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Cells and Diffusion
Water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen are among the few simple molecules that can cross the cell membrane by
diffusion (or a type of diffusion known as osmosis ). Diffusion is one principle method of movement of
substances within cells, as well as the method for essential small molecules to cross the cell membrane. Gas
exchange in gills and lungs operates by this process. Carbon dioxide is produced by all cells as a result of
cellular metabolic processes. Since the source is inside the cell, the concentration gradient is constantly being
replenished/re-elevated, thus the net flow of CO
2
is out of the cell. Metabolic processes in animals and plants
usually require oxygen, which is in lower concentration inside the cell, thus the net flow of oxygen is into the
cell.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a semi-permeable (or differentially permeable or selectively permeable)
membrane. The cell membrane, along with such things as dialysis tubing and cellulose acetate sausage casing, is
such a membrane. The presence of a solute decreases the water potential of a substance. Thus there is more
water per unit of volume in a glass of fresh-water than there is in an equivalent volume of sea-water. In a cell,
which has so many organelles and other large molecules, the water flow is generally into the cell.
Animated image/movie illustrating osmosis (water is the red dots) and the selective permeability of a membrane
(blue dashed line). Image from the Internet. Click on image to view movie.
Hypertonic solutions are those in which more solute (and hence lower water potential) is
present. Hypotonic solutions are those with less solute (again read as higher water potential).Isotonic solutions
have equal (iso-) concentrations of substances. Water potentials are thus equal, although there will still be equal
amounts of water movement in and out of the cell, the net flow is zero.

Water relations and cell shape in blood cells. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with
permission.

Water relations in a plant cell. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer
Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
One of the major functions of blood in animals is the maintain an isotonic internal environment. This eliminates
the problems associated with water loss or excess water gain in or out of cells. Again we return
to homeostasis. Paramecium and other single-celled freshwater organisms have difficulty since they are usually
hypertonic relative to their outside environment. Thus water will tend to flow across the cell membrane,
swelling the cell and eventually bursting it. Not good for any cell! The contractile vacuole is
the Paramecium's response to this problem. The pumping of water out of the cell by this method requires energy
since the water is moving against the concentration gradient. Since ciliates (and many freshwater protozoans)
are hypotonic, removal of water crossing the cell membrane by osmosis is a significant problem. One commonly
employed mechanism is a contractile vacuole. Water is collected into the central ring of the vacuole and actively
transported from the cell.

The functioning of a contractile vacuole in Paramecium. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology,
4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with
permission.
Active and Passive Transport | Back to Top
Passive transport requires no energy from the cell. Examples include the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide,
osmosis of water, and facilitated diffusion.

Types of passive transport. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer
Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Active transport requires the cell to spend energy, usually in the form of ATP. Examples include transport of
large molecules (non-lipid soluble) and the sodium-potassium pump.

Types of active transport. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer
Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Carrier-assisted Transport | Back to Top
The transport proteins integrated into the cell membrane are often highly selective about the chemicals they
allow to cross. Some of these proteins can move materials across the membrane only when assisted by the
concentration gradient, a type of carrier-assisted transport known as facilitated diffusion. Both diffusion and
facilitated diffusion are driven by the potential energy differences of a concentration gradient. Glucose enters
most cells by facilitated diffusion. There seem to be a limiting number of glucose-transporting proteins. The
rapid breakdown of glucose in the cell (a process known as glycolysis) maintains the concentration gradient.
When the external concentration of glucose increases, however, the glucose transport does not exceed a certain
rate, suggesting the limitation on transport.
In the case of active transport, the proteins are having to move against the concentration gradient. For example
the sodium-potassium pump in nerve cells. Na
+
is maintained at low concentrations inside the cell and K
+
is at
higher concentrations. The reverse is the case on the outside of the cell. When a nerve message is propagated,
the ions pass across the membrane, thus sending the message. After the message has passed, the ions must be
actively transported back to their "starting positions" across the membrane. This is analogous to setting up 100
dominoes and then tipping over the first one. To reset them you must pick each one up, again at an energy cost.
Up to one-third of the ATP used by a resting animal is used to reset the Na-K pump.
Types of transport molecules | Back to Top
Uniport transports one solute at a time. Symport transports the solute and a cotransported solute at the same time
in the same direction. Antiport transports the solute in (or out) and the co-transported solute the opposite
direction. One goes in the other goes out or vice-versa.
Vesicle-mediated transport | Back to Top
Vesicles and vacuoles that fuse with the cell membrane may be utilized to release or transport chemicals out of
the cell or to allow them to enter a cell. Exocytosis is the term applied when transport is out of the cell.

This GIF animation is from http://www.stanford.edu/group/Urchin/GIFS/exocyt.gif. Note the vesicle on the left,
and how it fuses with the cell membrane on the right, expelling the vesicle's contents to the outside of the cell.
Endocytosis is the case when a molecule causes the cell membrane to bulge inward, forming a
vesicle. Phagocytosis is the type of endocytosis where an entire cell is engulfed. Pinocytosis is when the external
fluid is engulfed. Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when the material to be transported binds to certain
specific molecules in the membrane. Examples include the transport of insulin and cholesterol into animal cells.

Endocytosis and exocytosis. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer
Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.