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Playbook
The bottom line on core automation issues for the
Oil & Gas, water/waste water and chemical industries
2014 EDITION
Control System Security and Access
Ethernet, Wireless and the Mobile Workforce
PLC vs DCS
Smart Devices and Asset Management
Energy & Emissions Management
Safety: Lifecycle and Procedural Automation Approaches
Start-Ups, Upgrades & Migrations
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CONTENTS
Sponsored by:
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
4 Contributors
11 Introduction
12 SECTION ONE: AUTOMATION STANDARDS & TRENDS
13 Procedural Automation for Greater Safety and Productivity
16 Four IT Standards You Should Understand
19 Heard the News about Procedure Automation?
29 ISA-106 Releases First Procedure Automation Technical Report
31 SECTION TWO: BEST PRACTICES FOR CONTROL SYSTEMS
32 Eight Ideas for Successful DCS Implementation
35 Teamwork Is Critical in DCS Projects
36 Best Practices for DCS Infrastructure
38 PLC vs. DCS: Which is Right for Your Operation?
41 PLC Lifecycle Management
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CONTENTS
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
44 13 Suggestions for Control System Migrations
48 Migrations Are Emotional Events, So Work to Minimize the Pain
49 Four Considerations for Upgrades and Migrations
52 Control System Security Tips
55 How to Avoid Mistakes with Control System Remote Access
59 SECTION THREE: SMART DEVICES & ASSET MANAGEMENT
60 The Smartest Instruments Still Need Smart Humans
66 Managing for Reliability Key to Asset Performance
68 Asset Reliability as a Performance Indicator
71 Measure First to Improve Control System Performance
75 10 Steps to Creating the Perfect HMI
78 SECTION FOUR: ADVANCES IN SAFETY
79 Intrinsic Safety: Thinking Outside the Explosion-Proof Box
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CONTENTS
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
86 Many Factors Determine Choices in Intrinsic Safety Devices
88 12 Practical Tips for Implementing Intrinsic Safety
92 Safety: The Lifecycle Approach
97 SECTION FIVE: COMMUNICATION TRENDS
98 Wireless Trends
101 Wireless Sensor Applications
103 Wireless Protocols for the Process Industries
106 Nine Strategic Considerations for Using Wireless Technology
108 Five Practical Tips for Implementing Wireless
110 Wireless Is Evolving
111 Standards Help Ethernet Networks Stay in Sync
114 SECTION SIX: ENERGY & THE ENVIRONMENT
115 How to Conduct an Energy Audit
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CONTENTS
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
120 Energy Management Best Practices
125 Five Ways to Manage Energy Costs
126 Managing Emissions with Automation
129 VENDOR SELECTION RESOURCE GUIDE
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
CONTRIBUTORS
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The following experts
contributed to this playbook:
John Rezabek
Process Control Specialist
Ashland Specialty Ingredients
Brooke Robertson
Project Manager Regional Control Specialist, EPCD
Momentive Specialty Chemicals Inc.
Joe Staples
Head of Manufacturing Systems North America
Bayer CropScience
Michael Thibodeaux
Industrial Automated Systems Security Engineer
BASF
Chris Wells
Senior Staf Instrumentation Engineer
ExxonMobil Chemical Company
Dave Woll
Vice President
ARC Advisory Group Inc.
Dennis Brandl
President
BR&L Consulting
Steven Toteda
Chairman of WINA
(Wireless Industrial Networking Alliance)
Steve Elwart, P.E.
Director of Systems Engineering
Ergon Refning Inc.
Bob Rochelle
Food and Packaging Industry Specialist
Staubli Corporation
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
CONTRIBUTORS
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The following experts
contributed to this playbook:
Cyle Nelson
Senior Software Architect
Adept Technology
Dani Alkalay
MTL Instruments
Chris Bacon
Production Manager
Graham Packaging
(formerly with Pepsi
Bottling Ventures)
S.N. Banerjee
Instrumentation Limited
Sergio Canales
Rama Chandran
Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.
Dave Emerson
ISA-106 Editor
Yokogawa
House Fang
Rockwell Automation
David R. Gulick
Hexagon Lincoln
Juan Facundo Ferrer
Kevin Davenport
Cisco Manufacturing
Robert L. Fischer
Fischer Technical Services
Augie DiGiovanni
Emerson Process Management
Steven Baird
Moxa
George Buckbee, P.E.
ExperTune
Ken Austin
Phoenix Contact
Richard Caro
CMC Associates
Ted Dimm
Honeywell Process Solutions
Herman Storey
Co-Vice Chair
ISA-108 Standards Committee
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
CONTRIBUTORS
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The following experts
contributed to this playbook:
Avihu Hiram
Hiram Process Control Engineering
Dave Huffman
ABB
R.V. Kaushik
Vignesh Kumar
ISA-106 Editor
Yokogawa
Pierre Lampron
KSH Solutions Inc.
Erik Mathiason
Member, ISA-108 Standards Committee
Emerson Process Management
Greg Livelli
ABB
Matt Newton
Opto 22
Bryan Sellner
Francisco Mejia
Manufacturing IT Consultant
Randy Durick
Turck
Allen Hough
Itw Drawform
Bryan Jones
Emerson
Krishnakumar
Haya Water, Muscat
Anup Pandit
Dale Reed
Rockwell Automation
Paul Schneling
Emerson Process Management
Steve Robben
City of Greeley
Sam Roosth
Robert Schosker
Pepperl+Fuchs
Ulf Kristian Sandvik
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
CONTRIBUTORS
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The following experts
contributed to this playbook:
Thanks as well to the many contributors
who wanted to remain anonymous.
Jeff Smith
American Axle & Manufacturing
Sarah Wang
Fluor
Maurice Wilkins
Managing Director
ISA-106 Standards Committee
Yokogawa
James Wilkinson
MTL Instruments
Bill Wray, PE
Co-Chair, ISA-106 Standards Committee
Bayer Material Science
Roberto Zucchi
ABB
Robin Slater
Valin Corporation
Kevin Starr
ABB Process Automation Service
Jose Gonzalez Valero
Pemex
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
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CONTRIBUTORS
The following CSIA experts
contributed to this playbook:
Alan E. Lyon, P.E.
Lead Engineer
Avid Solutions
Alex Palmer
Team Lead
Aseco Integrated Systems
Antonio Manalo
Automation Systems Integrator
Avid Solutions
Ronald Studtmann, P.E.
Associate Dept. Manager, Power/
Facilities Dept., Matrix Technologies
Bryan Curtis, P.E.
Senior Consutant, Power/Facilities
Dept., Matrix Technologies
Russel Treat
President-CEO
EnerSys Corp.
Chetan Chothani
President
Adaptive Resources
Scott Saneholtz, P.E.
Manager - Process Solutions Dept.
Matrix Technologies
Dario Rossi
Chief Engineer
Aseco Integrated Systems
Control System
Integrators Association
(CSIA)
Automation World worked with CSIA to
gain access to the expertise of its sys-
tem integrator members to bring you
much of the content in this playbook.
To become a member of CSIA, a
control system integration frm must
demonstrate experience and com-
mitment to the feld. Members who
earn CSIA Certifcation have passed
an independent audit of 80 criteria
covering all aspects of business per-
formance, including general manage-
ment, fnancial management, project
management, quality management,
supporting systems, human resources
and more. To maintain their certifca-
tion, CSIA Certifed members must be
re-audited every three years.
For more information about CSIA and
its system integrator members, visit
http://www.controlsys.org
Robert Snow
Senior Process Control Engineer
Optimation
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
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INTRODUCTION
By Jeanne Schweder
Contributing Editor
Automation World
Everywhere you look, new technologies, new standards and a new generation of engineers are
transforming the control of industrial processes. Automation and information technologies are
increasing our knowledge, and changing expectations and best practices as well. These powerful
tools range from intelligent instruments to wireless communicationsand everything in between.
This 2014 edition of Automation Worlds Continuous Process Playbook continues our goal
of providing hands-on information, automation implementation tips and best practices
specifcally for the continuous process industries. It also explores some of the many trends
afecting how work gets done, from procedure automation to reliability management.
Among the many topics addressed in this playbook are implementing and migrating
control systems, intrinsic safety, asset and energy management, Ethernet and wireless
communications, automation project management and more.
As always, we thank the many industry experts and process engineers who have contributed
their experiences and expertise to this playbook. This peer-to-peer knowledge sharing is a
hallmark of what makes Automation Worlds playbooks unique.
We hope youll fnd this Continuous Process Playbook to be a useful source of information now
and in the years ahead as you plan for new projects or upgrade existing production functions.
SECTION ONE
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Automation Standards & Trends
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
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By Jeanne Schweder
Contributing Editor
Automation World
Procedural Automation for
Greater Safety and Productivity
Continuous process environments tend to be stable until theyre not. When that happens,
the consequences can be catastrophic. Think Deepwater Horizon.
The very stability of a continuous production process often induces a false sense of security in
operators. Lack of experience with system failure or unexpected alarms can lead operators to
freeze when systems suddenly cascade out of control.
Procedural automation standards originally developed for batch processes and discrete
manufacturing hold promise for helping continuous process operators deal more efectively
with sudden emergencies, as well as the more routine changes in state that can occur.
Processings Most Vulnerable Areas
The fact is, every continuous process has non-continuous elements, such as startup, ramp-up,
emptying and flling of tanks, shutdown, emergency shutdown and clean-in-place activities. A
continuous process is really just a batch process with a very long steady state in the middle.
The ISA-88 standard has established a common terminology and a framework for writing
software to control batch production processes and procedures. ISA-95 did the same for
enterprise to manufacturing data integration. ISA-95s common denominator data structure
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
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facilitates communication between business and process
systems, so that operators and managers can make
better decisions.
The thinking behind both of these standards has important
implications in areas where continuous process control
is most vulnerableprocess variations and disruptions.
These can result in unanticipated shutdowns that plant
operators can be ill equipped to counter because theyre
not confronted with them frequently enough to hone
their skills.
Automating procedural steps can counteract variations
in operator skills and will become increasingly important
as the current generation of experienced process control
engineers retires. Defning common process procedures
can also provide additional support for employees who
are executing operations that can be more manual, as is
typical in equipment and plant startups, shutdowns and
transitions.
continued
Procedural Automation for
Greater Safety and Productivity
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
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ISA-106 Defnes Continuous Process Procedures
A new ISA committee is working to develop standard methods and terminology for
automating continuous process procedures. ISA-106, Procedural Automation for Continuous
Process Operations, will defne repeatable procedural steps that can lower the chances of
accidents due to human error. The intent of the new standard is to reduce process variability,
reduce risk to facilities and increase operational productivity in continuous process industries.
The ISA-106 committee plans to issue a series of documents to help users standardize designs
to handle operator errors in normal, critical, and abnormal situations.
As a frst step, the ISA-106 committee, which includes representatives from the largest
companies in the petrochemical industry, is working on its frst technical report targeted
at oil refneries, upstream ofshore oil rigs and chemical plants. The report will give users
common defnitions to describe the requirements in improvements, upgrades, and changes
in procedural automation to system integrators and automation suppliers.
The technical report will also include standards for modularizing procedural steps, exception
handling for abnormal situations, state mode procedural logic, process unit orientation and
current practices.
continued
Procedural
Automation for
Greater Safety and
Productivity
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
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Four IT Standards
You Should Understand
Imagine a world without electrical standards, such as 110 V at 60 Hz, or 220 V at 50 Hz, or a
world where every phone had a diferent type of connection and required a diferent type
of switchboard. Just as these standards are critical to the basic functioning of electrical
equipment, there are also IT standards used daily to ensure optimal functioning of production
systems in the process industries.
There are four production-related IT standards of special interest to the processing industries:
Use one communication protocol standard for electrical equipment and instruments.
Educate everyone on the operational diferences between a DCS and PLCs and where
each should be used. Most people dont understand why you need a warm start option
for controllers with a DCS, for example.
Vendors;
System integrators;
Field technicians;
The attacker can use captured or guessed credentials to impersonate the user.
The attacker can intimidate or coerce the user to provide valid credentials, or to
perform activities at the attackers demand.
The users access device (laptop, PDA, etc.) can be attacked, compromised, and used to
access the control system network.
The target system can be impersonated by an attacker to fool the user and thus gain
credentials or other information from the user system.
Communication can be hijacked after it has been initiated (does not rely on
impersonation) or intercepted during initiation (impersonating both user and target,
also known as a man-in-the-middle attack).
The target communication software listening for requests can be attacked and
potentially compromised.
An attacker can impersonate a valid communications node and gain access to the
underlying communications medium.
Perform hazard and risk analysis: Determine hazards and hazardous events, the
sequence of events leading to hazardous condition, the associated process risks, the
requirements of risk reduction and the safety functions required.
Specify requirements for safety system: If tolerable risk is still out of limit, then
specify the requirements for each safety system and their safety integrity levels.
Safety Lifecycle II: Realization Phase
The realization phase not only includes design, installation and testing of safety systems,
but also the design, development and installation of other efective risk reduction methods.
Specifc activities include:
Design and engineer a safety system: Design system to meet the safety
requirements.
continued
Safety: The Lifecycle
Approach
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Design and develop other means of risk reduction: Means of protection other than
programmable safety systems include mechanical systems, process control systems
and manual systems.
Install, commission and validate the safety protections: Install and validate that the
safety system meets the all safety requirements to the required safety integrity levels.
Safety Lifecycle III: Maintenance Phase
The maintenance phase begins at the startup of a process and continues until the safety
system is decommissioned or redeployed. Specifc activities include:
Operate and maintain: Ensure that the safety system functions are maintained during
operation and maintenance.
Modify and update: Make corrections, enhancements and adaptations to the safety
system to ensure that the safety requirements are maintained.
Manage functional safety, safety assessment, and safety audit: Identify the
management activities that are required to ensure that the functional safety objectives
are met.
Plan and structure safety lifecycle: Defne safety lifecycle in terms of inputs, outputs
and verifcation activities.
Verify safety system: Demonstrate by review, analysis and/or testing that the required
outputs satisfy the defned requirements for each phase of the safety lifecycle.
Activities for Phases I to III are typically carried out consecutively, while Phase IV runs
concurrently with the other phases. However, like all models, the safety lifecycle is an
approximation.
Bottom line: requirements defnition
Readers should note that the standards defne requirements for safety management, rather
than system development. Not all safety lifecycle phases will be relevant to every application;
management must defne which requirements are applicable in each case. The standards do
not prescribe exactly what should be done in any particular case, but guide management
toward decisions and ofer advice.
continued
Safety: The Lifecycle
Approach
Communication Trends
SECTION FIVE
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CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
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Wireless Trends
The history of wireless networking in industry has largely been that of cable replacement. It
was simply a tool to deliver communications in places where you simply couldnt run cable
for a variety of reasons. Maybe it was too expensive. Or maybe the cable would be running
in a hazardous zone. Through these types of applications, wireless secured a foothold in the
process industries over the past two decades.
Now we are beginning to see a shift in the types of wireless technologies used, as well as
diferent types of applications. This shift is coming from a user-needs perspective, rather than
from pure technological capabilities.
According to the most recent survey from WINA (Wireless Industrial
Networking Alliance), the biggest use of wireless technology today is for
asset management and condition monitoring. Through the use of wireless
sensors that can be positioned nearly anywhere on a piece of equipment,
maintenance personnel can get a steady stream of data from that equipment
about the state of its condition.
The other use of wireless technology, coming in a close second, is
incremental process measurements the classic measurements of level,
temperature, pressure, and fow. Its not difcult to think of many diferent
places in, say, a refnery or water treatment facility, where it makes sense to
get incremental temperature readings from segments of the process where
By David Greenfeld
Director of Content/Editor-in-Chief
Automation World
Rapid Pace of Wireless Adoption
Currently (2011) and in the future (2015) what percent of your feld devices
do/will communicate using wireless technology?
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
2015
2011
<5% 10% 15% 20% >30%
Source: WINA
26
19
18
14
22
64
13
9
6
7
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you have not been able to collect that data before. Of course, this wouldnt make sense if you
had to dig a 1,000-yard trench and stop part of the plant for a couple of weeks while you did
that. But if you could easily put a wireless sensor in that part of the plant and do that very cost
efectively, thats efective incremental process measurement. Such small
steps can certainly help you improve your efciency and, when examined
from the aspect of a large process, like a refnery, there are huge overall
efciency numbers involved in the end result.
Wireless sensors are, perhaps, the biggest area for substantial capital
expenditure savings in the process industries, especially when you think
about the potential beneft of establishing pervasive sensor networks.
When you literally start to put hundreds and thousands of devices out in the
facility or a refnery, that's when you begin to see real cap-ex savings versus
hard wiring. And this has already been documented. For example, using
temperature sensors positioned directly on the roller can produce a small
percentage of improvement in the surface fnish of sheet steel by precisely
achieving the proper manifold temperature; this small improvement in quality translates into
millions of dollars in savings over the course of the process run.
The third most prevalent trend for wireless technology is supporting mobile operators.
And its easy to see why: Removing the step of having to connect via an Ethernet jack as
measurements are taken at each stop is a big improvement in process.
continued
Wireless Trends
Top Industry Applications For Wireless
Source: WINA Annual Survey of End Users - December 2011
Asset Management / Condition Monitoring
Incremental Process Measurements
Mobile Operator / HMI
Voice, Video, Data
Asset Tracking
Control
58%
57%
44%
30%
26%
13%
Access Full Presentation
Click here to access the full
presentation made by WINA Chairman
Steven Toteda at The Automation
Conference.
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
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Complete Automation Solutions
for the Process Industry
Global manufacturer of process control and factory automation solutions
For more information:
Call: 1-800-463-3786
www.festo.com/us
Pilot Valves
Process Valves
Control Cabinets
continued
Wireless Trends
Following mobile in the fourth and ffth spots are voice/video
data communications and asset tracking. These types of
wireless applications have been around for years and continue
to be deployed due to their successful track record, so its not
surprising to see them among the top trends.
What is surprising is the application that came in at number
six in the 2012 WINA survey control. This is surprising
because wireless control had never even ranked in the
survey prior to this year. Now, however, 13 percent of survey
respondents considered control to be their top application
of wireless. In industries like mining, wireless pump control
has been around for years, because there is no other way
to really do it. But this result indicates that people across
industry are beginning to experiment with closed-loop
control using wireless.
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
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Wireless Sensor Applications
If youre working in a facility without a great dealor anywireless sensors in place, you
may be suspicious about the viability of wireless sensor networks. To help illustrate how
ubiquitous wireless sensors have become across industry, following are a few examples of
wireless sensor deployments that have become so common that they could be considered
textbook application examples.
Install variable speed drives to match power output with process requirements.
Install the most energy-efcient light bulbs and other lighting fxtures.
Apply automatic lighting controls that turn of lights when rooms are unoccupied.
Update capacitor banks to maintain correct power factors when new equipment
is installed.
Changing our attitudes about energy consumption can change our behaviors and lead
to energy savings.
There are also more signifcant capital investments that can be made depending on
conditions at your facility.
With electricity rates high and natural gas rates currently low, it may make sense to invest in
gas-powered turbines. Justifying that kind of investment, however, requires an analysis of the
predictability of rates going forward. Further efciency can be captured with a co-generation
system to produce steam as well as electricity, or even tri-generation if your processes require
hot water.
Another possibility is heat recovery. Investment in piping and heat exchange equipment can
allow energy to be passed from one process stream to another, reducing the load on utility
sources such as steam and cooling water.
How much you can expect to reduce your energy costs will vary from industry to industry and
plant to plant. No matter the savings potential at your facility, an energy audit is the frst step
toward achieving your energy-efciency goals.
continued
How to Conduct
an Energy Audit
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
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Energy Management Best Practices
The path to achieving energy efciency is shaped as much by attitudes and organizational
skills as by the physical aspects of reducing energy demands. But its goals can never be
achieved without the automation technologies that make it possible to mine information and
control the operation of machines.
A 2009 study by the Aberdeen Group, a research and consulting frm, found that industry
leaders seeking to reduce energy consumption at their facilities viewed energy management
as strategic to their business success. The primary tools they applied in their endeavors
included advanced visualization, information collection and consumption monitoring.
Among the best practices adopted by industry leaders in reducing energy consumption and
costs, according to the study, are:
Making energy usage data available to decision-makers in real time. The faster changes
can be made to equipment operations, the greater the energy savings.
Taking energy costs into account when scheduling production. Peak demand charges
can account for as much as 60 percent of a companys energy bills.
Tying operational metrics to fnancial metrics. Its essential to understand how the costs
of energy for production and facilities afect the companys bottom line.
Conduct an audit of all equipment and their energy sourceswater, air, gas, electricity
and steam (WAGES);
Motors. Whether they power production equipment, cooling towers or pumps and
fans in HVAC systems, motors are the biggest sources of industrial energy usage, as
well as waste. Adding variable speed drives will better match energy use to operational
requirements.
continued
Energy Management
Best Practices
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
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Power quality. If your plant is experiencing unexplained power outages and motor
failures, or paying penalties for reactive power, low power factor and harmonics may
be the cause. Upgrade capacitor banks or electrical equipment where necessary and
install corrective flters to extend equipment life.
Energy management. Using software to track power quality, meter energy use,
and control remote monitoring systems will help you access energy information in
an organized fashion that speeds decision-making and lets you know where to take
corrective action.
continued
Energy Management
Best Practices
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Measure ROI
Energy management is not a one-time event. To achieve sustained savings requires a
proactive program of measurement, monitoring and preventive maintenance to make sure
that equipment and systems are working in optimal fashion. Periodically measuring the
progress achieved in reducing energy consumption and associated costs savings will build
support for continuing improvements. As you go about measuring your progress, keep the
following in mind:
Update plans and priorities based on what you learn from measurements;
Optimized process control is central to reducing NOx emissions from coal-fred power
plants. Oxygen is injected into the boiler to improve combustion and prevent pockets
of NOx from being created. A secondary technology, selective non-catalytic reduction,
or SNCR, injects urea or ammonia into the boilers, further reducing NOx emissions by
up to 20 percent. New low-NOx burners have also been introduced that allow a cooler,
more complete burn.
Scrubbers, using either dry or wet processes, use automated systems that regulate
water fows, monitor pH levels and spray lime or apply a slurry of limestone to remove
95 percent or more of sulphur dioxide. A by-product of the scrubber process is calcium
sulphate, which is then used to make wallboard.
continued
Managing Emissions
with Automation
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
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At the stack, the air from the process is passed over a rack of sensors that measure
oxygen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide levels, as well as sulphur dioxide,
sulphur trioxide and nitrogen oxide content.
Most air pollution control devices (APCDs) come as pre-built OEM packages that
include PLC-based automation systems that tend to operate independently of the
central DCS system. As new regulations drive greater investment in these APCDs, these
systems will need to work together in a more holistic fashion. Achieving this goal will
likely require additional automation integration.
Alternative fuel strategies
Although coal has traditionally made up 50 percent of the fuel source for American electric
utility plants, many operators have begun building natural gas-fred plants that do not
produce nitrogen or sulphur dioxide. Others are using fexible fuel processes, replacing up
to 25 percent of their coal fuel with natural gas. Still others are blending coal from diferent
regions, mixing high-sulphur but lower cost Appalachian coal with low-sulphur but higher
cost Western coal to reduce the amount of sulphur dioxide their processes have to remove.
Each of these alternative fuel strategies, however, can complicate process control and require
additional steps and systems to optimize combustion and reduce emissions. Blending high-
and low-sulphur coal, for example, can create a slag layer in boilers that requires installing a
soot-blowing system to break up and remove it.
continued
Managing Emissions
with Automation
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PLAYBOOK
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ECS Focused on Your Process Automation
Return-on-Investment
We are focused on increasing your process
automation return-on-investment. Sure,
we are control engineers, but we are
versed in business too. This is why we ofer
assistance in:
Power Generation
Water/Wastewater
Automotive
General Manufacturing
Consulting Services