EQ 83.

4 (2011), 308320
1 C. C. Caragounis, Kingdom of God / Kingdom of Heaven, in Joel B. Green, S. McKnight,
and I. Howard Marshall, eds., Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels (Leicester: Inter-
Varsity Press, 1992), 417-30, here 425.
2 Oliver ODonovan, The Desire of the Nations: Rediscovering the Roots of Political
Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 3.
3 G. R. Beasley-Murray, Jesus and the Kingdom of God, The Baptist Quarterly, 32
(1987), 141-47, here 141-42.
To what extent does Jesus teaching about
the Kingdom of God provide a helpful basis
for Christian socio-political thinking today?
Wesley S. Chiang
Wesley Chiang has recently completed his MA in Transformation at London School of
Theology and is currently preparing for ministry amongst university students in East
Asia.
KEY WORDS: Kingdom of God, sociology, politics, Jesus, impetus, limits, goals, cross-
cultural dialogue.
Introduction
The Kingdom of God (KG) is clearly at the heart of Jesus teaching, appearing 103
times in the Synoptic Gospels,
1
with implications for repentance and forgive-
ness, the Incarnation, the sharing of the life of Godhead in the Spirit, justifica-
tion and adoption, creation and the renewal of the world, the life of the Church
and its ministry of word and sacrament.
2
Given the quantity of material pertain-
ing to the KG and its varied nature, and rather than attempting an analysis of
the KG and then drawing out material relating to socio-political thinking, our
approach in this essay is oriented around the questions raised by potential theo-
rists and practitioners of socio-political action. To what extent does Jesus answer
questions as to whether Christians should be involved socio-politically? Does
he provide answers concerning why they should be involved? What is the scope
of this activity, spatially and temporally? How specific is Jesus with regard to the
implementation of socio-political systems, e.g. the natures of the systems to be
established and the processes involved in enacting change? Are there guidelines
for the attitudes of socio-political actors? A comprehensive basis for socio-polit-
ical thinking would require answers to all these questions. It is by examining Je-
sus teaching on the KG with regard to each of these questions that a conclusion
can be reached as to the helpfulness to Christian socio-political thinking today.
Methodologically, the danger of the approach adopted in this essay is that
it will be used in a self-affirming manner and reduce Jesus teaching on the KG
(defined as Gods exercise of royal power amongst his people)
3
to socio-political
Sculpting in time EQ 309
categories, eliminating transcendent elements.
4
The attempt below is to inter-
pret the Bible in ways recognisable to the initial readers as well as to address
todays socio-politics.
Actors in socio-politics
Parables such as the mustard seed (Mark 4:30-32) and the yeast in flour (Matt.
13:33), and the prayer that Gods Kingdom would come (Matt. 6:10), suggest that
God is the sole actor in implementing the KG, whatever socio-political implica-
tions the KG may have (as will be explored below). This is the line argued by
commentators such as Taylor, who deny that Christians should labour on behalf
of the Kingdom, despite the idea being a noble conception. The KG should in-
stead be seen as a miracle from God.
5
However, as Marshall observes, Jesus did
not teach his disciples to be passive observers of Gods work. During his minis-
try, the Twelve and Seventy were called to share in his work, performing signs
of the KGs presence.
6
In Matt. 28:20, the disciples are charged to teach future
generations of disciples to practise Jesus teachings, including his socio-political
instructions. God and Christians are both involved in building the KG. Although
it is Gods performance, Christians are called to be actively involved.
7
Impetus for involvement
C. Wright Mills, in The Sociological Imagination (1959), drew attention to the
way in which people are not free-floating individuals, but rather shaped, or
trapped by forces in society beyond their control. Max Weber called the condi-
tion of humans in a bureaucratic world that of an iron cage.
8
Not only are peo-
ple trapped, but their perceptions of social realities are also constrained by their
social contexts.
9
They do not understand the reasons for their conduct.
10
If these
understandings are correct, then not only is there nothing that humans can do
to change society, but even the motivation for changing society is taken away. If
4 Cf. Anthony C. Thiselton, New Horizons in Hermeneutics (London: HarperCollins,
1992), 410.
5 Vincent Taylor, Jesus and His Sacrice: A Study of the Passion Sayings in the Gosples
(London: Macmillan, 1937), 10.
6 I. Howard Marshall, The Hope of a New Age: the Kingdom of God in the New
Testament, Themelios, 11 (1985), 5-15, here 13.
7 Bruce Chilton and J. I. H. McDonald, Jesus and the Ethics of the Kingdom (London:
SPCK, 1987), 119.
8 Lawrence A. Scaff, Max Weber, in Rob Stones, ed., Key Sociological Thinkers
(Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998), 34-45, quote 38.
9 Richard Perkins, Looking Both Ways: Exploring the Interface Between Christianity and
Sociology (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1987), 26.
10 Zygmunt Bauman, Sociology, in Adam Kuper and Jessica Kuper (eds.), The Social
Science Encyclopedia (London: Routledge, 1995), 818-27, here 821.
310 EQ Wesley S. Chiang
ones perception of injustice is merely shaped by ones context, the drive to take
action is much reduced.
Jesus recognised this moulding effect of society, as can be seen in the opening
words of each antithesis (Matt. 5:21-44), You have heard it said, and the every-
day life settings of the parables. However, he then proceeds to introduce real
change: change to the way the law is to be regarded (fulfilled in him), and twists
in the parables, leading to changes in ways of thinking and action. Jesus sermon
in Luke 4, a manifesto of the Kingdom,
11
declares his intention to bring good
news to the poor, release the captives and free the oppressed. The reality of his
society is that there were oppressors and forces holding people captive. Jesus is
not trapped though. Later, in Luke 7:22, Jesus declares to John the Baptist that
the manifesto is being fulfilled in his person. In Matt. 28:18-20, Jesus declares
that all authority has been given to him and that his disciples now have his man-
date to continue his iron cage busting activity in all nations.
Since 1965, a consensus has been reached by a broad range of scholars in-
cluding Trilling, Kmmel, Jeremias, Ladd, Marshall, Beasley-Murray, Saucy and
Blaising that Jesus was inaugurating the KG in his ministry.
12
Both the fact that
God was already active in establishing his reign in Christ, and that this reign was
to be completed in the future, are empowering factors in pursuing socio-political
change. The long period of exile and subsequent domination by Persian, Greek
and Roman empires led to the development of the Jewish eschatological hope
that God would exercise justice and salvation on earth, delivering his people,
bringing peace and righteousness and the defeat of death itself. Jesus message
was that the time of waiting was over. God had begun to act.
13
From the genea-
logical association with king David at the start of his gospel, the confirmation
of his status as king of the Jews to Pilate, to the attribution of sovereignty over
heaven and earth at the end, Matthew consistently paints a picture of Christs
authority over politics and society, an authority that he now invites his followers
to share in. Padilla argued that it is because the Christ who the church confessed
as Lord has been enthroned as king, with universal Lordship, that the church has
a basis for its activities.
14
Gods actions in history give hope to what he will carry
on doing in the future.
15
That God has been active in the past, defeating the powers of evil through
Jesus death and then vindicating him through the resurrection, is inadequate
11 Although there is no specic mention of the KG in 4:16-30, the reference at 4:43
should be seen as a summary statement, implying that Jesus previous ministry was
also concerned with the KG: Caragounis, Kingdom, 428.
12 Marshall, Hope, 5; Craig L. Blomberg, A Response to G.. R. Beasley-Murray on the
Kingdom, Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, 35 (1992), 31-36, here 32.
13 Beasley-Murray, Jesus, 141-42.
14 C. Rene Padilla, The Mission of the Church in Light of the Kingdom of God,
Transformation: An International Journal of Holistic Mission Studies, 1 (1984), 16-20,
esp. 18.
15 Marshall, Hope, 12.
Jesus' teaching about the Kingdom of God EQ 311
as motivation towards socio-political action. The reality is that evil still abounds.
As Wright described it, on the first Easter Monday evil still stalked the earth from
Jerusalem to Gibraltar and beyond, and stalks it still.
16
It was reflecting on the
realities of war and suffering that led Moltmann into seeing the grounds of so-
cio-political action to be based on eschatological hope: From first to last, and
not merely in the epilogue, Christianity is eschatology, is hope, forward looking
and forward moving, and therefore also revolutionising and transforming the
present.
17
The future ultimate realities transform the way Christians see present
day realities. The present will be judged by the future.
18
It is because the king-
dom is at hand that the church is able to gather, to free itself from slavery and
move from the ghetto into society.
19
Not only are Christians empowered by hope grounded on Gods past and
promised future activity, but the task is urgent. The parable of the ten virgins,
talents and judgment of the sheep and goats (Matt. 25), show that the king will
return unexpectedly and will hold his people responsible for the way in which
they have reached out to the poor and needy in society. There is an immediate
need for the church to turn from self-centredness and outwards to the broken
world outside Gods reign.
20
Furthermore, God is at work today in the person of the Spirit. Like the KG,
the giving of the Spirit was an OT eschatological promise.
21
Cray argues that the
close association of the giving of the Kingdom and the Spirit in Luke 11:2, 13 and
12:32 presents the Spirit as the presentness of the coming kingdom, and that
the Spirit is the executive, ambassador, or steward of the Kingdom: his power
and authority are those of the King; his operation is the exercise of kingly rule.
22

This understanding of the Spirits work means that Christians are empowered
for socio-political engagement by the observation of Gods work in history, the
Spirits performance in the present and the hope of Gods perfecting activity in
the future.
Returning to the trap/cage of Mills and Weber, the above analysis of Jesus
teachings shows a firm basis to motivate Christians into socio-political activity.
As Lochman wrote, We are no longer prisoners of an omnipotent fate no long-
16 Nicholas Thomas Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God: Christian Origins and the
Question of God, Vol 2 (London: SPCK, 1996), 659.
17 Jrgen, Moltmann, Theology of Hope: On the Ground and the Implications of a
Christian Eschatology (London: SCM Press, 1967), 16.
18 Wan, S.-k. Wan, Kingdom of God, in William A. Dyrness and Veli-Matti Krkkinen,
eds., Global Dictionary of Theology (Nottingham: Inter-Varsity Press, 2008), 453-59,
here 457.
19 Jrgen Moltmann, The Church in the Power of the Spirit: A Contribution to Messianic
Ecclesiology (London: SCM Press, 1977), 83.
20 Paul G. Hiebert, Evangelism, Church, and Kingdom, in Charles Van Engen, Dean S.
Gilliland and Paul Pierson, eds., The Good News of the Kingdom: Mission Theology for
the Third Millennium (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1993), 153-161, here 160.
21 Marshall, Hope, 10.
22 Graham Cray, A Theology of the Kingdom, Transformation, 5 (1988), 24-31, quote 29.
312 EQ Wesley S. Chiang
er completely at the mercy of sinful entanglements and destructive structures.
23

Or more positively, Barth described this as the freedom of the KG, one in which
disciples are able to identify with the poor and the outcast, and ignore or over-
look the rich and powerful, to move within and under established orders and
structures and have total freedom from any final dependence on them.
24
The
effects of this freedom can be seen sociologically, cf. Webers discovery of a dis-
tinct orientation towards action in Protestant Western societies, when compared
with Chinese, Indian and ancient Judaic religions and cultures.
25
Furthermore,
as Jesus is above all structures and societies, his teachings are not relativised by
any social contexts, providing confidence in enacting his ways.
There is no time or spatial limit to this involvement, apart from the second
coming of Christ. As long as there is still a need to pray for Gods kingdom to
come and for his will to be done on earth as in heaven, Christians will continue
to be the answer to their own prayers (cf. the prayer that harvesters will be sent
out in Matt. 9:38 and the twelve being sent out in 10:5-10). Christians will be
active in every sphere of society to the limits of their competency, including eco-
nomics, sociology and politics.
26
It is in this way that Christians can participate
in Christs assertion of sovereignty over the whole domain of our human exist-
ence.
27
Ultimate goal
Following in the footsteps of Hegel and Marx, Francis Fukuyama (The End of
History and the Last Man, 2006) gave his own definition for the culminating de-
velopment of human society: liberal democracy. This is a poor goal compared to
that envisioned by Jesus in his KG teaching. Deliverance for the poor, oppressed
and captives has been mentioned above. Stassen and Gushee argue that Jesus
saw his ministry as essentially fulfilling the prophecies of Isaiah, with the fol-
lowing key characteristics of the KG: deliverance/salvation, righteousness/jus-
tice, peace, joy, Gods presence, healing and return from exile.
28
In todays par-
lance, this indicates the end of exploitation, injustice, inequality, war, racism,
nationalism, suffering, death, and the ignorance of God.
29
This is a much more
23 Jan Milic Lochman, Church and World in the Light of the Kingdom of God, in
Gennadios Limouris, ed., Church, Kingdom, World: The Church as Mystery and
Prophetic Sign (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1986), 58-72, here 67.
24 Robert E. Willis, The Ethics of Karl Barth (Leiden: Brill, 1971), 207-8.
25 Scaff, Weber, 37.
26 Carl F. H. Henry, Reections on the Kingdom of God, Journal of the Evangelical
Theological Society, 35 (1992), 39-49, here 47.
27 Abraham Kuyper, Abraham Kuyper: A Centennial Reader, ed. James D Bratt, (Carlisle:
Paternoster, 1998), 461.
28 Glen H. Stassen and David P. Gushee, Kingdom Ethics: Following Jesus in Contemporary
Context (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 25.
29 Arthur F. Glasser, The Evolution of Evangelical Mission Theology Since World War II,
International Bulletin of Missionary Research, 9 (1985), 9-13, here 12.
Jesus' teaching about the Kingdom of God EQ 313
holistic challenge for Christian socio-political thinking than that advanced by
Fukuyama, relating to the full range of interactions between individuals, com-
munities and political states.
Prerequisites for socio-political action
Jesus began his ministry by declaring that the KG was near and calling people to
repentance. A danger of socio-political involvement is that of seeing oneself as
righteous and attaching labels of evil to others. It is easy to forget the universal
fallenness of humans and all human structures, resulting in the pursuing of hu-
man aspirations rather than Gods kingdom. In fact, the KG passes judgement on
them.
30
It is necessary for Christians to repent of their own sins as well as their
involvement in oppressive systems. This repentance will not be merely affec-
tive, but will represent the turning from evil in all its forms (such as pain, sick-
ness, death, demon-possession, personal sin and immorality, self-righteousness
of those who claim to know God, maintenance of special class privileges and
brokenness of human relationships) and an active belief in Gods saving power
against each evil.
31
Before Jesus sent his disciples out (Matt. 10:5), he taught them to pray for
Gods kingdom (6:10). By continuing to pray, the church is reminded that the
kingdom is Gods work and has not been realised in the church itself. Christians
are also sustained in their pursuance of the KG regardless of the tribulations that
may befall them.
32
Barth saw the act of prayer itself as the initial act of insurrec-
tion against the evil powers of the world.
33
Zhao Zichen saw self-cultivation as the means to societal transformation.
Although this is likely to represent the reading of Confucian beliefs into scrip-
ture in the context of the crisis faced by China in the early twentieth century,
34
it
is similar to Ladds understanding of social ethics being grounded on personal
ethics.
35
The declaration that the disciples righteousness had to exceed that of
the Pharisees (Matt. 5:20) and the warning against removing the speck from
the brothers eye before removing ones own plank (Matt. 7:1-5) would appear
to support this assertion. The danger, though, is that the focus will be on indi-
vidual ethics. The Greek text shows that Jesus injunctions to the disciples are
consistently in the plural. Hauerwas stressed that the high morals required by
Jesus (such as those of non-retaliation) can only be lived out in community.
36

30 Lochman, Church, 63.
31 David Jacobus Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission
(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991), 32-33.
32 Lochman, Church, 67-68.
33 Ibid, 64.
34 Wan, Kingdom, 454.
35 George Eldon Ladd, Jesus and the Kingdom: The Eschatology of Biblical Realism
(London: Harper & Brothers, 1964), 299.
36 Stanley Hauerwas, The Sermon on the Mount, Just War and the Quest for Peace,
Concilium, 195 (1988), 36-43, here 40.
314 EQ Wesley S. Chiang
The sociologists are right about the formative effects of communities. Plurality
and community are implicit in the word kingdom, with Jesus being concerned
to gather a people, a restored Israel, a community of disciples, rather than a col-
lection of isolated individuals.
37
Fung argues that community is the basic Chris-
tian identity when relating to the world, that this is the means of tying together
personal devotion, pastoral support, political involvement, public witness and
social activity.
38
The community of the church is essential not just for forma-
tive purposes, but also for mission. The church transforms society by modelling
kingdom values. It must exemplify inclusivity if it is to have the moral right to
speak to the state concerning integration. It needs to be engaged in prisoner
care to have deeper insights into penal reform.
39
Personal character is a prereq-
uisite to socio-political activity, as is a mutually supporting community.
Jesus also taught attitudes towards KG activity. On at least two occasions the
disciples are shown to be preoccupied with status in the KG. In Matt. 18:1-6 Jesus
points to emulation of a child (in terms of him being at the command of others)
as their model of humility. In addition, it was seemingly insignificant people,
such as a child, that the disciples were to be concerned with.
40
Later (Matt. 20:25-
28) Jesus repudiated an understanding of participating in the KG as a means to
gain status. Instead, Jesus mandated servanthood, a radically different approach
to the power-exalting approaches of secular rulers.
These attitudes, that would have been shocking to the original hearers, coun-
sel against presumption in discerning the workings of the KG. The unobtru-
sive nature of the KGs growth (Mark 4:26-29) suggests that whereas the name
William Wilberforce and the date 1807 can be associated with the abolition of
slavery, in most cases the advance of the KG will not be so clearly discerned in
wider socio-political arenas. Yoder warns against the need to see ones own ac-
tions alongside discernment of the Kingdom in history, seeing this temptation
as underlying the crusades. The significance of ones deeds should not be de-
termined by whether they can be seen to contribute to some victory scenario.
41

Jesus himself stressed that knowledge concerning the KG was secret, except to
those to which it had been given (Matt. 13:11-7). Christians are called to a whole
new way of perceiving before they can be effectively involved socio-politically.
Stassen and Gushee argue, on the basis of Matt. 6:21-24, where attitudes towards
money shape the whole way of seeing and being, that the way in which people
37 Gerhard Lohnk, Jesus and Community: The Social Dimension of Christian Faith
(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), 27; Ben Wiebe, Messianic Ethics: Response to
the Kingdom of God, Interpretation, 45 (1991), 29-42, here 31.
38 Raymond Fung, The Kingdom of God as Strategy for Mission, International Review of
Mission, 68 (1979), 102-8, here 105.
39 John Howard Yoder, The Christian Witness to the State (Newton: Faith and Life, 1964),
19-22.
40 ODonovan, Desire, 106.
41 John H.Yoder, Discerning the Kingdom of God in the Struggles of the World,
International Review of Mission, 68 (1979), 366-372, here 371.
Jesus' teaching about the Kingdom of God EQ 315
see things more generally is also shaped by their interests and loyalties. It is es-
sential to have biblically grounded understanding of the powers and authority,
human nature and sin, historical insight into possibilities of social change and a
desire for true knowledge, combined with a willingness to change. This new way
of seeing requires genuine humility.
42
Chilton and McDonald further point out that becoming like a child also
avoids the despair, cynicism and disintegration that frequently arise in later
stages of human development, as is particularly likely when heavily involved in
socio-political activity.
43
Implications for socio-political systems
Politics is the study of three main areas: the type of sovereignty in a state, the
process of change and the functions of government.
44
When merged with socio-
logical concerns, these become the type of socio-political system, the means of
introducing change to these systems and social action relating to the govern-
ment. To assess the extent to which Jesus teachings on the KG address socio-
political systems, each of these areas is explored in turn.
Types of socio-political system
In the first area, types of socio-political systems can be categorised according
to their position along two axes, one of economics (corresponding to a liberal/
capitalism-communism spectrum) and the other of political governance (with
a spectrum from democracy to dictatorship). Fukuyamas ideal embraces the
democratic-capitalist corner. Mao era China espoused the opposite, the dicta-
torship-communist, corner. Is it possible to pin Jesus position down in a similar
manner?
On the economics axis, Weber argued for a close affinity between capitalism
and Protestantism. Does this mean that Jesus teaching also favours capitalism?
Schluter observes that the economic growth associated with capitalism is gener-
ally regarded as the purpose as well as the means of social change.
45
The econo-
mist William Easterly describes a wider vision, seeing the well-being of societies,
the saving of dying babies, starving children, and oppression of women and the
downtrodden, as dependent on making poor countries rich.
46
This vision resem-
bles elements of the goals of the KG. However, Schluter stressed that evaluation
42 Stassen, Kingdom, 64-67.
43 Chilton, Jesus, 130.
44 William Kerby, Sociology, The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 14. New York: Robert
Appleton Company, 1912, accessed 2 Feb. 2010 <http://www.newadvent.org/
cathen/14115a.htm>.
45 Michael Schluter, What Charter for Humanity? Dening the Destination of
Development, Cambridge Papers, 15 (2006), 1.
46 William Easterly, The Elusive Quest for Growth: Economists Adventures and
Misadventures in the Tropics (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002), 15.
316 EQ Wesley S. Chiang
of economic systems cannot be merely based on the outcomes, but that the un-
derlying social philosophies and the functioning of constituent institutions also
need to be examined. Whereas Jesus priority is relational, that of right relation-
ships with God and other people (Mark 12:28-34), capitalisms basis is centred
on business profit and individual gain. Jesus termed this idolatry of Mammon
(Matt. 6:24). Whereas it could be argued that Adam Smiths understanding was
one of enlightened self-interest, restrained by Judeo-Christian morality, the re-
ality of capitalism today indicates that the operating philosophy in the markets
is no longer that of the original theorist. In addition, there are no constraints on
its key institutions: the banks, exchange markets or corporations, to protect the
socially vulnerable.
47
Such a system seems far from Jesus teaching.
On the other end of the spectrum, Jesus teaching that his disciples should
sell all they had to give to the poor (Luke 6:30; 12:33; 14:33) appears to have af-
finities with communism. Miranda asserted that Jesus was indeed the origina-
tor of communism and that a condition of being a disciple was communism.
48

Unfortunately for Miranda, the biblical evidence appears to be mixed. Although
some disciples did give up everything to follow Jesus (Luke 5:11, 28), others did
not (e.g. Zacchaeus, Luke 19:1-10). Schmidt has shown that a more satisfactory
reading of the texts relating to wealth is that wealth should never be allowed
to impede ones relationship with God, or following his will.
49
Furthermore, Mi-
randas thesis is based on a realised eschatological understanding, that since the
KG has already come in full, private property should be abolished.
50
As discussed
above, the scholarly consensus is now one of inaugurated, not realised escha-
tology. Although some communities may choose communist lifestyles, this is
not the expectation for all disciples. For broader socio-political implications,
Miranda himself states that communism is only compulsory for the Christian,
meaning that imposition on the wider society is without biblical warrant.
51
Does the elimination of the two extremes of the economic axis imply that an
intermediate point, such as a more mild form of socialism, should be adopt-
ed? This is the position taken by Moltmann, who saw socialism as the solution
to bring justice to the poor, weak and exploited.
52
This was also Barths initial
stance. He did not move away from this position on the spectrum, but his under-
standing of the KG as wholly other, meant that he no longer saw the Religious
Socialist movements activities as directly working for the KG. Socialism was to
47 Michael Schluter, Is Capitalism Morally Bankrupt? Five Moral Flaws and Their Social
Consequences, Cambridge Papers, 18, (2009), 2-3.
48 Jose P. Miranda, Communism in the Bible (London: SCM Press, 1982), 7-8.
49 Thomas E. Schmidt, Hostility to Wealth in the Synoptic Gospels (Shefeld: JSOT Press,
1987), 135-62.
50 Miranda, Communism, 14-15.
51 Ibid, 10.
52 Jrgen Moltmann, The Crucied God: The Cross of Christ as the Foundation and
Criticism of Christian Theology (London: SCM Press, 1974), 332.
Jesus' teaching about the Kingdom of God EQ 317
be seen as a parable for the coming kingdom, but not the kingdom itself.
53
The
otherness of the KG is discussed further below.
On the politics axis, although it is generally maintained in the West today
(and even more broadly, cf. the full name of North Korea: Democratic Peoples
Republic of Korea) that good government must mean some kind of democracy,
in previous centuries the opposite view prevailed, that of governance by a wise
monarch, or enlightened aristocracy. The political philosopher, David Miller,
considers this change to be based on certain preconditions of democracy that
have been met in recent decades, including literacy, mass media enabling free
circulation of ideas and a well-functioning legal system.
54
Is the development
of political systems merely dependent on other facets of society (or culture, as
assumed by the Singaporean elder statesman Lee Kuan Yew),
55
meaning that
Christians need not take any stand on this issue, or do Jesus teachings on the
KG specifically support democracy, oligarchy or a benevolent dictatorship?
The answer must begin by deconstructing the false dichotomy in the ques-
tion. Even without considering what Jesus teachings imply for specific political
systems, it is clear that they address the societal conditions that feed into them.
The importance of literacy for elimination of poverty is reflected in it being the
second UN Millennium Goal. Jesus followers will not only be tackling the out-
ward manifestations of poverty, but will also be addressing underlying causes,
such as illiteracy. Free-flowing information is not merely a matter of free speech,
but also one of truth. Jesus injunction for Christians to be the light of the world
(Matt. 5:14-16) implies the investigation and reporting of what is true and expo-
sure of evil. An effective legal system reflects the character of God as justice. This
aspect is discussed below under functions of government. Wherever Christians
are in todays world, they will be working for the advance of literacy, free media
and legal justice. These are preconditions for democracy. Does this mean that
Christians will necessarily be advocates for democracy?
There does not appear to be clear biblical evidence for whether government
should be democratic. Although Rivers argues that there is a preference for ulti-
mate human political authority to be with the many (based on the the Exodus
assembly and the people in Rom. 9:25-26 and 1 Pet. 2:9-10), he offers no justifi-
cation from Jesus KG teaching.
56
Moltmann argues that democracy is essential
53 Bruce L. McCormack, The Unheard Message of Karl Barth, Word & World, 14 (1994),
59-66, here 61.
54 David Miller, Political Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2003), 16.
55 Dae Jung Kim, Is Culture Destiny? The Myth of Asias Anti-Democratic Values,
Foreign Affairs, (Nov/Dec 1994), accessed 8 Feb. 2010 <http://www.foreignaffairs.
com/articles/50557/kim-dae-jung/is-culture-destiny-the-myth-of-asias-anti-
democratic-values >.
56 Julian Rivers, Government, in Michael Schluter and John Ashcroft, eds., Jubilee
Manifesto: A Framework, Agenda & Strategy for Christian Social Reform (Leicester:
Inter-Varsity Press, 2005), 138-153, here 143.
318 EQ Wesley S. Chiang
to avert oppression, both nationally and internationally.
57
It is unclear though
why this could not be achieved with a benevolent dictatorship or oligarchy.
In conclusion, Jesus teachings on the KG cannot be pinned down to endorse
a specific socio-political system. Although economically there is a tendency to-
wards socialism, there is no clear direction politically. It may be argued though
that Christians will be active in creating and maintaining the preconditions for
democracy, meaning that the choice for such a system is possible. Attitudinally,
Christians are called to humility in asserting biblical justification for any given
order.
58
Jesus focus of the KG as concerning Gods reign leads to more sobered
participation in any given socio-political system, as took place in Barths life. Yo-
der states that all of the great movements of the age need to be de-mythified and
disenchanted under Christs Lordship.
59
The most appropriate socio-political
form today may not even be any of those named above. In each new national
and cultural context, Christians should be creatively and imaginatively apply-
ing the logic of Jesus teachings afresh, rather than being constrained to staid
historical options.
60
Processes of socio-political change
In Jesus days, the Zealots were engaged in violent resistance against the Romans.
They were attempting to introduce political change by force. Jesus counsels
love and prayer for the enemy instead (Matt. 5:44) and non-violent resistance
(5:38-42).
61
The KG cannot be built by violence, but by the way of the cross, that
of peace and love.
62
Jesus did not provide answers for whether socio-political
changes should take place by meetings of clan elders, plebiscite or parliamen-
tary debate, but the teaching of non-violence provides a limitation to the type of
methods that can be used.
Functions of government
One of the key qualities of a king in the Old Testament was his ability to adminis-
ter justice (2 Sam. 15:1-6; 1 Kgs. 3:4-28; Ps. 72), a quality reflecting that of God.
63

Jesus declares this to be an essential element of the KG in the fourth beatitude
(Matt. 5:6). The Greek word for righteousness, dikaiosyne, can also be translated
justice. In Isaiah, the equivalent Hebrew word, tsedeq, in 61:3,10,11 has the im-
plications of both delivering justice (rescuing and releasing the oppressed) as
well as restorative justice (returning the powerless and outcasts to the covenant
community).
64
Christians will be involved in participating in Gods activity of
57 Moltmann, Crucied, 332-33.
58 Rivers, Government, 138.
59 Yoder, Discerning, 368.
60 Bosch, Transforming, 34.
61 Wright, Jesus, 290-1.
62 Ibid, 595.
63 Cray, Theology, 27.
64 Stassen, Kingdom, 42.
Jesus' teaching about the Kingdom of God EQ 319
pursuing justice in all spheres they have access to, declaring Gods condemna-
tion of what is evil and hypocritical in the lives of people both as individuals and
as members of communal bodies in business and government.
65
For Barth, the
aim of this participation is that political decisions taken by the state correspond
as much as possible to the KG.
66
Minjung theology has highlighted the suffering
of Koreans by Chinese and Japanese colonial powers.
67
This has drawn attention
to the need for Christians to critique unjust governmental actions beyond its
own borders as well as to be engaged in the formulation of international law.
The execution of justice cannot be limited to jurisprudence. Christians will
be compassionate (Matt. 5:7; 9:13; 12:7; 25:31-46), caring for the hungry, thirsty,
aliens, naked, sick and prisoners. These are also actions of delivering and re-
storative justice. Furthermore, Christians working with these needs will attempt
to shape government policy to enact labour and welfare policies that reduce the
number of hungry people needing feeding. More attention will be given to in-
ner city renewal and penal system transformation, to reduce both incentives for
crime, as well as the numbers incarcerated.
Although Jesus teachings on the KG do not address the specifics of tax poli-
cies, highway maintenance, university reform or doctor remuneration, they are
not silent either. The principles of justice and compassion will shape each of
these governmental functions.
Conclusion
The analysis above has shown that Jesus teaching on the KG provides a rich
basis for Christian socio-political thinking today. His teaching establishes that
Christians should be socio-politically involved and that this involvement is mo-
tivated by the character and activity of God as displayed in Jesus ministry, the
hope of the consummation of the KG at the new creation and the Spirits present
activity. Christs universal Lordship over all time and space motivates Christians
to be championing his kingdom in every sphere of human life. The end goal of
this endeavour is to participate in seeing Gods promise of deliverance, justice,
peace, joy, presence, healing and rehabilitation becoming a reality on earth.
With regard to socio-political systems, Jesus teachings offer sharp indictments
of both capitalism and communism, pointing instead to the need for systems
that incorporate Gods relational priorities and protection for the vulnerable.
Christians will partake, non-violently, in urging governments to perform their
functions of both delivering and restorative justice, both within and outside the
system. Before, and at each stage of participation, Christians will be repenting
of their own sins, as well as those of the system they are enmeshed in. They will
be sustained and humbled by prayer. It will be essential to model in the church
65 Marshall, Hope, 14.
66 Willis, Ethics, 397.
67 Wan, Kingdom, 457-58.
320 EQ Wesley S. Chiang
communities the values and activity that they desire to see implemented in the
wider society. Involvement in socio-politics will be characterised by humility,
both in terms of the discerning of needs and solutions, as well as the implemen-
tation.
Given the plethora of ways in which Jesus kingdom teachings address socio-
politics, it is not surprising that it has been prominent in Asia, Latin America
and Africa;
68
regions less influenced by the Enlightenment divorce of the secular
from the sacred and the exaltation of the individual, or of pictures of Jesus as a
wandering cynic, caring nothing for community.
69
However, in these areas there
has been the inclination towards taking Jesus teachings as blueprints for soci-
ety. As discussed above, Jesus did not prescribe any specific socio-political sys-
tem, or methods for changing existing systems. Human sinfulness means that
no system can represent the KG itself. The difference in contexts between Jesus
first century Palestine and the globalised world in 2010 means that creative ways
of participating in the KG need to be worked out in each new social context.
The large, but not complete, extent that Jesus kingdom teaching prove helpful
for Christian socio-political thinking today give impetus to greater dialogue be-
tween the Western churches that are generally less inclined to see the kingdom
as a driving force, and the majority world churches that do, but may be inclined
to read too much of their own aspirations into the text.
Abstract
Jesus teaching on the Kingdom of God is applied to Christian socio-political
thinking in terms of the legitimacy of such Christian activity, the impetus, tem-
poral and spatial limits of action, ultimate goals of such involvement, pre-req-
uisites of participation and implications for socio-political systems (the type of
system, process of implementing changes to the system and the social functions
of government). Jesus teachings prove to be fertile ground for Christian reflec-
tion in all these areas. The richness of Jesus teachings means that dialogue be-
tween Christians from different contexts will result in profitable insights into ap-
plications to socio-politics. The areas in which Jesus is silent require Christians
to be humble in their advocacy of specific methodologies and to be open to new
imaginative solutions.
68 Ibid, 459.
69 Richard B. Hays, Victory Over Violence: The Signicance of N.T. Wrights Jesus for
New Testament Ethics, in Carey C. Newman, ed., Jesus and the Restoration of Israel:
A Critical Assessment of NT Wrights Jesus and the Victory of God (Carlisle: Paternoster
Press, 1999), 142-158, 153-54.
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