1

GEOMETRIC CORRECTION OF GEOMETRIC CORRECTION OF

REMOTELY SENSED IMAGERY REMOTELY SENSED IMAGERY
Scan Skew: Scan Skew: Caused by the forward motion if the platformduring the time Caused by the forward motion if the platformduring the time
required for each mirror sweep. The ground swath is not normal t required for each mirror sweep. The ground swath is not normal to o
the ground track but is slightly skewed, producing cross the ground track but is slightly skewed, producing cross- -scan scan
geometric distortion geometric distortion
Mirror Mirror- -Scan Velocity Variance: Scan Velocity Variance: The mirror scanning rate is usually not The mirror scanning rate is usually not
constant across a given scan, producing along constant across a given scan, producing along- -scan geometric scan geometric
distortion. distortion.
Panoramic Distortion: Panoramic Distortion: The ground area imaged is proportional to the tangent The ground area imaged is proportional to the tangent
of the scan angle rather than to the angle itself. Becausedata of the scan angle rather than to the angle itself. Becausedata are are
sampled at regular intervals, this produces along sampled at regular intervals, this produces along- -scan distortion scan distortion
Platform Velocity: Platform Velocity: If the speed of the platformchanges, the ground track If the speed of the platformchanges, the ground track
covered by successivemirror scans changes, producing along covered by successivemirror scans changes, producing along- -track track
scale distortion scale distortion
Earth Rotation: Earth Rotation: Earth rotates as the sensor scans the terrain. This results in a Earth rotates as the sensor scans the terrain. This results in a
shift of the ground swath being scanned, causing along shift of the ground swath being scanned, causing along- -scan scan
distortion. distortion.
Typesof Errors
Systematic Errors: Systematic Errors:
Corrected through analysis of system characteristics Corrected through analysis of system characteristics
and ephemeris and ephemeris
Altitude Variance: Altitude Variance: If the sensor platformdeparts fromits normal altitude If the sensor platformdeparts fromits normal altitude
or the terrain increases in elevation, this produces changes in or the terrain increases in elevation, this produces changes in scale scale
or pixel size or pixel size
Platform Attitude: Platform Attitude: One sensor systemaxis is usually maintained normal One sensor systemaxis is usually maintained normal
to Earth's surface and the other parallel to the spacecraft's to Earth's surface and the other parallel to the spacecraft's
direction of travel. If the sensor departs formthis attitude, direction of travel. If the sensor departs formthis attitude,
geometric distortion results. geometric distortion results.
Non Non- -Systematic Errors: Systematic Errors:
Corrected through the use of ground control points ( Corrected through the use of ground control points (GCP GCP s s) )
Ephemeris: Ephemeris: Any tabular statement of theassigned places of acelestial body Any tabular statement of theassigned places of acelestial bodyfor regular for regular
intervals ( intervals (Websters WebstersDict Dict.). For example, thesolar ephemeris provides theexact .). For example, thesolar ephemeris provides theexact
location of thesun at any given timeof theday or year. location of thesun at any given timeof theday or year.
Geocoding Geocoding: : Geographical referencing or coding of data. (J ensen, 1986) Geographical referencing or coding of data. (J ensen, 1986)
Ground Control Point (GCP): Ground Control Point (GCP): A specific pixel on an imageor location on amap whose A specific pixel on an imageor location on amap whose
geographic coordinates areknown. geographic coordinates areknown. GCP's GCP'sareused to correct geometric distortion areused to correct geometric distortion
in an imageby matching imagecoordinates with map coordinates. in an imageby matching imagecoordinates with map coordinates.
Linear Transformation: Linear Transformation: Thetransformation of coordinates fromonesystemto another Thetransformation of coordinates fromonesystemto another
(imageto map) using alinear algebraic (1st order polynomial) f (imageto map) using alinear algebraic (1st order polynomial) formula. ormula.
Non Non- -Linear Transformation: Linear Transformation: Thetransformation of coordinates fromonesystemto Thetransformation of coordinates fromonesystemto
another (imageto map) using anon another (imageto map) using anon- -linear algebraic (Nth order polynomial) linear algebraic (Nth order polynomial)
formula formula
Rectification: Rectification: Theprocess by which thegeometry of an imageis made Theprocess by which thegeometry of an imageis madeplanimetric planimetric. (Jensen, . (Jensen,
1986) 1986)
Registration: Theprocess of geometrically aligning two or more Registration: Theprocess of geometrically aligning two or moresets of imagedata sets of imagedata
such that resolution cells for asingleground areacan bedigit such that resolution cells for asingleground areacan bedigitally or visually ally or visually
superimposed. A map coordinatesystemmay not beinvolved. superimposed. A map coordinatesystemmay not beinvolved.
Definitions Definitions
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Resampling Resampling: : Theprocess of extrapolating datavalues to anew grid. Theprocess of extrapolating datavalues to anew grid. Resampling Resamplingis the is the
step in rectifying an imagethat calculates pixel values for the step in rectifying an imagethat calculates pixel values for therectified grid fromthe rectified grid fromthe
original datagrid. original datagrid.
Root Mean Square Error (RMS) : Root Mean Square Error (RMS) :TheRMS is theerror termused to determinethe TheRMS is theerror termused to determinethe
accuracy of thetransformation fromonecoordinatesystemto ano accuracy of thetransformation fromonecoordinatesystemto another. It is thedifference ther. It is thedifference
between thedesired output coordinatefor aGCP and theactual between thedesired output coordinatefor aGCP and theactual
RMS = SQRT ( (X RMS = SQRT ( (X X X
orig orig
) )
2 2
+ (Y + (Y Y Y
orig orig
) )
2 2
) )
Image to Ground Image to Ground Geocorrection Geocorrection: : Thecorrection of digital images to ground coordinates Thecorrection of digital images to ground coordinates
using ground control points collected frommaps or GPS. using ground control points collected frommaps or GPS.
Image to Image Image to Image Geocorrection Geocorrection: : Imageto Imagecorrection involves matching the Imageto Imagecorrection involves matching the
coordinatesystems of onedigital imageto another imageacting coordinatesystems of onedigital imageto another imageacting as amap reference. as amap reference.
Definitions (cont.) Definitions (cont.)
Orbital Characteristics Orbital Characteristics
Sun Synchronous orbits have a Sun Synchronous orbits have a
angle of inclination of 98.2 angle of inclination of 98.2
degrees from the equator. This degrees from the equator. This
results in a results in a non non- -vertical vertical
north orientation. north orientation.
Further, the Earth rotates on Further, the Earth rotates on
it it s axis from west to east as the s axis from west to east as the
imagery is collected. imagery is collected.
Imagery collected from Imagery collected from
sensors consist of a sensors consist of a
rectangular array of pixels rectangular array of pixels
which include the effects which include the effects
of earth rotation. of earth rotation.
Correction of scan lines to Correction of scan lines to
account for earth rotation account for earth rotation
consists of systematically consists of systematically
offsetting scans to the west. offsetting scans to the west.
Cross Cross- -Track Scan Errors Track Scan Errors
This type of error is a function This type of error is a function
of the distance from the sensor of the distance from the sensor
to the target, the instantaneous to the target, the instantaneous
field of view (IFOV), and the field of view (IFOV), and the
scan angle off nadir. scan angle off nadir.
This type of error is termed This type of error is termed
Tangential Tangential distortion as distortion as
compared to compared to Radial Radial
distortion present in analog distortion present in analog
aerial photographs. aerial photographs.
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Ground Control Points Ground Control Points
Landsat 30m ETM+ Image Landsat 30m ETM+ Image Quickbird Quickbird .7m Natural Color Image .7m Natural Color Image
The Landsat 30m ETM+ image represents the The Landsat 30m ETM+ image represents the unrectified unrectified dataset. The dataset. The
Quickbird Quickbird .7m image is being used as the geographic reference. The two .7m image is being used as the geographic reference. The two
images vary in spatial resolution. The reference image should b images vary in spatial resolution. The reference image should be at least as e at least as
resolute as the resolute as the unrectified unrectified image. image.
Ground Control Points Ground Control Points
Landsat 30m ETM+ Image Landsat 30m ETM+ Image Quickbird Quickbird .7m Natural Color Image .7m Natural Color Image
Ground control points are identified between the two images in r Ground control points are identified between the two images in recognizable ecognizable
locations. These points should be static relative to temporal c locations. These points should be static relative to temporal change. In this hange. In this
case road intersections are the best source of case road intersections are the best source of GCP GCP s s. Features that move . Features that move
through time (i.e. shorelines, etc.) should be avoided if possib through time (i.e. shorelines, etc.) should be avoided if possible. le.
Root Mean Square Error Root Mean Square Error
Using a minimum of 4 Using a minimum of 4 GCP GCP s s, the RMS error is computed as the , the RMS error is computed as the
distance between the input (source) location of a GCP and the distance between the input (source) location of a GCP and the
retransformed location for the same GCP. retransformed location for the same GCP.
R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

X

c
o
o
r
d
i
n
a
t
e
Source X Coordinate
X Residual
Y

R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l
RMS error
RMS error is calculated when enough GCP points are RMS error is calculated when enough GCP points are
collected to define the relationship between the source collected to define the relationship between the source
coordinate system and the reference. coordinate system and the reference.
R
i
= XR
i
+ YR
i
2 2
R
i
= RMS for GCP
i
XR = X residual for GCP
i
YR = Y residual for GCP
i
Calculation of Total RMS Calculation of Total RMS
i= GCP number
XR
i
= the X residual for GCP
i
YR
i
= the Y residual for GCP
i
R
x
= X RMS error
R
y
= Y RMS error
T= total RMS error
n= the number of GCPs
Where:
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Point Contribution to Total RMS Point Contribution to Total RMS
Where:
E
i
= error contribution of GCPi
R
i
= the RMS error for GCPi
T = total RMS error
This value reports the normalized contribution of individual This value reports the normalized contribution of individual GCP GCP s s to the to the
total RMS total RMS
Evaluating RMS Error Evaluating RMS Error
After each computation of a transformation and RMS error, there After each computation of a transformation and RMS error, there are are
four options: four options:
Throw out the GCP with the highest RMS error, assuming that thi Throw out the GCP with the highest RMS error, assuming that thi s s
GCP is the least accurate. This assumption should be tested by GCP is the least accurate. This assumption should be tested by
reviewing the location of the point on the image relative to the reviewing the location of the point on the image relative to the
reference. Do not take the high RMS for a point for granted. A reference. Do not take the high RMS for a point for granted. Also, if lso, if
this is the only point in a specific region of the image, removi this is the only point in a specific region of the image, removi ng the ng the
point may be problematic point may be problematic
Tolerate a higher amount of RMS error. If point removal or re Tolerate a higher amount of RMS error. If point removal or re- -
allignment allignment cannot be justified. cannot be justified.
Increase the complexity of transformation by increasing the ord Increase the complexity of transformation by increasing the order of er of
the polynomial. This is justified with imagery that is known t the polynomial. This is justified with imagery that is known t o have o have
non non- -linear distortion. Using a higher polynomial may also linear distortion. Using a higher polynomial may also over over- -fit fit
the estimate. the estimate.
Select only the points for which you have the most confidence. Select only the points for which you have the most confidence.
The nearest neighbor approach uses the value of the closest inpu The nearest neighbor approach uses the value of the closest input pixel for the t pixel for the
ouput ouput pixel value. To determine the nearest neighbor, the algorithm u pixel value. To determine the nearest neighbor, the algorithm uses the ses the
inverse of the transformation matrix to calculate the image file inverse of the transformation matrix to calculate the image file coordinates of the coordinates of the
desired geographic coordinate. The pixel value occupying the clo desired geographic coordinate. The pixel value occupying the closest image file sest image file
coordinate to the estimated coordinate will be used for the outp coordinate to the estimated coordinate will be used for the output pixel value in ut pixel value in
the the georeferenced georeferenced image. image.
Nearest Neighbor Nearest Neighbor Nearest Neighbor (cont.) Nearest Neighbor (cont.)
ADVANTAGES: ADVANTAGES:
Output values are the original input values. Other methods of Output values are the original input values. Other methods of resampling resampling
tend to average surrounding values. This may be an important tend to average surrounding values. This may be an important
consideration when discriminating between vegetation types or lo consideration when discriminating between vegetation types or locating cating
boundaries. boundaries.
Since original data are retained, this method is recommended bef Since original data are retained, this method is recommended before ore
classification. classification.
Easy to compute and therefore fastest to use Easy to compute and therefore fastest to use. .
DISADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES:
Produces a choppy, "stair Produces a choppy, "stair- -stepped" effect. The image has a rough stepped" effect. The image has a rough
appearance relative to the original appearance relative to the original unrectified unrectified data. data.
Data values may be lost, while other values may be duplicated. F Data values may be lost, while other values may be duplicated. Figure 1 igure 1
shows an input file (orange) with a yellow output file superimpo shows an input file (orange) with a yellow output file superimposed. Input sed. Input
values closest to the center of each output cell are sent to the values closest to the center of each output cell are sent to the output file to output file to
the right. Notice that values 13 and 22 are lost while values 14 the right. Notice that values 13 and 22 are lost while values 14 and 24 are and 24 are
duplicated. duplicated.
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Brightness valuematrix of unrectifiedimage
BV matrix of nearest neighbor resampled image
Unrectified raster image
Rectified using nearest neighbor resamp.
Nearest Neighbor (cont.) Nearest Neighbor (cont.) Nearest Neighbor (cont.) Nearest Neighbor (cont.)
The concept of the Nearest Neighbor is to geographically locate The concept of the Nearest Neighbor is to geographically locate the the
nearest pixel in the input file to the output file pixel locatio nearest pixel in the input file to the output file pixel location. n.
The bilinear interpolation approach uses the weighted average of the
nearest four pixels to the output pixel.
Bilinear Interpolation Bilinear Interpolation
BV
wt
=

Z
k
D
2
k
K = 1
4

1
D
2
k
K = 1
4
Where:
Z = Surrounding 4 data points
D = Distance to each point
ADVANTAGES: ADVANTAGES:
Stair Stair- -step effect caused by the nearest neighbor approach is step effect caused by the nearest neighbor approach is
reduced. Image looks smooth. reduced. Image looks smooth.
DISADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES:
Alters original data and reduces contrast by averaging Alters original data and reduces contrast by averaging
neighboring values together. neighboring values together.
Is computationally more expensive than nearest neighbor. Is computationally more expensive than nearest neighbor.
Bilinear Interpolation (cont.) Bilinear Interpolation (cont.)
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Unrectifiedraster image
Rectified using bilinear interpolation
resampling. Noticethedark edgecells
created by averaging zero values located
around theperimeter of theouput fileinto
real datavalues
Bilinear Interpolation (cont.) Bilinear Interpolation (cont.)
Brightness valuematrix of unrectifiedimage
BV matrix of nearest neighbor resampled image
Cubic Convolution Cubic Convolution
The cubic convolution approach uses the weighted average of the nearest
sixteen pixels to the output pixel. The output is similar to bilinear
interpolation, but the smoothing effect caused by the averaging of surrounding
input pixel values is more dramatic.
BV
wt
=

Z
k
D
2
k
K = 1
16

1
D
2
k
K = 1
16
Where:
Z = Surrounding 4 data points
D = Distance to each point
ADVANTAGES:
Stair-step effect caused by the nearest neighbor approach is
reduced. Image looks smooth.
DISADVANTAGES:
Alters original data and reduces contrast by averaging neighboring
values together.
Is computationally more expensive than nearest neighbor or
bilinear interpolation.
Cubic Convolution (cont.) Cubic Convolution (cont.)
Unrectifiedraster image
Rectified using cubic convolution
resampling. Noticethedark edgecells
created by averaging zero values located
around theperimeter of theouput fileinto
real datavalues
Brightness value matrix of unrectified image
BV matrix of cubic convol. resampled image
Cubic Convolution (cont.) Cubic Convolution (cont.)
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Nearest Neighbor subtracted from Bilinear Interpolation Nearest Neighbor subtracted from Bilinear Interpolation
2.7 2.3 76 0 7
0.6 0.4 8 0 6
4.0 3.5 69 0 5
3.3 2.8 65 0 4
3.0 2.2 113 0 3
2.0 1.2 92 0 2
3.2 2.2 98 0 1
stdv mean max min band
Nearest Neighbor subtracted from Cubic Convolution Nearest Neighbor subtracted from Cubic Convolution
3.1 2.7 73 0 7
0.7 0.6 9 0 6
4.7 4.2 90 0 5
3.9 3.4 66 0 4
3.5 2.6 133 0 3
2.3 1.5 105 0 2
3.6 2.6 116 0 1
stdv mean max min band
Bilinear Interpolation subtracted from Cubic Convolution Bilinear Interpolation subtracted from Cubic Convolution
1.5 1.4 46 0 7
0.4 0.2 3 0 6
2.3 2.2 41 0 5
1.9 1.7 35 0 4
1.7 1.4 46 0 3
1.2 0.8 51 0 2
1.8 1.3 52 0 1
stdv mean max min band
2.7 2.3 76 0 7
0.6 0.4 8 0 6
4.0 3.5 69 0 5
3.3 2.8 65 0 4
3.0 2.2 113 0 3
2.0 1.2 92 0 2
3.2 2.2 98 0 1
stdv mean max min band
3.1 2.7 73 0
0.7 0.6 9 0
4.7 4.2 90 0
3.9 3.4 66 0
3.5 2.6 133 0
2.3 1.5 105 0
3.6 2.6 116 0
stdv mean max min
1.5 1.4 46 0
0.4 0.2 3 0
2.3 2.2 41 0
1.9 1.7 35 0
1.7 1.4 46 0
1.2 0.8 51 0
1.8 1.3 52 0
stdv mean max min
NN NN - - BL BL
NN NN - - CC CC
BL BL - - CC CC