Research Progress

Srivatsan
February 22, 2014
1 Lorentz transformations
a) The denition of
(4)
(p) is:

(4)
(p) =
1
(2)
4
_
d
4
xe
ipx
. (1)
Here, k x = x

.
We could equally well choose to integrate with respect to x

(4)
(p) =
1
(2)
4
_
d
4
xe
ip x
=
1
(2)
4
_
d
4
xe
ip

=
1
(2)
4
_
d
4
xe
i px
=
(4)
( p).
(2)
In the rst line, we used the fact that the integration measure is invariant,
d
4
x = d
4
x. In the second line we dened p

= p

.
b) We want to show that:

(3)
(

) =

(3)
(

) (3)
Integrating against an arbitrary function, we have:
F(

) =
_
d
3
k
(3)
(

)F(

k) =
_
d
3
k

(3)
(

)F(

k)
=
_
d
3
k

(3)
(

)F(
1

k)
=
_
d
3
p

(3)
( p

)F( p)
=
_
d
3
k

(3)
(

)F(

k).
(4)
1
As F was arbitrary this implies:

(3)
(

) =

(3)
(

). (5)
Note, in arriving at the last line, we used
d
3
k

k
=
d
3
k

k
, which we show in
part (d). Here,

k
i

.
c) From part (b) we have:
_
a

k
, a

_
= (2)
3

(3)
(

) =

k
(2)
3

(3)
(

)
=

k
_
a

k
, a

_
.
(6)
We can then guess that:
a

k
=

k
a

k
a

k
=

k
a

k
.
(7)
d)
We want to show:
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
1
2

k
f(k) =
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
1
2

k
f(

k) (8)
for any proper, orthocronos Lorentz transformation. In order to show this,
rst note that:
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
1
2

k
f(k) =
_
d
4
k
(2)
4
(2)(k
2
+ m
2
)(k
0
)f(k). (9)
One can derive (??) by performing the k
0
integral. Note that, as, k
2
+m
2
=
(k
0
)
2
+

k
2
+ m
2
, changing variables from k
0
to u = (k
0
)
2
, changes the
measure as dk
0
=
1
2k
0
du. Though the delta function k
0
=
_

k
2
+ m
2
has
two solutions, the theta function (k
0
) picks out only one.
2
With this relation we have:
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
1
2

k
f(k) =
_
d
4
k
(2)
4
(2)(k
2
+ m
2
)(k
0
)f(k)
=
_
d
4

k
(2)
4
(2)(

k
2
+ m
2
)(

k
0
)f(

k)
=
_
d
4
k
(2)
4
(2)(k
2
+ m
2
)(k
0
)f(

k) =
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
1
2

k
f(

k).
(10)
In getting to the last line, we used (

k
0
) = (k
0
). This holds, as we are only
considering the connected part of the Lorentz group, which does not change
the sign of k
0
.
2 Problem with relativistic quantum mechanics
a)
Beginning with the Schrodinger equation, i
t
=
1
2m

2
, and =
||
2
, we have:

t
=
t

=
i
2m
_

_
=
i
2m

_
=

J
(11)
b) Proceeding as before, but now with
2
t
=

2
m
2
and =
i
2m
(

t

t

) .

t
=
i
2m
_

2
t

2
t

_
=
i
2m
_

_
=

J
(12)
c)
The expression here for , =
i
2m
(

t

t

) =
1
m
Im(
t

), is
not positive denite, and so cannot be interpreted as a probability density.
3
3 Commutation relations of annihilation and cre-
ation operators
a) The eld and momentum at time t can be written in terms of the eld
and momentum at time 0 as: (x, t) = e
iHt
(x, 0)e
iHt
and (x, t) =
e
iHt
(x, 0)e
iHt
. With this the equal time commutation relations can be
written as
_
(x, t), (x

, t)

= e
iHt
_
(x, 0), (x

, 0)

e
iHt
_
(x, t), (x

, t)

= e
iHt
_
(x, 0), (x

, 0)

e
iHt
_
(x, t), (x

, t)

= e
iHt
_
(x, 0), (x

, 0)

e
iHt
.
(13)
As, e
iHt
0e
iHt
= 0, and e
iHt
i
3
(x x

)e
iHt
= i
3
(x x

), it is enough to
impose the commutation relations at t = 0.
_
(x, 0), (x

, 0)

= 0
_
(x, t), (x

, t)

= 0
_
(x, 0), (x

, 0)

= 0
_
(x, t), (x

, t)

= 0
_
(x, 0), (x

, 0)

= i
(3)
(x x

)
_
(x, t), (x

, t)

= i
(3)
(x x

)
(14)
b)
(x, t) =
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
1
_
2

k
_
a

k
e
ikx
+ a

k
e
ikx
_
(x, t) =
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
i
_

k
2
_
a

k
e
ikx
a

k
e
ikx
_
(15)
Transforming expression (??), we have:
(

k) =
1
_
2

k
_
a

k
+ a

k
_
(

k) = i
_

k
2
_
a

k
a

k
_
.
(16)
With this,
a

k
=
_

k
2
(

k) + i

1
2

k
(

k)
a

k
=
_

k
2
(

k) i

1
2

k
(

k).
(17)
4
It is also convenient to have the expressions:
(

k) =

1
2

k
_
a

k
+ a

k
_
(

k) = i
_

k
2
_
a

k
a

k
_
.
(18)
c) Form the commutation relations, (??), we also have the momentum space,
equal time, relations:
_
(

k), (

)
_
= 0
_
(

k), (

)
_
= 0
_
(

k), (

)
_
= i(2)
3

(3)
(

k +

).
(19)
With these it is strait forward to calculate the commutators of creation and
annihilation operators.
_
a

k
, a

=
i
2
__
(

k), (

)
_
+
_
(

k), (

)
__
= 0
_
a

k
, a

= 0
_
a

k
, a

_
=
i
2
__
(

k), (

)
_

_
(

k), (

)
__
= (2)
3

(3)
(

).
(20)
Here we have used the fact that [(

k), (

)] = [(

k), (

)] = 0.
4 Expressing Nother charges in terms of creation
and annihilation operators
In analogy to the last problem set we have:
H =
1
2
_
d
3
x
_

2
+

2
+ m
2

2
_
P
i
=
_
d
3
x
_

_
M

=
_
d
3
x
_
x

T
0
x

T
0
_
(21)
5
Note, the convention for P
i
diers by a sign from that on the last problem
set. a) Beginning with H, we can rewrite (??) in momentum space.
H =
1
2
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
_
(

k, t)(

k, t) + (

k
2
+ m
2
. .

k
)(

k, t)(

k, t)
_
.
(22)
Using expression (??), or equivalently, (??), we can write H in terms of a
and a

.
H =
_
d
3
k
(2)
3

k
2
_
a

k
a

k
+ a

k
a

k
_
=
_
d
3
k
(2)
3

k
a

k
a

k
..
N

k
+
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
(2)
3

(3)
(0)
. .
C
H
=
_
d
3
k
(2)
3

k
N

k
+ C
H
.
(23)
b)
Again it is easiest to work in momentum space.
P
i
= i
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
(

k, t)(

k, t)k
i
=
1
2
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
_
a

k
a

k
__
a

k
+ a

k
_
k
i
=
1
2
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
_
a

k
a

k
a

k
a

k
+ a

k
a

k
a

k
a

k
+
_
a

k
, a

k
__
k
i
=
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
k
i
a

k
a

k
..
N

1
2
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
(2)
3

(3)
(0)k
i
. .
C
P
i
=
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
k
i
N

k
C
P
i .
(24)
Here we used the fact that expressions such as,
_
d
3
ka

k
a

k
k
i
= 0.
c)
To write M

in terms of creation and annihilation operators, it is useful

to write down the expression for the stress-energy tensor.
T

1
2

+ m
2

2
_
. (25)
6
For M

we need
T
0
=

1
2

0
_

2
+



+ m
2

2
_
=
_
H(x),

P(x)
_
.
(26)
With this we have:
M
0i
=
_
d
3
x
_
tP
i
(x) x
i
H(x)
_
= tP
i

_
d
3
k
(2)
3

k
i
(

k
N

k
),
M
ij
=
_
d
3
x
_
x
i
P
j
(x) x
j
P
i
(x)
_
=
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
_
k
j

k
i
k
i

k
j
_
N

k
.
(27)
Here we have dropped the normal ordering constants.
5 Second quantization
a) Varying the action L = i

t

1
2m

V (x)

with respect
to

and yields:
i
t
+
1
2m

2
V (x) = 0
i
t

+
1
2m

V (x)

= 0.
(28)
This is indeed the Schrodinger equation.
b) The conjugate momentum to is given as:

=
L

= i

. (29)
The Hamiltonian is:
H =
_
d
3
x[

t
L] =
_
d
3
x
_
1
2m

+ V (x)

_
(30)
7
c) The canonical commutation relations are:
_

(x, t),

(x

, t)
_
= i
(3)
(x x

). (31)
This can also be written,
_

(x, t),

(x

, t)
_
=
(3)
(x x

). (32)
d) Writing,

(x, t) =

n
a
n
e
iEnt
u
n
(x),

(x, t) =

n
a

n
e
iEnt
u
n
(x). It is
enough to consider the commutator, (??), at t = 0.
_

(x, 0),

(x

, 0)
_
=

m,n
_
a
m
a

n
a

n
a
m
_
u
m
(x)u
n
(x

) =
(3)
(x x

)
(33)
Multiplying by u
m
(x), u
n
(x

), integrating d
3
x, d
3
x

and dropping the primes

on the indices, we have:
_
a
m
, a

n
_
=
_
d
3
xd
3
x

u
m
(x)u
n
(x

)
(3)
(x x

) =
mn
. (34)
Similarly, [

(x, 0),

(x

, 0)] = 0 implies [ a
m
, a
n
] = [ a

m
, a

n
] = 0.
e)
Plugging the expression for

into (??) we have:
H =
_
d
3
x

(
1
2m

2
+ V (x))

=
_
d
3
x

m,n
a

m
a
n
e
i(EnEm)t
u
m
(
1
2m

2
+ V (x))u
n
=
_
d
3
x

m,n
a

m
a
n
e
i(EnEm)t
E
n
u
m
u
n
=

n
a

n
a
n
. .
Nn
E
n
.
(35)
In going from the second line to the third line, we used the fact that u
n
satises the time independent Schrodinger equation, (
1
2m

2
+ V (x))u
n
=
E
n
u
n
. In getting the last line we used the orthonormality of u
n
.
f)
8
A generic state can be written as an arbitrary combination of creation
operators acting on the vacuum, with each creation operator aloud to act
an arbitrary number of times.
| |{m
i
} = (a

1
)
m
1
(a

2
)
m
2
. . . |0. (36)
Here, the {m
i
} range from 0 up to . Note, do not confuse this notation
with that used in part (h).
g)
A physical interpretation of the states |{m
i
} is that this state has m
i
indistinguishable particles in the energy level i. The reason for this inter-
pretation comes from looking at the Hamiltonian. The energy level for the
state is just E
tot
=

i
E
i
m
i
. This is precisely the energy for many particles
interacting with an external potential with m
i
particles in energy level i.
h) From the picture above the wave function would just be the two
particle wave function for one particle in state n
1
and another in state n
2
.

n
1
n
2
(x
1
, x
2
, t) =
1

2
e
i(En
1
+En
2
)t
(u
n
1
(x
1
)u
n
2
(x
2
) + u
n
2
(x
1
)u
n
1
(x
2
)) .
(37)
We can also get this expression from the second quantized eld.
1

2
0|(x
1
, t)(x
2
, t)|n
1
, n
2
=
1

2
0|

m,n
e
i(Em+En)t
u
m
(x
1
)u
n
(x
2
) a
m
a
n
a

n
1
a

n
2
|0
=
1

2
e
i(En
1
+En
2
)t
(u
n
1
(x
1
)u
n
2
(x
2
) + u
n
2
(x
1
)u
n
1
(x
2
)) .
(38)
9