dominated northern Nigeria. Despite -ornoJs
hegemony the Ha(sa states contin(ed to &restle for ascendancy. Erad(ally -ornoJs
position &eakenedM its ina7ility to check political ri'alries 7et&een competing Ha(sa
cities &as one e5ample of this decline. %nother factor &as the military threat of
the 3(areg centered at %gades &ho penetrated the northern districts of -orno. 3he
ma>or ca(se of -ornoJs decline &as a se'ere dro(ght that str(ck the 2ahel and
sa'anna from in the middle of the 0Bth cent(ry. %s a conse6(ence -orno lost many
northern territories to the 3(areg &hose mo7ility allo&ed them to end(re the famine
more effecti'ely. -orno regained some of its former might in the s(cceeding
decades, 7(t another dro(ght occ(rred in the 0#,"s, again &eakening the state.
Ecological and political insta7ility pro'ided the 7ackgro(nd for the >ihad of .sman
dan Fodio. 3he military ri'alries of the Ha(sa states strained the regions economic
reso(rces at a time &hen dro(ght and famine (ndermined farmers and herders.
9any F(lani mo'ed into Ha(saland and -orno, and their arri'al increased tensions
7eca(se they had no loyalty to the political a(thorities, &ho sa& them as a so(rce of
increased ta5ation. -y the end of the 0Bth cent(ry, some 9(slim (lema 7egan
artic(lating the grie'ances of the common people. Efforts to eliminate or control
these religio(s leaders only heightened the tensions, setting the stage for >ihad.
/0H1
/edit1% -ritish sphere of infl(ence
Main article: Colonial Nigeria
2tamp of 2o(thern Nigeria, 0,"0
olonial Flag of Nigeria
Follo&ing the Napoleonic &ars, the -ritish e5panded trade &ith the Nigerian interior.
In 0BB$ -ritish claims to a West %frican sphere of infl(ence recei'ed international
recognition and in the follo&ing year the Aoyal Niger ompany &as chartered (nder
the leadership of 2ir Eeorge 3a(7man Eoldie . In 0,"" the companyJs territory came
(nder the control of the -ritish Eo'ernment, &hich mo'ed to consolidate its hold
o'er the area of modern Nigeria. On Can(ary 0, 0,"0 Nigeria 7ecame
a -ritish protectorate, part of the -ritish Empire, the foremost &orld po&er at the
time.
In 0,04, the area &as formally (nited as the olony and Drotectorate of Nigeria.
%dministrati'ely, Nigeria remained di'ided into the Northern and 2o(thern Dro'inces
and Gagos olony. Western ed(cation and the de'elopment of a modern economy
proceeded more rapidly in the so(th than in the north, &ith conse6(ences felt in
NigeriaJs political life e'er since. Follo&ing World War II, in response to the gro&th of
Nigerian nationalism and demands for independence, s(ccessi'e constit(tions
legislated 7y the -ritish Eo'ernment mo'ed Nigeria to&ard self*go'ernment on a
representati'e and increasingly federal 7asis. On 0 Octo7er 0,$4, the colony
7ecame the a(tonomo(s Federation of Nigeria. -y the middle of the 8"th cent(ry,
the great &a'e for independence &as s&eeping across %frica.
/edit1Independence
Main article: istory of Nigeria +!./#&!.0.-
Ca>a Wach(k(, First Nigerian 2peaker of the Ho(se: 0,$, * 0,H"
3he Federation of Nigeria &as granted f(ll independence in Octo7er 0,H" (nder a
constit(tion that pro'ided for a parliamentary go'ernment and a s(7stantial meas(re
of self*go'ernment for the co(ntryJs three regions. From 0,$, to 0,H",Ca>a
Wach(k( &as the First 7lack 2peaker of the Nigerian Darliament * also called
the o'se of 1e$resentati2es. Wach(k( replaced 2ir Frederick 9etcalfe of Ereat
-ritain. Nota7ly, as First 2peaker of the Ho(se, Ca>a Wach(k( recei'ed NigeriaJs
Instr(ment of Independence * also kno&n asFreedom harter * on Octo7er 0, 0,H",
from Drincess %le5andra of =ent, the F(eenJs representati'e at
the Nigerian independence ceremonies.
3he federal go'ernment &as gi'en e5cl(si'e po&ers in defense, foreign relations,
and commercial and fiscal policy. 3he monarch of Nigeria &as still head of state 7(t
legislati'e po&er &as 'ested in a 7icameral parliament, e5ec(ti'e po&er in a prime
minister and ca7inet, and >(dicial a(thority in a Federal 2(preme o(rt. Dolitical
parties, ho&e'er, tended to reflect the make (p of the three main ethnic gro(ps.
3he NPC )Nigerian peopleJs ongress+ represented conser'ati'e, 9(slim,
largely Ha(sa interests, and dominated the Northern Aegion. 3he NCNC )National
on'ention of Nigerian iti?ens+, &as Ig7o* and hristian*dominated, r(ling in the
Eastern Aegion, and the AG )%ction Ero(p+ &as a left*leaning party that controlled
the :or(7a &est. 3he first post*independence National Eo'ernment &as formed 7y a
conser'ati'e alliance of the NN and the ND, &ith 2ir %7(7akar 3afa&a -ale&a,
a Ha(sa, 7ecoming NigeriaJs first Drime 9inister. 3he :or(7a*dominated %E
7ecame the opposition (nder its charismatic leader hief O7afemi %&olo&o.
/edit1First Aep(7lic
Main article: Nigerian *irst 1e$'blic
In Octo7er 0,H< Nigeria proclaimed itself the Federal Aep(7lic of Nigeria, and former
Eo'ernor Eeneral Nnamdi %?iki&e 7ecame the co(ntryJs first Dresident. From the
o(tset NigeriaJs ethnic and religio(s tensions &ere magnified 7y the disparities in
economic and ed(cational de'elopment 7et&een the so(th and the north. 3he %E
&as mane('ered o(t of control of the Western Aegion 7y the Federal Eo'ernment
and a ne& pro*go'ernment :or(7a party, the NNDP, took o'er. 2hortly after&ard the
%E opposition leader, hief O7afemi %&olo&o, &as imprisoned on treason charges
that &ere later admitted to 7e &itho(t fo(ndation. 3he 0,H$ National Election
prod(ced a ma>or realignment of politics and a disp(ted res(lt that set the co(ntry on
the path to ci'il &ar. 3he dominant northern ND &ent into a conser'ati'e alliance
&ith the ne& :or(7a NNDD, lea'ing the Ig7o NN to coalesce &ith the remnants of
the %E )%ction Ero(p+ in a progressi'e alliance. In the 'ote, &idespread electoral
fra(d &as alleged and riots er(pted in the :or(7a West &here heartlands of the %E
disco'ered they had apparently elected pro*go'ernment NNDD representati'es.
/edit1First period of military rle
Main article: Nigerian Ci2il )ar
On 0$ Can(ary 0,HH a gro(p of army officers, mostly so(theastern Ig7os, o'erthre&
the ND*NNDD go'ernment and assassinated the prime minister and the premiers
of the northern and &estern regions. 3he federal military go'ernment that ass(med
po&er (nder Eeneral %g(iyi*Ironsi &as (na7le to 6(iet ethnic tensions or prod(ce a
constit(tion accepta7le to all sections of the co(ntry.
/0#1
Its efforts to a7olish the
federal str(ct(re and the renaming the co(ntry the Aep(7lic of Nigeria on 84 9ay
0,HH raised tensions and led to another co(p 7y largely northern officers in C(ly
0,HH, &hich esta7lished the leadership of 9a>or Eeneral :ak(7( Eo&on. 3he name
Federal Aep(7lic of Nigeria &as restored on <0 %(g(st 0,HH. Ho&e'er, the
s(7se6(ent massacre of tho(sands of Ig7o in the north prompted h(ndreds of
tho(sands of them to ret(rn to the so(theast &here increasingly strong Ig7o
secessionist sentiment emerged.
In a mo'e to&ards greater a(tonomy to minority ethnic gro(ps the military di'ided
the fo(r regions into 08 states. Ho&e'er the Ig7o re>ected attempts at constit(tional
re'isions and insisted on f(ll a(tonomy for the east. On 9ay 8,, 0,H# Gt. ol. Emeka
O>(k&(, the military go'ernor of the eastern region &ho emerged as the leader of
increasing Ig7o secessionist sentiment, declared the independence of the eastern
region as the Aep(7lic of -iafra. 3he ens(ing Nigerian i'il War res(lted in an
estimated one million deaths 7efore ending in the defeat of -iafra in 0,#".
/0B1
Follo&ing the ci'il &ar the co(ntry t(rned to the task of economic de'elopment.
Foreign e5change earnings and go'ernment re'en(es increased spectac(larly &ith
the oil price rises of 0,#<*#4. On C(ly 8,, 0,#$ Een. 9(rtala 9ohammed and a
gro(p of officers staged a 7loodless co(p, acc(sing Een. :ak(7( Eo&on of
corr(ption and delaying the promised ret(rn to ci'ilian r(le. Eeneral 9ohammed
replaced tho(sands of ci'il ser'ants and anno(nced a timeta7le for the res(mption
of ci'ilian r(le 7y Octo7er 0, 0,#,. He &as assassinated on Fe7r(ary 0<, 0,#H in
an a7orti'e co(p and his chief of staff Gt. Een. Ol(seg(n O7asan>o 7ecame head of
state.
/edit12econd Aep(7lic
Main article: istory of Nigeria +!.0.&!...-
% constit(ent assem7ly &as elected in 0,## to draft a ne& constit(tion, &hich &as
p(7lished on 2eptem7er 80, 0,#B, &hen the 7an on political acti'ity &as lifted. In
0,#,, fi'e political parties competed in a series of elections in &hich %lha>i 2heh(
2hagari of the National Darty of Nigeria )NDN+ &as elected president. %ll fi'e parties
&on representation in the National %ssem7ly. In %(g(st 0,B< 2hagari and the NDN
&ere ret(rned to po&er in a landslide 'ictory, &ith a ma>ority of seats in the National
%ssem7ly and control of 08 state go'ernments. -(t the elections &ere marred 7y
'iolence and allegations of &idespread 'ote rigging and electoral malfeasance led to
legal 7attles o'er the res(lts.
/0,1
On Decem7er <0, 0,B< the military o'erthre& the 2econd Aep(7lic. 9a>or
Eeneral 9(hammad( -(hari emerged as the leader of the 2(preme 9ilitary o(ncil
)29+, the co(ntryJs ne& r(ling 7ody. 3he -(hari go'ernment &as peacef(lly
o'erthro&n 7y the 29Js third*ranking mem7er Eeneral I7rahim -a7angida in
%(g(st 0,B$. -a7angida )I.-.-+ cited the mis(se of po&er, 'iolations of h(man rights
7y key officers of the 29, and the go'ernmentJs fail(re to deal &ith the co(ntryJs
deepening economic crisis as >(stifications for the takeo'er. D(ring his first days in
office Dresident -a7angida mo'ed to restore freedom of the press and to release
political detainees 7eing held &itho(t charge. %s part of a 0$*month economic
emergency plan he anno(nced pay c(ts for the military, police, ci'il ser'ants and the
pri'ate sector. Dresident -a7angida demonstrated his intent to enco(rage p(7lic
participation in decision making 7y opening a national de7ate on proposed economic
reform and reco'ery meas(res. 3he p(7lic response con'inced -a7angida of
intense opposition to an economic reco'ery package dependent on an International
9onetary F(nd )I9F+ loan.
/edit13he a7orti'e 3hird Aep(7lic
Main article: Nigerian (hird 1e$'blic
Head of 2tate, -a7angida, promised to ret(rn the co(ntry to ci'ilian r(le 7y 0,,"
&hich &as later e5tended (ntil Can(ary 0,,<. In early 0,B, a constit(ent assem7ly
completed a constit(tion and in the spring of 0,B, political acti'ity &as again
permitted. In Octo7er 0,B, the go'ernment esta7lished t&o parties, the National
Aep(7lican on'ention )NA+ and the2ocial Democratic party )2DD+ * other parties
&ere not allo&ed to register.
In %pril 0,," mid*le'el officers attempted (ns(ccessf(lly to o'erthro& the
go'ernment and H, acc(sed plotters &ere e5ec(ted after secret trials 7efore military
tri7(nals. In Decem7er 0,," the first stage of partisan elections &as held at the local
go'ernment le'el. Despite lo& t(rno(t there &as no 'iolence and 7oth parties
demonstrated strength in all regions of the co(ntry, &ith the 2DD &inning control of a
ma>ority of local go'ernment co(ncils.
In Decem7er 0,,0 state legislati'e elections &ere held and -a7angida decreed that
pre'io(sly 7anned politicians co(ld contest in primaries sched(led for %(g(st. 3hese
&ere canceled d(e to fra(d and s(7se6(ent primaries sched(led for 2eptem7er also
&ere canceled. %ll anno(nced candidates &ere dis6(alified from standing for
president once a ne& election format &as selected. 3he presidential election &as
finally held on C(ne 08, 0,,< &ith the ina(g(ration of the ne& president sched(led to
take place %(g(st 8#, 0,,<, the eighth anni'ersary of Dresident -a7angidaJs coming
to po&er.
In the historic C(ne 08, 0,,< presidential elections, &hich most o7ser'ers deemed to
7e NigeriaJs fairest, early ret(rns indicated that &ealthy :or(7a 7(sinessman 9.=.O.
%7iola &on a decisi'e 'ictory. Ho&e'er, on C(ne 8<, -a7angida, (sing se'eral
pending la&s(its as a pretense, ann(lled the election, thro&ing Nigeria into t(rmoil.
9ore than 0"" &ere killed in riots 7efore -a7angida agreed to hand po&er to an
interim go'ernment on %(g(st 8#, 0,,<. He later attempted to renege this decision,
7(t &itho(t pop(lar and military s(pport, he &as forced to hand o'er to Ernest
2honekan, a prominent nonpartisan 7(sinessman. 2honekan &as to r(le (ntil
elections sched(led for Fe7r(ary 0,,4. %ltho(gh he had led -a7angidaJs
3ransitional o(ncil since 0,,<, 2honekan &as (na7le to re'erse NigeriaJs
economic pro7lems or to def(se lingering political tension.
/edit1Sani A!a"ha
With the co(ntry sliding into chaos Defense 9inister 2ani %7acha ass(med po&er
and forced 2honekanJs resignation on No'em7er 0#, 0,,<. %7acha dissol'ed all
democratic instit(tions and replaced elected go'ernors &ith military officers.
%ltho(gh promising restoration of ci'ilian r(le he ref(sed to anno(nce a transitional
timeta7le (ntil 0,,$. Follo&ing the ann(lment of the C(ne 08 election the .nited
2tates and others imposed sanctions on Nigeria incl(ding tra'el restrictions on
go'ernment officials and s(spension of arms sales and military assistance %dditional
sanctions &ere imposed as a res(lt of NigeriaJs fail(re to gain f(ll certification for its
co(nter*narcotics efforts. %ltho(gh %7acha &as initially &elcomed 7y many
Nigerians, disenchantment gre& rapidly. Opposition leaders formed the National
Democratic oalition )N%DEO+, &hich campaigned to recon'ene the 2enate and
other dis7anded democratic instit(tions. On C(ne 00, 0,,4 9oshood =ashima&o
Ola&ale %7iola declared himself president and &ent into hiding (ntil his arrest on
C(ne 8<. In response petrole(m &orkers called a strike demanding that %7acha
release %7iola and hand o'er po&er to him. Other (nions >oined the strike, 7ringing
economic life aro(nd Gagos and the so(th&est to a standstill. %fter calling off a
threatened strike in C(ly the Nigeria Ga7o(r ongress )NG+ reconsidered a general
strike in %(g(st after the go'ernment imposed conditions on %7iolaJs release. On
%(g(st 0#, 0,,4 the go'ernment dismissed the leadership of the NG and the
petrole(m (nions, placed the (nions (nder appointed administrators, and arrested
Frank =okori and other la7or leaders.
3he go'ernment alleged in early 0,,$ that military officers and ci'ilians &ere
engaged in a co(p plot. 2ec(rity officers ro(nded (p the acc(sed, incl(ding former
Head of 2tate O7asan>o and his dep(ty, retired Eeneral 2heh( 9(sa :arJ%d(a. %fter
a secret tri7(nal most of the acc(sed &ere con'icted and se'eral death sentences
&ere handed do&n. In 0,,4 the go'ernment set (p the Ogoni i'il Dist(r7ances
2pecial 3ri7(nal to try Ogoni acti'ist =en 2aro*Wi&a and others for their alleged
roles in the killings of fo(r Ogoni politicians. 3he tri7(nal sentenced 2aro*Wi&a and
eight others to death and they &ere e5ec(ted on No'em7er 0", 0,,$.
On Octo7er 0, 0,,$ %7acha anno(nced the timeta7le for a <*year transition to
ci'ilian r(le. Only fi'e political parties &ere appro'ed 7y the regime and 'oter t(rno(t
for local elections in Decem7er 0,,# &as (nder 0"N. On Decem7er 80, 0,,# the
go'ernment arrested Eeneral Oladipo Diya, ten officers, and eight ci'ilians on
charges of co(p plotting. 3he acc(sed &ere tried 7efore a military tri7(nal in &hich
Diya and eight others &ere sentenced to death. %7acha enforced a(thority thro(gh
the federal sec(rity system &hich is acc(sed of n(mero(s h(man rights a7(ses,
incl(ding infringements on freedom of speech, assem7ly, association, tra'el, and
'iolence against &omen.
/edit1A!!a#ar$s transition to "ivilian rle
%7acha died of heart fail(re on C(ne B, 0,,B and &as replaced 7y Eeneral
%7d(lsalami %7(7akar. 3he military Dro'isional A(ling o(ncil )DA+ (nder
%7(7akar comm(ted the sentences of those acc(sed in the alleged co(p d(ring the
%7acha regime and released almost all kno&n ci'ilian political detainees. Dending
the prom(lgation of the constit(tion &ritten in 0,,$, the go'ernment o7ser'ed some
pro'isions of the 0,#, and 0,B, constit(tions. Neither %7acha nor %7(7akar lifted
the decree s(spending the 0,#, constit(tion, and the 0,B, constit(tion &as not
implemented. 3he >(diciary system contin(ed to 7e hampered 7y corr(ption and lack
of reso(rces after %7achaJs death. In an attempt to alle'iate s(ch pro7lems
%7(7akarJs go'ernment implemented a ci'il ser'ice pay raise and other reforms.
In %(g(st 0,,B %7(7akar appointed the Independent National Electoral ommission
)INE+ to cond(ct elections for local go'ernment co(ncils, state legislat(res and
go'ernors, the national assem7ly, and president. 3he NE s(ccessf(lly held
elections on Decem7er $, 0,,B, Can(ary ,, 0,,,, Fe7r(ary 8", and Fe7r(ary 8#,
0,,,, respecti'ely. For local elections nine parties &ere granted pro'isional
registration &ith three f(lfilling the re6(irements to contest the follo&ing elections.
3hese parties &ere the DeopleJs Democratic Darty )DDD+, the %ll DeopleJs
Darty )%DD+, and the predominantly :or(7a %lliance for Democracy )%D+. Former
military head of state Ol(seg(n O7asan>o, freed from prison 7y %7(7akar, ran as a
ci'ilian candidate and &on the presidential election. 3he DA prom(lgated a ne&
constit(tion 7ased largely on the s(spended 0,#, constit(tion, 7efore the 9ay 8,,
0,,, ina(g(ration of the ne& ci'ilian president. 3he constit(tion incl(des pro'isions
for a 7icameral legislat(re, the National %ssem7ly consisting of a <H"*mem7er
Ho(se of Aepresentati'es and a 0",*mem7er 2enate.
/edit1Fo(rth Aep(7lic
3he emergence of democracy in Nigeria on 9ay 0,,, ended 0H years of
consec(ti'e military r(le. Ol(seg(n O7asan>o inherited a co(ntry s(ffering economic
stagnation and the deterioration of most democratic instit(tions. O7asan>o, a former
general, &as admired for his stand against the %7acha dictatorship, his record of
ret(rning the federal go'ernment to ci'ilian r(le in 0,#,, and his claim to represent
all Nigerians regardless of religion.
3he ne& Dresident took o'er a co(ntry that faced many pro7lems, incl(ding a
dysf(nctional 7(rea(cracy, collapsed infrastr(ct(re, and a military that &anted a
re&ard for ret(rning 6(ietly to the 7arracks. 3he Dresident mo'ed 6(ickly and retired
h(ndreds of military officers holding political positions, esta7lished a 7l(e*ri77on
panel to in'estigate h(man rights 'iolations, released scores of persons held &itho(t
charge, and rescinded n(mero(s 6(estiona7le licenses and contracts left 7y the
pre'io(s regimes. 3he go'ernment also mo'ed to reco'er millions of dollars in f(nds
secreted to o'erseas acco(nts.
9ost ci'il society leaders and Nigerians &itnessed marked impro'ements in h(man
rights and freedom of the press (nder O7asan>o. %s Nigeria &orks o(t
representational democracy, conflicts persist 7et&een the E5ec(ti'e and Gegislati'e
7ranches o'er appropriations and other proposed legislation. % sign of federalism
has 7een the gro&ing 'isi7ility of state go'ernors and the inherent friction 7et&een
%7(>a and the state capitals o'er reso(rce allocation.
/8"1
omm(nal 'iolence has plag(ed the O7asan>o go'ernment since its inception. In
9ay 0,,, 'iolence er(pted in =ad(na 2tate o'er the s(ccession of an Emir res(lting
in more than 0"" deaths. In No'em7er 0,,,, the army destroyed the to&n of
Odi, -ayelsa 2tate and killed scores of ci'ilians in retaliation for the m(rder of 08
policemen 7y a local gang. In =ad(na in Fe7r(ary*9ay 8""" o'er 0,""" people died
in rioting o'er the introd(ction of criminal 2harJia in the 2tate. H(ndreds of ethnic
Ha(sa &ere killed in reprisal attacks in so(theastern Nigeria. In 2eptem7er 8""0,
o'er 8,""" people &ere killed in inter*religio(s rioting in Cos. In Octo7er 8""0,
h(ndreds &ere killed and tho(sands displaced in comm(nal 'iolence that spread
across the states of -en(e, 3ara7a, and Nasara&a. On Octo7er 0, 8""0 O7asan>o
anno(nced the formation of a National 2ec(rity ommission to address the iss(e of
comm(nal 'iolence. O7asan>o &as reelected in 8""<.
3he ne& president faces the da(nting task of re7(ilding a petrole(m*7ased
economy, &hose re'en(es ha'e 7een s6(andered thro(gh corr(ption and
mismanagement. %dditionally, the O7asan>o administration m(st def(se
longstanding ethnic and religio(s tensions if it hopes to 7(ild a fo(ndation for
economic gro&th and political sta7ility. (rrently there is (nrest in theNiger
delta o'er the en'ironmental destr(ction ca(sed 7y oil drilling and the ongoing
po'erty in the oil*rich region.
% f(rther ma>or pro7lem created 7y the oil ind(stry is the drilling of pipelines 7y the
local pop(lation in an attempt to drain off the petrole(m for personal (se or as a
so(rce of income. 3his often leads to ma>or e5plosions and high death tolls.
/801
Dartic(larly nota7le disasters in this area ha'e 7een: 0+ Octo7er 0,,B, Cesse,
00"" deaths, 8+ C(ly 8""", Cesse, 8$" deaths, <+ 2eptem7er 8""4, near Gagos, H"
deaths, 4+ 9ay 8""H, Ilado, appro5. 0$"*8"" deaths )c(rrent estimate+.
/881
3&o militants of an (nkno&n faction shot and killed .sta? CaJafar %dam, a northern
9(slim religio(s leader and =ano 2tate official, along &ith one of his disciples in
a mos6(e in =anod(ring da&n prayers on 0< %pril 8""#. O7asan>o had recently
stated on national radio that he &o(ld ;deal firmly; &ith election fra(d and 'iolence
ad'ocated 7y ;highly placed indi'id(als.; His comments &ere interpreted 7y some
analysts as a &arning to his @ice Dresident and 8""# presidential candidate %tik(
%7(7akar.
/8<1
In the 8""# general election, .mar( :arJ%d(a and Eoodl(ck Conathan, 7oth of
the DeopleJs Democratic Darty, &ere elected Dresident and @ice Dresident,
respecti'ely. 3he election &as marred 7y electoral fra(d, and deno(nced 7y other
candidates and international o7ser'ers.
/841/8$1
/edit1:arad(aJs Disappearance
:arad(aJs presidency contin(es to 7e fra(t &ith (ncertainty as media reports say he
s(ffers from kidney and heart disease. In No'em7er 8"", he fell ill and &as flo&n
o(t of the co(ntry to 2a(di %ra7ia for medical attention. He remained
incomm(nicado for $" days, 7y &hich time r(mo(rs &ere rife that he had died. 3his
contin(ed (ntil the -- aired an inter'ie& that &as allegedly done 'ia telephone
from the presidents sick 7ed in 2a(di %ra7ia. %s at Can 8"0" he &as still a7road.
Early 9ay 8"0"M Eoodl(ck Conathan had 7een ser'ing as acting Dresident in the
a7sence of :arad(a. Information e'ent(ally de'eloped in 2a(di %ra7ia and &as
transferred to Nigerian go'ernment of :arJ%d(a death after a long 7attle &ith e5isting
health pro7lems and an (ndisclosed illness. 3his lack of comm(nication lea'es the
ne& acting Dresident Conathan &ith no kno&ledge of his predacessors plans and
e5isting implemented political actions. It is de7ata7le &hether Conathan &ill finish
:arad(aJs term, or call for political reform and ne& elections. 3he pre'io(s
presidentJs Ha(sa*F(lani 7ackgro(nd ga'e a m(ch higher s(pport 7asis in the
northern regions of Nigeria, &hile Eoodl(ck does not ha'e the same ethnic and
religio(s affiliations. 3his lack of primary ethnic s(pport makes Conathan a target for
militaristic o'erthro& or regional (prisings in the area. With the increase of reso(rce
spending and oil e5portation, Nigerian EDD and HDI )H(man De'elopment Inde5+
ha'e raised phenominally since the economically stagnant r(le of 2ani %7acha, 7(t
the primary pop(l(s still s(r'i'es on O )less than+ 8P .2D per day.